Farm mech. lectrz

FARM MECHANIZATIONFARM MECHANIZATIONAEN-321 AEN-321

3(2-2)3(2-2)

ByBy

DR. FAISAL ZAHOOR

Department of AgronomyDepartment of AgronomyFaculty of AgricultureFaculty of Agriculture

RawalakotRawalakot

FARM: FARM:

A A farmfarm is an area of land, or is an area of land, or aquaculture, , lake, , river or or sea, including various structures, devoted primarily to the , including various structures, devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing practice of producing and managing food ( (produce, , grains, or , or livestock), ), fibres. Farms may be owned and . Farms may be owned and operated by a single individual, family, community, operated by a single individual, family, community, corporation or a company. A farm can be a holding of corporation or a company. A farm can be a holding of any size from a fraction of a any size from a fraction of a hectare to several thousand to several thousand hectares.hectares.

TYPES OF FARMS: Crop and Vegetable Farms: Crops and vegetable farms are devoted to produce various crops and vegetables

Dairy farms: Dairy farming is a class of agriculture farms, where female cattle, goats, or other mammals are raised for their milk, which may be either processed on-site or transported to a dairy for processing and eventual retail sale.

Poultry farms: Poultry farms are devoted to raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, and other fowl, generally for meat or eggs.

Prison farms: Prison farms are farms which serve as prisons for inmates sentenced to hard labour by a court. On prison farms inmates run the essential tasks of a farm, producing crops.

Farm Mechanization Farm Mechanization

The process of developing agricultural machines and substituting this The process of developing agricultural machines and substituting this machine power for human and animal power in agricultural production machine power for human and animal power in agricultural production practices is farm mechanization practices is farm mechanization

oror

Mechanization of farms means the use of machines for conducting Mechanization of farms means the use of machines for conducting agricultural operations, replacing the traditional methods which involve agricultural operations, replacing the traditional methods which involve human and animal labor. Farm mechanization is one of the packages human and animal labor. Farm mechanization is one of the packages of green revolution technology. Farm mechanization implies the use of of green revolution technology. Farm mechanization implies the use of mechanical technology in the varied farming operations like sowing, mechanical technology in the varied farming operations like sowing, harvesting, thrashing, leveling, watering, spraying, weeding etc. harvesting, thrashing, leveling, watering, spraying, weeding etc.

SCOPE OF MECHANIZATIONSCOPE OF MECHANIZATION

Farm mechanization has been helpful to bring about a significant improvement in Farm mechanization has been helpful to bring about a significant improvement in agricultural productivity. agricultural productivity.

The timeliness of operations has assumed greater significance in obtaining optimal The timeliness of operations has assumed greater significance in obtaining optimal yields from different crops, which has been possible by way of mechanization. For yields from different crops, which has been possible by way of mechanization. For instance, the sowing of wheat in Punjab is done up to the first fortnight of November. A instance, the sowing of wheat in Punjab is done up to the first fortnight of November. A delay beyond this period by every one week leads to about 1.50 quintals per acre delay beyond this period by every one week leads to about 1.50 quintals per acre decrease in the yield.decrease in the yield.

Secondly, the quality and precision of the operations are equally significant for realizing Secondly, the quality and precision of the operations are equally significant for realizing

higher yields. The various operations such as land leveling, irrigation, sowing and higher yields. The various operations such as land leveling, irrigation, sowing and planting, use of fertilizers, plant protection, harvesting and threshing need a high degree planting, use of fertilizers, plant protection, harvesting and threshing need a high degree of precision to increase the efficiency of the inputs and reduce the losses. For example, of precision to increase the efficiency of the inputs and reduce the losses. For example, sowing of the required quantity of seed at proper depth and uniform application of given sowing of the required quantity of seed at proper depth and uniform application of given dose of fertilizer can only be possible with the use of proper mechanical devices.dose of fertilizer can only be possible with the use of proper mechanical devices.

Thirdly, the time taken to perform sequence of operations is a factor determining the Thirdly, the time taken to perform sequence of operations is a factor determining the cropping intensity. So as to ensure timeliness of various operations, it is quite inevitable cropping intensity. So as to ensure timeliness of various operations, it is quite inevitable to use such mechanical equipmentsto use such mechanical equipments

Farm Mechanization History of PakistanFarm Mechanization History of Pakistan

Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928) in which the commission had Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928) in which the commission had recognized the need for replacing the bullocks with tractor As a result of recognized the need for replacing the bullocks with tractor As a result of recommendations by the commission, the Engineering Workshop of the recommendations by the commission, the Engineering Workshop of the Agriculture Department at Faisalabad, established in 1914 was Agriculture Department at Faisalabad, established in 1914 was strengthened to undertake research and development work on agricultural strengthened to undertake research and development work on agricultural implements. Famine Inquiry Commission (1945) emphasized the need for implements. Famine Inquiry Commission (1945) emphasized the need for reducing the pressure of animals on land by using tractors for cultivation.reducing the pressure of animals on land by using tractors for cultivation.

Continued …Continued …

The Pakistan Agricultural Inquiry Committee (1951) recognized the desirability of The Pakistan Agricultural Inquiry Committee (1951) recognized the desirability of using machinery. The Food and Agricultural Commission of (1960) also considered using machinery. The Food and Agricultural Commission of (1960) also considered the scope of introducing mechanization. Revelle report (1964) commented on farm the scope of introducing mechanization. Revelle report (1964) commented on farm machinery and implements and suggested that major attention should be paid to the machinery and implements and suggested that major attention should be paid to the problem of designing agricultural equipment and proper systems suitable for small problem of designing agricultural equipment and proper systems suitable for small holdings. It also suggested the development of small horse power tractors. The five-holdings. It also suggested the development of small horse power tractors. The five-year development plans have successively provided funds of the expansion of land year development plans have successively provided funds of the expansion of land development work with heavy machinery and for setting up of a network of development work with heavy machinery and for setting up of a network of agricultural workshops in the province (Report of the Farm Mechanization Committee, agricultural workshops in the province (Report of the Farm Mechanization Committee, 1970).1970).

The Agriculture Machinery Organization (AMO) was thus established in the The Agriculture Machinery Organization (AMO) was thus established in the Agriculture Department, Government of West Pakistan in Continuation of its activities Agriculture Department, Government of West Pakistan in Continuation of its activities already in progress under the “Power Farming”, Agriculture Research Station already in progress under the “Power Farming”, Agriculture Research Station Faisalabad with the mandate of developing lands and augmenting water supplies with Faisalabad with the mandate of developing lands and augmenting water supplies with the help of machinery. Bulldozers and power drilling rigs were added to the system to the help of machinery. Bulldozers and power drilling rigs were added to the system to supplement activities being under taken by the Thal Development Authority.supplement activities being under taken by the Thal Development Authority.

Constraints of Farm Mechanization Constraints of Farm Mechanization

It is true that farm mechanization has shown good results as of raising the It is true that farm mechanization has shown good results as of raising the agricultural production and improving the standard of living of farmers within very agricultural production and improving the standard of living of farmers within very short period. But a number of arguments have been advanced against farm short period. But a number of arguments have been advanced against farm mechanization such as:mechanization such as:

1. Small size and scattered holdings of the farmers stand in the way of 1. Small size and scattered holdings of the farmers stand in the way of mechanization. As a result of this, farm machinery generally remains mechanization. As a result of this, farm machinery generally remains underutilized.underutilized.

2. Majority of small cultivators are poor who are not in a position to purchase the 2. Majority of small cultivators are poor who are not in a position to purchase the costly machinery like tractors, combine harvesters etc.costly machinery like tractors, combine harvesters etc.

3. The farm machinery have large turning radius and thus require comparatively 3. The farm machinery have large turning radius and thus require comparatively larger farm for economical use. Mechanization may lead to structural change in larger farm for economical use. Mechanization may lead to structural change in agriculture in respect of the occupational distribution in the rural economy. No agriculture in respect of the occupational distribution in the rural economy. No doubt, the increasing farm mechanization is going to increase employment in doubt, the increasing farm mechanization is going to increase employment in secondary and tertiary sectors but it does displace labor in farm operations.secondary and tertiary sectors but it does displace labor in farm operations.

Continued …Continued …

4. Lack of proper knowledge of farmer to purchase farm machinery, operate 4. Lack of proper knowledge of farmer to purchase farm machinery, operate and maintain it properly leads to wrong choice, makes it uneconomical and and maintain it properly leads to wrong choice, makes it uneconomical and riskyrisky

5. There is great shortage of diesel in the country as a whole. Thus, to use so 5. There is great shortage of diesel in the country as a whole. Thus, to use so extensive oil based farm machinery is not desirable.extensive oil based farm machinery is not desirable.

6. The lack of repair and replacement facilities especially in the remote rural 6. The lack of repair and replacement facilities especially in the remote rural areas is another hindrance in efficient small farm mechanization.areas is another hindrance in efficient small farm mechanization.

7. Due to the seasonal nature of the agriculture, the farm machinery remains 7. Due to the seasonal nature of the agriculture, the farm machinery remains idle for much of the time. Thus, idle machinery means unnecessary high costs idle for much of the time. Thus, idle machinery means unnecessary high costs unless proper alternate use of such machinery in the off-season is made.unless proper alternate use of such machinery in the off-season is made.

The farm mechanical technology includes:The farm mechanical technology includes:

1. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY: Plant Protection measures, Sprayers1. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY: Plant Protection measures, Sprayers

2. HYDROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY: Tube wells2. HYDROLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY: Tube wells

3. MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY: Tractors, Thrashers, Bulldozers etc.3. MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY: Tractors, Thrashers, Bulldozers etc.

