facts

FLEXIBLE A.C

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

INDEXS.NO.

CONTENTS PAGE NO.

1

1 Introduction 4-5

2 Literature Survey 6-10

3 Classification Schemes 11-15

4 Types of FACTS Controllers 16-20

5 Discussion 21

6 Comparison of FACTS controller 22

7 Advantages of FACTS Controller 23

8 Modeling using Simulation 24-37

9 FACTS Devices Technology and Development

38-39

10 Conclusion 40

1.ABSTRACT

2

In recent years, power demand has increased substantially while the expansion of power

generation and transmission has been severely limited due to limited resources and

environmental restrictions. As a consequence, some transmission lines are heavily loaded and the

system stability becomes a power transfer-limiting factor. Flexible AC transmission systems

(FACTS) controllers have been mainly used for solving various power system steady state

control problems. However, recent studies reveal that FACTS controllers could be employed to

enhance power system stability in addition to their main function of power flow control. The

literature shows an increasing interest in this subject for the last two decades, where the

enhancement of system stability using FACTS controllers has been extensively investigated.

This paper presents a comprehensive review on the research and developments in the power

system stability enhancement using FACTS damping controllers. Several technical issues related

to FACTS installations have been highlighted and performance comparison of different FACTS

controllers has been discussed.

Key words: power system stability, PSS, FACTS, SVC, TCSC, TCPS, STATCOM, SSSC,

UPFC, IPFC

3

2.INTRODUCTION

Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission:

The ability to accommodate changes in the electric transmission system or operating conditions

while maintaining sufficient steady-state and transient margins.

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS):

Alternating current transmission system incorporating power electronic-based and other static

controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability.

FACTS Controller:

A power electronic-based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more

AC transmission system parameters.

Fig.Genral symbol

Power system engineers are currently facing challenges to increase the power transfer

capabilities of existing transmission system. This is where the flexible ac transmission systems

(facts) technology comes into effect. With relatively low investment, compared to new

transmission or generation facilities, the facts technology allows the industries to better utilize

the existing transmission and generation reserves, while enhancing the power system

performance.

Moreover, the current trend of deregulated electricity market also favors the facts controllers in

many ways. Facts controllers in the deregulated electricity market allow the system to be used in

more flexible way with increase in various stability margins. Facts controllers are products of

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facts technology; a group of power electronics controllers expected to revolutionize the power

transmission and distribution system in many ways. The facts controllers clearly enhance power

system performance, improve quality of supply and also provide an optimal utilization of the

existing resources.

Flexible alternating-current transmission systems (FACTS) are defined by the IEEE as “ac

transmission systems incorporating power electronics-based and other static controllers to

enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability”.

3.LITERATURE SURVEY

A literature survey has been carried out including two of the most important and common

databases, namely, the IEEE/IEE electronic library and Science Direct electronic databases. The

survey spans over the last 15 years from 1990 to 2004. For convenience, this period has been

divided to three sub-periods;1990–1994, 1995–1999, and 2000–2004. The number of

5

publications discussing FACTS applications to different power system studies has been recorded.

The results of the survey are shown in Figure 1. It is clear that the applications of FACTS to

different power system studies have been drastically increased in last five years. This observation

is more pronounced with the second generation devices as the interest is almost tripled. This

shows more interest for the VSC-based FACTS applications. The results also show a decreasing

interest in TCPS while the interest in SVC and TCSC slightly increase. Generally, both

generations of FACTS have been applied to different areas in power system studies including

optimal power flow economic power dispatch voltage stability power system security and power

quality Applications of FACTS to power system stability in particular have been carried out

using same databases.

The results of this survey are shown in Figure. It was found that the ratio of FACTS applications

to the stability study with respect to other power system studies is more than 60% in general.

This reflects clearly the increasing interest to the different FACTS controllers as potential

solutions for power system stability enhancement problem. It is also clear that the interest in the

2nd generation of FACTS has been drastically increased while the interest in the 1stgeneration

was decreased. The potential of FACTS controllers to enhance power system stability has been

discussed by Noorozian and Anderson where a comprehensive analysis of damping of power

system electromechanical oscillations using FACTS was presented. Wang and Swift have

discussed the damping torque contributed by FACTS devices,where several important points

have been analyzed and confirmed through simulations.

6

Figure . Statistics for FACTS applications to different power system studies

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FIRST GENERATION OF FACTS

Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

It is known that the SVCs with an auxiliary injection of a suitable signal can considerably

improve the dynamic stability performance of a power system]. In the literature, SVCs have been

applied successfully to improve the transient stability of a synchronous machine .Hammad

presented a fundamental analysis of the application of SVC for enhancing the power systems

stability. Then, the low frequency oscillation damping enhancement via SVC has been

analyzed .It is shown that the SVC enhances the system damping of local as well as inter area

oscillation modes.

Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

Many different techniques have been reported in the literature pertaining to investigating the

effect of TCSC on power system stability .Several approaches based on modern control theory

have been applied to TCSC controller design.

A fuzzy logic controller for a TCSC was proposed in .The impedance of the TCSC was adjusted

based on machine rotor angle and the magnitude of the speed deviation. In addition, different

control schemes for a TCSC were proposed such as variable structure controlle ,bilinear

generalized predictive controller ,and H∞-based controller. The neural networks have been

proposed for TCSC-based stabilizer design. The parameters of the stabilizers are determined by

genetic algorithm (GA) technique. Lee and Moon presented a hybrid linearization method in

which the algebraic and the numerical linearization technique were combined.

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Thyristor-Controlled Phase Shifter (TCPS)

A considerable attention has been directed to realization of various TCPS schemes .However, a

relatively little work in TCPS control aspects has been reported in the literature. Baker developed

a control

algorithm for TCPS using stochastic optimal control theory.

In real-life power system with a large number of generators, the rotor angle of a single generator

measured with respect to the system reference will not be very meaningful. Tan and Wang

proposed a direct feedback linearization technique to linearize and decouple the power system

model to design the excitation and TCPS controllers.

SECOND GENERATION OF FACTS

Static Compensator (STATCOM)

The emergence of FACTS devices and in particular GTO thyristor-based STATCOM has

enabled such technology to be proposed as serious competitive alternatives to conventional SVC.

