Fair Share Scorecard

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Fair Share ScorecardEnsuring Taxpayers Receive a Fair Share

for America’s Public Resources

By Greg Zimmerman, Claire Moser, Jessica Goad, and Matt Lee-Ashley August 2015


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Fair Share ScorecardEnsuring Taxpayers Receive a Fair Share

for America’s Public Resources

By Greg Zimmerman, Claire Moser, Jessica Goad, and Matt Lee-Ashley

August 2015


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1 Introduction and summary

3 Three guiding principles for fair share reforms on

public lands

5 Hardrock minerals

7 Coal

9 Onshore oil and gas

11 Offshore oil and gas

13 Solar and wind

15 Geothermal

17 Conclusion

18 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Fair Share Scorecard

Introduction and summary

“Under a saue now over a cenury old, public lands mus be ranserred o

privae ownership a he reques o any person who discovers minerals on hem.

We hus have no effecive conrol over mining on hese properies. Because he

public lands belong o all Americans, his 1872 Mining Ac should be repealed

and replaced wih new legislaion which I shall send o he Congress.”

— President Richard Nixon, February 15, 19731

Presiden Richard Nixon’s 1973 reques ha Congress reorm ederal mining pol-

icyhough sill unheededaffirmed a powerul principle ha guides U.S. naural

resource policy: America’s public lands and waers, and he energy and minerals

beneah hem, belong o all Americans. I ollows ha, as owners o hese resources,

American axpayers should be eniled o heir air share o he revenues rom drill-

ing, mining, logging, and oher developmen ha akes place on public lands.

In pracice, however, he oudaed laws and regulaions governing energy and

naural resource exracion on U.S. public lands provide ew proecions or he fis-

cal ineress o U.S. axpayers. On naionally owned public lands, royaly raes or

oil and gas are hal he going rae on land owned by he sae o exas, coal righs

are rouinely sold or less han he cos o a cup o coffee, axpayer-owned gold

is mined royaly ree, and local communiies ge no revenues rom he wind and

solar projecs buil on he public lands ha are in heir backyards.

Alhough he ineress o U.S. axpayers have been long overlooked on naional

public lands, here are signs o change ahead. Te Unied Saes and more han 40

oher counries have ormed a join effor o improve he ransparency o oil, gas,

and mining aciviies hrough he Exracive Indusries ransparency Iniiaive, orEII.2 In a speech announcing he naion’s paricipaion, Presiden Barack Obama

said ha he Unied Saes “will join he global iniiaive in which hese indusries,

governmens and civil sociey, all work ogeher or greaer ransparency so ha

axpayers receive every dollar hey’re due rom he exracion o naural resources.”3


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Afer years o discussing he need or reorms, he U.S. governmen is now aking

seps o ensure American axpayers are receiving a airer reurn rom he leasing

and developmen o publicly owned resources. U.S. Secreary o he Inerior Sally

Jewell has advanced a series o reorms ha, i implemened, would collecively

represen one o he larges seps orward on revenue collecion policy in more

han a generaion. Tese reorms include proposals o close loopholes in he ed-eral coal program, reduce he wase o axpayer-owned naural gas, and modern-

ize royaly, renal, bonding, and bidding policies or oil and gas developmen on

ederal lands.

o help inorm he Unied Saes’ ongoing reorm effors, his scorecard evalu-

aes he reurn Americans receive or publicly owned naural resources, includ-

ing oil, gas, coal, hardrock minerals, and renewable resources. Addiionally, his

scorecard assesses he accessibiliy o publicly available inormaion on exracion

and paymen processes or each naural resource, he exernal coss ha could

burden axpayers rom each resource, and seps currenly being aken o ensureha axpayers receive a air share. Hardrock minerals rae he poores in providing

axpayers a air share, ollowed by coal, oil, and gas resources.


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Three guiding principles for fair

share reforms on public lands

On behal o U.S. axpayers, he U.S. Deparmen o he Inerior, or DOI, manages

he mineral and energy resources on and under naional public lands and waers.

o enable developmen, he DOI grans righs o privae companies ha wan o

exrac and sell oil, gas, coal, hardrock minerals, or renewable energy.

Over he pas six years, he Obama adminisraion has underaken a series o

reorms o help modernize and raionalize he web o policies and rules ha gov-

ern he exracion o hese resources. Tree principles should guide hese reormeffors o bes ensure a air share or American axpayers:

1. Fair return: Royaly raeshe share o revenues owed o American axpay-

ersshould be based on he rue marke value o he resource and se o

maximize revenues generaed. Addiionally, leasing should be guided hrough a

compeiive process, and developmen should occur in a imely manner.

2. Access to information: Daa abou leasing and developmenincluding

inormaion on leases, inspecions, and sales pricesshould be ransparen and

publicly accessible.

3. Internalized costs: Exernal cosssuch as air and waer polluion ha can

have serious impacs or individuals and communiies, boh now and in he

uureshould be accouned or and embedded in he cos o developmen.