Farm Machinery Farm Machinery

In Pakistan Farm Machinery Institute (FMI) of PARC has developed In Pakistan Farm Machinery Institute (FMI) of PARC has developed and introduced the following farm mechanization technologies:and introduced the following farm mechanization technologies:

         Reaper (wheat and rice)         Reaper (wheat and rice)         Threshers          Threshers (wheat, rice, groundnut, soybean, chickpea, sunflower, rapeseed/canola)(wheat, rice, groundnut, soybean, chickpea, sunflower, rapeseed/canola)

         Groundnut Digger         Groundnut Digger         Zero-till Drill (for sowing wheat after harvesting rice)         Zero-till Drill (for sowing wheat after harvesting rice)         Fertilizer Band Placement Seed Drill (Wheat)         Fertilizer Band Placement Seed Drill (Wheat)         Row-crop Planter (sunflower and maize/corn)         Row-crop Planter (sunflower and maize/corn)         Wheat Straw Chopper-cum-blower         Wheat Straw Chopper-cum-blower         Solar-cum-gas fired Fruits and Vegetables Dehydration System         Solar-cum-gas fired Fruits and Vegetables Dehydration System         Mobile Seed Processing Unit         Mobile Seed Processing Unit

Mechanization technologies commercializedMechanization technologies commercialized               Reaper (Wheat and rice)Reaper (Wheat and rice)                   Groundnut DiggerGroundnut Digger                   Groundnut ThresherGroundnut Thresher                   Sunflower ThresherSunflower Thresher                   Paddy ThresherPaddy Thresher                   Zero-till Drill (for sowing wheat after harvesting rice)Zero-till Drill (for sowing wheat after harvesting rice)                   Row-crop Planter (Sunflower and maize/corn)Row-crop Planter (Sunflower and maize/corn)                   Wheat Straw Chopper-cum-blowerWheat Straw Chopper-cum-blower                   Mobile Seed Processing UnitMobile Seed Processing Unit                   Mobile Flat-bed Dryer (sunflower and canola)Mobile Flat-bed Dryer (sunflower and canola)                   Wheat-cum-rapeseed/canola ThresherWheat-cum-rapeseed/canola Thresher                   Solar-cum-gas fired Fruits and Vegetable Dehydration SystemSolar-cum-gas fired Fruits and Vegetable Dehydration System                   FMI Seeder (Zero-till drill for combine harvested rice fields)FMI Seeder (Zero-till drill for combine harvested rice fields)

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the ; the most commonly found molecules are most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, , aromatic hydrocarbons. Each petroleum variety has a unique . Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like , which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and color and viscosity etc etc

The The alkanesalkanes, also known as , also known as paraffinsparaffins, are , are saturated hydrocarbons with hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and and hydrogen. They . They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule.

The alkanes from The alkanes from pentane (C (C55HH1212) to ) to octane (C (C88HH1818) are ) are refined into into petrol, ,

the ones from the ones from no-nane (C (C99HH2020) to ) to hexa-decane (C (C1616HH3434) into ) into diesel fuel, , kerosene and and jet fuel). Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be ). Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into refined into lubricating oil..

Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum. Lines represent single bonds; black spheres represent carbon; white spheres represent hydrogen.

Petrol combustion:Petrol combustion:

Diesel/Petro-diesel combustion:Diesel/Petro-diesel combustion:

Natural Gas (CNG) combustion:Natural Gas (CNG) combustion:

2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18 H2O + energy/Heat

2C16H34 + 49O2 → 32CO2 + 34H2O + energy/Heat

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy/Heat

Engine TerminologiesEngine Terminologies

Bore (d):Bore (d):

The internal diameter of the cylinder The internal diameter of the cylinder

Stroke (l):Stroke (l):

The maximum length of travel of piston from one extreme The maximum length of travel of piston from one extreme position to other extreme position in one directionposition to other extreme position in one direction

Top dead centre (TDC):Top dead centre (TDC):

The position of the piston at the end of its travel when The position of the piston at the end of its travel when moving towards cylinder headmoving towards cylinder head

Bottom dead centre (BDC):Bottom dead centre (BDC):

The position of the piston at the end of its travel when The position of the piston at the end of its travel when moving towards the crankcasemoving towards the crankcase

Piston displacement (PD):Piston displacement (PD):

The volume displaced or covered by the piston when it moves The volume displaced or covered by the piston when it moves from TDC to BDCfrom TDC to BDC

Clearance volume (CV):Clearance volume (CV):

The space or volume between the top of the piston and the The space or volume between the top of the piston and the engine cylinder head, when the piston is at the TDC. It is also engine cylinder head, when the piston is at the TDC. It is also called combustion chambercalled combustion chamber

Total cylinder volume (TCV):Total cylinder volume (TCV):

The volume designated by PD and Clearance volumeThe volume designated by PD and Clearance volume

TCV = PD + CVTCV = PD + CV

Compression Ratio (CR):Compression Ratio (CR):

The ratio of total cylinder volume and the clearance volumeThe ratio of total cylinder volume and the clearance volume

CR = TCV/CVCR = TCV/CV

Engine Size: Engine Size:

It is the product of diameter of piston and the stroke of the engineIt is the product of diameter of piston and the stroke of the engine

Cylinder headCylinder head

Cylinder Cylinder

Piston Piston

CV

Top dead centre (TDC)

PD Stroke

d

BDC

Connecting rod

Crankshaft

D= bore (internal diameter of cylinder) CV= Clearance volume

Heat Engine ClassificationHeat Engine Classification

1. Internal Combustion Engine (I.C.E.)1. Internal Combustion Engine (I.C.E.)

a. Reciprocatinga. Reciprocating

b. Rotaryb. Rotary

2. External Combustion Engine (E.C.E.)2. External Combustion Engine (E.C.E.)

a. Reciprocating a. Reciprocating (Old tractors, boilers)(Old tractors, boilers)

b. Rotary b. Rotary (Steam turbines, Power plants)(Steam turbines, Power plants) TurbineTurbine is a rotary is a rotary engine that extracts that extracts energy from a from a fluid flow and converts it into flow and converts it into

useful useful work. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a . The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotorreact to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor

Internal Combustion EngineInternal Combustion Engine

It is a machine which converts the It is a machine which converts the

reciprocating motion into rotary reciprocating motion into rotary

motion as a result of thermal motion as a result of thermal

expansion caused by combustible expansion caused by combustible

GasesGases

As combustion takes place inside As combustion takes place inside

the engine cylinder, so the engine the engine cylinder, so the engine

is called internal combustion engineis called internal combustion engine

C:C: Crankshaft Crankshaft E:E: Exhaust camshaft Exhaust camshaft I:I: Inlet camshaft Inlet camshaft P:P: Piston Piston R:R: Connecting rod Connecting rod S:S: Spark plug Spark plug V:V: Valves. Red: exhaust, Blue: intake Valves. Red: exhaust, Blue: intake W:W: Cooling water ducts Cooling water ducts

External combustion engine

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an (internal) working fluid is heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid then, by expanding produces motion and usable work. The working fluid can be a gas or steam as in a steam engine.

Reciprocating motion, also called reciprocation, is a repetitive up-and-down or back-and-forth motion. It is found in a wide range of mechanisms, including reciprocating engines and pumps. . The piston moves in a reciprocating motion, which is converted into circular motion of the crankshaft, which ultimately propels the vehicle or does other useful work.

Rotary motion, Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion.

I.C.E:I.C.E:a. a. Reciprocating:Reciprocating:

a.1: C.I. Enginesa.1: C.I. Engines

a.1.1 Four stroke (Tractors, cars, buses) a.1.1 Four stroke (Tractors, cars, buses)

a.1.2 Two stroke (Motor cycles)a.1.2 Two stroke (Motor cycles)

a.2: S.I. Enginesa.2: S.I. Engines

a.1.1 Four stroke (Tractors, cars, buses) a.1.1 Four stroke (Tractors, cars, buses)

a.1.2 Two stroke (very rare)a.1.2 Two stroke (very rare)The SI spark plug is timed to start combustion at the ideal moment, usually some The SI spark plug is timed to start combustion at the ideal moment, usually some degrees before the piston reaches the top (TDC or Top Dead Centre). The burning degrees before the piston reaches the top (TDC or Top Dead Centre). The burning mixture then drives the piston down for the power stroke. mixture then drives the piston down for the power stroke.

The CI fuel is injected (sprayed) into the cylinder at the ideal moment - this too is The CI fuel is injected (sprayed) into the cylinder at the ideal moment - this too is usually some degrees before TDC, and the red-hot air in there then starts the fuel usually some degrees before TDC, and the red-hot air in there then starts the fuel burning. This then drives the piston down for the power stroke.burning. This then drives the piston down for the power stroke.

b. Rotary Engines:b. Rotary Engines:

Airplanes, Power plantsAirplanes, Power plants

Base or FrameBase or Frame CylinderCylinder Cylinder headCylinder head PistonPiston Piston ringsPiston rings Piston pinsPiston pins Connecting rodConnecting rod CrankshaftCrankshaft Fly WheelFly Wheel Valve SystemValve System Fuel supply SystemFuel supply System Ignition SystemIgnition System Cooling SystemCooling System Lubrication SystemLubrication System Governing SystemGoverning System

Tractor Engine Parts:

BASE or FRAMEBASE or FRAME Made up of cast ironMade up of cast iron Other parts of engine are attached directly or indirectlyOther parts of engine are attached directly or indirectly Equipped with holes by which engine may be firmly anchored to its foundationEquipped with holes by which engine may be firmly anchored to its foundation

CYLINDERCYLINDER Made up of high grade gray cast iron and may be attached with engine base Made up of high grade gray cast iron and may be attached with engine base

or some time separate. In small size engines usually cylinders are attached or some time separate. In small size engines usually cylinders are attached with the base while in large size engines cylinders are detachable.with the base while in large size engines cylinders are detachable.

