FATS IN FOOD PRODUCTS
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FATS IN FOOD PRODUCTS
Profile: David P. J. Moran ESc PhD Dr David Moran, a consultant to the industry, has spent over 30 years working in the area of edible fats, oils and emulsions, and has cooperated in many related patents, particularly on the topic of yellow spreads and reduced fat varieties.
Profile: Kanes K. Rajah ESc MSc PhD Dr Kanes Rajah has extensive experience of the edible oils industry, having held various positions with Kraft Foods (UK) Limited (now Kraft General Foods), Kraft R&D Europe Inc., Dairy Crest Foods (Milk Marketing Board of England & Wales) and Ernest George Limited. He is now a consultant to the edible oils and dairy industries on technology and business development.
FATS IN FOOD PRODUCTS
Edited by
D. P. J. MORAN Jubilee Lodge, Keyston Road, Covington, Cambridgeshire, UK
and
K. K. RAJAH 74 Chadwick Road, Westclijf-on-Sea, Essex, UK
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
First edition 1994
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1994 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1994 Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Alden Multimedia, Northampton
ISBN 978-1-4613-5884-8
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permis sion in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the Glasgow address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
Fats in food products / edited by D. P. J. Moran and K. K. Rajah. p. cm.
Inc1udes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5884-8 ISBN 978-1-4615-2121-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2121-1 1. Food-Composition. 2. Food-Fat content.
II. Rajah, Kanes K. TP372.5.F38 1994 664'.3--dc20
1. Moran, D. P. J.
93-18951 CIP
00 Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI/ NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper)
Contents
Preface XlII
List of Contributors xv
1. Physical Chemistry of Fats R. E. TIMMS.
Introduction . I Basic Principles . 4
Polymorphism 4 Phase Behaviour . 5 Melting Point and Solid Fat Content . 9
Physical Properties. I I Milkfat and Fractions . II Mixtures of Milkfat with Other Fats 14 Solubility of Milkfat in Liquid Oils 16
Crystallisation 17 Supersaturation 17 Nucleation. 19 Crystal Growth 20 Fractional Crystallisation. 21
Interfacial Properties 22 Interaction of Lipids with Water 22 Emulsion Stability 23
References. 24
VI Contents
2. Fats in Cream and Ice Cream M. ANDERSON, E. C. NEEDS and J. K. MADDEN 29
Introduction . 30 Interfaces . 30
Biological Membrane 31 Milk Protein Interface. 32 The Composite Interface 35
Fat Crystallisation . 39 Emulsion Stability and Functionality . 40
The Continuous Phase 44 Proteins. 44 ProteinjPolysaccharide Interactions 46 Polysaccharide Interactions 47 Ice Crystals 48
Processing Variables 50 Homogenisation . 50 Separation. 52
Product Considerations 53 Low-fat Creams . 54 Whipping Cream. 57 Ice Cream 60
References. 63
3. Butter and Allied Products R. S. JEBSON . 69
Cream Handling 69 Cream Treatment 70
Neutralization 70 Pasteurization. 70 Taint Removal 71 Cream Cooling and Holding. 76
Buttermaking 77 Theories of Churning 77 Fritz Process Continuous Buttermaking Equipment 78 Recombined Buttermaking 81
Continuous Buttermaking Variables 82 Machine Variables . 83 Cream Variables. 86
Moisture Measurement and Control 88 Methods Based on Heat 88
Contents VB
~~. ~ Storage. 90 Salt Slurries 90 Particle Size 90 Incorporation into Butter. 91
Packing and Handling. 91 Transport . 91 Buffer Storage 91 Bulk Packing . 92 Patting. 96 Palletization . 96
Setting and Reworking 96 Setting . 96 Reworking. 97
Flavour of Butter 98 Feed of the Cows 98 Processing Faults 98 Flavour Defects Caused by Micro-Organisms 99 Oxidative Flavours 100
Colour of Butter 101 Streaky Colour . 101 Spotted Colour . 101 Primrose Colour. 102
Body and Texture . 102 Crumbly or Brittle Body 102 Sticky Body . 102 Leaky Body . 102 Porous or Ice-Cream Texture 102
Types of Butter . 103 Lactic Butter . 103 Softer Butters. 104
References. 106
4. Anhydrous Milkfat Products and Applications in Recombination D. ILLINGWORTH and T. G. BISSELL III
Anhydrous Milkfat-Definition, Main Uses and World Production 112 Manufacturing Processes for AMF 114
Direct-from-Cream Process . 114 The Principles of Phase Inversion 117
Vlll Contents
Manufacture from Butter. . . . . . . . Production of Ghee and Samna Balady . . .
