University of Portsmouth Institute of Criminal Justice Studies Fair Pay or Fair Play? An investigation into the effect the removal of Special Priority Payments and suspension of Competency Related Threshold Payments might have on the motivation of Police Constables A dissertation submitted in part fulfilment for the requirements of the MSc in Police Science & Management Matthew Crofts September 2012
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University of Portsmouth
Institute of Criminal Justice Studies
Fair Pay or Fair Play?
An investigation into the effect the
removal of Special Priority Payments and
suspension of Competency Related
Threshold Payments might have on the
motivation of Police Constables
A dissertation submitted in part fulfilment for the
requirements of the MSc in Police Science &
Management
Matthew Crofts
September 2012
2
3
Institute of Criminal Justice Studies
MSc in Police Science & Management
Dissertation submitted as partial requirement for the award of MSc in
Police Science & Management
Fair pay or fair play? An investigation into the effect the removal of
Special Priority Payments and suspension of Competency Related
Threshold Payments might have on the motivation of Police Constables
Submitted by Matthew Crofts
Student Number 442630
Declaration
I confirm that, except where indicated through the proper use of citations
and references, this is my own original work. I confirm that, subject to final
approval by the Board of Examiners of the Institute of Criminal Justice
Studies, a copy of this dissertation may be placed upon the shelves of the
library of the University of Portsmouth or made available electronically in
the Library Dissertation repository and may be circulated as required.
Signed
Date
4
5
Abstract
The independent review of police officer remuneration and conditions
(2011) was the most comprehensive review of police pay and conditions
for thirty years. Two of the recommendations that were implemented are
the subject of this study – The removal of Special Priority Payments (SPP)
and the suspension of new applications for Competency Related
Threshold Payments (CRTP). An electronic survey was administered to
police constables on one of the eleven territorial policing divisions in
Greater Manchester Police in order to examine the possible effect that the
removal of those payments might have on police officer motivation.
The results, which were considered in the context of theories of
motivation, workplace motivation and public service motivation, found that
the SPP and CRTP scheme did not necessarily promote motivation, but
the removal of the payments appeared to contribute to feelings of de-
motivation. Officers felt frustrated about the changes that had been
imposed on them. The rhetoric relating to low morale in the police service
was supported, however public service motivation appeared to be high. A
comparison of current and future work effort in the wake of the
implementation of the removal of SPP and suspension of CRTP
suggested that there may only be so much reform that police officers will
accept before levels of public service motivation begin to erode.
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7
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Dr Bob Golding for his patience,
understanding, guidance and support.
Appreciation is also extended to Chief Constable Sir Peter Fahy and Chief
Superintendent Russ Jackson for their consent to conduct this research,
and to the constables of the North Manchester Division for their
cooperation and time in participating in this study.
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Contents
Page
Tables and Figures - 13
Glossary of Terms - 15
Chapter One
Introduction - 17
Aim and objectives - 19
Why is this research worth doing? - 19
Chapter Two
Literature Review - 23
Defining motivation - 24
Early motivation research - 25
Content theories - 26
Process theories - 28
Expectancy theory - 28
Equity theory - 29
Goal theory - 30
Workplace motivation - 31
Private organisations v public organisations - 34
10
The theory of public service motivation - 36
Empirical evidence of public service motivation - 37
Chapter Three
The history of police pay and the independent review of
police officer and staff remuneration and conditions - 41
The Winsor review - 45
Special Priority Payments - 46
Competency Related Threshold Payments - 47
Chapter Four
Research Methodology - 49
Access - 50
Ethics - 51
Political considerations - 51
Voluntary v informed consent - 51
Anonymity and confidentiality - 52
Role conflict and researcher bias - 52
Questionnaire design - 53
Chapter Five
The Questionnaire Results - 55
Demographic data and respondent profile - 56