From the power system

dynamic stability viewpoint, the STATCOM provides better damping characteristics than the

SVC as it is able to transiently exchange active power with the system.

The effectiveness of the STATCOM to control the power system voltage was presented

in .However, the effectiveness of the STATCOM to enhance the angle stability has not been

addressed. Abido presented a

singular value decomposition (SVD) based approach to assess and measure the controllability of

the poorly damped electromechanical modes by STATCOM different control channels. It was

also concluded that the STATCOM-based damping stabilizers extend the critical clearing time

and enhance greatly the power system transient stability. Haque demonstrated by the use of

energy function the capability of the STATCOM to provide additional damping to the low

frequency oscillations.

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The STATCOM damping characteristics have been also analyzed and addressed where different

approaches to STATCOM-based damping controller design have been adopted such as loop-

shaping poleplacement

,multivariable feedback linearization ,H∞ control, and intelligent contol .

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

The SSSC has been applied to different power system studies to improve the system performance

.There has been some work done to utilize the characteristics of the SSSC to enhance power

system stability .Wang investigated the damping control function of an SSSC installed in power

systems. The linearized model of the SSSC integrated into power systems was established and

methods to design the SSSC damping controller were proposed A control strategy of an SSSC to

enlarge the stability region has been derived using the direct method. The effectiveness of the

SSSC to extend the critical clearing time has been confirmed though simulation results on a

single machine infinite bus system.

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

A unified power flow controller (UPFC) is the most promising device in the FACTS concept. It

has the ability to adjust the three control parameters, A UPFC performs this through the control

of the in-phase voltage, quadrature voltage, and shunt compensation .It was shown that a

significant reduction in the transient swing can be obtained by using a simple proportional

feedback of machine rotor angle deviation. Fujita et al, investigated the high frequency power

fluctuations induced by a UPFC. Several trials have been reported in the literature to model a

UPFC for steady-state and transient studies. Under the assumption that the power system is

symmetrical and operates under three-phase balanced conditions,

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4.CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

In our proposal, FACTS controllers are classified by considering five independent

characteristics:

1) Connection;

2) Commutation;

3) Switching frequency;

4) Energy storage; and

5) Dc port.

A. Connection

FACTS controllers modify the series and parallel impedances of transmission lines. The way a

FACTS controller is connected to the ac power system has a direct effect on the transfer of active

and reactive power within the system. Series connected controllers are usually employed in

active power control and to improve the transient stability of power systems. Shunt connected

controllers govern reactive power and improve the dynamic stability. The IEEE groups FACTS

controllers into three main categories based on how they are connected to

the ac power system: series, shunt, and combined series-and-shunt .

We follow this, but we first divide them into one-port and two-port connections, then subdivide

the one-ports into series and parallel(shunt) connections. (When counting the number of ports,

only the ac ports are considered:

Dc ports for energy storage elements such as batteries are considered separately.)

Connection = one-port, series one-port, parallel or two-port

One of these three is chosen as the first symbol (S1) of the five-part classification string.

B. Commutation

Commutation is a major characteristic of the semiconductor switching devices employed in

FACTS controllers. Commutation can either be forced as with GTOs, or natural as with SCRs,

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which turn off at zero current. (There are, of course, ways of forcing an SCR to turn off at non-

zero current.

For example, an auxiliary device can be employed to force the current in the main SCR to zero.

We classify this case as FC, because in operation a non-zero current can be turned off at an

arbitrary time.)

Commutation = forced commutation (FC); or natural commutation (NC)

For NC the number of commutations during a synchronous frequency cycle is fixed, whereas for

FC

it is variable at will. One of these is chosen as the second symbol (S2) of the classification string.

C. Switching Frequency

Power systems have a synchronous frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, whereas power electronics based

systems can operate over a wide range of switching frequencies. The choice of switching

frequency affects the level of harmonics that controller introduces into the power system: a

higher frequency allows lower harmonic levels. It also has an effect on the devices’ switching

loss: the higher the frequency, the greater the loss. A tradeoff must be made. With natural

commutation; the switching frequency of each device is generally “low”, equal to the system’s

synchronous frequency of 50/60Hz.

Alternatively, to improve harmonic performance, the

Switching waveforms may be notched or otherwise modified. We call this “medium” switching

frequency: a few times the synchronous frequency.

Finally, “high” frequency switching may be used, typically using pulse-width modulation with a

carrier frequency many times the mains frequency.

To put some numbers to this, “low” can be considered as frequencies up to and including the

50/60H mains frequency. We suggest that “medium” should refer to switching frequencies fs

between one and ten times the synchronous frequency f (e.g. 100–500Hz for a 50Hz system).

Frequencies higher than this are classified as “high”. The upper limit of operation is set by the

device characteristics. GTOs are currently the device of choice in power system applications.

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They are less expensive than other types and have higher blocking voltages and forward currents.

They can turn on in typically 5–10s and turn off in about 10–30s. This leads to a

recommended switching frequency of about 3 kHz, with

an upper limit of perhaps 5kHz imposed by excessive switching loss .

Switching frequency = low, 0 < fs f (LF); medium f < fs 10f (MF); or high, fs > 10f (HF)

D. Energy Storage

In certain controllers, particularly those that must absorb and deliver active power, substantial

energy storage is needed. By substantial, we mean enough to deliver active power to the power

system over an interval of a few seconds or more. In some other controllers, reactive power is

generated and the only active power is that associated with parasitic losses. Energy storage

elements have to be able to provide transient overload capability for several cycles. Energy

storage at time scales comparable to a mains cycle is excluded from consideration as

insignificant.

Energy storage = zero energy storage (ZES); capacitor energy storage (CES); battery energy

storage (BES); superconducting energy storage (SES); or external energy source (EES)

where E is the available energy stored within the controller, S is its rated apparent power and f is

the synchronous frequency. The aim is to get a feel for the time scale of the various energy

storage categories.

A physical interpretation is that N is the number of mains cycles it would take for the energy E to

be delivered at a power equal to S. For example, if equipment installed in a 50Hz system is rated

at 100MVA and stores 25MJ of energy, but cannot discharge further than 15MJ, we find the

available energy E = 10MJ and N = 5 cycles.