Attaching a cylinder and base together produces a rigid construction but Attaching a cylinder and base together produces a rigid construction but require greater outlay if cylinders are to be replaced when worn or damaged. require greater outlay if cylinders are to be replaced when worn or damaged.

If cylinders are not a part of the base but bolted to it, care should be taken to If cylinders are not a part of the base but bolted to it, care should be taken to keep the bolts tight and retain the proper cylinder alignment all the time, it keep the bolts tight and retain the proper cylinder alignment all the time, it reduces breakage and wear.reduces breakage and wear.

Cast iron: excellent heat retention ironCast iron: excellent heat retention iron Gray cast iron: Has graphite in its chemistry, auto-trop of carbon with high Gray cast iron: Has graphite in its chemistry, auto-trop of carbon with high

thermal conductivitythermal conductivity

PISTONS:PISTONS: Made up of cast iron but aluminum alloy pistons are frequently used in Made up of cast iron but aluminum alloy pistons are frequently used in

multiple cylinders engines.multiple cylinders engines. Aluminum alloy offer the advantage of being lighter in weight and has Aluminum alloy offer the advantage of being lighter in weight and has

greater co-efficient of thermal expansion. greater co-efficient of thermal expansion. Piston move back and forth in cylinder owing to the explosion of the fuel Piston move back and forth in cylinder owing to the explosion of the fuel

mixture, this back and forth movement of the piston is transmitted through mixture, this back and forth movement of the piston is transmitted through connecting rod and cranckshaft to the belt pully and thus power is connecting rod and cranckshaft to the belt pully and thus power is generated.generated.

Piston clearance is the space between piston head and cylinder head, for Piston clearance is the space between piston head and cylinder head, for cast iron pistons clearance is about 0.001 in. of the cylinder diameter.cast iron pistons clearance is about 0.001 in. of the cylinder diameter.

Too much clearance cause loss of compressionToo much clearance cause loss of compression Too little clearance cause the piston to seize in the cylinder as the engine Too little clearance cause the piston to seize in the cylinder as the engine

gets hotgets hot A piston may seize in a cylinder even though it has the proper clearance but A piston may seize in a cylinder even though it has the proper clearance but

owning to lack of cylinder lubrication  owning to lack of cylinder lubrication  

Co-efficient of thermal expansion:Co-efficient of thermal expansion:

It is the change in the size of the object with the change in temperatureIt is the change in the size of the object with the change in temperature

CYLINDER HEADCYLINDER HEAD Made up of cast ironMade up of cast iron They are detachable from the cylinders but some time cast with itThey are detachable from the cylinders but some time cast with it The detachable type of cylinder heads allow better accessibility and is more The detachable type of cylinder heads allow better accessibility and is more

convenient to get to the valves and clean the carbon from the cylinder pistonconvenient to get to the valves and clean the carbon from the cylinder piston

PISTON PINS:PISTON PINS: Made up of hard steelMade up of hard steel It contact the connecting rod with the piston and provide a hinge like It contact the connecting rod with the piston and provide a hinge like

connection between the twoconnection between the two

A A hingehinge is a type of is a type of bearing that connects two solid objects, typically allowing only a that connects two solid objects, typically allowing only a limited limited angle of rotation between them. between them.

PISTON RINGS:PISTON RINGS:

Made up of cast ironMade up of cast iron The number of rings per piston varies from three to seven depending upon The number of rings per piston varies from three to seven depending upon

type of engine and the compression desiredtype of engine and the compression desired Ordinary type of engines seldom have three or four rings, but five or more Ordinary type of engines seldom have three or four rings, but five or more

rings are present in tractors or heavy duty enginerings are present in tractors or heavy duty engine Piston rings retain compression and reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall Piston rings retain compression and reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall

contact area to a minimum, thus preventing fraction losses and excessive contact area to a minimum, thus preventing fraction losses and excessive wearwear

Piston rings are classified as compression rings and oil rings depending Piston rings are classified as compression rings and oil rings depending upon their function and location on the pistonupon their function and location on the piston

Compression pins are plain one piece rings and are always placed in the Compression pins are plain one piece rings and are always placed in the grooves near the piston head. Oil rings are present in the lowest groove grooves near the piston head. Oil rings are present in the lowest groove above the piston pin or near the piston skirt. It controls the distribution of the above the piston pin or near the piston skirt. It controls the distribution of the lubricating oil to the cylinder and pistonlubricating oil to the cylinder and piston

CONNECTING ROD:CONNECTING ROD:

Connecting rod are made up of drop forged steel, it must be of some Connecting rod are made up of drop forged steel, it must be of some material that is neither brittle nor ductilematerial that is neither brittle nor ductile

The I-beam type is prevailing connecting rod shape, it gives strength with The I-beam type is prevailing connecting rod shape, it gives strength with less weight and materialless weight and material

That end of the rod fastened to the piston pin is known as the small end and That end of the rod fastened to the piston pin is known as the small end and the other end which is attached with to the crank shaft is spoken as large the other end which is attached with to the crank shaft is spoken as large end of the connecting rodend of the connecting rod

Drop forged: Motion of dropping hammer onto the hot steel or referred to the Drop forged: Motion of dropping hammer onto the hot steel or referred to the process in which super heated steel is formed into items such as tools etcprocess in which super heated steel is formed into items such as tools etc

CRANKSHAFT:CRANKSHAFT:

Made up of drop forged steel and carefully machined, ground and polished Made up of drop forged steel and carefully machined, ground and polished at the journals. at the journals.

The journals that support the crankshaft and hold it in position are called The journals that support the crankshaft and hold it in position are called main journals, whereas the part to which the connecting rod is attached is main journals, whereas the part to which the connecting rod is attached is spoken of a crank journalsspoken of a crank journals

FLYWHEEL:FLYWHEEL:

Made up of cast ironMade up of cast iron

Assist in maintaining a uniform engine speed and provide a mean of Assist in maintaining a uniform engine speed and provide a mean of balancing the engine properlybalancing the engine properly

Uniformity of the speed is maintained by the inertia of the heavy flywheelUniformity of the speed is maintained by the inertia of the heavy flywheel

VALVE SYSTEM:VALVE SYSTEM:

Each engine cylinder has at least two valves an intake and an exhaust Each engine cylinder has at least two valves an intake and an exhaust valve.valve.

Intake valves are usually larger than the exhaust valves. The reason is that Intake valves are usually larger than the exhaust valves. The reason is that when intake valve is open the only force moving air fuel mixture or air is when intake valve is open the only force moving air fuel mixture or air is atmospheric pressure.atmospheric pressure.

The intake valve opens just before the intake stroke begins and allows the The intake valve opens just before the intake stroke begins and allows the air fuel mixture to enter the cylinder.air fuel mixture to enter the cylinder.

When the exhaust valve opens on the exhaust stroke, there is still high When the exhaust valve opens on the exhaust stroke, there is still high enough pressure in the cylinder to exhaust the gases outside the cylinder.enough pressure in the cylinder to exhaust the gases outside the cylinder.

The exhaust valve opens just before the exhaust stroke begins so that the The exhaust valve opens just before the exhaust stroke begins so that the burnt gases can escape the cylinder. For the Exhaust Valve, Chromium or burnt gases can escape the cylinder. For the Exhaust Valve, Chromium or Silicon is used which makes it resistant to corrosion due to high temperature Silicon is used which makes it resistant to corrosion due to high temperature and hot gases.and hot gases.

Some engines have three valves per cylinder two for intake and one for Some engines have three valves per cylinder two for intake and one for exhaust, while in some engines four valves per cylinder two for intake and exhaust, while in some engines four valves per cylinder two for intake and two for exhaust are present.two for exhaust are present.

VALVE COOLING:VALVE COOLING:

The intake valve runs relatively cool. This is because the cool air-fuel The intake valve runs relatively cool. This is because the cool air-fuel mixture flows around the head of the intake valve. However, very hot mixture flows around the head of the intake valve. However, very hot exhaust gases flows around the head of the exhaust valve. As a result exhaust gases flows around the head of the exhaust valve. As a result exhaust valve may become red in operation with temperature of upto exhaust valve may become red in operation with temperature of upto 1600160000F.F.

The engine cooling system cools the valves seat and stem. Coolant The engine cooling system cools the valves seat and stem. Coolant circulates through the water jackets in cylinder head. For the cooling circulates through the water jackets in cylinder head. For the cooling purpose of exhaust valves some have hollow stems partly filled with metal purpose of exhaust valves some have hollow stems partly filled with metal sodium that keeps the exhaust valve cool.sodium that keeps the exhaust valve cool.

Valve Seat: The valve seat is a machined surface upon valve face rests Valve Seat: The valve seat is a machined surface upon valve face rests when the valve is closed.when the valve is closed.

COOLING SYSTEM OF ENGINE:COOLING SYSTEM OF ENGINE:

Temperatures in the combustion chamber of the engine can reach 4,500 F Temperatures in the combustion chamber of the engine can reach 4,500 F (2,500 C), so cooling the area around the cylinders is critical. Areas around (2,500 C), so cooling the area around the cylinders is critical. Areas around the exhaust valves are especially crucial, and almost all of the space inside the exhaust valves are especially crucial, and almost all of the space inside the cylinder head around the valves that is not needed for structure is filled the cylinder head around the valves that is not needed for structure is filled with coolant. If the engine goes without cooling for very long, it can seize. with coolant. If the engine goes without cooling for very long, it can seize. When this happens, the metal has actually gotten hot enough for the piston When this happens, the metal has actually gotten hot enough for the piston to weld itself to the cylinder. This usually means the complete destruction of to weld itself to the cylinder. This usually means the complete destruction of the engine. the engine.