11
Special Priority Payments - 58
Competency Related Threshold Payments - 62
Morale, motivation and commitment - 66
Statistical analysis - 73
Chapter Six
Discussion - 75
Special Priority Payments - 77
Competency Related Threshold Payments - 78
Morale, motivation and commitment - 81
Chapter Seven
Conclusion - 87
Appendices - 91
A – Emails accompanying the questionnaire - 93
B – The questionnaire - 97
C – Results of the statistical significance tests - 107
References - 109
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13
Tables and Figures
Table 1 - Respondent age
Table 2 - Length of service
Table 3 - Current role
Table 4 - Average length of service by role
Table 5 - Q1.5 The way in which SPP is allocated is fair
Table 6 - Q1.6 SPP causes tension when some groups
receive it and others do not
Table 7 - Q1.7 For those in eligible roles, SPP should be
paid to everybody, irrespective of length of
service
Table 8 - Q1.8 I am frustrated by the removal of SPP
Table 9 - Q2.4 By being linked to operational
competency, CRTP is allocated in a fair way
Table 10 - Q2.5 CRTP applications are appropriately
scrutinised by supervisors
Table 11 - Q2.6 There is a general expectation that if a p
person is eligible, an application will be
approved
Table 12 - Q2.7 It seems that everyone who applies for
CRTP receives it
Table 13 - Q3.5 I am satisfied with my job
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Table 14 - Q3.6 I feel I am paid a fair amount for the work
I do
Table 15 - Q3.7 My personal morale is good at the
moment
Table 16 - Q3.8 The morale of my team is good at the
moment
Table 17 - Q3.9 I always do the best that I can when I’m
at work
Table 18 - Q3.10 Despite the removal of SPP and CRTP, I
will continue to do my best at work
Table 19 - Statistically significant probability values
(p<0.05) for Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test
Figure 1 - Q1.5 Breakdown by role
Figure 2 - Q2.4 Breakdown by role
Figure 3 - Q2.5 Breakdown by role
Figure 4 - Q3.5 Breakdown by role
Figure 5 - Q3.6 Breakdown by role
Figure 6 - Comparison of responses to questions 3.7 &
3.8
Figure 7 - Q3.9 Breakdown by role
Figure 8 - Q3.10 Breakdown by role
Figure 9 - Comparison of responses to questions 3.9 &
3.10
15
Glossary of Terms
24/7 - 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
ACPO - Association of Chief Police Officers
CID - Criminal Investigation Department
CRTP - Competency Related Threshold Payment(s)
EPAA - Expertise and Professional Accreditation
Allowance
ERPB - External Relations and Performance Branch,
Greater Manchester Police
GMP - Greater Manchester Police
HR - Human Resource(s)
NMD - North Manchester Division
NPT - Neighbourhood Policing Team
PAT - Police Arbitration Tribunal
PFEW - Police Federation of England & Wales
PMAS - Police Mutual Assurance Society
PNB - Police Negotiating Board
PSM - Public Service Motivation
SPP - Special Priority Payment(s)
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Chapter One
Introduction
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“Reform of the system is long overdue. But we of course cannot ignore
the financial constraints in which the public sector is now operating.”
(Winsor, 2011).
On Friday 1st October 2010, the Home Secretary, Theresa May
announced the most comprehensive review of police pay and conditions in
30 years, calling for radical solutions to improve policing. The
announcement introduced Tom Winsor, the former rail regulator as the
person who would lead the first independent review of police officer and
police staff remuneration and conditions of its kind since 1978 (Home
Office, 2010). In the terms of reference for the review, Winsor was
challenged to, “...make recommendations that enable the police service to
manage its resources to serve the public more cost effectively, taking
account of the fiscal challenges...” (Secretary of State for the Home
Department, 2011).
Part one of the independent review, known as the Winsor review, was
published in March 2011 with a total number of 62 recommendations,
many of which, following relevant and necessary arbitration processes,
were implemented in April 2012. Two of those implemented
recommendations - the removal of Special Priority Payments (SPP) and
the two year suspension of new applications for Competency Related
Threshold Payments (CRTP) are the subject of this study. Both SPP and
CTRP are payments that can be awarded to police officers, over and
above their salaries, subject to certain criteria being met, such as
appropriate levels of service and competence or working in a qualifying
role. Both the SPP and CRTP schemes will be discussed in more detail in
chapter three.