Impacs o land and waer should be offse wih resoraion and miigaion.

Based on hese principles, his scorecard evaluaes he exen o which axpayers

are receiving a air share or he exracion and use o publicly owned resources.

Te crieria used or his assessmen are:

• Transparency: Wha inormaion is publicly available?

• Fair return: Do axpayers receive a reasonable share o he rue marke value?


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• External costs to taxpayers: Wha are he oher negaive impacs on axpayers?

• Progress toward collecting a fair share: Are curren seps being aken o ensure

axpayers receive a air share?

Te Fair Share Ranking below evaluaes he policies ha govern each caegory opublicly owned resource and raes hem based on our crieria as red (inadequae),

orange, and green (adequae). Te resuls show ha hardrock mining policies on

public lands, which receive he lowes ranking in each crieria, does he wors job

o ensuring a air share or axpayers, while geohermal energy does he bes.

FIGURE 1

Fair Share Ranking

Comparing the costs and financial returns to taxpayers from publicly owned

natural resources

Rankings based on authors' analysis of resources.

Source: Based on a Center for American Progress and Center for Western Priorities analysis of publicly owned natural resources and their returns to

taxpayers. For more information, see Center for American Progress and Center for Western Priorities, "Fair Share Scorecard" (2015), available at

https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/report/2015/08/14/119374

Hardrock minerals

Onshore oil and gas

Coal

Offshore oil and gas

Solar and wind

Geothermal

Transparency Fair return External costs Progress

Inadequate

Mediocre

Adequate


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Hardrock minerals

Currenly, hardrock mining on America’s public lands is regulaed under he

General Mining Law o 1872, which was originally passed o encourage setlemen

and developmen in he wesern Unied Saes.4 Under he lawwhich has no

been amended in is 143-year hisorymining companies pay no royalies or he

minerals hey mine and can purchase he righs o mine public lands or less han

$5 per acre.5 Analyss have esimaed ha axpayers lose ou on a leas $100 mil-

lion annually in royalies on he mining o more han $1 billion worh o hardrock

minerals, such as gold, silver, uranium, copper, and iron.6 Alhough reormers have

made several unsuccessul atemps o amend he law, domesic and oreign min-

ing companies are sill no required o share any royalies wih axpayers.

Te problems wih he U.S. hardrock mining programs are rendered even more

complicaed by he lack o inormaion colleced on he amoun or qualiy o

minerals exraced rom axpayer-owned lands. According o a 2014 repor by he

House Naural Resources Commitee, he U.S. Bureau o Land Managemen, orBLM, “does no require mining companies o repor daa on he hardrock miner-

als hey exrac rom ederal public domain lands.”7 Te repor, which is based on

daa obained rom he U.S. Securiies and Exchange Commission, esimaed ha

Bottom line

Because Congress has failed to modernize the General Mining Law of 1872, taxpayers

receive no return on publicly owned hardrock minerals and are instead forced to foot the

bill for billions of dollars in cleanup and pollution costs. A lack of basic data collection

compounds the challenge of understanding and addressing the extent of fiscal and

environmental losses.

Fair Share Ranking 6th


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he op 46 mines on public lands produced more han $9.5 billion in hardrock

minerals in 2012 and 2013. I he ederal governmen charged an 18.75 percen

royaly on he exracion o hose minerals, axpayers would have colleced nearly

$1.8 billion in revenues.

While he value o minerals exraced rom U.S. public lands is poorly docu-mened, he exernal coss o hardrock mining are all oo visible: Abandoned

mines and inadequaely reclaimed mine sies do he American landscape. Te

2015 mine disaser in souhern Colorado, which spilled an esimaed 3 million

gallons o oxic wase ino a ribuary o he Colorado River, is a sark reminder

o he impacs rom pas and presen hardrock mining.8 In 2011, he U.S.

Governmen Accounabiliy Office, or GAO, repored ha our ederal agencies

spen $2.6 billion reclaiming abandoned hardrock mines on public lands beween

1997 and 2008.9 Wha’s more, EPA esimaed in 2000 ha 40 percen o he head-

waers o waersheds in he American Wes had been pollued by hardrock mining.

10 Sill, because o he lack o daa colleced and mainained, he GAO noed ha“here are no definiive esimaes o he number o abandoned hardrock mines on

ederal and oher lands.”11

While a ew members o Congress have inroduced legislaion o reorm he ani-

quaed law, hese bills have no moved orward in he legislaive process, and here

has been no progress oward real reorm.