One interesting way to reduce the demands on the cooling system is to One interesting way to reduce the demands on the cooling system is to reduce the amount of heat that is transferred from the combustion chamber reduce the amount of heat that is transferred from the combustion chamber to the metal parts of the engine. Some engines do this by coating the inside to the metal parts of the engine. Some engines do this by coating the inside of the top of the cylinder head with a thin layer of of the top of the cylinder head with a thin layer of ceramicceramic. Ceramic is a . Ceramic is a poor conductor of heat, so less heat is conducted through to the metal and poor conductor of heat, so less heat is conducted through to the metal and more passes out of the exhaust. more passes out of the exhaust.

TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM:TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM:

1.1. Air Cooling SystemAir Cooling System

2.2. Liquid Cooling SystemLiquid Cooling System

3.3. Combine Air & Liquid Cooling SystemCombine Air & Liquid Cooling System

Air Cooling System:Air Cooling System:

Air coolingAir cooling is a method of dissipating is a method of dissipating heat. It works by making the object . It works by making the object to be cooled have a larger surface area or have an increased flow of air to be cooled have a larger surface area or have an increased flow of air over its surface, or both. An example of the former is to add over its surface, or both. An example of the former is to add fins to the to the surface of the object, either by making them integral or by attaching them surface of the object, either by making them integral or by attaching them tightly to the object's surface (to ensure efficient heat transfer). tightly to the object's surface (to ensure efficient heat transfer).

Instead of circulating fluid through the engine, the engine block is covered Instead of circulating fluid through the engine, the engine block is covered in aluminum fins that conduct the heat away from the cylinder. A powerful in aluminum fins that conduct the heat away from the cylinder. A powerful fan forces air over these fins, which cools the engine by transferring the fan forces air over these fins, which cools the engine by transferring the heat to the air.heat to the air.

Mostly it is done by using a Mostly it is done by using a fan blowing blowing air into or onto the object one into or onto the object one wants to cool. In many cases the addition of fins adds to the total surface wants to cool. In many cases the addition of fins adds to the total surface area.area.

In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will move spontaneously from a thermodynamics, which states that heat will move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).

Air Cooling System:Air Cooling System:

AdvantagesAdvantages No need for radiator No need for radiator No coolant No coolant No water pump etc. No water pump etc. Less weightLess weight

DisadvantagesDisadvantages NoisyNoisy Difficult to control temperature properly.Difficult to control temperature properly.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM:WATER COOLING SYSTEM:

Water coolingWater cooling is a method of is a method of heat removal from engine components As removal from engine components As opposed to opposed to air cooling, , water is used as the heat conductor. Water cooling is used as the heat conductor. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile internal combustion enginesinternal combustion engines and and large industrial facilities such as large industrial facilities such as steam electric power plantssteam electric power plants, , hydroelectrichydroelectric generatorsgenerators, , petroleum refineriespetroleum refineries and and chemical plantschemical plants..[[

The cooling system on liquid-cooled vehicles circulates a fluid through pipes The cooling system on liquid-cooled vehicles circulates a fluid through pipes and passageways in the engine. As this liquid passes through the hot and passageways in the engine. As this liquid passes through the hot engine it absorbs heat, cooling the engine. After the fluid leaves the engine, engine it absorbs heat, cooling the engine. After the fluid leaves the engine, it passes through a heat exchanger, or radiator, which transfers the heat it passes through a heat exchanger, or radiator, which transfers the heat from the fluid to the air blowing through the exchanger. from the fluid to the air blowing through the exchanger.

COOLANT/ANTI-FREEZ:COOLANT/ANTI-FREEZ:

Vehicles operate in a wide variety of temperatures, from well below freezing to well Vehicles operate in a wide variety of temperatures, from well below freezing to well over 50 C. So whatever fluid is used to cool the engine has to have a very low over 50 C. So whatever fluid is used to cool the engine has to have a very low freezing point, a high boiling point, and it has to have the capacity to hold a lot of freezing point, a high boiling point, and it has to have the capacity to hold a lot of heat.heat.

Water is one of the most effective fluids for holding heat, but water freezes. The fluid Water is one of the most effective fluids for holding heat, but water freezes. The fluid that most vehicles use is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol (Cthat most vehicles use is a mixture of water and ethylene glycol (C22HH66OO22), also known ), also known

as antifreeze. By adding ethylene glycol to water, the boiling and freezing points are as antifreeze. By adding ethylene glycol to water, the boiling and freezing points are improved significantly.improved significantly.

The temperature of the coolant can sometimes reach 250 to 275 F (121 to 135 C). The temperature of the coolant can sometimes reach 250 to 275 F (121 to 135 C). Even with ethylene glycol added, these temperatures would boil the coolant, so Even with ethylene glycol added, these temperatures would boil the coolant, so something additional must be done to raise its boiling point.something additional must be done to raise its boiling point.

Its distinctive odor also indicates cooling system leaks and problems that would go Its distinctive odor also indicates cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a water-only cooling system. unnoticed in a water-only cooling system.

Pure Water 50/50

C2H6O2/Water

70/30

C2H6O2/Water

Freezing Point 0 C -37 C -55 C

Boiling Point 100 C 106 C 113 C

COOLING MECHANISM:COOLING MECHANISM:

Heat is conveyed from working parts to the RADIATOR hence to the airHeat is conveyed from working parts to the RADIATOR hence to the air

Water/Coolant takes this heat from Cylinder and Combustion chamber by Water/Coolant takes this heat from Cylinder and Combustion chamber by circulating in the water jacket circulating in the water jacket

Water jacket is connected to the radiator by two hoses, one from the Water jacket is connected to the radiator by two hoses, one from the cylinder head to the radiator tank and the other base of the cylinder block to cylinder head to the radiator tank and the other base of the cylinder block to the base of the radiatorthe base of the radiator

The radiator consist of fine tubes called The radiator consist of fine tubes called finsfins that increase the surface area that increase the surface area

Water is confined in these tubes in thin films, which allow it to cool rapidly Water is confined in these tubes in thin films, which allow it to cool rapidly under the influence of an air flowunder the influence of an air flow

COMPONENTS OF WATER COOLING SYSTEM:COMPONENTS OF WATER COOLING SYSTEM:

RADIATOR:RADIATOR:

Radiator contains a vertical or horizontal finned tubing section Radiator contains a vertical or horizontal finned tubing section It is designed to hold an abundant amount of water and ethylene glycol, or antifreezeIt is designed to hold an abundant amount of water and ethylene glycol, or antifreeze The outside air that passes through the radiator grille helps to cool the liquidThe outside air that passes through the radiator grille helps to cool the liquid The radiator reduces the temperature of the coolant, which has absorbed the heat The radiator reduces the temperature of the coolant, which has absorbed the heat

from the engine, keeping it within a normal operating temperature. from the engine, keeping it within a normal operating temperature. Overheating an engine can cause permanent damage. A leaking radiator will cause Overheating an engine can cause permanent damage. A leaking radiator will cause

engine to run at a higher than normal temperature and may cost you huge money in engine to run at a higher than normal temperature and may cost you huge money in engine repair costs. engine repair costs.

A radiator should always be completely filled with water, antifreeze/coolant or a A radiator should always be completely filled with water, antifreeze/coolant or a mixture mixture

The radiator can also accumulate internal residues. The cooling efficiency can be The radiator can also accumulate internal residues. The cooling efficiency can be dramatically reduced as a result. If you find your vehicle is running at higher than dramatically reduced as a result. If you find your vehicle is running at higher than normal temperatures, it may be time to install a new replacement or high performance normal temperatures, it may be time to install a new replacement or high performance radiator.radiator.

Water Pump:Water Pump: The water pump is a simple centrifugal pump driven by a belt connected to the The water pump is a simple centrifugal pump driven by a belt connected to the

crankshaft of the engine. The pump circulates fluid whenever the engine is running.crankshaft of the engine. The pump circulates fluid whenever the engine is running.

If your water pump isn't operating, the engine coolant just sits in the block and heads. If your water pump isn't operating, the engine coolant just sits in the block and heads.

It doesn’t circulate or flow to the radiator to displace its heat. No coolant heat It doesn’t circulate or flow to the radiator to displace its heat. No coolant heat displacement from the radiator means your vehicle will quickly overheat. displacement from the radiator means your vehicle will quickly overheat.

This will lead to costly damage even irreversible damage such as blown engineThis will lead to costly damage even irreversible damage such as blown engine

Thermostat:Thermostat: The thermostat in a vehicle regulates the flow of coolant throughout the system. The thermostat in a vehicle regulates the flow of coolant throughout the system.

It controls the amount of coolant moving through the cooling system to help keep the It controls the amount of coolant moving through the cooling system to help keep the vehicle’s engine from overheatingvehicle’s engine from overheating

It controls the flow in such a way that the operating temperature is kept within a It controls the flow in such a way that the operating temperature is kept within a narrow margin. Your vehicle’s engine operates at peak efficiency within this narrow narrow margin. Your vehicle’s engine operates at peak efficiency within this narrow band of temperature regulation. band of temperature regulation.

