Fabric Identification The Burn Test

Fabric Identification The Burn Test

Those who are related to textile in any way, need toknow the process of Fabric Identification. A Textilemanufacturer, wholesaler or a retailer will have toknow what fabric their prospective customers aregoing to buy and how they will test the end product-the finished fabric. This will equip them to make a

fabric having quality that will pass the designated test for it.On the other hand, the customers who can be anyone- a fashiondesigner, textile designers, tailor, garment manufacturer,manufacturer of other textile products or simply a homemaker whowants to sew a dress at home, they all will need a particulartype of fabric to make their ultimate desired product. It isbetter for them to test the fabric before putting it to use whichwill save both time and efforts in the long run. 

Burn Test- Precautions and the Method Burn test is the most accepted method for identifying the truenature of any fabric. This test is carried out to know whether afabric is made up of a natural fiber, man made fiber, or a blendof natural and man made fibers. 

PrecautionsThe burn test has to be carried out with greatprecaution. Arrangement of water near the site oftest should be made. The test should be done in ametal bucket, an old tuna tin or a glass ashtray.Plastic containers should always be avoided. If the

dish contains soda or even water at its bottom, its great. 

The MethodTo identify the fibers in an unknown piece of fabric, a snippetshould be cut off from it. This specimen should be about 1" longand a triangle at most 1/4" wide. The snippet of fabric should beheld in a pair of tweezers over the dish (which has already beenmade fireproof). With either a match or cigarette lighter, thesnippet should be put directly into the flame long enough for itto catch on fire.

Most of the fabrics burn and they have to be extinguished. Thereare other fabrics that burn until there is nothing to burn, orthey burn and go out on their own after a few seconds leavingremaining unburned fiber and are therefore self-extinguishing.There are certain other fabrics that does not burn even with aflame held directly to it.

Fibers can also be identified through the smell of the smoke itgives off in burning, and the ash or melted bead that remainsafter it has burned. Some of the fabrics are blends, and theblend of fibers may make the burn test rather unreliable test forfiber content. Moreover, some fabrics have chemical finishes andsizings applied to them that will change the way they burn,making the burn test further unreliable.

The fiber burn chart given below helps in identifying the natureof the fibers on the basis of their burning characteristics andthe smell and other properties of the remains such as smoke, ashetc. 

Reaction of Fibers to the Burn Test Cotton

Is a cellulose fiber. It burns and may flare up whenlit. No melted bead is left by it. After burning, itcontinues to glow. It gives out smell like that of aburning paper. The smoke is gray or white. The ash isfine, soft that can be easily crumbled. 

HempA cellulose fiber, burns quickly with bright flame. It leaves nomelted bead and after burning no sign of flame is seen but itdoes not melts. It smells like burning leaves or wood. The ash isgray and smoke has no fume hazard. 

JuteAlso a cellulose fiber, doesnt shrink from flame. Othercharacteristics are similar to those of hemp fabric.

Linen (Flax)

A cellulose fiber, it takes longer to ignite. It is easilyextinguished by blowing on it. Other properties are similar tohemp and jute. 

RayonIs a manufactured cellulose fiber. It burns without flame ormelting and may flare up. Unless there is a fabric finish, itdoesn't leave any bead. After the flame is removed, it may glow abit longer than cotton. It smells like burning paper and leavessoft, gray ash. It's smoke is a little hazardous.

SilkIs a protein fiber which burns slowly and curls awayfrom the flame. It leaves dark bead which can beeasily crushed. It is self-extinguishing and leavesash that is dark, gritty, fine powder. It smells likeburned hair or charred meat. It gives out a little orno smoke and the fume has no hazard. 

WoolIs a protein fiber which burns slowly. It sizzles and curls awayfrom flame and may curl back onto fingernail. It leaves beadsthat are brittle, dark, and easily crushed. It is self-extinguishing and leaves harsh ash from crushed bead. It givesout a strong odor of burning hair or feathers. It gives out darksmoke and moderate fume.

Acetate, TriacetateIs a protein fiber which burns quickly and can flare even afterflame is removed. The bead is hard, brittle, and can't becrushed. It melts into very hot bead and drips very dangerously.No ash is left by it and the smell is like hot vinegar or burningpepper. It gives out black smoke and the fume is hazardous. 

Nylon, PolymideAre made from petroleum. Due to their fabric finish, they quicklyburn and shrink to flame. The beads are hard, grayish anduncrushable. After flame, they burn slowly and melt. They areself-extinguishing but drip dangerously. Their odor is like

celery and they leave no ash but the fume is very hazardous.

PolyesterIs a polymer produced from coal, air, water, andpetroleum products. It burns quickly and shrinks awayfrom flame, may also flare up. It leaves hard, dark,and round beads. After the flame, it burns slowly andis not always self-extinguishing. It has a slightly

sweet chemical odor. It leaves no ash but its black smoke andfume are hazardous. 