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Coal

Coal mining on naional public lands now accouns or more han 40 percen o all

coal produced in he Unied Saes, 90 percen o which originaes in he Powder

River Basin, locaed in Wyoming and Monana.12

Under curren regulaions, coal companies pay a bonus bid o purchase he righs

o mine coal, an annual renal paymen o $3 per acre, and royalies on he coal

exraced on he firs sale o anoher company. However, recen invesigaions have

shown ha coal companies are selling coal o heir own subsidiary companies o

deliberaely avoid paying royalies.13

According o Headwaers Economics, as a resul o loopholes and subsidies, coal

companies end up paying jus an effecive royaly rae o 4.9 percenwell below

he 12.5 percen rae required by law.14 I coal companies paid a 12.5 percen royaly

rae on he rue marke value o coal, axpayers would collec an addiional $1 billion

every year in coal revenues, including rom coal ha is expored o oreign markes.15

In addiion o loopholes enabling he coal indusry o dodge royaly paymensowed o axpayers, he ederal coal program is plagued by a lack o boh rans-

parency and compeiion. Since 1990, more han 90 percen o all ederal coal

lease sales have had only a single bidder.16 And he ormula ha he DOI uses o

Bottom line

As a result of loopholes in the federal coal program, outdated policies, a lack of transpar-

ency, and high external costs to taxpayers, American taxpayers are not receiving their

fair share for coal mined on America’s public lands.

Fair Share Ranking 4th 5th

tied


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esimae he “air marke value” o coal sold is kep confidenial, as are he raes

applied o each lease and he cos deducions given o coal companies.17 Tis non-

compeiive and opaque process shorchanges axpayers and makes he program

vulnerable o raud.

Coal mining also carries high exernal coss ha are currenly unaccouned or inU.S. policy, including coss associaed wih air and waer polluion, public healh,

and climae change. According o a recen analysis rom he Cener or American

Progress and Te Wilderness Sociey, coal mined on ederal lands in Wyoming

and Monana accouns or 10 percen o all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.18

Te Obama adminisraion has aken a ew firs seps o ensure axpayers are

receiving a air share or coal mined on America’s public lands. Following calls or

reorm, he DOI inroduced a proposed rule o close he loopholes ha allow coal

companies o inenionally dodge royalies and has also sared o hold a series o

“lisening sessions” across he counry o “seek inormaion abou how he BLMcan bes carry ou is responsibiliy o ensure ha American axpayers receive

a air reurn on he coal resources managed by he ederal governmen on heir

behal.”19 Despie hese iniial key seps, a imeline or a final rule has no been

announced, and here have no been any addiional commimens or reorm.


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Onshore oil and gas

Te U.S. Bureau o Land Managemen oversees oil and gas drilling and produc-

ion on he nearly 700 million acre ederal mineral esae.20 Federal onshore oil

producion has increased every year or he pas 10 years, reaching 148.8 million

barrels in 2014, or a nearly 50 percen increase since 2003.21

Producion o oil and naural gas rom ederal lands is an imporan source o pub-

lic revenue, bu oudaed polices shorchange American axpayers. Under curren

rules, oil and gas companies pay a royaly rae o only 12.5 percen, much lower

han he royaly charged by saes. Mos Wesern saes charge beween 16.67 per-

cen and 18.75 percen o produce oil and gas on sae-owned lands, while exas

charges a 25 percen royaly.22 Failure o modernize he royaly rae coss axpay-

ers as much as $730 million annually; and Wesern saeswhich receive an even

spli o ederal royaly revenuesare losing ou on hundreds o millions o dollars

as well.23

In addiion o oudaed royalies, oil and gas companies pay nex o nohing oacquire and hold ono oil and gas leases. A company can acquire a lease on public

lands or as litle as $2.00 per acre, which is he minimum bid allowed. In 2014, oil

and gas companies bough he righs o drill nearly 100,000 publicly owned acres

a $2.00 per acre.24 Companies can also hold ono hese leases or an annual renal

paymen o only $1.50 per acre, a rae ha has no been updaed in decades and ha

Bottom line

Oil and gas drilling on America’s public lands provides an important source of public

revenue, but taxpayers continue to be shortchanged by outdated royalty, revenue, and

leasing policies. Drilling decisions, meanwhile, are too often made out of the public eye

without regard to the costs that will be borne by local communities.

Fair Share Ranking 4th 5th

tied


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independen analyss argue is oo low o encourage companies o diligenly develop

leases.25 Even a small increase in renal raes would generae more han $50 million

annually and would encourage companies o bring idled leases ino producion.26

No only are oil and gas companies ha operae on our naional public lands

sysemaically shorchanging American axpayers, bu he curren sysem is alsodesigned o shield companies rom public scruiny.27 Under curren rules, com-

panies can nominae public lands or lease and developmen in secre, wihou

providing a company name.28 Tis pracice is allowed despie a disric cour judge

ruling in 2013 ha he ideniy o he company nominaing lands “may be relevan

[o hose] who may raise concerns abou he sewardship records o he poenial

owner, a acor relevan o he environmenal impac o he proposed sale.”29

Addiionally, BLM’s sysem or racking leasing and developmen is oudaed and

opaque. Te agency’s LR2000 daabase, or he Land & Mineral Legacy Rehos

2000 Sysem, lacks basic uncionaliy or making even he mos common queries. As a resul, i is virually impossible or an ineresed ciizen o rack he disposi-

ion o leases or he locaion o producing oil and gas wells.30 Addiionally, key

inormaion on new leasessuch as which companies are placing bids, he loca-

ion o new leases, he volume o resources leased, and he value o recenly sold

leasesis no mainained in a cenral reposiory.