Water Cooling System:Water Cooling System:

AdvantagesAdvantages quieterquieter accurate temperature controlaccurate temperature control warm water available for heater warm water available for heater

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Need for radiatorNeed for radiator Water pumpWater pump CoolantCoolant Water jacket around cylindersWater jacket around cylinders More weightMore weight

LUBRICATION SYSTEM:LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

All moving parts in the engine require lubrication i.e the application of All moving parts in the engine require lubrication i.e the application of oil to the moving parts to reduce the friction between them oil to the moving parts to reduce the friction between them

Objective and Functions:Objective and Functions: Reduces friction and wear by introducing a film of oil Reduces friction and wear by introducing a film of oil

or grease between sliding surfacesor grease between sliding surfaces Cools surface of the piston Cools surface of the piston Saves power that may be lost in frictionSaves power that may be lost in friction Lengthen the life of the pistonLengthen the life of the piston Minimize repair billsMinimize repair bills Absorbs heatAbsorbs heat

COMPONENTS & FUNCTIONS OF LUB. SYSTEM:COMPONENTS & FUNCTIONS OF LUB. SYSTEM:

Oil SumpOil Sump

The sump is at the base or bottom of an engine. It can be used as a storage container. The sump is at the base or bottom of an engine. It can be used as a storage container.

Oil pumpOil pumpOil is drawn from the sump by an oil pump. It is driven by camshaft. On the suction side of pump Oil is drawn from the sump by an oil pump. It is driven by camshaft. On the suction side of pump a Strainer (sieve) is arranged to check impuritiesa Strainer (sieve) is arranged to check impurities

Oil filtersOil filtersThe oil filter helps to clean the oil by removing the impurities. If the filter clogs, a valve opens and The oil filter helps to clean the oil by removing the impurities. If the filter clogs, a valve opens and directs unfiltered oil to the engine. Most oil-filters on diesel engines are larger than those on directs unfiltered oil to the engine. Most oil-filters on diesel engines are larger than those on similar gasoline engines.similar gasoline engines.

Oil Galleries:Oil Galleries:

These are the small passages in the cylinder block that direct oil to the moving parts.These are the small passages in the cylinder block that direct oil to the moving parts.

Oil Level indicator (Dip stick)Oil Level indicator (Dip stick)Oil level indicators is a graduated rod used to check when there are safe oil levels in an engine.Oil level indicators is a graduated rod used to check when there are safe oil levels in an engine.   

Lubrication System of an ENGINE:Lubrication System of an ENGINE:

Oil galleriesOil galleries

Oil filterOil filter

Crank Crank shaftshaft

Oil pumpOil pump

Oil sumpOil sump

OIL FILTER:OIL FILTER:

OutflowOutflow

InflowInflow

Oil passageOil passage

FilterFilter

GRADES OF ENGINE OILS:GRADES OF ENGINE OILS:

The society of Automotive Engineers grades oils according to their viscosity e.g. The society of Automotive Engineers grades oils according to their viscosity e.g. SAE-20, SAE-30, SAE-40, SAE-50, SAE-60. Some times like SAE-30 W etc.SAE-20, SAE-30, SAE-40, SAE-50, SAE-60. Some times like SAE-30 W etc.

Usually less viscous oils quickly flow when engine is started cold verses dry Usually less viscous oils quickly flow when engine is started cold verses dry running until lubricant either warms up sufficientlyrunning until lubricant either warms up sufficiently

Less dry running means much less engine wearLess dry running means much less engine wear

FUEL SYSTEM:FUEL SYSTEM:

Fuel tank: Fuel tank: It hold fuelIt hold fuel

Carburetor: Carburetor: Premixes air and fuel mixture and supply it to the injectorsPremixes air and fuel mixture and supply it to the injectors

Fuel Supply Pump:Fuel Supply Pump: Supply the fuel to the system from the tank Supply the fuel to the system from the tank

Sedimenter: Sedimenter: It filter out water from the dieselIt filter out water from the diesel

Fuel Filter: Fuel Filter: To filter fuel and remove minor particles from the fuel. Fuel injectors To filter fuel and remove minor particles from the fuel. Fuel injectors have tiny openings which clog easily so filtering the fuel is the only way to prevent have tiny openings which clog easily so filtering the fuel is the only way to prevent this. this. 

Injection Pump: Injection Pump: To deliver highly pressurized fuel to the injectorsTo deliver highly pressurized fuel to the injectors

Injection pipes: Injection pipes: Connects injection pump with injectorsConnects injection pump with injectors

Injectors: Injectors: One for each cylinder to spray fuel into the combustion chamberOne for each cylinder to spray fuel into the combustion chamber

Return lines/ Overflow pipes: Return lines/ Overflow pipes: To return excess fuel from injection pump and To return excess fuel from injection pump and injectors to the tankinjectors to the tank

Governors: Governors: To control engine speedTo control engine speed

Control Lever: Control Lever: Provide connection between governor and drivers acceleratorProvide connection between governor and drivers accelerator

FUEL SYSTEMFUEL SYSTEM::

InjectorsInjectors

Fuel filterFuel filter

Injection pipes Injection pipes Return lines Return lines

Injection pumpInjection pump

Fuel supply PumpFuel supply Pump

SedimenterSedimenter

Fuel Fuel tank tank

IGNITION SYSTEM:IGNITION SYSTEM:

An An ignition systemignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. Ignition systems are well known in the field of internal combustion Ignition systems are well known in the field of internal combustion engines such as those used in petrol (gasoline) engines used to engines such as those used in petrol (gasoline) engines used to power the majority of motor vehicles.power the majority of motor vehicles.

Types of Ignition System:Types of Ignition System:

1.1. Conventional Ignition systemConventional Ignition systema)a) Battery Ignition Battery Ignition (Chemical eng. is converted to electrical eng.)(Chemical eng. is converted to electrical eng.)

b)b) Magneto Ignition Magneto Ignition (Mech. eng. is converted to electrical eng.)(Mech. eng. is converted to electrical eng.)

2.2. Electronic systemElectronic systema)a) Mechanically timed ignitionMechanically timed ignition

b)b) Electronic IgnitionElectronic Ignition

c)c) Digital Electronic IgnitionDigital Electronic Ignition

GOVERNING SYSTEM/ ENGINE CONTROL UNIT:GOVERNING SYSTEM/ ENGINE CONTROL UNIT:

An An engine control unitengine control unit is a type of electronic control unit that is a type of electronic control unit that determines the amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters determines the amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters an internal combustion engine needs to keep running.an internal combustion engine needs to keep running.

Control of fuel mixtureControl of fuel mixtureFor an engine with fuel injection, an engine control unit will For an engine with fuel injection, an engine control unit will determine the quantity of fuel to injectdetermine the quantity of fuel to inject

If the engine has not warmed up, more fuel will be injected (causing If the engine has not warmed up, more fuel will be injected (causing the engine to run slightly 'rich' until the engine warms up).the engine to run slightly 'rich' until the engine warms up).

Control of ignition timingControl of ignition timing

A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy.spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy.

Control of variable valve timingControl of variable valve timing

DIFF. B/W PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES:DIFF. B/W PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES:

Both are Internal combustion IC engines. Petrol and Diesel oil are two separate Both are Internal combustion IC engines. Petrol and Diesel oil are two separate fractions of crude oil.fractions of crude oil.

Petrol is lighter, more volatile, and contains hydrocarbons with around 8 carbon Petrol is lighter, more volatile, and contains hydrocarbons with around 8 carbon atoms per molecule.atoms per molecule.

Diesel oil is heavier, less volatile, but with greater lubricity, and contains Diesel oil is heavier, less volatile, but with greater lubricity, and contains hydrocarbons with around 10 carbon atoms per molecule.hydrocarbons with around 10 carbon atoms per molecule.

1. 1. Petrol engines use spark plugs (Spark Ignition) to ignite the fuel which is a Petrol engines use spark plugs (Spark Ignition) to ignite the fuel which is a mixture of air and petrol. A diesel engine uses a higher compression ratio mixture of air and petrol. A diesel engine uses a higher compression ratio (compression Ignition) when it compresses the incoming air, which creates a (compression Ignition) when it compresses the incoming air, which creates a temperature inside the cylinder which is high enough to ignite the fuel when it is temperature inside the cylinder which is high enough to ignite the fuel when it is injected into the compressed air. In a diesel engine the Air is compressed to 21 injected into the compressed air. In a diesel engine the Air is compressed to 21 times its normal volume (Approx) and then Fuel is injected into the Cylinder times its normal volume (Approx) and then Fuel is injected into the Cylinder head/ or piston. Due to the high compression the temperature rises and as Fuel head/ or piston. Due to the high compression the temperature rises and as Fuel is injected it ignites. The Thermal efficiency of a Diesel engine is more as initially is injected it ignites. The Thermal efficiency of a Diesel engine is more as initially the gas was compressed to a higher level and hence the pressure generated on the gas was compressed to a higher level and hence the pressure generated on piston is more. Due to the high pressure generated in a Diesel engine the piston is more. Due to the high pressure generated in a Diesel engine the cylinder head , Block, connecting rod, crank Shaft bearing, pistons etc have to cylinder head , Block, connecting rod, crank Shaft bearing, pistons etc have to be built stronger to withstand higher stress and loads. be built stronger to withstand higher stress and loads.

2. 2. Diesel engines consume around 30% less fuel than petrol engines and this Diesel engines consume around 30% less fuel than petrol engines and this results in much lesser carbon dioxide emissions. The diesel engines results in much lesser carbon dioxide emissions. The diesel engines produce virtually no carbon monoxide and are much safer than petrol produce virtually no carbon monoxide and are much safer than petrol engines. engines.

3.3. A diesel engine can relatively last longer, due to the fact that petrol destroys A diesel engine can relatively last longer, due to the fact that petrol destroys lubrication and diesel doesn’t. lubrication and diesel doesn’t.