Acrylic, Modacrylic, PolyacrylicMade from natural gas and petroleum, they flare up atmatch-touch, shrink from flame, burn rapidly with hotsputtering flame and drip dangerously. Beads arehard, dark, and with irregular shapes. They continue

melting after flame is removed and are self-extinguishing. Whenburning, they give out strong acrid, fishy odor. Although no ashis left but their black smoke and fume are hazardous.

As the procedure of fabric identification helps to ascertain thestructure of the materials, it is essentially undertaken by theweavers and other textile companies. The textile industry usesvarious machines, such as, inspection machine, burn machine,fabric dyeing machine, fabric insulation machine and such othermachines for carrying out the burn tests of fabrics. The fashionindustry is one of its most important aspect as they makespecific demands for special or usual cloth materials. Theenormous reputations of many famous fashion designer brands areregularly rising all over the world and their clothing lines havespecial labels declaring to have passed fabric burn tests.

Introduction:Mercerization is one of the most important finishing processes of cotton with a strong caustic alkaline solution in order to improve the lustre, hand and other properties. It imports gloss to the fibre, increases its hygroscopicity, strength and improves its dye affinity. Mercerizing improves the reactions

with a variety of chemicals and elongation of the fibres and also improves the stability of form. Mercerizing process consists in treatment of cellulosic materials with concentrated solutions of caustic soda at a temperature of 15 to 18°C. Mercerised cellulose is hydrated cellulose, i.e., a product which from the chemical point of view is identical to the original cellulose, but differing from it in physical properties. This method was patented in 1850 by the English calico printer John Mercer and hence forth this process has beencalled as mercerization.Cellulose Mercerizing Process: Mercerizing can be done in both yarn state and fabric state. Woven fabrics are mercerized in full width and mercerizing of knit fabric is possible in both full width and tubular form. In the past, knitwear was made with mercerised yarn, but this process was very expensive. Tubular fabric can be mercerized, but this process offers no control over the technological data of the finished fabric. In addition, the consumption of caustic soda, water and steam is significantly higher than with a modern, open width mercerization system. Stages at which cellulose mercerization is possible are- On greige goods, After desizing, After desizing and scouring, After bleaching, After dyeing Usually sodium hydroxide concentration varies from 20% - 30%.The process, done in a continuous way, involves four subsequent steps:a. Impregnation of the material in relaxed state, cold caustic solution of required strength and wettability.b. Stretching while the material is still impregnated in the caustic solution.c. Washing off the caustic soda from the material while keeping the material still in the stretch state. d. Neutralizing with acids and rinsing.Physico-chemical changes during mercerization:Under the action of concentrated alkaline solutions chemical, physico-chemical and structural modifications of cellulose take place. Native cellulose (Cellulose I) forms alkali cellulose I with concentrated sodium hydroxide. On washing and neutralisation cellulose II is formed.

As a result of the penetration of the alkali into the lattice, internal hydrogen bonds are broken and in Cellulose II the number of available hydroxyl groups (-OH) is increased by around25%. The treatment with alkali and subsequent washing may be performed so that the fabric or yarn may either freely contract or they may be held under tension. In both cases the mercerised cotton has an increased affinity for both reactive and direct cotton dyes, water and an increased strength. Cotton yarn or fabric mercerized without tension contracts, but if held under tension it retains its original dimensions and the lustre is increased. Major changes during Mercerization can be divided into three levels.

At Fibre level, Swelling; Cross sectional morphology changes from beam shape to round shape and Shrinkage occur along with longitudinal direction. At Molecular level, It will have Hydrogen bond readjustment, Orientation (parallelization) of molecular chains in amorphous region along the direction of fibre length and Orientation of the crystallinity in the direction of the fibre length. On the other hand it facilitates Chemical Changes like, Increased rate of reaction on hydrolysis and oxidation; Liberation of heat during the caustic treatment (heat of sorption and heat of reaction; Increase in the alkali absorption and Increase in the absorption of iodine.Different mercerizing machinery/technology:The fabrics undergo value addition by special mercerizing process. At present different types of mercerizing machines are installed in different manufacturing unit. Different types of machine is available depending on the fabrics required to be processed (Knit, Woven), expected quality level, energy efficiency, addition of caustic recovery unit, form of fabric (open width, tubular) etc. Some categories of mercerizing machines are-

Knitted fabric mercerizing m/c. Woven fabric mercerizing m/c. Automatic hank yarn mercerizing m/c. Chainlesss-padless mercerizing range.

Clip mercerizing m/c. Open width fabric mercerizing m/c with caustic recovery

unit.