Plant and Equipment used for AMF Manufacture Phase Inversion Devices Separation Devices. . . . . . . . .
Dehydration of Milkfat . . . . . . . . Monitoring the Performance of an AMF Plant Quality Assessment of Anhydrous Milkfat . Packaging and Handling of Milkfat . . . .
Post-dehydration Handling . . . . . . Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen in Milkfat . Packaging of AMF for Industrial Use. Consumer Packaging of AMF . . .
Use of AMF for Recombining. . . . Recombined Butter and Other Spreads Other Blends of Milkfat with Vegetable Oils Recombined Ice Cream . . . . . Recombined Milks and Creams. . . Milkfat in Other Recombined Products
References. . . . . .
5. Fats in Spreadable Products D. P. J. MORAN. . . . .
Introduction. . . . . Rheology of Fats and Spreads .
Fat Crystallisation Phase Behaviour. . Fat Crystal Size. . The Crystal Network The Aqueous Phase. The Structure of Spreads The Emulsion. . . . Functions of Surface Active Lipids. Defining Spreads Structure
Spreads Processing. . . . . . . General Aspects. . . . . . . Churning of Butter Type Product~ . Use of Scraped Wall Heat Exchangers and Stirred Crystallisers . . . . . . . . . . Relationship of Processing and Product Structure. . .
123 125 125 125 127 131 134 135 137 137 137 138 139 141 142 146 147 147 149 149
155 156 157 157 159 160 161 162 163 165 167 168 169 169 171
173 175
Contents IX
Alterations in the Properties of Spreads 179 Process Control . 181
Performance of Spreads . 181 Measurement of Solids. 181 Tests for Spreads Structure 183 Appearance of Spreads. 185 Effect of Fats on Product Texture 186 Palate Behaviour of Spreads. 187 Other Functions of Spreads . 189
Higher Fat Spreads (Patent Review) 189 Structure Control 189 Emulsifiers. 191 Double Emulsion Products 191 Miscellaneous Developments. 191 Health Aspects 191 Fat Substitutes 192
Low Fat Spreads (Patent Review) . 194 Fat Continuous Products. 194 Water Continuous Products. 200
Very Low Fat Spreads 202 Products with Less than 40% Fat 202
The Future 204 Nutritionally Adapted Spreads . 204 Butter and Milk/Vegetable Fat Products. 205 Multifunctional Spreads 205 Natural Spreads. 206 Novel Textured Spreads 206 Processing . 206 Research and Development 206
References. 207
6. Fats in Bakery and Kitchen Products 1. PODMORE . 213
Introduction . 214 Production of Margarine and Shortening 215 Crystallisation Behaviour. 216 Processing. 219 Bakery Fats . 220
Short Pastry 221 Cake 223
X Contents
Puff Pastry 227 The Influence of Emulsifiers in Baking 230 Control of Quality in Margarine and Shortening Manu-facture. 232 Liquid Shortenings. 234 Fluid Shortenings 235 Powdered Fats, Flaked Fats and Fat Powders. 236
Methods of Manufacture . 236 Applications of Fat Powders and Powdered Fats. 240 Ghee 242
Ghee Quality. 243 Uses of Ghee . 245
Vanaspati. 245 Salad and Cooking Oils 246 Frying Fats and Oils 247 Concluding Remarks 251 References. 252
7. Milkfat in Sugar and Chocolate Confectionery V. K. S. SHUKLA 255
Introduction . 255 Composition of Milk 256 Milkfat. 257
Fatty Acid Composition 257 Seasonal and Geographical Variation. 258 Trans Fatty Acids in Milkfat. 259 Flavour Contribution . 259
Applications of Milkfat in Confectionery 259 Milk Chocolate . 272 Plain Chocolate. 273 Toffee. 274 Conclusion 275 References. 275
8. Fat Products Using Fractionation and Hydrogenation K. K. RAJAH. 277
Part 1: Fractionation 278 Introduction. 278 Fractionation Processes 278
Detergent Fractionation 279 Solvent Fractionation 279 Dry Fractionation 279
Contents xi
Main Functional Properties. 281 Flavour and Taste 281 Colour. 284