4.4. A major advantage of petrol engines is that they are relatively lighter than A major advantage of petrol engines is that they are relatively lighter than diesel engines. Engine weight is an important factor which affects speed diesel engines. Engine weight is an important factor which affects speed and performance of a car. This is one of the reasons why some of the and performance of a car. This is one of the reasons why some of the fastest cars in the world run on petrol.fastest cars in the world run on petrol.

5.5. Carburetor is used to vaporize the fuel mixture in petrol engines and Carburetor is used to vaporize the fuel mixture in petrol engines and injection pump is used to uplift and forward the fuel to the injectors injection pump is used to uplift and forward the fuel to the injectors

Types of tractors Types of tractors

General or multipurpose tractorGeneral or multipurpose tractor Garden tractorGarden tractor Crawler tractorCrawler tractor Industrial tractorIndustrial tractor Row crop tractorRow crop tractor

General purpose tractorGeneral purpose tractor

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Horse power ranges from 45-65.Horse power ranges from 45-65. Rear wheels are usually drive wheelsRear wheels are usually drive wheels Front wheels are used for stearingFront wheels are used for stearing Distance from centre to rear wheel is fixed and is not adjustableDistance from centre to rear wheel is fixed and is not adjustable Useful for operation like ploughing seeding and harvesting etc. Useful for operation like ploughing seeding and harvesting etc.

threshingthreshing Can also be used for transportation.Can also be used for transportation.

Row Crop Tractors:Row Crop Tractors:

A A row-crop tractorrow-crop tractor is a tractor tailored specifically to the growing of is a tractor tailored specifically to the growing of row crops and most especially to row crops and most especially to cultivating.cultivating. Cultivating can take Cultivating can take place anytime from soon after the crop plants have sprouted until place anytime from soon after the crop plants have sprouted until soon before they are harvested. soon before they are harvested.

The earliest win from introducing tractors to mechanize agriculture The earliest win from introducing tractors to mechanize agriculture was in reducing the heavy efforts of was in reducing the heavy efforts of plowingplowing and and harrowingharrowing before before planting, which could often be backbreaking tasks for humans and planting, which could often be backbreaking tasks for humans and draft animalsdraft animals. Early tractors were used mainly to alleviate this . Early tractors were used mainly to alleviate this drudgery.drudgery.

Garden tractorGarden tractor

Garden Tractors (also called Mini Tractors) are small, light and Garden Tractors (also called Mini Tractors) are small, light and simple tractors designed for use in domestic simple tractors designed for use in domestic gardensgardens

Designed primarily for cutting Designed primarily for cutting grassgrass, being fitted with horizontal , being fitted with horizontal rotary cutting disks.rotary cutting disks.

Horse power ranges from 5-12Horse power ranges from 5-12 Engine possess air cooling systemEngine possess air cooling system Garden Tractors are generally capable of mounting other Garden Tractors are generally capable of mounting other

implements such as harrows, cultivators/rotavators, sweepers implements such as harrows, cultivators/rotavators, sweepers and rollers etc. and rollers etc.

More skills and great effort is required to drive and operate such More skills and great effort is required to drive and operate such tractortractor

Such tractor cannot be used for operating threshers Such tractor cannot be used for operating threshers andand Harvesting equipment.Harvesting equipment.

Crawler Tractors:Crawler Tractors:

HorsepowerHorsepower ( (HPHP) )

It is the unit of measurement of power. The most common It is the unit of measurement of power. The most common definitions equal between 735.5 and 750 watts. Horsepower definitions equal between 735.5 and 750 watts. Horsepower was originally defined to compare the output of steam was originally defined to compare the output of steam engines with the power of draft horses. The unit was widely engines with the power of draft horses. The unit was widely adopted to measure the output of piston engines, turbines, adopted to measure the output of piston engines, turbines, electric motors, and other machinery. electric motors, and other machinery.

Mechanical horsepowerMechanical horsepower hp(1) = 33,000 ft-lb/min hp(1) = 33,000 ft-lb/min = 550 ft-lb/s= 550 ft-lb/s = 745.699872 Watt= 745.699872 Watt

Engine troublesEngine troubles

Following are the general troubles of an engineFollowing are the general troubles of an engine

Engine will not startEngine will not start Engine cranks but not startEngine cranks but not start Engine does not develop full powerEngine does not develop full power Exhaust smoke of engineExhaust smoke of engine Engine over heatedEngine over heated

Engine will not startEngine will not start Starting motor (generator) at faultStarting motor (generator) at fault Battery may be weekBattery may be week High resistance in circuitsHigh resistance in circuits Defective starting switchDefective starting switch Engine oil too heavyEngine oil too heavy

Engine cranks but not startEngine cranks but not start iinjection pump faultynjection pump faulty Air intake restrictedAir intake restricted Battery low in chargeBattery low in charge

Engine does not develop full powerEngine does not develop full power Moisture in fuelMoisture in fuel Fuel filter cloggedFuel filter clogged Poor fuelPoor fuel Injection pump not timed correctlyInjection pump not timed correctly Air leaks around intake partsAir leaks around intake parts Low compressionLow compression Faulty fuel supply pumpFaulty fuel supply pump

Exhaust smoke of engineExhaust smoke of engine Wrong value system Wrong value system Problematic piston rings and cylinder wallsProblematic piston rings and cylinder walls Defective fuel nozzleDefective fuel nozzle Clogged air cleanerClogged air cleaner Wrong type fuelWrong type fuel Engine over loadedEngine over loaded

Engine over heatedEngine over heated

Inefficient coolingInefficient cooling Clogged cooling systemClogged cooling system Fan belt slipping or fan not workingFan belt slipping or fan not working Poor circulation through radiatorPoor circulation through radiator Insufficient lubrication oilInsufficient lubrication oil Engine over loadedEngine over loaded Defective water pumpDefective water pump Defective thermostat valueDefective thermostat value

Tractor MaintenanceTractor MaintenanceDaily maintenanceDaily maintenance Check fuel Check fuel Check water level in cooling systemCheck water level in cooling system Check oil level Check oil level Check brakesCheck brakes

Maintenance after a week (50 hours)Maintenance after a week (50 hours) Attend various lubrication pointsAttend various lubrication points Check tyre pressureCheck tyre pressure Check oil level in hydraulic systemCheck oil level in hydraulic system Clean the battery terminalsClean the battery terminals

Maintenance after month (120 hours)Maintenance after month (120 hours) Change engine oilChange engine oil Change oil filterChange oil filter Attend lubrication pointsAttend lubrication points Check fan beltCheck fan belt Check liquid level in battery cellCheck liquid level in battery cell Clean hydraulic oil filterClean hydraulic oil filter

Maintenance after 600 hoursMaintenance after 600 hours Change transmission oilChange transmission oil Check fuel oil and air cleanerCheck fuel oil and air cleaner Check front wheel assembly Check front wheel assembly Change hydraulic oilChange hydraulic oil Clean air cleaner upper part and air intake pipeClean air cleaner upper part and air intake pipe

TillageTillage

Tillage in general may be defined as the mechanical Tillage in general may be defined as the mechanical manipulation of soil for any purpose.manipulation of soil for any purpose.

From agriculture point of viewFrom agriculture point of view

Tillage involves the breaking, stirring, turning or conditioning of Tillage involves the breaking, stirring, turning or conditioning of soil surface to develop a favorable soil environment for the soil surface to develop a favorable soil environment for the

germination and growth of crops.germination and growth of crops.

Objective of tillageObjective of tillage

To develop a desirable soil structure for seed bed or root To develop a desirable soil structure for seed bed or root zonezone

To increase soil aeration by loosening soil and thereby To increase soil aeration by loosening soil and thereby reducing soil densityreducing soil density

To minimize soil resistance to root penetrationTo minimize soil resistance to root penetration To control weeds or to eradicate unwanted plants To control weeds or to eradicate unwanted plants To improve soil fertility by incorporating crop residues or To improve soil fertility by incorporating crop residues or

green manuring crops etcgreen manuring crops etc To minimize soil erosion by employing deep tillage, mulch To minimize soil erosion by employing deep tillage, mulch

tillage, contour tillagetillage, contour tillage

Continued …Continued …

Continued …Continued …

To establish specific soil surface configuration such as beds, To establish specific soil surface configuration such as beds, furrows, ridges etc for planting, irrigation, drainage or furrows, ridges etc for planting, irrigation, drainage or harvesting operations etcharvesting operations etc

To incorporate and mix fertilizer, pesticides or soil To incorporate and mix fertilizer, pesticides or soil amendments into the soilamendments into the soil

To accomplish segregation of roots, rocks, foreign objects To accomplish segregation of roots, rocks, foreign objects from soilfrom soil

To break hardpan, tillage pan or sodic pan developed To break hardpan, tillage pan or sodic pan developed underneath the root zoneunderneath the root zone

Tillage terminologiesTillage terminologiesTilthTilth

It is defined as degree of aggregation of soil particles. Ideal It is defined as degree of aggregation of soil particles. Ideal tilth is secured when soil is aggregated into crumble like tilth is secured when soil is aggregated into crumble like particles that allow free access of air and water and not particles that allow free access of air and water and not easily broken down by rainfall.easily broken down by rainfall.

Tillage tool:Tillage tool:

It is defined as an individual soil working element such as It is defined as an individual soil working element such as disc blade, cultivator shovel, tine of cultivator etcdisc blade, cultivator shovel, tine of cultivator etc

Tillage implement:Tillage implement:

A tillage implement is made of a single tillage tool or a group A tillage implement is made of a single tillage tool or a group of tillage tools, together with a frame, wheels (if any) control of tillage tools, together with a frame, wheels (if any) control and protection devices and any other structural and power and protection devices and any other structural and power transmission components.transmission components.