Dornier (Germany) and Goller (China) are the prominent brand or manufacturer of mercerizing machines. Goller introduced their latest mercerizing range consists the features of counter current flow, dipping washing, low energy consumption and power spray.Mercerization increases fibre lustre: Concentrated solutions of caustic soda cause considerable swelling of cotton fibre. The changes in cellulose physical properties are being irreversible. When the fibre swells, its volume undergoes considerable changes; at maximum water absorption, the cross section of cotton fibre is increased by 40to 50% with inconsiderable increase in length (about 1 to 2%). Swelling of fibre changes its cross section from squashed circular pipe shape to an oval shaped.

Lustre of a fibre is due to the regular reflection of light incident on the fibre surface, which depends on the cross-section of the fibre. If the fibres are placed under a tension or stretched position in the swollen state and then washed to reduce the caustic concentration below a particular limit, then there is an increase in the lustre of the fibre.1.  Before mercerizing2-5. Swelling stage with 18% sodium hydroxide6. Washing stage after mercerization7. Final stageThe main factors influencing the factors of selling are temperature of treatment, the concentration of the alkali in thesolution and additions made to the solution.Mercerization increases tensile strength: When cotton fibre, yarn or cloth is mercerized, its strength increased by 10-50%. The tensile strength increase depends on various factors, such as temperature of impregnation, concentration of alkali in impregnating bath, construction of yarn etc. Lower the temperature of mercerization, greater is the

tensile strength (breaking load of the yarn). Increase of alkaliconcentration up to 520 Tw, tensile strength increased graduallyand further increase of alkali concentration decrease the tensile strength. For long staple fibre yarn, greater the twist,greater is the tensile strength of mercerized material.Ecological impact and recovery of Sodium hydroxide:The main ecological impact in mercerizing is the high concentrated residual lye. Treating cotton materials with strongsodium hydroxide and washing it off gives a large volume of dilute NaOH solution, which cannot be discharged into the drain for economy and pollution points of view. By suitable means it is possible to recover/reuse 90-95% of NaOH used in mercerizing.The alkaline load of waste water is reduced drastically and acidrequired for waste water neutralisation is minimised. Wash liquor may be used for the preparation of sodium hypochlorite solution (for use in bleaching). NaOH from the impregnated fabric may be recovered by washing using counter-current principle and by using steam in a recuperator.Conclusion:Looking at the information presented so far, we can conclude that mercerized cotton absorbs more water and dye than unmercerized cotton, and that the twist in yarn will affect the water handling properties of that yarn proportionate to the amount of twist. Mercerized cotton gains more lustrous surface than unmercerized cotton. Tensile strength and hygroscopicity also increased by mercerizing cellulose materials.References:

Technology of textile processing, vol:3, Technology ofbleaching and mercerizing, Prof. V.A. Shenai

Mercerising, J.T Marsh Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibres, Trotman Introduction to Texile Finishing, J.T.Marsh Mercerization of cellulosic fibres Mercerization of cellulosic fibres

-http://www.thesmarttime.com/processing/mercerisation.htm processing/mercerisation.htm Open width mercerising of knitwear, The Indian Textile

Journal

Recovery of alkali from mercerising, The Smart time,Textile processing guide

Chemical Technology in the Pre-Treatment Processes ofTextiles, By S.R. Karmakar

The impact of cotton fibre properties on textile processing performance, quality and costsChapter 2 - Cotton value addition - The impact of cotton fibre properties on textile

Cotton fibre is increasingly facing competition from artificial fibres, notably polyester. Cotton, being a natural product, varies widely in its fibre characteristics, both physical and chemical (mainly physical), because of genetic, environmental, harvesting and ginning factors. There are essentially four commercially grown cotton species: medium staple length and medium fine Gossypium hirsutum, American Upland (whichaccounts for over 90% of global cotton production); long staple and fine Gossypium barbadense; and the short staple coarse Gossypium arboreumand G. herbaceum (together known as Desi cottons). The physical, chemical and related characteristics of cotton lint, including the type and amount of non-fibrous matter present and ‘fibre configuration’ (preparation, neps etc.), determine its textile processing performance and behaviour, in terms of processing waste and efficiency (including machine stoppages and spinning breaks) and yarn and fabric quality (see figures 2.10 and 2.11). Ultimately these characteristics also determine both conversion costs and product end-use, price and quality.

The fibre represents 50%–70% of the yarn manufacturing costs. Ideally, therefore, the price of cotton should be linked to fibre characteristics. The relationship between cotton fibre price and properties has been investigated by Chakraborty et al (see figure 2.12); Deussen and Neuhaus have also advanced tables suggesting a link between cotton price and fibre properties.

Source: Chakraborty et al.