19
Aim
To investigate the effect that the removal of SPP and suspension of
new applications for CRTP might have on police officer motivation
at the rank of constable
Objectives
To assess the value that police constables in Greater Manchester
Police (GMP) place on SPP and CRTP, particularly in respect of
their views on the fairness of payment allocation, and tension
caused when some groups receive the payments and others do not
To confirm or disprove the anecdotes that suggest that police
officers are angry and demoralised, particularly in the wake of the
Winsor review recommendations
To critically review how the removal of such payments could have
an effect on police officer motivation, both in the context of general
theories of motivation and theories of public service motivation
(PSM)
To identify any difference of opinion about morale, motivation and
future work effort between teams working on the same policing
division.
Why is this research worth doing?
The independent review of police officer and staff remuneration and
conditions is described as being the most comprehensive review of its kind
for 30 years. The UK is faced with significant financial challenges and the
public sector must take its fair share of the deficit (Secretary of State for
the Home Department, 2011, p. 323). The recommendations being made
in part one of the report are concerned with some of the short term
reforms, and many of them are financially based and will impact directly on
20
the earnings of police officers. There is a limited amount of empirical
evidence describing the way officers are feeling in relation to the reforms
that have been implemented thus far. Much of the rhetoric seen in the
media is based on anecdotes. Organisations such as the Police
Federation of England and Wales (PFEW) and the Association of Chief
Police Officers (ACPO) are both well rehearsed in their viewpoints on both
public sector reform and the work of the Winsor review, so, whilst the
Coalition Government’s firm position on police service reform shows no
sign of changing, it is felt that this research is important in order to get a
“view from the frontline”.
At the time of writing (July 2012), agreements on the recommendations
made in part two of the Winsor review are still being discussed through the
Police Negotiating Board (PNB) process, so this is very much a
contemporary issue, with further reforms still expected to be implemented.
It should be acknowledged however, that potential future changes to
conditions of service, ongoing reviews of police pensions, and the general
cost of living pressures being experienced by police officers (and a large
proportion of the UK population as well), may impact on the outcomes of
this study.
This paper will centre on a literature review of relevant theories of
motivation, workplace motivation and public service motivation (PSM),
followed by a case study of police constables on one of the eleven
territorial policing divisions in GMP, by way of an electronically
administered questionnaire. The research is intentionally limited in size for
logistical, time and administrative reasons, therefore it is intended to give
an indication of potential force or service wide outcomes relating to the
changes made from part one of the Winsor review, and not to highlight
internal resourcing and/or restructuring issues for GMP managers at either
divisional or force level.
The policing area chosen is the North Manchester Division (NMD) as it
was the location where the researcher was temporarily based at the time
21
of the study, however, he did not have any professional responsibility for
any of the constables on the division so was impartial and had little
influence over the target population. The basis of the survey is to
establish the views of police constables on the allocation and
administration of the SPP and CRTP schemes, and to assess their current
and possible future levels of morale, commitment and motivation following
the removal of those payments.
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23
Chapter Two
Literature Review
24
The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate some of the prominent theories
of motivation, workplace motivation and the concept of PSM. Money,
financial rewards and the opportunity to earn more all feature heavily as
potential motivators across the theories, although in contrast, some
discuss the possible de-motivating effect that the removal or absence of
such payments may cause. Two particular payments have been removed
as a result of the independent review, and this chapter will provide a
theoretical context to understanding the possible effect the removal of
those payment schemes could have on police officers.
A great deal of contemporary work has focussed specifically on motivation
in the workplace and the concept of public service motivation, both of
which are generally based on empirical studies. The examination of these
is relevant in order to evaluate the relative weight that public servants
place on financial rewards compared to other motivations for working in
the public sector. Financial rewards and incentives in the police service
are generally set and agreed at a national level, which limits the scope for
local managers to implement their own systems, therefore this chapter will
also discuss the necessity for financial incentive schemes in the public
service to be linked directly to the public service motives of the individual.