Types of tillage Types of tillage Tillage operation are often classified asTillage operation are often classified as Primary tillagePrimary tillage Secondary tillageSecondary tillage

Primary tillagePrimary tillageThe initial breaking up of soil after crop harvest is generally called The initial breaking up of soil after crop harvest is generally called as primary tillageas primary tillage

Secondary tillageSecondary tillageThe operation carried out after primary tillage such as breaking / The operation carried out after primary tillage such as breaking / pulverization of clods to prepare seed bed ready for planting is pulverization of clods to prepare seed bed ready for planting is called as secondary tillage.called as secondary tillage.

Conventional Tillage:Conventional Tillage:Both primary and secondary tillage operations are involvedBoth primary and secondary tillage operations are involved

Reduced Tillage:Reduced Tillage:No. of primary tillage operations are reduced to minimumNo. of primary tillage operations are reduced to minimum

e.g. Minimum tillage, zero tillage and no tillagee.g. Minimum tillage, zero tillage and no tillage

Minimum tillageMinimum tillageIt refers to the cultivation of only that part of the soil on which It refers to the cultivation of only that part of the soil on which is going to be used for seeding/sowing of crops. This is is going to be used for seeding/sowing of crops. This is some times called as strip tillage or zone tillage.some times called as strip tillage or zone tillage.

Objectives: Objectives: To reduce mechanical energy and labor requirement.To reduce mechanical energy and labor requirement. To conserve moisture To conserve moisture in draught hits areas by controlling in draught hits areas by controlling

water evaporation water evaporation and reduce soil erosion.and reduce soil erosion. To save time by doing operations necessary to optimize soil To save time by doing operations necessary to optimize soil

conditions for crop growth.conditions for crop growth.

Zero tillageZero tillageIt is termed as direct drilling or seeding. In this tillage It is termed as direct drilling or seeding. In this tillage method, seed is directly drilled or planted into the stubbled method, seed is directly drilled or planted into the stubbled field of previous crop by opening upto 5 to 8 cm soil strip field of previous crop by opening upto 5 to 8 cm soil strip with the help of zero till drill.with the help of zero till drill.

Mulch tillage/conservation tillageMulch tillage/conservation tillageThis tillage involves cutting the roots of weeds and plants This tillage involves cutting the roots of weeds and plants and leaving the crop residues over the soil surface or mix and leaving the crop residues over the soil surface or mix into the top few centimeters of soil. The main purpose of the into the top few centimeters of soil. The main purpose of the tillage is to reduce the wind and water erosion + moisture tillage is to reduce the wind and water erosion + moisture conservation.conservation.

Types of tillage implementsTypes of tillage implements

Primary tillage implementsPrimary tillage implements

Secondary tillage implementsSecondary tillage implements

Primary tillage implementsPrimary tillage implementsThese implements are used for initial/major soil working These implements are used for initial/major soil working operation. They are normally designed to cut and invert the operation. They are normally designed to cut and invert the soil and thereby reduce soil strength, incorporate plant soil and thereby reduce soil strength, incorporate plant materials and rearrange aggregates. The primary materials and rearrange aggregates. The primary implements are given as;implements are given as;

Mould board plowMould board plow Disc plow Disc plow Chisel plowChisel plow Sub soilerSub soiler

Secondary tillage implementsSecondary tillage implements

These implements are used after primary tillage implements These implements are used after primary tillage implements mainly to pulverize the soil. Secondary implements are used mainly to pulverize the soil. Secondary implements are used to prepare seed bed by greater pulverization. The secondary to prepare seed bed by greater pulverization. The secondary implements work at comparatively shallow depths ranging implements work at comparatively shallow depths ranging from 3 to 6 inches. Secondary tillage implements arefrom 3 to 6 inches. Secondary tillage implements are

Disc harrowDisc harrow Bar harrowBar harrow Tine cultivatorTine cultivator Sweep cultivatorSweep cultivator RotavatorRotavator

Primary tillage implementsPrimary tillage implementsMould board (MB) plow:Mould board (MB) plow: It is used after harvesting the crop to cut/loosen and invert It is used after harvesting the crop to cut/loosen and invert

the soil into furrow slices with varying degree of pulverization the soil into furrow slices with varying degree of pulverization depending upon type of mould board plow, soil type and depending upon type of mould board plow, soil type and speed of plowing. speed of plowing.

The specific functions of MB plow are;The specific functions of MB plow are; To cut and break the soilTo cut and break the soil To lift the soilTo lift the soil To turn the soilTo turn the soil To pulverize the soilTo pulverize the soil To burry weeds, trash, and manureTo burry weeds, trash, and manure To plough deepTo plough deep

Mould boardMould board BeamBeam

FrameFrame

ShinShin

FrogFrog

ShareShare

Land sideLand side

Parts of mould board plowParts of mould board plow

Share:Share: It is the first part of the plough to enter the soil and cut a It is the first part of the plough to enter the soil and cut a

furrow slice.furrow slice.

Mould board:Mould board: The cut soil is lifted upward to the mould board where it is The cut soil is lifted upward to the mould board where it is

inverted by the curvature of this component.inverted by the curvature of this component.

Land side:Land side: Assist in making a neat furrow. It presses against furrow wall Assist in making a neat furrow. It presses against furrow wall

absorbing the side way thrust of the plough. absorbing the side way thrust of the plough.

Frog:Frog: The component that joins the share, mould board and land The component that joins the share, mould board and land

side.side.

Beam :Beam : Provides connection between the plough and source of Provides connection between the plough and source of

power.power.

The shin:The shin: This is the cutting edge of mould board just above the This is the cutting edge of mould board just above the

land side and behind the share.land side and behind the share.

Disc plow:Disc plow: It has same functions as those of M.B. plow but disc plow is It has same functions as those of M.B. plow but disc plow is

preferred in stony, rocky and sticky soils (clay soil) because the disk preferred in stony, rocky and sticky soils (clay soil) because the disk rolls over the stones. Due to rolling action of disks, the soil that is rolls over the stones. Due to rolling action of disks, the soil that is stuck with disc is removed automatically.stuck with disc is removed automatically.

Uses and advantages:Uses and advantages: It is primary tillage implementsIt is primary tillage implements It is used in stony and rocky areasIt is used in stony and rocky areas In obstruction, this plow will ride overIn obstruction, this plow will ride over In sticky soils (clay) the soil would be removed and cleaned by In sticky soils (clay) the soil would be removed and cleaned by

rolling action of disk.rolling action of disk. It penetrate deeper than mould board plowIt penetrate deeper than mould board plow Its maintenance cost is less since there are no shares or shinIts maintenance cost is less since there are no shares or shin As it rolls over the stones, so it has longer life than mould board As it rolls over the stones, so it has longer life than mould board

plow.plow.

Disadvantages:Disadvantages: It does not turn soil so effectively as mould board plowIt does not turn soil so effectively as mould board plow It does not incorporate vegetation and trash effectivelyIt does not incorporate vegetation and trash effectively It is heavierIt is heavier It is more costlyIt is more costly Since it goes to deeper depth, it requires more Since it goes to deeper depth, it requires more

horsepower.horsepower. It does not pulverize the soil so effectivelyIt does not pulverize the soil so effectively It leaves the soil cloddy and rougherIt leaves the soil cloddy and rougher

Design and constructionDesign and construction It consist of round, concave, heat treated disks with sharp edges It consist of round, concave, heat treated disks with sharp edges

in order to cut the soil.in order to cut the soil. Diameter of disks varies from 20-40 inches (50-100 cm).Diameter of disks varies from 20-40 inches (50-100 cm). Size of plow is specified by diameter of disk.Size of plow is specified by diameter of disk. Thickness of disk varies from 0.5 cm to 1.0 cm.Thickness of disk varies from 0.5 cm to 1.0 cm. The disk are placed 22.5- 30 cm a partThe disk are placed 22.5- 30 cm a part

Disk angle:Disk angle: The disk blades are set at an angle from the forward line of The disk blades are set at an angle from the forward line of

travel called the disk angle it varies from 42 to 45 degree. It travel called the disk angle it varies from 42 to 45 degree. It controls the width of the furrow as well as degree of controls the width of the furrow as well as degree of pulverization.pulverization.

Tilt angle:Tilt angle: The angle of disk from the vertical line is called the tilt angle. It The angle of disk from the vertical line is called the tilt angle. It

varies from 15 to 25 degree. It controls the depth of penetration.varies from 15 to 25 degree. It controls the depth of penetration.

Chisel plow:Chisel plow: The implement such as mould board plow, disk plow work on top The implement such as mould board plow, disk plow work on top

soil but chisel plow is used for subsurface tillage.soil but chisel plow is used for subsurface tillage.

Features:Features: Chisel plow work in hard panChisel plow work in hard pan The chisel plow goes upto a depth of 25-38 cmThe chisel plow goes upto a depth of 25-38 cm In erodible soils the chisel plow has been considered the best to In erodible soils the chisel plow has been considered the best to

overcome the problem of runoff.overcome the problem of runoff. It consist of two and three shanks fixed at box type structureIt consist of two and three shanks fixed at box type structure The shank may be straight, curved or tapered The shank may be straight, curved or tapered The horsepower can be cut to 25 % by using tapered or curved The horsepower can be cut to 25 % by using tapered or curved

shanks as compared to straight shanks.shanks as compared to straight shanks. The bottom part of shanks are fitted with tine or shovelThe bottom part of shanks are fitted with tine or shovel If narrow tines are used, the implement will go a greater depth.If narrow tines are used, the implement will go a greater depth. It works in hard pan below level of plowingIt works in hard pan below level of plowing

ShanksShanks

Tine/Tine/ shovelshovel

Sub- soiler:Sub- soiler: It is identical in shape to chisel plow except that a single It is identical in shape to chisel plow except that a single

shank is used.shank is used. It works upto a depth of 100 cmIt works upto a depth of 100 cm It goes much deeperIt goes much deeper It is simple in constructionIt is simple in construction It is operated in sub soil below to break hard pan and make It is operated in sub soil below to break hard pan and make

soil suitable for root development.soil suitable for root development. It is usually operated after 3-5 years.It is usually operated after 3-5 years. It should be operated in dry and hard land, if it is operated in It should be operated in dry and hard land, if it is operated in

wet soil, it will produce a compacted path in soil which is of wet soil, it will produce a compacted path in soil which is of little value.little value.