Increasing quality and performance demands are being placed on the entire textile pipeline, from raw material to end-product. For example, some 20 years ago 15 non-reparable faults per 100 metres of cotton fabric were permitted, today it is 5, and

thismay become 3 in future. Seconds have also come down from 3% to 0.5%, with 0.3% possible in future (Weissenberger and Legler). Weaving machine stops have decreased by50% over the same period, some 20%–30% of such stops being due to yarn defects, the repair of each end-break costing about 70 cents. It is known that thin yarn places having extension and strength below certain minimum limits cause weaving end-breaks, such thin places and other defects in the yarn being influenced by fibre properties and spinning mill conditions.

In view of this, it is understandable that efforts are continuously being directed towards improving the desirable properties of cotton and eliminating or minimizing anyundesirable properties. Such efforts are aimed at breeding, farming and ginning practices as well as at textile processing systems and conditions. Furthermore, it is hardly surprising that for over a century so much effort has gone into developing instrument methods for accurately measuring cotton fibre properties (preferably testing each bale of cotton), and quantitatively relating the measured properties to processing performance and yarn and fabric properties, so as to improve and optimize quality all-round (see box below). Tremendous progress has been made in this regard, avery good example being the development of the systems for high volume testing of cotton, commonly referred to as HVI systems. In 2006 there were some 2,000 such systems in place in over 70 countries, which, in theory, were capable of annually testing the entire global cotton crop of some 25 million tons.

In spite of the extensive research (experimental and theoretical) carried out to relate the measured characteristics of cotton to processing performance and yarn quality, no ‘generic’ relationships, or other empirical or theoretical means are as yet available to accurately relate cotton fibre properties to subsequent textile performance. The reasons for this include the tremendous variations in cotton fibre properties and their interrelationships, as well as variations in processing conditions, and the interactions between processing conditions and fibre properties. The relative importance of the fibre properties also depends on the spinning system

(see table 2.1), on whether or not the cotton is combed, and on the fineness of the yarn being spun.

This chapter briefly discusses the measurement of fibre properties and the impact of changes in fibre properties on textile processing performance, quality and costs. Nevertheless, the cost implications of changes in fibre properties are complex, being not only highly mill and product dependent but also difficult to isolate and quantify,even within a mill. For example, how does one calculate the cost implications of a deterioration in yarn evenness due to a decrease in cotton fibre length or an increasein short fibre content? Another example is the cost implications of an increase in cotton waste due to an increase in short fibre content, taking into consideration the recycling and/or selling of waste. It has been estimated that an increase of 1% in carding waste and in blowroom waste increases yarn costs by about 1%, while an increase of 1% each in blowroom, carding, combing and spinning waste can increase yarncosts by over 3%. Because of these complexities, the cost implications of changes in fibre properties will only be touched upon. The measurement and effect of cotton fibreproperties. 

The initial cotton fibre instrument measurement (laboratory) systems, developed duringthe first half of the twentieth century (e.g. Pressley tester in the early 1940s and the Stelometer and Colorimeter in the early 1950s), tended to be time consuming and tobe fairly operator-dependent, and it was increasingly realized systems were needed, preferably automatic or even online, in which all relevant fibre characteristics couldbe measured accurately, rapidly and cost effectively, with little operator involvement. Nevertheless, it took many decades before this goal was reached. A major step in this direction was the development of the High Volume Instrument (HVI). From its development in the late 1960s, commercial introduction in the late 1970s and firstuse for cotton classing in the early 1980s, the high volume testing of cotton has madeenormous strides and has become widely accepted globally. Despite certain shortcomings, it remains the only method for the wide-scale and cost-effective testingand classing of the global cotton crop.

The latest generations of high volume testing systems can test for all the traditionalHVI measured properties, plus short fibre content, neps, seed coat neps, stickiness, maturity and moisture content as well as additional colour parameters (separately fromthose of trash and other contaminants). In some cases, however, such detailed testing

is accompanied by a loss in testing speed and further improvements are still required,particularly in terms of the measurement and characterisation of trash. It can safely be said that the lint characteristics routinely measured by high volume systems today account for the bulk, but not all, of the variations in the textile processing behaviour and yarn quality of cotton. Nevertheless, the accuracy and reproducibility of the test results for some of the properties described above have not as yet achieved the levels required by industry. Under the auspices of the International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC), Washington, DC, a Task Force was installed in 2003 to facilitate standardized and harmonized test results for commercial use of high volume testing: the ICAC Task Force on Commercial Standardization of Instrument Testing of Cotton (CSITC). One main objective of the CSITC is the installation of a CSITC Round Trial system. With this system three aims can be achieved:

Evaluation of the high volume test methods and the test result variability Inter-laboratory variability; In-laboratory variability. 

Evaluation/rating of the participating laboratories based on the trueness of theresults.

Detailed analysis of laboratory results to achieve more accurate results based on trueness and precision.

The Round Trial system was installed in 2007, and every testing facility is invited toparticipate.