Zero energy storage, ZES, strictly applies to controllers that have no energy storage elements,

such as the thyristor controlled braking resistor (TCBR). But we also extend this category to

include controllers

having inductors or capacitors in the ac side. This is because the time scale for delivering the

stored energy is very small. For instance, consider the static VAR compensator (SVC). The peak

stored energy in a three-phase SVC operating in capacitive mode is E = CV2, where C is the

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equivalent SVC capacitance and V is the line voltage. The three-phase apparent power is S =

2fCV2.

Equation(1) gives

N = 0.16 cycle.

In this context, the SVC stores an insignificant amount of energy.

Capacitive energy storage, CES, refers to controllers that use capacitors on the dc side for energy

storage and which are capable of supplying a transient overload for several cycles.

As an example, let us consider a hypothetical FACTS controller in a 60Hz power system. In

addition to its rated

100MVAr reactive power capability, under transient conditions this equipment must supply

125MW of active power for 10 cycles. To achieve this, the energy stored in the dc capacitor

bank must be at least 125MW 10 / 60Hz = 20.8MJ. Suppose the dc capacitor voltage is

nominally 6kV.

Then E =½CV2

gives the minimum capacitance as C = 1.16F. In practice C must be larger, because the dc

voltage should be kept close to its nominal value for the power converter to work properly.

Let the voltage fall to 5kV at the end of the transient. The capacitance must now be 3.78F,

corresponding to a maximum stored energy of 68.07MJ and a minimum of 47.25MJ .

For this case, (1) gives N = (68.07– 47.25)MJ 60Hz /100MVA = 10 cycles.

With battery energy storage, BES, electrochemical batteries can be used to supply active power

at peak times. The time scale is much greater than CES and ZES, around an hour. Therefore N

2 105 cycles. (Since a battery’s voltage remains substantially constant throughout its

discharge, the unavailable capacity is small, unlike CES.)

E. DC Port

The current FACTS controllers can also be divided into two groups according to the presence or

absence of a dc port. In the first group, those with no dc port, the components are subjected to

alternating voltages and currents only. This group generally employs physical impedance

(usually inductors or capacitors) together with back-to-back thyristors. Examples include the

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SVC and the TCSC. The second group, more recently developed, is those that include one or

more ac/dc converters between the ac power system and a dc port. Examples are the SSC and the

SSSC. Often no physical impedance is interposed between the ac port and the converter, the

leakage inductance of the ac port’s step down transformer providing sufficient reactance.

The ac/dc converter is controlled in such a way that the desired ac port characteristics are

produced.

Dc port = dc port employed (DC); or no dc port employed

The first group of controllers has a physical

impedance for X, and V = 0. For the second group, X is the leakage reactance of the step-down

transformer (referred to the secondary), and V is the fundamental voltage phasor of the ac/dc

converter. to X, so if X is small (e.g. transformer leakage reactance), only a small change in A is

needed to move Q over its rated range. An advantage resulting from this is that the magnitude of

V is always close to that of E, so the dc port voltages can be relatively low, somewhat in excess

of 2 E . A practical disadvantage of small X is that fault currents can be very large, in the

order of E/X.

Another drawback is that the converter can inject large high-frequency harmonic currents into

the power system even at the switching frequency, the reactance is still quite small.

5. TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

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In general FACTS controllers can be divided into the following four categories:

A. SERIES CONTROLLERS

In principle all the series controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Series connected

controller impacts the driving voltage and hence, the current and power flow directly. Static

Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) etc.

are the examples of series controllers.

Some Basic Arrangement of Series Controller

1. Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) uses a VSC interfaced in series to a

transmission line, as shown in.

Fig. 4 SSSC - A VSC interfaced in series to a transmission line

Again, the active power exchanged with the line has to be maintained at zero - hence, in

steady state operation, SSSC is a functional equivalent of an infinitely variable series connected

capacitor. The SSSC offers fast control and it is inherently neutral to sub-synchronous resonance.

2.Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator

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It is obvious that power transfer between areas can be affected by adjusting the net series

impedance. One such conventional and established method of increasing transmission line

capability is to install a series capacitor, which reduces the net series impedance, thus allowing

additional power to be transferred. Although this method is well known, slow switching times is

the limitation of its use. Thyristor controllers, on the other hand, are able to rapidly and

continuously control the line compensation over a continuous range with resulting flexibility.

Controller used for series compensation is the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC).

TCSC controllers use thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) in parallel with capacitor segments

of series capacitor bank The combination of TCR and capacitor allow the capacitive reactance to

be smoothly controlled over a wide range and switched upon command to a condition where the

bi-directional thyristor pairs conduct continuously and insert an inductive reactance into the line.

TCSC is an effective and economical means of solving problems of transient stability,

dynamic stability, steady state stability and voltage stability in long transmission lines. TCSC,

the first generation of FACTS, can control the line impedance through the introduction of a

thyristor controlled capacitor in series with the transmission line.

A TCSC is a series controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of

power on the ac line over a wide range. The functioning of TCSC can be comprehended by

analyzing the behavior of a variable inductor connected in series with a fixed capacitor, as shown

in Figure.

B. SHUNT CONTROLLERS

All shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. The shunt

controller is like a current source, which draws/injects current from/into the line. Static

Synchronous Compensator (SSC), Static Synchronous Generator (SSG), Thyristor Controlled

Reactor (TCR) etc are the examples of shunt controllers

1 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)

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The conventional static VAR compensator consists of a capacitor in parallel with a thyristor

controlled reactor It is conventionally used to stabilise a busbar voltage and improve dampingof

the dynamic oscillation of power systems. The SVC has a single port with a parallel connection

to the power system,

2.Unified Power Flow Controller(UPFC)

The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) combines the above two compensators into

one. The DC terminals of the two underlying VSCs are now coupled, and this creates a path

for active power exchange between the converters. Hence, the active power supplied to the

line by the series converter, can now be supplied by the shunt converter, as shown in Fig. 