The horsepower required to pull a soiler is 65-85hp.The horsepower required to pull a soiler is 65-85hp.

Secondary tillage implementsSecondary tillage implements

Disk harrowDisk harrow Disc harrow is similar in shape as disc plow except Disc harrow is similar in shape as disc plow except

they are smaller in size. Five or six disks are mounted they are smaller in size. Five or six disks are mounted on one axle to make a gang. The concavity of disk on one axle to make a gang. The concavity of disk harrow is less as compared to disk plow, which results harrow is less as compared to disk plow, which results into less soil inversion and more pulverization.into less soil inversion and more pulverization.

Note: disc harrows are general purpose tillage tools as Note: disc harrows are general purpose tillage tools as their 2 passes are just equivalent to 5 passes of tine their 2 passes are just equivalent to 5 passes of tine cultivator.cultivator.

Bar harrowBar harrow

The bar harrow are of two types;The bar harrow are of two types; Spike tooth bar harrowSpike tooth bar harrow Spring tooth bar harrowSpring tooth bar harrow

Spike tooth bar harrowSpike tooth bar harrow

It consists of sectionsIt consists of sections The width of section is usually from 1.5 -2.0cmThe width of section is usually from 1.5 -2.0cm The section is rectangular in shape, containing the rods The section is rectangular in shape, containing the rods

on which pegs or spikes are mounted or welded.on which pegs or spikes are mounted or welded. A number of sections may be used depending upon A number of sections may be used depending upon

horsepower available.horsepower available. The thickness of peg varies from 0.25 to 0.75 inches.The thickness of peg varies from 0.25 to 0.75 inches. The pegs are made of heat treated steel and may be The pegs are made of heat treated steel and may be

replaced or sharpened when worn out.replaced or sharpened when worn out. The pegs are slightly tilted from verticalThe pegs are slightly tilted from vertical No of pegs in a section varies from 20-30No of pegs in a section varies from 20-30 Length of peg is around 9 inchesLength of peg is around 9 inches

Uses:Uses: It breaks crust of soil formed by beating action of rain It breaks crust of soil formed by beating action of rain

and reduce the compaction occurred by human, animal and reduce the compaction occurred by human, animal or machinery.or machinery.

It smoothes and levels soil surface to some extentIt smoothes and levels soil surface to some extent It stirs soilIt stirs soil It covers the seed that is broadcastIt covers the seed that is broadcast It penetrates to a depth of about 5 cmIt penetrates to a depth of about 5 cm It can mix up the manureIt can mix up the manure It can be used for intercultural operation.It can be used for intercultural operation.

Spring tooth harrowSpring tooth harrow It consists of section on which curved bars are mountedIt consists of section on which curved bars are mounted The thickness of the curved bar is 0.25 to 0.50 inchesThe thickness of the curved bar is 0.25 to 0.50 inches The curved bars are made up of spring steelThe curved bars are made up of spring steel The number of curved bars in a section is around 12The number of curved bars in a section is around 12 The number of sections may vary according to horsepower The number of sections may vary according to horsepower

availableavailable The length of curved bars may be up-to 10 inchesThe length of curved bars may be up-to 10 inches

Uses: Uses: Because of spring action it can move easily on rocks and Because of spring action it can move easily on rocks and

stonesstones Because of curved bars it can pull out weedsBecause of curved bars it can pull out weeds It can break up crustIt can break up crust It is used to increase moisture retention capacity of soilIt is used to increase moisture retention capacity of soil It pulverizes the soil to greater extent.It pulverizes the soil to greater extent.

Rotavator:Rotavator: It consists of number of curved blades fitted on It consists of number of curved blades fitted on

horizontal revolving shaft.horizontal revolving shaft. The shafts rotates with 200-300 rpmThe shafts rotates with 200-300 rpm

Uses and advantages:Uses and advantages: It is used particularly for puddling operationsIt is used particularly for puddling operations It cuts and invert the soilIt cuts and invert the soil It pulverizes the soilIt pulverizes the soil It mix crop residues and organic matter with the soil. It mix crop residues and organic matter with the soil.

These operation like cutting, inversion, pulverization These operation like cutting, inversion, pulverization are carried out in one operation.are carried out in one operation.

Limitations:Limitations: It requires more horsepowerIt requires more horsepower It is expensive implementIt is expensive implement Rotating blades may destroy useful bacteria.Rotating blades may destroy useful bacteria. It is particularly used for puddling operation in rice zone It is particularly used for puddling operation in rice zone

and since it has to work in flooded area, its working and since it has to work in flooded area, its working parts must be covered.parts must be covered.

Harvesting and threshingHarvesting and threshing The basic principle of cutting the crop remains the same as The basic principle of cutting the crop remains the same as

manual harvesting with stickle or scissor i.e two straight blades manual harvesting with stickle or scissor i.e two straight blades or serrated blades shear the stalk of crop at certain speed. This or serrated blades shear the stalk of crop at certain speed. This action is known as reaping or mowing.action is known as reaping or mowing.

In Pakistan harvesting machinery is mostly limited for rice and In Pakistan harvesting machinery is mostly limited for rice and wheatwheat

The following are three types of harvesting machinery The following are three types of harvesting machinery introduced in Pakistanintroduced in Pakistan

ReaperReaper MowerMower Reaper- cum-binderReaper- cum-binder

Reaper Reaper A reaper cuts the crop and then moves it to one side to make a A reaper cuts the crop and then moves it to one side to make a

windrow. So it consist of a cutter bar assembly and a crop windrow. So it consist of a cutter bar assembly and a crop conveying unit.conveying unit.

MowerMowerThe mower consist of;The mower consist of; Cutter barCutter bar Pitman wheelPitman wheel FrameFrame

Power transmission elementsPower transmission elements The cutter bar cuts the crop with the help of reciprocating of The cutter bar cuts the crop with the help of reciprocating of

knife or blade moving along a stationary blade/knife. The cutter knife or blade moving along a stationary blade/knife. The cutter bar is operated through pitman wheel which changes rotary bar is operated through pitman wheel which changes rotary motion of tractor PTO into reciprocating or back and forth motion of tractor PTO into reciprocating or back and forth motion. The mower is mostly used for to cut grasses as for lawn motion. The mower is mostly used for to cut grasses as for lawn mowing and fodder such as alfalfa, berseem etc.mowing and fodder such as alfalfa, berseem etc.

Note: the basic difference between a mover and a reaper is that Note: the basic difference between a mover and a reaper is that it only cuts the crop and lay behind the mower, which is it only cuts the crop and lay behind the mower, which is collected by labor or raking machinery, while the reaper makes collected by labor or raking machinery, while the reaper makes a windrow of the crop.a windrow of the crop.

Reaper –cum-binderReaper –cum-binder It has all the elements of a reaper mentioned above It has all the elements of a reaper mentioned above

along with bundling and knotting units in addition. The along with bundling and knotting units in addition. The cutter bar cuts the crop with normally serrated blades cutter bar cuts the crop with normally serrated blades or knives. The harvested crop is then accumulated in or knives. The harvested crop is then accumulated in the centre with the help of guards and fingers and is the centre with the help of guards and fingers and is fed in the knotting unit, where bundles are made fed in the knotting unit, where bundles are made automatically.automatically.

Threshing machinery:Threshing machinery: Threshing is a simple operation of removing grain Threshing is a simple operation of removing grain

from the straws but it is defined as processes of from the straws but it is defined as processes of separating the grain from the mixture of grain, separating the grain from the mixture of grain, chaff, impurities, etc and finally grading it for use.chaff, impurities, etc and finally grading it for use.

The stationary thresher is commonly used in The stationary thresher is commonly used in Pakistan. The mechanism will be discussed later Pakistan. The mechanism will be discussed later in combine harvester.in combine harvester.

Combine harvester:Combine harvester: A combine harvester harvest and thresh the crop A combine harvester harvest and thresh the crop

simultaneously.simultaneously. Practically, all combines consist of the mechanism of a reaper Practically, all combines consist of the mechanism of a reaper

attached to a travelling thresher.attached to a travelling thresher. Most of the combines in Pakistan are self propelled type and Most of the combines in Pakistan are self propelled type and

are being used to cut and thresh wheat, rice and sunflower.are being used to cut and thresh wheat, rice and sunflower.

Combines perform the following operations at one time. Combines perform the following operations at one time. These are;These are;

HarvestingHarvesting Conveying of cut cropConveying of cut crop FeedingFeeding Threshing (separation of grains from straw)Threshing (separation of grains from straw) Cleaning of grains from dust, weeds and chaff.Cleaning of grains from dust, weeds and chaff.

The main components of the combine harvester are;The main components of the combine harvester are; Reel Reel Cutter barCutter bar AugurAugur Elevator to cylinderElevator to cylinder Front and rear beaterFront and rear beater Threshing cylinderThreshing cylinder ConcaveConcave Grain elevator to tankGrain elevator to tank Straw walkersStraw walkers FanFan SieveSieve Grain tankGrain tank Unloading augurUnloading augur