Finally, developing oil and gas resources on public lands comes wih well-docu-

mened exernal coss. Companies are currenly permited o ven and flare naural

gas as a “wase” during oil producion wihou making royaly paymens o he

American axpayers. Mehane, he main componen o naural gas, is a poen

greenhouse gas; i is 34 imes more powerul han carbon dioxide.31 Oil and gas

developmen ragmens landscapesimperiling healhy wildlie populaions

while oil and oher chemicals spills rom drilling operaions risk conaminaing

public lands and waers.32

While axpayers coninue o be shorchanged or oil and gas resources rom

America’s public lands, he Obama adminisraion has signaled ha i could ake

much-needed reorms in a ew o hese areas. In April, he Obama adminisraion

issued an Advance Noice o Proposed Rulemaking, or ANPR , o accep publiccommen on how o reorm royaly raes, bonding requiremens, minimum bids,

and renal raes. Te ANPR is a criical opporuniy or he adminisraion o ake

needed seps. Addiionally, he adminisraion is currenly in he process o devel-

oping a rule o reduce mehane emissions rom vening and flaring o naural gas

on America’s public lands.

http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdf


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Offshore oil and gas

Drilling or oil in he waers off America’s coass came under he microscope in he

afermah o he 2010 Deepwaer Horizon oil spill, which released nearly 5 mil-

lion barrelsor more han 200 million gallonso oil ino he Gul o Mexico.33

Images o oil slicked beaches and dying wildlie brough he risks o offshore drill-

ing ino he living rooms o all Americans.

As he Gul spill has receded rom public view, he Obama adminisraion has

aken some seps o improve he saey o offshore drilling. Addiional ederal

inspecors, or example, have been hired o monior drilling aciviies and help

avoid uure accidens.34 Companies mus also mee new sandards or esing and

mainaining heir drilling equipmen. And Congress has auhorized a ee sysem

or offshore oil and gas inspecions, ranserring some o he financial burden o

inspecions rom American axpayers ono oil companies.35

Boh he adminisraions o Presiden Obama and Presiden George W. Bush

made a commimen o ensure ha Americans receive a air reurn rom he devel-opmen o offshore oil and gas resources. Under Presiden Bush, he DOI wice

raised offshore royaly raes: firs rom 12.5 percen o 16.67 percen, hen rom

16.67 percen o 18.75.36 Under Presiden Obama, he DOI implemened an esca-

laing renal rae o encourage diligen developmen and o make i more cosly or

companies o sockpile unused leases.37

Bottom line

Steps have been taken to ensure America taxpayers receive a fair return from offshore oil

and gas development. But old policies still on the books—and the inherent risk associ-

ated with offshore drilling—mean that taxpayers continue to be exposed to significant

liabilities from offshore oil and gas development.

Fair Share Ranking 3rd


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Te Obama adminisraion has also aken seps o improve reporing and rans-

parency or offshore drilling. In 2010, he DOI implemened a new rule requiring

operaors o insall meers ha record volumes o mehane released hrough ven-

ing and flaring. Such measures have no been implemened or onshore leases.38

Sill, many issues remain unaddressed, wih he public bearing significan risk andcompanies benefiing rom lax rules developed in he pas. For example, American

axpayers may orego upwards o $50 billion because o a law passed in 1995 o

encourage developmen o offshore leases during a ime o low oil and gas prices.39

Te law auhorized he now-deunc Mineral Managemen Service o provide

“royaly relie ” on oil and gas produced in he Gul o Mexico, creaing a massive

loophole allowing companies o avoid paying royalies on leases issued beween

1995 and 2000.40

Tere are also ongoing concerns over expanded offshore revenue sharing.

Revenue sharing is inended o compensae saes and counies or he ax-exempsaus o ederal public lands wihin heir borders and o help miigae he impacs

o developmen.41 Federal law grans mos coasal saes ownership over he

mineral resources up o 3 nauical miles off heir coas; saes keep 100 percen o

he royaly revenues generaed in his area.42 Mineral resources beyond he 3-mile

hreshold is reserved or American axpayers, and any plans o expand revenue

sharing will resul in financial losses o American axpayers.


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Solar and wind

Renewable energy producion rom public lands is growing rapidly. Over jus he

pas six years, he DOI has approved 52 commercial-scale solar, wind, and geo-

hermal projecs on public lands across he Wes.43 Beore 2009, here were only a

handul o wind and geohermal projecs on public lands and no solar projecs.