The first aim will help to assess the suitability of the properties tested with high volume systems. With the second aim a certification scheme for laboratories is given, although there are no “pass/fail” criteria, but a grading of the overall results. Eachtesting facility will be able to proof its qualitification for testing with the certificate based on the rating. The third aim will help the laboratories to achieve more reliable results.

ICAC is hosting the CSITC Round Trials, which are conducted in cooperation between theUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA-AMS) and the Bremen Fibre Institute (FIBRE). Information is given and registration is possible on the ICAC web pages (www.icac.org) or by e-mail ( [email protected] e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it).

The ultimate aim is to be able to measure once only, in an accurate, routine, rapid and cost-effective manner, all those cotton characteristics (see box on page 44) that play a role, however small, in determining processing route and performance, product quality, utilisation and application and ultimately the commercial value, and then to be able to quantitatively relate these properties to the subsequent textile processingperformance, utilization and quality, on a mill-specific basis. The results so generated should accompany the bale until it reaches its final destination.

Another important and popular development relates to rapid, individualized fibre measurement systems for cotton (e.g. electro-optical systems, such as AFIS – Advanced Fibre Information System), enabling the accurate and detailed laboratory measurement of properties such as length (including short fibre content), neps (fibrous as well asseed coat), trash, dust, fineness and maturity (also immature fibre content, <0.25),

and their respective distributions. In 2006 there were some 800 AFIS systems in place worldwide. The advantage of such systems is that they supply more detailed information, even down to the individual fibre level, also covering properties presently not measured by high volume systems. The main drawback of these systems, in terms of the routine high volume testing of cotton for classing and trading purposes, is their relative slowness, although higher speed systems are slowly making their appearance.

The application of NIR (near infra-red), and other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, for measuring certain cotton properties (e.g. maturity, stickiness and moisture content) also represents a potentially promising field of research. Such measurement systems, being non-contact and non-destructive, lend themselves to online applications, as well as to being extremely rapid and versatile.  

Wet processing engineeringFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013)

Wet processing engineering is one of the major streams in textile engineering refers to textile chemical processing engineering and applied science. The other three streams in textile engineering are yarn manufacturing engineering, fabric manufacturing engineering and garments manufacturing engineering.

Wet process is usually done on the manufactured assembly of interlacing fibers, filaments, and/or yarns having substantial surface (planar) area in relation to its thickness, and adequate mechanical strength to give it a cohesive structure. In other words, wet process is done on manufactured fabric. The processes of this stream is involved or carried out in aqueous stage and thus it is called wet process which usually covers pretreatment, dyeing, printing and finishing.

All of these stages are required aqueous medium which is created by water. A massive amount of water is required in these processes per day. It is estimated that, on an average, almost 100 liter of water is used to process only 1 kg of textile goods.[citation needed] Water can be of various quality and attributes. Not all water can be used in the textile process, it must have some certain properties, quality, color & attributes for being used in textile processes. That is why wateris a prime concerned in wet processing engineering.

Contents

  [hide] 

1   Water 2   Pretreatment

o 2.1   Singeing

o 2.2   Desizing

o 2.3   Scouring

o 2.4   Bleaching

o 2.5   Mercerizing 3   Dyeing

o 3.1   Solution Dyeing

o 3.2   Fiber dyeing

o 3.3   Yarn dyeing

o 3.4   Fabric dyeing 3.4.1   Union dyeing

3.4.2   Cross dyeing

o 3.5   Product dyeing 4   Dye types 5   Printing 6   Finishing

o 6.1   Calendering

o 6.2   Raising

o 6.3   Crease resistance 7   References

Water[edit]Most water used in the textile industry is from deep well water which is found 800 ft below the surface level. The main problem which is concerned in using water in textile processes is water hardness caused by the presence of soluble saltsof metals including calcium and magnesium. Iron, aluminum and copper salts may also contribute to the hardness, but their effects are much less. Using hard water in wet process can cause problems such as the formation of scale in boilers, reactions with soap and detergents, reaction with dyes and problems due to Iron.

Water hardness can be removed by boiling process, liming process, sodalime process, base exchange process or synthetic ion exchange process. Recently some companies have started harvesting rain water for use in wet processes as it is less likely to cause the problems associated with water hardness.

Pretreatment[edit]Wet processing engineering (WPE) is the most significant division in the textile preparation and processing. It is a major stream in textile engineering which is under the section of textile chemical processing engineering and applied science. Textile manufacturing is covers everything from fiber to apparel; covering with yarn, fabric, fabric dyeing, printing, finishing, garments or apparel manufacturing. There are many variable processes available at the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of the finishing and coloration processes to the production of a wide ranges of products.

In Bangladesh, textile manufacturing is a major industry. In this industry, wet processing plays a vital role in the area of pre-treatment, dyeing, printing and finishing of both fabrics and apparels. But coloration in fiber stage or yarn stage is also included in the wet processing division.