Defining Motivation
Before examining some of the key theories of motivation, it is important to
explore the origins of the word and assess some of the definitions that
have been suggested over the years. “Motivation” derives from the Latin
word for movement, “movere”, and a number of definitions describe it as a
psychological process that determines a person’s perceptions, which in
turn influences their actions (Steers, Mowday & Shapiro, 2004, p. 379). In
the work environment, Beardwell and Claydon (2007, p. 491) define
motivation at the most basic level as, “…a certain level of willingness on
the part of the employee to increase their effort, to the extent that this
exertion also satisfies a predefined need or desire they hold”. They
25
continue by stating that motivation can be understood as, “…a
psychological process resulting from the interaction between the individual
and the environment”. Baron (1991, p. 1) suggests that motivation is, “The
internal processes that activate, guide, and maintain behaviour (especially
goal-directed behaviour)”. These definitions clearly show that a person’s
level of motivation is derived from within themselves, but that the level of
motivation can also be influenced by the environment and conditions in
which they work and the way in which they are managed, particularly in
the context of attaining goals and objectives.
Early Motivation Research
Some of the earliest practical research into motivation in the workplace
was carried out at the end of the nineteenth century by Frederick Taylor,
then, soon after in the 1920’s by Elton Mayo following the Hawthorne
experiments at the Western Electric Company in America. Taylor believed
that workers would be motivated by the highest possible wages for
working in the most efficient and productive ways. Mayo’s work concluded
that employees were complex beings with multiple motivational influences
and that group dynamics in a work environment were influential factors on
performance. Since the 1950’s there have been a number of theories of
motivation written, and which can be divided into two approaches
described as content theories and process theories. Content theories
identify people’s individual needs and the goals they aim for in order to
satisfy those needs, and can be applied to life situations as well as work
scenarios. Major content theories include the work of Maslow, Alderfer
and Hertzberg (Mullins, 2010, p. 259-268). Process theories are
concerned with how behaviour is initiated, directed and sustained, by
trying to identify the actions required to influence behaviour and actions.
Process theories tend to provide a greater insight into the nature of work
motivation (Mullins, 2010, p. 268-282). Many of the process theories
cannot be attributed to single writers, but various key models can be
26
considered under the headings of expectancy-based models, equity
theory, goal theory and attribution theory.
Content Theories
Maslow published his hierarchy of needs theory in 1954. The theory is
based on five levels of basic human needs which are placed in
hierarchical order. Those needs are Physiological, Safety, Love/Social,
Esteem and Self-actualisation.
Maslow (1970, p. 7) describes human beings as wanting animals that
rarely reach a state of complete satisfaction except for a short period of
time. Satisfactions generate new motivations; that is to say that, as one
desire is satisfied, another needs to be fulfilled. He asserts that it is a
characteristic of humans throughout their whole lives that they always
desire something.
The needs in Maslow’s hierarchy become increasingly complex as
progress is made from one level to the next. At the lowest levels are; the
basic requirements that humans need to exist; the need for safety and
security; a need to form relationships; a desire for relationships, and;
feelings of identity, respect and recognition. At the highest levels there is
ultimately a need for self fulfilment. Maslow later pointed out (1970, p.26)
that the hierarchy is not nearly as rigid as was originally implied. He
asserts that most people he encountered tended to have the basic needs
in more or less the order they appear, however there are a number of
exceptions at the higher levels of the hierarchy.
Adair (1990) provides an interesting proposal by inverting Malsow’s
hierarchy, suggesting that the lower level needs have the most limitations,
for example, to fulfil the physiological level, one can only eat so many
meals in a day, so it should therefore have the narrowest representation in
the hierarchy. Individuals will progress through the levels at different rates
27
as well as having different factors within those levels (Beardwell et al.
2007, p. 492-494; Harris & Kleiner, 1993, p. 1; Mullins, 2007, p. 257-260).
Alderfer (1972, cited by Mullins, 2010, p. 264-265) modified Maslow’s five
level hierarchy of needs model into his “ERG” theory which comprised
three levels. His three key needs were Existence, Relatedness and
Growth, hence “ERG”, and encapsulated Maslow’s five levels. Alderfer
states that an individual can satisfy needs from any level at any time.