Currenly, he Bureau o Land Managemen oversees 39 wind energy projecs

on public lands wih a capaciy 5,557 megawats, and i has approved he con-

srucion o 33 uiliy-scale solar energy projecs wih a capaciy o more han

9,000 megawats.44

Because solar and wind are a growing share o he energy harnessed on public

lands, he rules and regulaions governing hem are sill playing cach-up, espe-

cially when i comes o air reurns or axpayers. As an example, wind and solar

energy projecs are auhorized by a firs-come-firs-served righ-o-way process on

public lands, raher han more sableand compeiiveleases.45

Te ederal governmen is aking seps o ensure ha axpayers ge a air reurnrom he solar and wind energy projecs consruced on public lands. Unlike oher

orms o energy developmen, neiher Congress nor he agencies have esablished

rules and regulaions o govern how wind and solar developmen should proceed.

Bottom line

The Department of the Interior and Congress have both taken important steps to

provide a fair share to taxpayers for wind and solar, but those rules and laws have not

yet been finalized.

Fair Share Ranking 2nd


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Te DOI and BLM recenly proposed new regulaionsdrafed in Sepember

2014 and scheduled o be finalized by Ocober 2015o ensure air reurns or

axpayers or wind and solar developmen on public lands.46 In addiion o closing

gaps in ederal policies and ensuring more predicabiliy and cerainy or permi-

ing, he new essenial regulaions offer remedies o a number o shorcomings

regarding air marke value or solar and wind, including:47

• A new regulaory ramework or compeiive leasing or wind and solar

in seleced locaions

• Updaes o renal raes so ha hey vary by couny and land values

• Esablishmen o megawat capaciy ees, similar o royalies on ossil

uel exracion

Anoher ongoing problem wih solar and wind energy developmen on publiclands is ha he BLM does no have he auhoriy o direc where revenues go.

Unlike oher energy resources, where a porion o revenues are shared wih saes

or counies, all o he revenues rom solar and wind developmen are deposied ino

he U.S. reasury.48 Some members o Congress are working o provide his auhor-

iy o he agency wih he Public Lands Renewable Energy Developmen Ac.49

In erms o ransparency, he solar and wind programs have a long way o go. Tis

is parly due o he firs-come-firs-served righ-o-way process in which solar and

wind projecs are auhorized. As one observer pu i, his approach “avoids many

o he usual avenues or public inpu.”50

Finally, wind and solar energy developmen do no have nearly he scale o nega-

ive exernaliies as oher energy resources. Wind and solar energy developmen

cause very ew greenhouse gas emissions when compared o oil, gas, and coal and

have litle impac on waer qualiy.

Much like oher energy resources, however, one key negaive exernaliy is he

land use demands rom wind and solar projecs. Boh solar plans and wind arms

occupy lands and have resuling impacs on ecosysems, species, and oher poen-ial uses o ha land, such as recreaion. Wih diligen planning, conflics wih

compeing land uses can be minimized and impacs can be miigaed.


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Geothermal

Geohermal energy producion has been occurring on public lands since he

1960s, and public lands are he source o 40 percen o he naion’s geohermal

energy.51 Te Bureau o Land Managemen currenly manages 818 geohermal

leasesincluding 59 producing leaseswih a capaciy o approximaely 1,500

megawats o geohermal energy.52

Te Geohermal Seam Ac o 1970, he Energy Policy Ac o 2005, 2007 BLM

regulaions, and a 2008 programmaic environmenal impac saemen on geo-

hermal energy ogeher govern how he resource is regulaed on public lands.53

Geohermal energy managemen is housed under BLM’s Fluid Minerals Program

because he echnology used o drill geohermal wells is similar o he echnology

used or oil and gas drilling.54

Tere are curren laws in place addressing air marke value o axpayers or geo-

hermal energy. Te Bureau o Land Managemen saes ha “geohermal leases

generae over $12 million in Federal royalies each year, wih 50 percen shared

wih he saes and 25 percen shared wih local counies.”55

Imporanly, geohermal leases are sold under a compeiive leasing process,

alhough Congress passed legislaion in 2014 ha allowed or noncompeiive

leasing in cerain limied circumsances.56 Lessees also are required o pay renal

Bottom line

Taxpayers are getting a modest return from their geothermal energy resources.

Fair Share Ranking 1st


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ees, currenly se a $2 o $3 per acre per year or compeiive leases and $1 per

acre per year or noncompeiive leasesboh o which increase o $5 per acre per

year afer 10 years.57

Finally, geohermal royalies are assessed on “‘gross proceeds’ rom he sale o elec-

riciy … muliplied by a royaly rae esablished by he BLM.”58

More specifically,hose raes, as defined by regulaion, are “1.75 percen o gross proceeds or he

firs 10 years o producion and 3.5 percen or subsequen years o producion.”59

When i comes o ransparency, he geohermal leasing program has hisorically

had rouble properly collecing daa o ensure ha axpayers receive a air reurn.