All the processes of this stream are carried out in an aqueous state or aqueous medium. The main processes of this section include;

Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching Mercerizing Dyeing Printing Finishing

Singeing[edit]The process of singeing is carried out for the purpose of removing the loose hairy fibers protruding from the surface ofthe cloth, thereby giving it a smooth, even and clean looking face. Singeing is an essential process for the goods or textile material which will be subjected to mercerizing, dyeing and printing to obtain best results from these processes.

The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibers, then passes over a plate heated by gas flames. When done to fabrics containing cotton, this results in increased wettability, better dyeing characteristics, improved reflection, no "frosty" appearance, a smoother surface, better clarity in printing, improved visibility of the fabric structure, less pilling and decreased contamination through removal of fluff and lint.

Singeing machines can be of three types: plate singeing, roller singeing, or gas singeing. Gas singeing is widely used in the textile industry. In gas singeing, a flame comes into direct contact to the fabric and burn the protruding fiber.Here, flame height and fabric speed is the main concern to minimize the fabric damage.

Singeing is performed only in the woven fabric. But in case of knit fabric, similar process of singeing is known as biopolishing where enzyme is used to remove the protruding fibres.

Singeing is a mechanical process by which hairy,loose fibres are removed from the surface of the textile material eitherby heating or burning to make the material smoother and lustrous.

Importance: same to bio-polishing without point 5

Desizing[edit]Desizing is the process of removing sizing materials from the fabric, which is applied in order to increase the strengthof the yarn which can withstand with the friction of loom. Fabric which has not been desized is very stiff and causes difficulty in its treatment with different solution in subsequent processes.

After singeing operation the sizing material is removed by making it water soluble and washing it with warm water. Desizing can be done by either the hydrolytic method (rot steep, acid steep, enzymatic steep) or the oxidative method (chlorine, chloride, bromite, hydrogen peroxide)

Depending on the sizing materials that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the sizing material. Enzymes are applied in the desizing process if starch is used as sizing materials. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Poly vinyl alcohol (PVA) are often used as sizing materials.

Scouring[edit]Scouring is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to remove natural wax and non-fibrous impurities (e.g. the remains of seed fragments) from the fibers and any added soiling or dirt. Scouring is usually carried in iron vessels called kiers. The fabric is boiled in an alkali, which forms a soap with free fatty acids (saponification). A kier is usually enclosed, so the solution of sodium hydroxide can be boiled under pressure, excluding oxygen which woulddegrade the cellulose in the fiber. If the appropriate reagents are used, scouring will also remove size from the fabricalthough desizing often precedes scouring and is considered to be a separate process known as fabric preparation. Preparation and scouring are prerequisites to most of the other finishing processes. At this stage even the most naturally white cotton fibers are yellowish, and bleaching, the next process, is required.

The three main processes involved in the scouring are saponification, emulsification and detergency.

The main chemical reagent used in the cotton scouring is sodium hydroxide which converts saponifiable fats and oils intosoaps, dissolves mineral matter and converts pectose and pectin into their soluble salts.

Another scouring chemical is detergent which is an emulsifying agent and removes dust and dirt particles from the fabric.

Since damage can be caused to the cotton substrate by sodium hydroxide. Due to this, and in order to reduce alkali content in the effluent, Bio-scouring is introduced in the scouring process in which biological agent is used, such as an enzyme.

Bleaching[edit]Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fiber will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable. However, for white bed sheets and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.

Reductive bleaching is also carried out, using sodium hydrosulphite. Fibers like polyamide, polyacrylics and polyacetates can be bleached using reductive bleaching technology.

After scouring and bleaching, optical brightening agents (OBA), are applied to make the textile material appear more white. These OBAs are available in different tints such as blue, violet and red.

Mercerizing[edit]Mercerization is a treatment for cotton fabric and thread that gives fabric or yarns a lustrous appearance and strengthens them. The process is applied to cellulosic materials like cotton or hemp. A further possibility is mercerizing during which the fabric is treated with sodium hydroxide solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washedout before the tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on grey cloth, or after bleaching.

Dyeing[edit]Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. After dyeing, dye molecules have uncut chemical bond with fiber molecules. The temperature and time controlling are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly two classes of dye, natural and man-made.

Solution Dyeing[edit]Solution dyeing, also known as dope or spun dyeing, is the process of adding pigments or insoluble dyes to the spinning solution before the solution is extruded through the spinneret. Only manufactured fibers can be solution dyed. It is used for difficult-to-dye fibers such as olefin fibers, and for dyeing fibers for end uses that require excellent colorfastness properties. Because the color pigments become a part of the fiber, solution dyed materials have excellent colorfastness to light, washing, crocking (rubbing), perspiration, and bleach. Dyeing at the solution stage is more expensive since the equipment has to be cleaned thoroughly each time a different color is produced. Thus, the variety ofcolors and shades produced are limited. In addition, it is difficult to stock the inventory for each color. Decisions regarding color have to be made very early in the manufacturing process. Thus, this stage of dyeing is usually not used for apparel fabrics.