Application for Fractionated Fats. 284 Frying Oils/Salad Oils/Salad Dressing. 284 Cream 285 Ice-Cream. 285 Bakery Products. 286 Infant Feeding 290 Butter Powder 290 Sauce Improver 290 Yellow Fat Spreads. 291 Chocolate. 292
Part 2: Hydrogenation. 293 Introduction . 293 The Hydrogenation Process. 294
Catalyst Activity. 294 Selectivity . 295 Mass Transfer 296 Re-use of Catalyst 296 Effect of Catalyst Type on Selectivity and Product Characteristics 297
Hydrogenation for Food Applications 299 Salad Oil 299 Cooking and Frying Products 304 Bakery Coatings. 305 Emulsions and Spreads 305 Chocolate and Confectionary Products 307
Hydrogenated Milkfat Products 309 References. 313
9. Fat Products Using Chemical and Enzymatic Interesterification A. HUYGHEBAERT, D. VERHAEGHE and H. DE MOOR 319
Introduction . 320 Chemical Interesterification . 323
Non-Milkfat Chemical Interesterification 325 Milkfat Chemical Interesterification 327
Enzymatic Interesterification 333 Enzyme Catalysed Interesterification of Non-Milkfats 333 Enzyme Catalysed Interesterification of Milkfat 339
References. 340
xii Contents
10. Flavours Derived from Fats G. URBACH and M. H. GORDON
Part 1: Milkfat as a Source of Flavour (G. Urbach) Introduction. . . Cultured Butter. . Precursor Flavours.
Hydroxyacids. . fJ-Ketoacids . . Lower Fatty Acids Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Off-flavours from Irradiated Fats Effect of Anti-oxidants Flavours Not Formed Directly from the Fat Cooked (H2S) Flavour Neutral Volatiles Flavours of Butterfat Fractions Supercritical Extraction of Butter Flavour . Butter Powder Ghee ... Vologda Butter Heated Butter Effect of Storage on Butter Flavour Part 2: Flavour of Fats Other than Milkfat (M. H. Gordon) Introduction . Cocoa Butter. Olive Oil . . Other Fats Oil Degradation Products and Flavour Autoxidation Mechanism. . . . .
Formation of Volatile Products by Autoxidation Factors Affecting the Rate of Off-flavour Development.
Reversion Flavours. Ketonic Rancidity . Hydrolytic Rancidity
Conclusions . References. . Bibliography.
Index . . . .
347 347 347 348 349 349 357 360 362 368 369 370 373 373 375 375 376 376 377 377 377 378 378 378 380 381 384 384 385 388 390 390 390 390 391 401
407
Preface
The properties of fats and the characteristics of some food products based on fats have been documented in several books. Individual fats such as milkfat, however, have received less attention despite many successful initiatives to increase their utilization in food products. Moreover, the availability of data on the function of fats in the context of major manufactured food products has often been constrained by the general reluctance of manufacturers to disclose details of working practices.
In some areas, such as yellow fat spreads, the market has changed dramatically over the last decade or so by the introduction of a broad class of new products resulting from a trend among consumers in the developed world towards reduced fat consumption. A review of this general area therefore now seems very timely.
In the preparation of this book, we have been fortunate to have had the support of internationally recognised specialists with much relevant experience and achievement in their subject areas. We believe that their contributions not only subscribe to the main aim of this book, by providing useful insight into the functional properties of the major fats in foods, but also offer information concerning recent and novel methods of processing these fats. Opportunities for possible future developments are indicated throughout.