For example, he Governmen Accounabiliy Office wroe in 2007 ha “abou 40

percen o [he DOI’s geohermal] royaly daa was eiher missing or erroneous.”60

And in 2009, he Deparmen’s Inspecor General esified on wo invesigaions

regarding geohermal leases:

We have learned ha curren regulaions allow a producer o claim operaing

deducions o up o 99 percen o he royaly owed. Te companies currenly

under invesigaion have allegedly claimed he 99 percen deducion fom heir

owed royalies or as many as 10 years.61

Finally, in erms o exernaliies, geohermal elecriciy is renewable and emis ar

ewer air emissionsincluding carbon dioxide and sulur dioxide, among ohers

han ossil uels such as coal and naural gas.62 A repor rom he geohermal energy

indusry’s rade associaion noes ha “he public benefis rom clean energy

produced in Caliornia and Nevada are worh more han $117 million annually.”63

Oher posiive atribues o geohermal energy developmen include a relaively

small physical ooprin and he abiliy o use and reuse wasewaer in operaions.

Geohermal energy developmen has come under some criicism, however, or

is use o echnology, including hydraulic racuring, o drill wells ha can resul

in earhquakes.64


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Conclusion

Presiden Obama’s pledge ha he Unied Saes will ulfill is commimens under

he Exracive Indusries ransparency Iniiaive is a much-needed call o acion

o modernize and reorm ederal naural resource policies. Tese reormswhich

have already begun in some agencies wihin he DOIshould firs and oremos

prioriize he public ineres over simple privae gain.

Guarding he financial ineress o axpayers oday and over he lie o a projec,

or example, will require changes in royaly, bidding, and renal policies. o reducehe risk o wase, raud, and abuse, agencies will need o redouble heir com-

mimen o making daa easily accessible. o avoid saddling communiies wih

unwaned environmenal or public healh coss, ederal energy policy will need o

accoun or he exernaliies associaed wih energy exracion, hus helping level

he playing field among cleaner and dirier uel sources.

Alhough he Unied Saes has sared he long-overdue ask o modernizing is

energy programs o beter saeguard axpayers, i will ake he deerminaion and

urgency o policymakers o ensure ha America’s naural resources are managed

more airly, honesly, and responsibly.

Greg Zimmerman is he Policy Direcor a he Cener or Wesern Prioriies. Claire

Moser is a Research and Advocacy Associae a he Cener or American Progress.

Jessica Goad is he Advocacy Direcor a he Cener or Wesern Prioriies. Mat Lee-

Ashley is a Senior Fellow and Direcor o he Public Lands Projec a he Cener or

American Progress.


21/24


Endnotes

1 President Richard Nixon, “State of the Union Messageto the Congress on Natural Resources and the Environ-ment,” February 15, 1973, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=4102.

2 “Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative,” availableat https://eiti.org/ (last accessed August 2015).

3 The White House, “Opening Remarks by PresidentObama on Open Government Partnership,” Pressrelease, September 20, 2011, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnership.

4 Congressional Budget Office, “Budget Options” (2007),available at https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-bud-getoptions.pdf.

5 Earthworks, “Hardrock Mining and Reclamation Act of2015” (2015), available at https://www.earthworksac-tion.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdf .

6 Campaign for Responsible Mining, “Reforming theU.S. Hardrock Mining Law of 1872: The Price of Inac-tion” (Washington: The Pew Charitable Trusts, 2009),available at http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inaction.

7 House Natural Resources Committee Democrats, “Trea-sure for the Taking: American Gives Away Billions’ Worthof Hardrock Minerals” (2014), available at http://demo-crats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard rock miningreport FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdf .

8 Tom McGhee, “Animas River mine spill: La Plata andDurango declare state of emergency,” The Denver Post ,August 9, 2015, available at http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flows.

9 Government Accountability Office, “Abandoned Mines:

Information on the Number of Hardrock Mines, Cost ofCleanup, and Value of Financial Assurances,” GAO11–834T, Report to the Subcommittee on Energy andMineral Resources, July 2011, available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdf.

10 Environmental Protection Agency, “Liquid Assets 2000:Americans Pay for Dirty Water,” available at http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liqui-dassets/dirtywater.cfm (last accessed August 2015).

11 Government Accountability Office, “Abandoned Mines:Information on the Number of Hardrock Mines, Cost ofCleanup, and Value of Financial Assurances,” GAO11–834T, Report to the Subcommittee on Energy andMineral Resources, July 2011, available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdf.

12 Nidhi Thakar and Michael Madowitz, “Federal Coal

Leasing in the Powder River Basin” (Washington: Centerfor American Progress, 2014), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/

ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdf.

13 Matt Lee-Ashley and Nidhi Thakar, “Cutting Subsidiesand Closing Loopholes in the U.S. Department ofthe Interior’s Coal Program” (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2015), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdf.