Furthermore, if certain factors within the ERG needs are blocked or
impossible to achieve, effort can be concentrated on providing more
opportunity to fulfil lower level needs. (Beardwell et al. 2007, p. 494;
Mullins, 2007, p. 261).
Hertzberg’s two factor theory (1959) placed more of an emphasis on the
individual’s needs in a work situation and proposed two levels, naming
them hygiene factors and motivation (or growth) factors. Hertzberg
argued that those factors do not necessarily motivate the individual when
they are present, but would prevent the individual from being or becoming
dissatisfied. The absences of growth factors do not necessarily de-
motivate or dissatisfy. Hertzberg suggested that the opposite of
satisfaction is simply no satisfaction, and the opposite of dissatisfaction is
no dissatisfaction (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005, p. 929-934; Beardwell et
al. 2007, p. 494-495; Mullins, 2007, p. 261-263). Those that challenged
Hertzberg’s results did so on the grounds that the methodology was
flawed and suggested that his data was not consistent with his
interpretation, however they could not explain why Hertzberg’s methods
produced such consistency (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005, p. 933;
Hertzberg, 1968, p. 92-168).
There have been a number of criticisms levelled at content theories in the
past. They are some of the earliest theories on motivation and it could be
argued that performance management models and appraisal systems
have highlighted their limitations in that they tend to suggest a generalised
approach to motivating individuals. Maslow’s theory is perhaps the most
28
general or them all and translates least well to the work and employment
environment, although it has to be appreciated that it was not originally
intended to be applied to work situations. Hertzberg’s two-factor theory
was developed in the workplace and has received criticism for the
methods used, and there has also been suggestion that it is not
particularly relevant to “unskilled” or manual workers.
In some industries and work situations, and particularly in the police
service, managers may not have the ability to directly change or improve a
number of the hygiene, existence and psychological factors demonstrated
in the above theories, therefore it is essential for the manager to
understand and appreciate their existence and that they operate within the
employee both at work and in life generally. The manager plays a key role
in promoting the motivating, relatedness, growth and self-actualisation
factors, and organisations have their responsibilities also. (Beardwell et
al. 2007, p. 495; Mullins, 2007, p. 264-265).
Process Theories
Expectancy Theory
Perhaps the most widely cited expectancy based theory is that written by
Victor Vroom in 1964. His theory states that individuals expect particular
actions to achieve a desired result (they have “expectancy”), and that the
desired result is either something worth striving for, or something worth
avoiding (they have “valence”). He describes expectancy as, “A
momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be
followed by a particular outcome”. The level of an individual’s motivation
is based upon how strong their expectancy is and how important the
outcome is to them. A person will be most motivated when expectancy is
strong and valence is either positive or negative (Hollyforde & Whiddett,
2002, p. 76-83). This theory concentrates on extrinsic outcomes and
rewards, which would generally equate to tangible rewards allocated by
29
the organisation or the manager. Satisfaction comes from the extrinsic
consequence of the action (Parker, Bindl & Strauss, 2010, p. 828). In
contrast, intrinsic outcomes are those related to the satisfaction that is
derived from carrying out the activity itself.
Porter and Lawler (Cited by Gagné & Deci, 2005 p. 331) built on Vroom’s
model in 1968, arguing that total job satisfaction could be achieved if roles
were enlarged to make them more interesting, and therefore more
intrinsically rewarding. Effective performance would lead to extrinsic
rewards such as higher pay and promotions.
Equity Theory
A key author of equity theory is J. Stacey Adams. Dating from 1965, this
theory focuses on the way in which people feel about how fairly they have
been treated when compared with the treatment received by others. A
person is likely to become dissatisfied if they feel there is inequity in the
way they have been treated in comparison to others. The theory states
that a person generally strives to turn inequitable situations (dissonance)
into equitable ones (consonance). In the work environment, situations of
equity are likely to lead to job satisfaction, however, there is likely to be a
negative impact on the individual in situations of inequity.
Equity theory is also relevant when a person feels that they are receiving
more from a situation than another person for the same number of inputs.
This situation would be one of dissonance, even though it is being felt by
the individual that perceives they are in a more favourable position. The
theory suggests that the individual will attempt to change the situation to
one of consonance. There is more support, however, for the seeking of
consonance by those that feel under-rewarded than those who perceive
that they are over-rewarded.