Filament fibers that are produced using the wet spinning method can be dyed while the fibers are still in the coagulating bath. The dye penetration at this stage is high as the fibers are still soft. This method is known as gel dyeing.

Fiber dyeing[edit]Stock dyeing, top dyeing, and tow dyeing are used to dye fibers at various stages of the manufacturing process prior to the fibers being spun into yarns. The names refer to the stage at which the fiber is when it is dyed. All three are included under the broad category of fiber dyeing.

Stock dyeing is dyeing raw fibers, also called stock, before they are aligned, blended, and spun into yarns.

Top dyeing is dyeing worsted wool fibers after they have been combed to straighten and remove the short fibers. The woolfiber at this stage is known as top. Top dyeing is preferred for worsted wools as the dye does not have to be wasted on the short fibers that are removed during the combing process.

Tow dyeing is dyeing filament fibers before they are cut into short staple fibers. The filament fibers at this stage areknown as tow.

The dye penetration is excellent in fiber dyeing, therefore the amount of dye used to dye at this stage is also higher. Fiber dyeing is comparatively more costly than yarn, fabric, and product dyeing. The decision regarding the selection ofcolors has to be made early in the manufacturing process. Fiber dyeing is typically used to dye wool and other fibers that are used to produce yarns with two or more colors. Fibers for tweeds and fabrics with a “heather” look are often fiber dyed.

Yarn dyeing[edit]Yarn dyeing adds color at the yarn stage. Skein, package, beam, and space dyeing methods are used to dye yarns.

In skein dyeing the yarns are loosely wound into hanks or skein and then dyed. The yarns have good dye penetration, but the process is slow and comparatively more expensive.

In package dyeing yarns that have been wound on perforated spools are dyed in a pressurized tank. The process is comparatively faster, but the dye uniformity may not be as good as that of skein dyed yarn.

In beam dyeing a perforated warp beam is used instead of the spools used in package dyeing.

Space dyeing is used to produce yarns with multiple colors.

In general, yarn dyeing provides adequate color absorption and penetration for most materials. Thick and highly twisted yarns may not have good dye penetration. This process is typically used when different colored yarns are used in the construction of fabrics (e.g. plaids, checks, iridescent fabrics).

Fabric dyeing[edit]Fabric dyeing, also known as piece dyeing, is dyeing fabric after it has been constructed. It is economical and the mostcommon method of dyeing solid colored fabrics. The decision regarding color can be made after the fabric has been manufactured. Thus, it is suitable for quick response orders. Dye penetration may not be good in thicker fabrics, so yarn dyeing is sometimes used to dye thick fabrics in solid colors. Various types of dyeing machines are used for piece dyeing. The selection of the equipment is based on factors such as dye and fabric characteristics, cost, and the intended end use.

Union dyeing[edit]Union dyeing is “a method of dyeing a fabric containing two or more types of fibers or yarns to the same shade so as to achieve the appearance of a solid colored fabric”.[1]Fabrics can be dyed using a single or multiple step process. Union dyeing is used to dye solid colored blends and combination fabrics commonly used for apparel and home furnishings.

Cross dyeing[edit]Cross dyeing is “a method of dyeing blend or combination fabrics to two or more shades by the use of dyes with differentaffinities for the different fibers”.[1] The cross dyeing process can be used to create heather effects, and plaid, check, or striped fabrics. Cross dyed fabrics may be mistaken for fiber or yarn dyed materials as the fabric is not a solid color, a characteristic considered typical of piece dyed fabrics. It is not possible to visually differentiate between cross dyed fabrics and those dyed at the fiber or yarn stage. An example is cross dyeing blue worsted wool fabric with polyester pin stripes. When dyed, the wool yarns are dyed blue, whereas the polyester yarns remain white.

Cross dyeing is commonly used with piece or fabric dyed materials. However, the same concept is applicable to yarn and product dyeing. For example, silk fabric embroidered with white yarn can be embroidered prior to dyeing and product dyedwhen an order is placed.

Product dyeing[edit]Product dyeing, also known as garment dyeing, is the process of dyeing products such as hosiery, sweaters, and carpet after they have been produced. This stage of dyeing is suitable when all components dye the same shade (including threads). This method is used to dye sheer hosiery since it is knitted using tubular knitting machines and then stitchedprior to dyeing. Tufted carpets, with the exception of carpets produced using solution dyed fibers, are often dyed afterthey have been tufted. This method is not suitable for apparel with many components such as lining, zippers, and sewing thread, as each component may dye differently. The exception is tinting jeans with pigments for a “vintage” look. In tinting, color is used, whereas in other treatments such as acid-wash and stone-wash, chemical or mechanical processes are used. After garment construction, these products are given the "faded" or "used" look by finishing methods as opposed to dyeing.