14 Headwaters Economics, “An Assessment of U.S. FederalCoal Royalties: Current Royalty Structure, EffectiveRoyalty Rates, and Reform Options” (2015), available athttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdf .

15 Ibid.

16 Nidhi Thakar, “Modernizing the Federal Coal Program”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdf .

17 Bureau of Land Management, “Coal Operations,” avail-able at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.html(last accessed August2015); Headwaters Economics, “An Assessment of U.S.Federal Coal Royalties: Current Royalty Structure, Effec-tive Royalty Rates, and Reform Options.”

18 Claire Moser and others, “Cutting Greenhouse Gas fromFossil-Fuel Extraction on Federal Lands and Waters”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2015),available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdf.

19 Bureau of Land Management, “Interior Department An-nounces Series of Public Listening Sessions on FederalCoal Program,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.html.

20 Bureau of Land Management, “Mineral and SurfaceAcreage Managed by the BLM,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.html (last accessed August 2015).

21 Office of Natural Resources Revenue, “StatisticalInformation,” available at h ttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspx (last accessed August 2015). Centerfor American Progress and Center for Western Prioritiesanalysis of federal onshore oil production data for past10 years from the Office of Natural Resources Revenue.

22 Center for Western Priorities, “A Fair Share: The Case for

Updating Federal Royalties” (2013), available at http://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdf.

23 Center for Western Priorities, “A Fair Share: The Case forUpdating Oil and Gas Royalties on Our Public Lands”(2015), available at http://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_up-date.pdf .

24 Center for Western Priorities, “Public Lands Oil andGas Lease Tracker: 2014 Summary,” available at http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/ (last accessed August2015).

25 Government Accountability Office, “Oil and Gas Leas-ing: Interior Could Do More to Encourage DiligentDevelopment,” GAO–09–74, Report to Congressional

Requesters, October 2008, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdf .

26 Center for Western Priorities, “A Renter’s Market:Outdated Oil & Gas Rental R ates Fail Taxpayers” (2014),available at http://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdf.

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ummary/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspxhttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspxhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.htmlhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.htmlhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdfhttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdfhttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttps://www.earthworksaction.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdfhttps://www.earthworksaction.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-op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27 Greg Zimmerman, “The BLM’s Big Step Backwards on Transparency,” Center for Western Priorities, Novem-ber 14, 2013, available at http://westernpriorities.org/2013/11/14/the-blms-big-step-backwards-on-transparency/.

28 Letter from Bureau of Land Management AssistantDirector of Minerals and Realty Management MichaelNedd to Bureau of Land Management State Directors,October 28, 2013, available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/Instruction_Memos_and_Bulle-tins/national_instruction/2014/im_2014_004__oil_and.

html.

29 Citizens for a Healthy Community v. United StatesDepartment of the Interior and United States Bureau ofLand Management , Civil Action No. 12-cv-01661-RPM,February 13, 2013, available at http://www.westernlaw.org/sites/default/files/FOIA_Order.pdf.

30 Bureau of Land Management, “Land & Mineral LegacyRehost 2000 System – LR2000,” available at http://www.blm.gov/lr2000/ (last accessed August 2015).

31 U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,“Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth As-sessment Report, Climate Change 2013: The PhysicalScience Basis” (2013), available at http://www.climat-echange2013.org/images/uploads/WGIAR5_WGI-12Doc2b_FinalDraft_All.pdf .

32 Brian Maffly, “Hikers find unreported oil spill into GrandStaircase monument,” The Salt Lake Tribune, March27, 2014, available at http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/57728795-78/oil-spill-wash-valley.html.csp.

33 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “BPOil Spill,” available at http://www.gulfspillrestoration.noaa.gov/oil-spill/ (last accessed August 2015).

34 Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement,“Statement of James Watson, Director Bureau of Safetyand Environment Enforcement, Before the Senate Com-mittee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior,Environment and Related Agencies,” March 14, 2 012,available at http://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/112/SAFY13BudReqBSEE_31412.cfm.

35 Bureau of Land Management, “BLM Director Puts Focuson Oil and G as Inspections,” Press release, July 17, 2014,

available at http://www.blm.gov/or/news/files/BLM_Di-rector_Puts_Focus_on_Oil_and_Gas_Inspections_7-14.pdf.

36 Dirk Kempthorne, Testimony before the Subcommit-tees on Oversight and Investigations and Energy andthe Environment, July 20, 2010, available at http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Testimony-Kempthorne-OI-EE-Interi-or-Department-Deepwater-Horizon-2010-7-20.pdf .

37 U.S. Department of the Interior, Oil and Gas LeaseUtilization – Onshore and Offshore (2011), availableat http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=239255.