This topology offers three degrees of freedom, or more precisely - four degrees of freedom

(two associated with each VSC) with one constraint (active powers of the VSCs must

18

match). Therefore, a fundamentally different range of control options is available compared

to STATCOM or SSSC. The UPFC can be used to control the flow of active and reactive

power through the line and to control the amount of reactive power supplied to the line at

the point of installation.

C. COMBINED SERIES-SHUNT CONTROLLERS

This could be a combination of separate shunt and series controllers, which are controlled in

a coordinated manner. Combined shunt and series controllers inject current into the system with

the shunt part of the controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the

controller. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting

Transformer (TCPST) are the examples of shunt series controllers.

D. COMBINED SERIES-SERIES CONTROLLERS

This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in a

coordinated manner, in a multi-line transmission system or it could be a unified controller, in

which series controller provides independent series reactive compensation for each line but also

transfer real power among the line via the power link.

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E. Interphase Power Controller (IPC)

The IPC is a series controller of active and reactive power. It consists of inductive and capacitive

branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages. The active and reactive power can be set

independently by adjusting the phase shifters and/or branch impedances, using mechanical or

electronic switches. The IPC can regulate both the direction and the amount of active power

transmitted through a transmission line [.The IPC is a two-port circuit (in series with a

transmission line and in parallel with a busbar); it uses natural commutation; its switching

frequency is low; it has insignificant energy storage; and it has no dc port.

F. Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

The UPFC is a combination of an SSC and an SSSC, sharing a common dc link. The UPFCcan

control both the active and reactive power flow in the line. It can also provide independently

controllable shunt reactive compensation [1]. In other words, the UPFC can provide

simultaneouscontrol of all the basic transmission line parameters. The UPFC is a two-port circuit

(in series with a transmission line and parallel with a busbar); it uses forced commutation; its

switching frequency is high; it has capacitive energy storage; and it employs

a dc port.

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6. DISCUSSION

Within this classification scheme, two major groups of FACTS controllers can be recognised.

First,there are conventional controllers which have insignificant energy storage and use SCR

thyristors astheir switches. These commutate naturally at the mains frequency, adjusting the

effective value of a

passive capacitive/inductive reactance by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. Second, more

advanced FACTS controllers utilise high-frequency switching with forced commutation,typically

using GTOs, and have a dc port. The circuits contain only small inductances. Closedloop control

is applied to produce the desired currents or voltages at the terminals.

All existing FACTS controllers may be classified according to the proposed scheme, which

currently allows 180 possibilities (including all possible and impossible cases). It is extendible in

future byadding further choices to the existing categories, and by adding new characteristics if

these should become relevant. We hope that this proposal will be adopted (perhaps adapted!) as

the basis of a universal classification scheme for FACTS controllers increased.

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7. COMPARISON OF CONTROLLERS

NAME OF

CONTROLLER

LOAD

FLOW

CONTROL

VOLTAGE

CONTROL

TRANSIENT

STABILITY

OSCILLATION

ON DAMPING

SVC/STATCOM Small Strong Small Medium

TCSC Medium Small Strong Medium

SSSC Strong Small Strong Medium

TCPAR Strong Medium Small Medium

UPFC Strong Strong Strong Strong

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8. ADVANTAGES OF FACTS CONTROLLER

CONTROLLER

1.Control of power flow in transmission network by controlling:

• Line Impedence,

• Angle and

• Voltage.

2. Secure loading of transmission lines to levels nearer their thermal limits.

3.Increase the system security through raising:

•The transient stability limit

•Limiting short circuit current

•Overloads

.

4. Provide secure and controllable tie line connections to neighbouring utilities and

regions.

5.Damp out of power system oscillations.

6.Provide greater flwxibilities in sting new generation.

.

7.Reduce reactive power flow,thus,allowing the lines to carry more lines to carry more

active power.

8.Increase utilization of the lowest cost generation.

9.Optimim power flow for certain objectives.

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9. MODELING USING SIMULATION

STATCOM (Detailed Model)

This demonstration illustrates operation of a +100 Mvar/-100 Mvar 48-pulse GTO

STATCOM Circuit Description

A 100-Mvar STATCOM regulates voltage on a three-bus 500-kV system. The 48-

pulse STATCOM uses a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC) built of four 12-pulse three-

level GTO inverters. Look inside the STATCOM block to see how the VSC inverter is

built. The four sets of three-phase voltages obtained at the output of the four three-level

inverters are applied to the secondary windings of four phase-shifting transformers (-15

deg., -7.5 deg., 7.5 deg., +7.5 deg. phase shifts). The fundamental components of

voltages obtained on the 500 kV side of the transformers are added in phase by the serial

connection of primary windings.

During steady-state operation the STATCOM control system keeps the fundamental

component of the VSC voltage in phase with the system voltage. If the voltage generated

by the VSC is higher (or lower) than the system voltage, the STATCOM generates (or

absorbs) reactive power. The amount of reactive power depends on the VSC voltage

magnitude and on the transformer leakage reactance. The fundamental component of

VSC voltage is controlled by varying the DC bus voltage. In order to vary the DC

voltage, and therefore the reactive power, the VSC voltage angle (alpha) which is

normally kept close to zero is temporarily phase shifted. This VSC voltage lag or lead

produces a temporary flow of active power which results in an increase or decrease of

capacitor voltages.

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One of the three voltage sources used in the 500 kV system equivalents can be be

varied in order to observe the STATCOM dynamic response to changes in system

voltage. Open the "Programmable Voltage Source" menu and look at the sequence of

voltage steps which are programmed

Demonstration: Dynamic response of the STATCOM

Run the simulation and observe waveforms on the STATCOM scope block. The

STATCOM is in voltage control mode and its reference voltage is set to Vref=1.0 pu.

The voltage droop of the regulator is 0.03 pu/100 VA.Therefore when the STATCOM

operating point changes from fully capacitive (+100 Mvar) to fully inductive (-100 Mvar)

the STATCOM voltage varies between 1-0.03=0.97 pu and 1+0.03=1.03 pu.