The book begins with a discussion of the physical chemistry of fats, covering aspects such as phase behaviour, polymorphism, crystallisation and interfacial properties, all of which are fundamental to an understanding of the performance of fats in a variety of food applications.
Chapter 2 discusses properties of cream and ice cream, and also the influence of interfaces on these. It includes key subject areas such as the contribution of major ingredients and processing.
In recent years, there have been considerable advances in and optimisation of buttermaking technology. Chapters 3 and 4 give an up-to-date account of this, and the related topic of the preparation and use of anhydrous milkfat.
XIV Preface
An up-to-date account of the rapidly evolving area of yellow fat spreads, including low fat spreads, possible future developments and a patent review, is the subject of chapter 5, while chapter 6 covers the application of fats in baked products.
Most chocolate produced worldwide is of the milk chocolate variety, and hence chapter 7 is devoted to the influence of milkfat in that context.
In product usage, many fats have to be modified to achieve the desired product characteristics. Chapter 8 deals with the fractionation and hydrogenation of fats, including methods, resultant properties and key applications. The patent literature is reviewed and milkfat is also described within the context of fat modification.
The subject of enzymatic and chemical interesterification is extremely relevant (chapter 9), especially as enzymatic techniques are of increasing significance as an option for processing edible fats with specific physical properties.
Finally, fats not only provide structure to products but can be dominant in their contribution to taste and flavour, including off-flavour. Chapter 10 discusses the flavour impact of milkfat and other fats under two separate headings.
Each chapter begins with a brief summary to allow the reader rapid access to the scope of the subject matter.
The book is directed at those involved with the technology of the subject--especially scientists and technologists in product development, production managers, quality assurance staff and managers with appropriate responsibilities in procurement, marketing and business development. Lecturers and senior students of food science and technology will find the book a useful source of reference as well as a means of providing general insight into the manipulation of fats in modern food manufacturing.
D.DJ.M. K.K.R.
List of Contributors
M. ANDERSON
AFRC, Polaris House, North Star Avenue, Swindon SN2 1 UH, UK.
H. DE MOOR
Laboratory of Food Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, State University of Ghent, Coupure 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
M. H. GORDON
Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Reading, Whiteknights, PO Box 226, Reading RG6 2AP, UK.
A. HUYGHEBAERT
Laboratory of Food Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, State University ()[Ghent, Coupure 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
D. ILLINGWORTH
Milkfat & Butter Section, New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, Private Bag 11029, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
R. S. JEBSON
Department of Food Technology, Massey University, Faculty of Technology, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
XVI List of Contributors
1. K. MADDEN
United Biscuits (UK) Limited, Group R&D Centre, Lane End Road, Sands, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire HP12 4JX, UK.
D. P. 1. MORAN
(Consultant- Yellow Spreads and Fats Technology) Jubilee Lodge, Keyston Road, Covington, Cambridgeshire PE18 ORU, UK.
E. C. NEEDS
AFRC, Institute of Food Research, Reading Laboratory, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 2EF, UK.
1. PODMORE
Research & Development Centre, Pura Food Products Ltd, Dunnings Bridge Road, Bootie, Merseyside L30 6TJ, UK.
K. K. RAJAH
(Consultant-( Oils, Fats, Dairy and Business Development) 74 Chadwick Road, Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex SSO 8LD, UK.
V. K. S. SHUKLA
International Food Science Centre A/S, PO Box 44, SfJnderskovvej 7, DK-8520 Lystrup, Denmark.
R. E. TIMMS
(Consultant-Oils and Fats), The Cottages, Halfway Lane, Swinderby, Lincolnshire LN6 9NP, UK.
G. URBACH
CSIRO, Division of Food Science and Technology, Dairy Research Laboratory, PO Box 20, Highett, Victoria 3190, Australia.
D. VERHAEGHE
Laboratory of Food Technology, Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, State University of Ghent, Coupure 653, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
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