There was strong support in Adams’ research that people who feel
dissonance will generally strive to achieve consonance. The theory
30
received criticism for being unclear about how an individual selects groups
for comparison, although there is more support for the theory when
individual and referent groups have a close rather than distant relationship
(Mullins, 2005, p. 496; Adams, 1992; Hollyforde & Whiddett, 2002).
Goal Theory
Goal theory is mainly based on the work of Edwin Locke, and is based on
the premise that the goals or intentions of individuals play an important
part in determining behaviour, and that people are motivated to achieve
the successful attainment of challenging goals. Three main conclusions
came from Locke’s work in 1968; more difficult goals resulted in higher
levels of performance than easy goals; specific goals produced higher
levels of performance than general goals; and behavioural intentions
influence the choices people make. Latham and Locke (1992, p. 199-205)
found that it could be used as a highly effective stand-alone technique for
motivating employee performance, however warned that if used incorrectly
it could cause problems rather than solve them. They argued that goals
should be fair and achievable and should be agreed and accepted by the
employee, otherwise dissatisfaction and poor performance may result.
Goal theory is a widely used and widely accepted technique, as it
frequently forms the basis of performance management systems.
Locke and Latham (2004) acknowledge that a person’s reaction to the
plethora of existing work motivation theories can be one of bewilderment,
but also point out that although the theories are flawed in a number of
respects, they are not contradictory to one another, rather, they focus on
different aspects of motivational processes. It will be demonstrated later in
this paper that a number of factors from various theories can be at play at
the same time.
The remainder of this chapter will consider some of the contemporary
work by examining the practical elements of how to motivate (or move)
31
individuals and teams in the workplace. Employee engagement, a
comparison of employee motivation in the public and the private sector,
and the concept of PSM will be discussed.
Workplace Motivation
“Forget praise. Forget punishment. Forget cash. You need to make their
jobs more interesting”. (Hertzberg, 2003, p. 87)
Hertzberg describes how when giving lectures to industry on how to
motivate employees, audiences are regularly looking for quick and
practical tips for “moving people”. He describes the most direct way of
getting someone to do something is to tell them to do it or to administer “a
kick in the pants”, something he describes at KITA. With that advice he
warns that there is negative (both physical and psychological) and positive
KITA. The interpretation of negative KITA can be taken as the “kick in the
pants”, whether done physically or psychologically. He generally reasons
that when negative KITA is used and reinforced, movement is the result
rather than motivation. Similarly, Hertzberg argues that positive KITA also
results in movement. If an employee is offered some sort of incentive,
reward, promotion or recognition for completing a particular task, he
suggests that it is the manager that is motivated and the employee that is
moved. He likens these circumstances to that of giving a dog a biscuit. If
a dog is offered food for doing something correctly, the dog is “moved” to
do what it is told because of the promise of food, not because the dog
actually wants to do what it is told. Hertzberg stresses that an
overwhelming opinion from management professionals is that positive
KITA is motivation, when in fact it is not motivation until the individual
wants to complete the task. Raby (2001) argues that a manager cannot
actually motivate an employee, but instead can create a situation where
individuals will respond because they choose to. Hood (2002) agrees,
suggesting that the notion that motivation is a single activity that is brought
about by management is simplistic and naïve and that motivation must
32
come from the individual rather than being externally imposed by
management policy.
Hertzberg (2003, p. 88-91) describes a number “myths about motivation”,
suggesting that a number of positive KITA personnel practices were
developed as attempts to instil motivation, and included reducing time
spent in work. In fact, Hertzberg argues that, the motivated employee
looks for more hours at work, not fewer; spiralling wages have only
motivated individuals to seek the next pay rise; and, fringe benefits are not
only an expensive way of rewarding, but can have a negative effect on
employees if they are not continually increased. Hershey (2003)
describes these techniques as “persuasion devices” which can sometimes
be found to be agreeable to the employee, and as a result a particular
behaviour will be repeated out of intrinsic motivation.