Initially the programmable voltage source is set at 1.0491 pu, resulting in a 1.0 pu

voltage at SVC terminals when the STATCOM is out of service. As the reference

voltage Vref is set to 1.0 pu, the STATCOM is initially floating (zero current). The

DCvoltage is 19.3 kV. At t=0.1s, voltage is suddenly decreased by 4.5 % (0.955 pu of

nominal voltage). The SVC reacts by generating reactive power (Q=+70 Mvar) in order

to keep voltage at 0.979 pu. The 95% settling time is approximately 47 ms. At this point

the DC voltage has increasded to 20.4 kV. Then, at t=0.2 s the source voltage is increased

to1.045 pu of its nominal value.The SVC reacts by changing its operating point from

capacitive to inductive in order to keep voltage at 1.021 pu. At this point the STATCOM

absorbs 72 Mvar and the DC voltage has been lowered to 18.2 kV. Observe on the first

trace showing the

STATCOM primary voltage and current that the current is changing from

capacitive to inductive in approximately one cycle.

Finally, at t=0.3 s the source voltage in set back to its nominal value and the STATCOM

operating point comes back to zero Mvar.If you look inside the "Signals and Scopes"

subsystem you will have access to other control signals. Notice the transient changes on

alpha angle when the DC voltage is increased or decreased in order to vary reactive

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power. The steady state value of alpha (0.5 degrees) is the phase shift required to

maintain a small active power flow compensating transformer and converter losses.

SSSC (Phasor Model)

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) used for power oscillation damping

Circuit Description

The Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), one of the key FACTS

devices, consists of a voltage-sourced converter and a transformer connected in series

with a transmission line. The SSSC injects a voltage of variable magnitude in quadrature

with the line current, thereby emulating an inductive or capacitive reactance. This

emulated variable reactance in series with the line can then influence the transmitted

electric power. In our demo, the SSSC is used to damp power oscillation on a power grid

following a three-phase fault.

The power grid consists of two power generation substations and one major load

center at bus B3. The first power generation substation (M1) has a rating of 2100 MVA,

representing 6 machines of 350 MVA and the other one (M2) has a rating of 1400 MVA,

representing 4 machines of 350 MVA. The load center of approximately 2200 MW is

modeled using a dynamic load model where the active & reactive power absorbed by the

load is a function of the system voltage.The generation substation M1 is connected to

this load by two transmission lines L1 and L2. L1 is 280-km long and L2 is split in two

segments of 150 km in order to

simulate a three-phase fault (using a fault breaker) at the midpoint of the line. The

generation substation M2 is also connected to the load bya 50-km line (L3). When the

SSSC is bypass, the power flow towards this major load is as follows: 664 MW flow on

L1 (measured at bus B2), 563 MW flow on L2 (measured at B4) and 990 MW flow on

L3 (measured at B3).

The SSSC, located at bus B1, is in series with line L1. It has a rating of 100MVA and

is capable of injecting up to 10% ofthe nominal system voltage. This SSSC is a phasor

model of a typical three-level PWM SSSC. If you open the SSSC dialog box

26

and select "Display Power data", you will see that our model represents a SSSC having a

DC link nominal voltage of 40kv an equivalent capacitance of 375 uF. On the AC side,

its total equivalent impedance is 0.16 pu on 100 MVA. This impedance

represents the transformer leakage reactance and the phase reactor of the IGBT bridge

of an actual PWM SSSC.The SSSC injected voltage reference is normally set by a POD

(Power Oscillation Damping) controller whose output is connected to the Vqref input of

the SSSC. The POD controller consists of an active power measurement system, a

general gain, a low-pass filter, a wash out high-pass filter, a lead compensator, and an

output limiter. The inputs to the POD controller are the bus voltage at B2 and the current

flowing in L1. Use the Edit/Look under mask" menu to see how the controller is built.

Demonstration

1.SSSC Dynamic Response:

We will first verify the dynamic response of our model. Open the "Step Vqref" block (the

red timer block connected to the "Vqref" input of the POD Controller).This block should

be programmed to modify the reference voltage Vqref as follows: Initially Vqref is set to

0 pu; at t=2 s, Vqref is set to -0.08 pu (SSSC inductive); then at t=6 s, Vqref is set to 0.08

pu (SSSC capacitive).Double-click on the POD Controller block and set the POD status

parameter to "off". This will disable the POD controller.Also, make sure that the fault

breaker will not operate during the simulation (the parameters "Switching of phase A, B

and C" should not be selected).

Run the simulation and look at Scope1. The first graph displays the Vqref signal

(magenta trace) along with the measured injected voltage by the SSSC. The second graph

displays the active

power flow (P_B2) on line L1, measured at bus B2. We can see thatthe SSSC regulator

follows very well the reference signal Vqref. Depending on the injected voltage, the

power flow on line varies from 575 to 750 MW. In a real system the reference signal

Vqref would typically be changed much more gradually in orderto avoid the oscillation

we see on the transmitted power (P_B2 signal). Double-click on the SSSC block and

27

select "DisplayControl parameters". Modify the "Maximum rate of change for Vqref

(pu/s)" parameter from 3 to 0.05. Rerun the simulation.The power oscillation on the

active power should now be very small.

2.SSSC damping power oscillation

We will now compare the operation of our SSSC with and without POD control.

Open the "Step Vqref" block and multiply by 1000 the time vector in order to disable the

Vqref variations. Double-click on the fault breaker and select the parameters "Switching

of phase A, B and C" to simulate a three-phase fault. The transition times should be set as

follows: [ 20/60 30/60]+1; this means that the fault will be applied at 1.33 s and will last

for 10 cycles. Run a simulation and observe the power oscillation on the L1 line (second

graph on Scope1) following the three-phase fault.

Now, we will run a second simulation with the POD controller in operation.

Double-click on the POD Controller block and set the POD status parameter to "on".

Start the simulation. Looking again at the second graph on Scope1 (P_B2 signal), we can

see that the SSSC with a POD controller is a very effective tool to damp power

oscillation.

SVC (Phasor Model)

Phasor Simulation of a Static Var Compensator

Steady-state and Dynamic Performance of the Static Var Compensator (SVC) Phasor

Model

A static var compensator (SVC) is used to regulate voltage on a 500 kV, 3000 MVA

sytem. When system voltage is low the SVC generates reactive power (SVC capacitive).