38 Moser and others, “Cutting Greenhouse Gas from Fossil-Fuel Extraction on Federal Lands and Water.”

39 Government Accountability Office, “Oil and GasRoyalties: Litigation over Royalty Relief Could Cost theFederal Government Billions of Dollars,” GAO–08–792R,Report for Congressional Requesters, June 2008, avail-able at http://www.gao.gov/assets/100/95535.pdf .

40 U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Outer Con-tinental Shelf Deep Water Royalty Relief Act of 1995:Description,” available at http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngmajorleg/conti-nental.html (last accessed August 2015).

41 Government Accountability Office, “Land ManagementAgencies: Revenue Sharing Payments to States andCounties,” GAO/RCED–98–261, Report to the HonorableVic Fazio, House of Representatives, September 1998,available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/230/226280.pdf.

42 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “FederalOffshore Lands,” available at http://www.boem.gov/Federal-Offshore-Lands/ (last accessed August 2015).

43 U.S. Department of the Interior, “Secretary Jewell Offers

Vision for Balanced, Prosperous Energy Future,” Pressrelease, March 17, 2015, available at http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/secretary-jewell-offers-vision-for-balanced-prosperous-energy-future.cfm.

44 Bureau of Land Management, “Renewable EnergyResources,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/renewable_energy.html (last accessedAugust 2015).

45 Ibid.

46 Bureau of Land Management, “Competitive Solar andWind Energy Leasing Regulations: 43 CFR Part 2800and 2880 Proposed R ule” (2014), available at http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__RE-ALTY__AND_RESOURCE_PROTECTION_/energy/solar_and_wind.Par.70101.File.dat/Public Webinar Dec3 2014 - S olar and Wind Regulations.pdf.

47 Bureau of Land Management, “Competitive Processes, Terms, and Conditions for Leasing Public Lands forSolar and Wind Energy Development and TechnicalChanges and Corrections,” Federal Register 79 (2014). Tobe codified at 43 C.F.R. pt 2800 and 2880.

48 Stuart Iler and David Rosner, “Revenue Sharing 101,”Bipartisan Policy Center, August 16, 2013, available athttp://bipartisanpolicy.org/blog/revenue-sharing-101/.

49 Public Land Renewable Energy Development Act , S. 279,113th Cong, 2d sess. (Government Printing Office,2014), available at https://www.congress.gov/113/bills/s279/BILLS-113s279is.pdf.

50 Pamela Baldwin, “Fair Market Value for Wind and SolarDevelopment on Public Land” (The Wilderness Societyand Taxpayers for Common Sense, 2010), available at

http://wilderness.org/sites/default/files/Fair-Market-Value-Whitepaper.pdf .

51 Bureau of Land Management, “Geothermal Energy,”available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/en-ergy/geothermal.html (last accessed August 2015).

52 Ibid.

53 Bureau of Land Management and Forest Service,“Record of Decision and Resource Management PlanAmendments for Geothermal Leasing in the WesternUnited States” (2008), available at http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__REALTY__AND_RE-SOURCE_PROTECTION_/energy/geothermal_eis/final_programmatic.Par.90935.File.dat/ROD_Geother-mal_12-17-08.pdf .

54 Bureau of Land Management, “Programmatic EIS for

Geothermal Resources: Frequently Asked Questions,”available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/en-ergy/geothermal/geothermal_nationwide/Documents/draft_programmatic/faqs.html (last accessed August2015).

55 Bureau of Land Management, “Geothermal Energy.”

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56 43 C.F.R. § 3203; Geothermal Production Expansion Actof 2013, Public Law 113–709, 113th Cong., 2d sess. (De-cember 22, 2014), available at https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-re-port/709/1; Bureau of Land Management, “GeothermalResource Leasing and Geothermal Resources UnitAgreements,” Federal Register 72 (84) (2007), availableat http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdf.

57 Iler and Rosner, “Revenue Sharing 101.”

58 43 C.F.R. § 3000, 3200, and 3280

59 Baldwin, “Fair Market Value for Wind and Solar Develop-ment on Public Land.”

60 Government Accountability Office, “Royalties Col-lection: Ongoing Problems with I nterior’s Efforts toEnsure a Fair Return for Taxpayers Require Attention,”GAO–07–682T, Testimony Before the House Committeeon Natural Resources, March 2007, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdf .

61 House Committee on Appropriations, “Statement ofMary Kendell, Acting Inspector General Departmentof the Interior, Before the House Committee on Appro-priations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, andRelated Agencies,” March 3, 2 009, available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htm.

62 Benjamin Matek, “Promoting Geothermal Energy:Air Emissions Comparison and Externality Analysis”(Washington: Geothermal Energy Association, 2013),available at http://geo-energy.org/events/Air Emissions

Comparison and Externality Analysis_Publication.pdf .

63 Ibid.

64 Tim Stephens, “Geothermal power facility inducesearthquakes, study finds,” University of California Santa Cruz, July 11, 2013, available at http://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.html.

https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttps://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1


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