“Engagement” and “employee engagement” are phrases that are now
regularly used when discussing motivation at work. In July 2009, Macleod
and Clarke’s report to Government aimed to set out what the government
could do to help promote an understanding of how greater employee
engagement can help improve innovation, performance and productivity
across the economy. Engaged employees are not just committed,
passionate and proud, but they have clear career aspirations and
understand the aims and objectives of the organisation in which they work.
An engaged employee will be enthused and use their talents and
discretionary effort to make a difference in their employer’s continuing
quest for success (BlessingWhite, 2011). BlessingWhite’s engagement
model considers that while organisations look to maximise the contribution
of each individual towards the corporate objectives, the individual
employees need at the same time to find purpose and satisfaction in their
work. BlessingWhite (2011, p. 5) believe that, “Aligning employee’s
values, goals, and aspirations with those of the organization [sic] is the
best method for achieving the sustainable employee engagement required
for an organization [sic] to thrive”, and it considers that full engagement
will be demonstrated when there is an alignment of maximum job
33
satisfaction with maximum job contribution. In BlessingWhite’s global
survey (2011), they found that only 1 in 3 employees are engaged, while
17% of employees are disengaged. Overall, they found that career
development and training were the top engagement factors for employees,
and in fact, the individuals who were motivated by money were generally
less engaged. The study found that the top drivers of job satisfaction
worldwide are career development and the opportunities to use talents
and skills.
This is a view also held by Ellemers, De Gilder & Haslam (2004), who
suggest that an individual’s motivation is projected on, informed by, and
adapted to the needs, goals, expectations or rewards of the team or
organisation in which the individual works. A relatively recent study
undertaken by the Ashridge Business School (Holton, Dent & Rabbetts,
2008) also found that whilst financial rewards were mentioned when
individuals talked about workplace motivation, the things most frequently
mentioned were the intrinsic motivators, most important of which was the
work itself and the need for it to be challenging, interesting, recognised
and valued by the organisation. Other aspects of work that featured as
being key motivators were recognition and praise from line managers,
having the freedom to make decisions, and having the power and authority
to deliver a task in the way that the individual thinks is right. Managers
who took part in the research indicated that intrinsic rewards led to better
employee engagement and higher levels of motivation, suggesting that a
key to success is a management style that helps staff to learn and
develop; a management attitude that respects staff and provides support
through mentoring and coaching; demonstrating a clear link between the
work of both the individual and the team with the organisational values and
objectives, and; a good team ethos (Dent & Holton, 2009, p. 39-40).
Listening to employees, valuing their contributions, and valuing them as
individuals with unique strengths and needs are also worthy management
styles for developing genuine engagement. In the UK, the most
successful companies listen to their employees and incorporate their
34
suggestions into company policy (Anonymous, 2008, p. 29; Seddon &
Davis, 1992; Romero & Kleiner, 2000, p. 14).
Private Organisations v Public Organisations
Having considered the concepts of work motivation, employee
engagement and the management styles that would appear to be
necessary to improve and increase engagement levels amongst
individuals and teams within organisations, it would seem appropriate to
examine the differences, if any, between work motivation in public and
private sector organisations.
The main conventional difference between public and private
organisations is their ownership and funding. Private firms are owned by
entrepreneurs and are funded by fees paid directly by customers. Public
organisations are owned collectively by members of political communities,
are predominantly controlled and driven by political forces and are funded
by taxation (Boyne, 2002, p. 98). Public organisations, with their focus on
general social welfare and protection of society and its citizens, often have
missions that are broader in scope and impact than those generally found
in the private sector (Baldwin, 1984).
“Question: Why doesn’t the civil servant look out her window in the
morning?” “Answer: So she’ll have something to do in the afternoon”
(Carroll & Siegel, 1999, p. 181). This kind of negative stereotype about
the lazy public sector employee is ever present, and polls have shown that
the public believes that government employees “work less hard” and are
“less productive...than their private sector counterparts” (Volcker, 1989, p.