When system voltage is high it absorbs reactive power (SVC inductive). The SVC is

rated +200 Mvar capacitive and 100 Mvar inductive. The Static Var Compensator block

is a a phasor model representing the SVC static and dynamic characteristics at the system

fundamental frequency. o see the SVC control parameters, open the SVC dialog box and

28

select "Display Control parameters". The SVC is set in voltage regulation mode with a

reference voltage Vref=1.0 pu. The voltage droop is 0.03 pu/ 200MVA, so that the

voltage varies from 0.97 pu to 1.015 pu when the SVC current goes from fully capacitive

to fully inductive. Double click now on the blue blockto display the SVC V-I

characteristic.

The actual SVC positive-sequence voltage (V1) and susceptance (B1) are

measured inside the 'Signal Processing' subsystem using the complex voltages Vabc and

complex currents Iabc returned by the Three-Phase V-I Measurement block.

Dynamic Response of the SVC

The Three-Phase Programmable Voltage Source is used to vary the system voltage and

observe the SVC performance. Initially

the source is generating nominal voltage. Then, voltage is successively decreased (0.97

pu at t = 0.1 s), increased (1.03 pu at t = 0.4 s) and finally returned to nominal voltage (1

pu at t = 0.7 s).

Start the simulation and observe the SVC dynamic response to voltage steps on the

Scope. Trace 1 shows the actual positive-sequence susceptance B1 and control signal

output B of the voltage regulator. Trace 2 shows the actual system positive-sequence

voltageV1 and output Vm of the SVC measurement system.

The SVC response speed depends on the voltage regulator integral gain Ki

(Proportional gain Kp is set to zero), system strength (reactance Xn) and droop (reactance

Xs). If the voltage measurement time constant and average time delay Td due to valve

firin are neglected, the system can be approximated by a first order system having a

closed loop time constant :

Tc= 1/(Ki*(Xn+Xs))

With given system parameters (Ki = 300; Xn = 0.0667 pu/200 MVA; Xs = 0.03 pu/200

MVA), Tc = 0.0345 s. If you increase the regulator gain or decrease the system strength,

the measurement time constant and the valve firing delay Td will no longer be negligible

and you will observe an oscillatory response and eventually unstability.

29

2. Measurement of Steady-State V-I Characteristic

In order to measure the SVC steady-state V-I characteristic, you will now

program a slow variation of the source voltage.Open the Programmable Voltage Source

menu and change the "Type of Variation" parameter to "Modulation". The modulation

parameters are set to apply a sinusoidal variation of the positive-sequence voltage

between 0.75 and 1.25 pu in 20 seconds. In the Simulation->Configuration Parameters

menu change the stop time to 20 s and restart simulation. When simulation is completed,

double click the blue block. The theoretical V-I characteristic is displayed (in red)

together with the measured characteristic (in blue).

TCSC (Phasor Model)

The Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) phasor test system. This phasor

tests system is similar to the TCSC thyristor-based tests system in the library. The phasor

model however usethe equivalent impedances at the fundamental frequency, neglecting

all transients, and therefore it is not as accurate as the thyristor model. Nevertheless, the

phasor model is much simpler and the speed of simulation is increased. By comparing the

responses with the detailed model we can observe very good matching of all variables in

steady-state. Some small discrepancies are caused by the thyristor resistance and other

TCSC losses which are not included in the phasor model.

Circuit Description

A TCSC is placed on a 500kV, long transmission line, to improve power transfer.

Without the TCSC the power transfer is around110MW, as seen during the first 0.5s of

the simulation when the TCSC is bypassed. The TCSC is modeled as a voltage source

using equivalent impedance at fundamental frequency in each phase. The nominal

compensation is 75%, i.e. assuming only capacitors (firing angle of 90deg). The natural

oscillatory frequency of the TCSC is 163Hz, which is 2.7 times the fundamental

frequency. The test system is described in [1].

The TCSC can operate in capacitive or inductive mode, although the latter is rarely

used in practice. Since the resonance

30

for this TCSC is around 58deg firing angle, the operation is prohibited in firing angle

range 49deg - 69deg. Note that the

resonance for the overall system (when the line impedance is included) is around 67deg.

The capacitive mode is achieved with

firing angles 69-90deg. The impedance is lowest at 90deg, and therefore power transfer

increases as the firing angle is reduced.

In capacitive mode the range for impedance values is approximately 120-136

Ohm. This range corresponds to approximately 490-830MW power transfer range

(100%-110% compensation). Comparing with the power transfer of 110 MW with an

uncompensated line, TCSC enables significant improvement in power transfer level.

To change the operating mode (inductive/capacitive/manual) use the toggle switch

in the control block dialog. The inductive

mode corresponds to the firing angles 0-49deg, and the lowest impedance is at 0deg. In

the inductive operating mode, the range of impedances is 19-60 Ohm, which corresponds

to 100-85 MW range of power transfer level. The inductive mode reduces power transfer

over the line. A constant firing angle can also be applied and the same limits will apply as

above.

TCSC Control

When TCSC operates in the constant impedance mode it uses voltage and current

feedback for calculating the TCSC impedance.

The reference impedance indirectly determines the power level, although an automatic

power control mode could also be introduced.

A separate PI controller is used in each operating mode. The capacitive mode also

employs a phase lead compensator. Each controller further includes an adaptive control

loop to improve performance over a wide operating range. The controller gain scheduling

compensates for the gain changes in the system, caused by the variations in the

impedance.

31

The TCSC is simulated as a controllable volatge source in each phase. The voltage

magnitude is the product of equivalent complex impedance and the line current. The

expression for the TCSC impedance is given in [1].

Demonstration

Run the simulation and observe waveforms on the main variables scope block.

The TCSC is in the capacitive impedance control mode and the reference impedance is

set to 128 Ohm. For the first 0.5s, the TCSC is bypassed (assuming a circuit breaker), and

the power transfer is 110 MW. At 0.5s TCSC begins to regulate the impedance to 128

Ohm and this increases power transfer to 610MW. Note that the TCSC starts with alpha

at 90deg to enable lowest switching disturbance on the line.

Dynamic Response

At 2.5s a 5% change in the reference impedance is applied. The response indicates

that TCSC enables tracking of the reference impedance and the settling time is around

500ms. At 3.3s a 4% reduction in the source voltage is applied, followed by the return to

1p.u. at 3.8s. It is seen that the TCSC controller compensates for these disturbances and

the TCSC impedance stays constant. The TCSC response time is 200ms-300ms. Note that

the shape of transient response is in acurate with phasor model and the thyristor based

model should be used for studying transients.

UPFC (Phasor Model)

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) Used to Relieve Power Congestion on a

500/230 kV Grid

Circuit Description

32

A UPFC is used to control the power flow in a 500 kV /230 kV transmission

system. The system, connected in a loop configuration consists essentially of five buses

(B1 to B5) interconnected through transmission lines (L1, L2, L3) and two 500 kV/230

kV transformer banks Tr1 and Tr2. Two power plants located on the 230-kV system

generate a total of 1500 MW which is transmitted to a 500-kV 15000-MVA equivalent

and to a 200-MW load connected at bus B3. The plant models include a speed regulator,

an excitation system as well as a power system stabilizer (PSS). In normal operation,

most of the 1200-MW generation capacity of power plant #2 is exported to the 500-kV

equivalent through three 400-MVA transformers connected between buses B4 an B5.

For this demo we are considering a contingency case where only two transformers out of

three are available (Tr2= 2*40 MVA = 800 MVA).

Using the load flow option of the powergui block, the model has been initialized

with plants #1 and #2 generating respectively

500 MW and 1000 MW and the UPFC out of service (Bypass breaker closed). The

resulting power flow obtained at buses B1 to B5 is indicated by red numbers on the

circuit diagram. The load flow shows that most of the power generated by plant #2 is

transmitted through the 800-MVA transformer bank (899 MW out of 1000 MW), the rest

(101 MW), circulating in the loop. Transforme is therefore overloaded by 99 MVA. The

demonstration illustrates how the UPFC can relieve this power congestion.

The UPFC located at the right end of line L2 is used to control the active and reactive

powers at the 500-kV bus B3, as well as the voltage at bus B_UPFC. It consists of a

phasor model of two 100-MVA, IGBT-based, converters (one connected in shunt and one

connected in series and both interconnected through a DC bus on the DC side and to the

AC power system, through couplingreactors and transformers). Parameters of the UPFC

power components are given in the dialog box. The series converter can inject a

maximum of 10% of nominal line-to-ground voltage (28.87 kV) in series with line L2.

The blue numbers on the diagramshow the power flow with the UPFC in service and

controlling the B3 active and reactive powers respectively at 687 MW and-27 Mvar.

Demonstration

33

1.Power control with the UPFC

Open the UPFC dialog box and select "Display Control parameters (series

converter)". The control parameters of the series converter are displayed. Verify that

"Mode of operation = Power flow control". The UPFC reference active and reactive

powers are set in the magenta blocks labeled "Pref(pu)" and "Qref(pu)". Initially the

Bypass breaker is closed and the resulting natural power flow at bus B3 is 587 MW and -

27 Mvar. The Pref block is programmed with an initial active power of 5.87 pu

corresponding to the natural flow. Then, at t=10s, Pref is increased by 1 pu (100 MW),

from 5.87 pu to 6.87 pu, while Qrefis kept constant at -0.27 pu.

Run the simulation and look on the "UPFC" scope how P and Q measured at bus B3

follow the reference values. At t=5 s, when the Bypass breaker is opened the natural

power is diverted from the Bypass breaker to the UPFC series branch without

noticeabletransient. At t=10 s, the power increases at a rate of 1 pu/s. It takes one second

for the power to increase to 687 MW. This100 MW increase of active power at bus B3 is

achieved by injecting a series voltage of 0.089 pu with an angle of 94 degrees.

This results in an approximate 100 MW decrease in the active power flowing

through Tr2 (from 899 MW to 796 MW), which now carries an acceptable load. See the

variations of active powers at buses Bto B5 on the "VPQ Lines" scope.

1.UPFC P-Q controllable region

Now, open the UPFC dialog box and select "Show Control parameters (series

converter)". Select "Mode of operation= Manual Voltage injection". In this control mode

the voltage generated by the series inverter is controlled by two external signals Vd, Vq

multiplexed at the "Vdqref" input and generated in the Vdqref magenta block. For the

first five seconds the Bypass breaker stays closed, so that the PQ trajectory stays at the (-

27Mvar, 587 MW) point. Then when the breaker opens, the magnitude of the injected

series voltage is ramped, from 0.0094 to 0.1 pu. At 10 s, the angle of the injected voltage

starts varying at a rate of 45 deg./s.

34

Run the simulation and look on the "UPFC" scope the P and Q signals who vary

according to the changing phase of the injecte voltage. At the end of the simulation,

double-click on the blue block located at the bottom right of the model. The trajectory of

the UPFC reactive power as function of its active power, measured at bus B3 will be

displayed. The area located inside the ellipse represents the UPFC controllable region.

OLTC Phase Shifting Transformer (Phasor Model)

Operation of two models of delta-hexagonal Phase Shifting Transformer (PST)

using On Load Tap Changers (OLTC).

Circuit Description

Two 120 kV 1000 MVA networks are interconnected through a phase shifting

transformer (PST). The phase shift can be varied on load by means of On Load Tap

Changers (OLTC).

Demonstration

Open loop control of power transfer in order to observe impact of phase shift on

power transfer, the phase shift is increased from zero to 32.2 degrees lagging (tap +5),

then phase shift is reduced to zero and increased again up to 32.2 degrees leading. This is

performed by sending 5 pulses to the "Up" input, and then, 10 pulses to the "Down" input

". As the tap selection is a relatively slow mechanical process (3 sec per tap as specified

in the "Tap selection time" parameter of the block menus), the simulation Stop time is set

to 50 s.Start simulation and observe PST operation on the Scope. Results obtained with

the two models are superimposed on five traces.

Trace 1 shows the tap position.

Trace 2 shows a superposition of positive-sequence voltages measured at bus B1

(yellow) and bus B3 (magenta).

35

Traces 3 shows the phase shifts of positive-sequence voltages measured at output

terminals (abc) with respect to input terminals

(ABC).