82 & 91). Frank and Lewis (2004, p. 39) suggest that the belief that
extrinsic rewards are the primary source of work motivation may underlie
the popular perception of the “lazy bureaucrat”, as government agencies
have less ability to utilise financial compensation to motivate employees. A
significant amount of empirical research has been conducted to try and
35
answer the question of whether public sector employees do in fact work
less hard than their private sector counterparts. That research has also
established that there are differences in individuals’ motivation for working
in either the public or private sector, and from that research, the concept of
PSM has developed. Brewer and Selden (1998, p. 417) describe PSM as,
“The motivational force that induces individuals to perform meaningful
public service”, and Rainey and Steinbauer (1999, p. 23) define it as, “A
general altruistic motivation to serve the interests of a community of
people, a state, a nation or humankind”. It is suggested that people with a
greater PSM are more likely to be found working in the public sector
because of the opportunities it offers to provide meaningful public service,
resulting in greater job satisfaction because the individual finds that type of
work intrinsically rewarding (Wright & Grant, 2010, p. 691-692). Research
has consistently found that private sector workers value pay, and
economic rewards and benefits more highly than public sector employees,
and in contrast, public sector employees tend to be more motivated by job
content, self-development, recognition, interesting work and the
opportunity to serve society (Brewer, Selden & Facer II, 2000; Frank &
Whilst this study has found that PSM is high amongst respondents, the
subtle difference identified between current and possible future work effort
may have the potential to become significant in time. Pay, conditions and
pensions are all under review, and when considered alongside the
continuing financial pressures at both national and individual levels, one
might legitimately ask how much reform police officers can take before
their motivation and public service motivation begins to erode.
91
Appendices
92
93
Appendix A
Emails Accompanying the
Electronic Questionnaire
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Original Email and Front Cover of Electronic Questionnaire Dear Colleagues, My name is Matt Crofts and I'm a Sergeant in GMP, currently working on the North Manchester Division at Central Park. I am currently studying for a Masters degree in Police Science & Management at the University of Portsmouth and this is my dissertation year. I am looking into the effect that the removal of SPP and suspension of new applications for CRTP might have on the motivation of police officers at the rank of Constable and I'd be really pleased if you could spend just five minutes giving me your views on SPP and CRTP on the attached survey. The results of this questionnaire will be studied in the context of theories of motivation and theories of public service motivation. My work is completely independent, however both the Chief Constable and Chief Superintendent Jackson have given me their consent to carry out this survey on the North Manchester Division. I have also consulted with Lance Thomas, your divisional Federation rep. The survey should take no more than 5 minutes to complete and your views and comments will be completely anonymous. Please click on the link below and the survey will open in another window. Notes Link Should you have any questions please feel free to contact me by email or on the number below, or alternatively, contact Lance Thomas who has offered to field any questions.
The closing date for responses is Friday 8th June.
Many thanks for your time Matt Matt Crofts Sergeant 19958 Mob. 07554xxxxxx **Not Protectively Marked**
Removal of SPP and Suspension of New Applications for CRTP PLEASE READ THIS PAGE CAREFULLY BEFORE COMPLETING THE QUESTIONNAIRE 1. This questionnaire should take around 5 minutes to complete.
2. This study is investigating the effect that the removal of Special Priority
Payments and suspension of new applications for Competency Related Threshold Payments might have on the motivation of police officers.
3.
To begin, click on the 'New Questionnaire' icon located here --
4. To submit it, please click on the icon 'submit' at the end of your completed questionnaire. The closing date for responses is Friday 8th June 2012.
5. If you have any difficulties accessing or completing the questionnaire, or would prefer a paper copy, please contact Sgt Matt Crofts on 07554xxxxxx.
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Reminder Email Dear colleagues, Many thanks to those of you who have completed the questionnaire so far. For those of you that haven't had an opportunity yet, there is still a week to go before the survey closes (Friday 8th June). I'd be really grateful if you are able to spend just five minutes completing it to offer your views on the removal of SPP and suspension of new applications for CRTP. The more returns I can get, the more meaningful the results will hopefully be. The original message is copied below, and I have reattached the link directly below this. Simply click on it and the survey will open in a new window. Notes Link Many thanks again for your time. Regards Matt Matt Crofts Sergeant 19958 Mob. 07554xxxxxx