Trace 4 compares the active power measured at bus B1 (yellow) and bus B3

(magenta).When simulation starts the OLTCs are at position 0 (zero phase shift). As the

two networks are symmetrical with both internal angles set at 0 degree, there is no current

flowing. Then, phase shift is increased and bus B2 (or B4) is lagging bus B1 (or B3). As

B2 is lagging the internal voltage of the source located on right side, power flows from

right to left. Power measured from left to right is therefore negative for positive tap

positions. The maximum power is obtained at tap +5 or -5 when the phase shift is

respectively -32.2 degrees and +32.2 degrees. The active power can be computed from

P= V1.V2*sin(psi)/(X1 +X2 + Xpst) , where: V1=V2=internal voltages= 1.0 pu ; X1=

X2 = network reactances = 1pu /1000 MVA Xpst= PST leakage reactance at tap 5. The

PST leakage reactance varies with tap position (from zero at tap zero to 0.15 pu at

maximum tap (10)). The positive-sequence impedance of the phasor model is available as

a signal at its measurement output "m". The reactance obtained at tap 5 is Xpst=0.1067

pu/ 300 MVA. The total reactance expressed in pu/100 MVA is X= 0.1 +0.1 + 0.1067/3

=0.2356 pu/100 MVA. The expected active power at tap 5 is P= 1*sin(32.2deg)/0.2356 =

2.26 pu/100 MVA or 226 MW, which corresponds well with the measured value on trace

4 (224 MW). Because of the voltage developed across the PST leakage reactance, the

phase shift measured between PST input and output voltages (trace 3) is lower than the

expected value. For example, 27.2 degrees is obtained at tap 5, instead of the 32.2

degrees theoretical value computed at no load. The phase shift variation depends on load

current. Initializing the phasor model

For the phasor model to start initialized at t=0, the current sources used in the model

must be initialized with current values

corresponding to steady state. Suppose that you want to start with the initial tap position

5. First, in the two block menus. "set Initial tap" parameter to 5. Then disconnect the

signals connected to the "Up" and "Down" inputs of the two models,so that the taps

stay at position 5. If you start simulation you will notice a transient in the phasor model

signals at t=0 because the model is not initialized. Use the "Steady-State Voltages and

36

Currents" option of the powergui to obtain the initial current flowing in the detailed

model at bus B4. The phase A output current identified "B2/Ia" is 1129.4 A rms,169

degrees. This current converted to per unit based on PST rating is 1129/1443 = 0.7824

pu/ 300MVA. Specify [ 0.7824 169] in the "Initial pos. seq. output current" parameter. If

you now restart simulation, you should observe no transient at t=0.

Operation under unbalanced condition.The phasor model is valid for unbalanced

conditions. If you check "Phase A Fault" in the two fault breakers, a single phase fault

will be applied at t=5s. The currents measured at buses B1 and B3 should be identical.

(For example at tap position +5: Ia=3.48 pu, Ib=2.25 pu Ic=2.10 pu ). Simulation with

phasor model only.In order to appreciate the gain in simulation speed provided by the

phasor model, delete the detailed PST model and replace it with a duplicate of the phasor

model. Reconnect control signals to the "Up" and "Down" inputs. Restart simulation. The

model runs approximately 5 times faster, mainly because the OLTC switches of the

detailed model are not simulated.

37

10. FACTS TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION AND

DEVELOPMENT

FACTS Installations and Utility Experience

In the emerging deregulated power systems, FACTS controllers will

provide several benefits at existing or enhanced levels of reliability

such as balancing the power flow in parallel networks over a wide

range of operating conditions, alleviating unwanted loop flow,

mitigating interarea power oscillations, and enhancing the power-

transfer capacity of existing transmission corridors.

In addition to the several successful installations of the first

generation, the second generation of FACTS controllers which uses

GTO-based VSC configurations is expected to evolve into another

mature family of FACTS controllers as several power utilities worldwide

have started installing such controllers. In 1991, a ±80 MVAR

STATCOM developed by Kansai Electric Power Co. (KEPCO) and

Mitsubishi Motors was installed at Inuyama

Switching Station to improve the stability of a 154 kV system .In 1995,

a ±100 MVAR STATCOM was commissioned for the Tennessee Valley

Authority (TVA) [173–175]. The TVA STATCOM is the first of its kind,

using GTO thyristor valves, to be commissioned in United States. In

1997, American Electric Power (AEP) has selected its Inez substation in

eastern Kentucky for the location of the world's first UPFC installation

FACTS Devices Technology Developme nt

The technology behind thyristor-based FACTS controllers has been present for several

decades and is therefore considered mature. More utilities are likely to adopt this

technology in the future as more promising GTO-based FACTS technology is fast

emerging. Recent advances in silicon power-switching devices that significantly increase

38

their power ratings will contribute even further to the growth of FACTS technology. A

relatively new device called the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) has been

developed with small gate consumption and small turn-on and turn-off times. The IGBT

has bi-directional current carrying capabilities. More effective use of pulse width

modulation techniques for control of output magnitude and harmonic distortion can be

achieved by increasing the switching frequencies to the low kHz range. However, IGBT

has until recently been restricted to voltages and currents in the medium power range.

Larger devices are now becoming available with typical ratings on the market

being 3.3 kV/1.2 kA (Eupec), 4.5 kV/2 kA (Fuji), and 5.2 kV/2 kA

(ABB) .The Integrated Gate Commutated thyristor (IGCT) combines the

excellent forward characteristics of the thyristor

and the switching performance of a bipolar transistor. In addition, IGCT

does not require snubber circuits and it has better turn-off

characteristics, lower conducting and switching loss, and simpler gate

control compared with GTO and IGBT .

39

11. CONCLUSION

In this review, the current status of power system stability

enhancement using FACTS controllers was discussed .The essential

features of FACTS controllers and their potential to enhance system

stability was addressed. The location and feedback signals used for

design of FACTS-based damping controllers were discussed.

The likely future direction of FACTS technology, especially

inrestructured power systems, was discussed as well. A brief review of

FACTS applications to optimal power flow and deregulated electricity

market has been presented.

In addition models of facts controller has been briefly summarized

40

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