Dyeing at this stage is ideal for quick response. Many t-shirts, sweaters, and other types of casual clothing are product dyed for maximum response to fashion’s demand for certain popular colors. Thousands of garments are constructed from prepared-for-dye (PFD) fabric, and then dyed to colors that sell best.

Dye types[edit]Acid dyes are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers.

Basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid is added to the dyebath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber.

Direct or substantive dyeing is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly alkaline dyebath, at or near boiling point, with the addition of either sodium chloride, sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate. Direct dyes are used on cotton, paper, leather, wool, silk and nylon.

Mordant dyes require a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration. The choiceof mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final color significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant, potassium dichromate, is applied as an after-treatment. Many mordants, particularly those in the heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be takenin using them.

Vat dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibers directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water soluble alkali metal salt of the dye, which, in this leuco form, has an affinity for the textile fiber. Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The color of denim is due to indigo, the original vat dye.

Reactive dyes utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fiber substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio.

Disperse dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate, and are water insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their mainuse is to dye polyester but they can also be used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers. In some cases,a dyeing temperature of 130 °C is required, and a pressurised dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a largesurface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.

Azoic dyeing is a technique in which an insoluble azo dye is produced directly onto or within the fiber. This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components. This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the toxic nature of the chemicals used.

Sulfur dyes are two part "developed" dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors. The initial bath imparts a yellow or palechartreuse color, This is after–treated with a sulfur compound in place to produce the dark black we are familiar with in socks for instance. Sulfur Black 1 is the largest selling dye by volume.

Printing[edit]Textile printing is referred as localized dyeing. It is the application of color in the form of a paste or ink to the surface of a fabric, in a predetermined pattern. Printing designs onto already dyed fabric is also possible. In properlyprinted fabrics the color is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related todyeing but, whereas in dyeing proper the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one color, in printing one or more colors are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns. In printing, wooden blocks, stencils, engraved plates, rollers, or silkscreens can be used to place colors on the fabric. Colorants used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the color from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or design.

Finishing[edit]Textile finishing is the term used for a series of processes to which all bleached, dyed, printed and certain grey fabrics are subjected before they put on the market. The object of textile finishing is to render textile goods fit for their purpose or end-use and/or improve serviceability of the fabric.

Finishing on fabric is carried out for both aesthetic and functional purposes to improve the quality and look of a fabric. Fabric may receive considerable added value by applying one or more finishing processes. Finishing processes include

Raising Calendering Crease resistance Filling Softening Stiffening Water repellency Moth proofing Mildew-proofing Flame retardant Anti-static soil resistance

Calendering[edit]Calendering is an operation carried out on a fabric to improve its aesthetics. The fabric passes through a series of calender rollers by wrapping; the face in contact with a roller alternates from one roller to the next. An ordinary calender consists of a series of hard and soft (resilient) bowls (rollers) placed in a definite order. The soft roller may be compressed with either cotton or wool-paper, linen paper or flax paper. The hard metal bowl is either of chilled iron or cast iron or steel. The calender may consist of 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10 rollers. The sequence of the rollers is that no two hard rollers are in contact with each other. Pressure may be applied by compound levers and weights, or hydraulicpressure may be used as an alternative. The pressure and heat applied in calendering depend on the type of the finish required.

The purposes of calendering are to upgrade the fabric hand and to impart a smooth, silky touch to the fabric, to compress the fabric and reduce its thickness, to improve the opacity of the fabric, to reduce the air permeability of the fabric by changing its porosity, to impart different degree of luster of the fabric, and to reduce the yarn slippage.

Raising[edit]An important and oldest textile finishing is brushing or raising. Using this process a wide variety of fabrics includingblankets, flannelettes and industrial fabrics can be produced. The process of raising consists of lifting from the body of the fabric a layer of fibers which stands out from the surface which is termed as "pile". The formation of pile on a fabric results in a "lofty" handle and may also subdue the weave or pattern and color of the cloth.

There are to types of raising machine; Teasel machine and Card-wire machine. The speed of the card-wire raising machine varies from 12-15 yards per minute, which is 20-30% higher than that of teasel-raising. That is why the card-wire raising machine is widely used.

Crease resistance[edit]Crease formation in woven or knitted fabric composed of cellulose during washing or folding is the main drawback of cotton fabrics. The molecular chains of the cotton fibers are attached with each other by weak hydrogen bonds. During

washing or folding, the hydrogen bonds break easily and after drying new hydrogen bonds form with the chains in their new position and the crease are stabilized. If crosslink between the polymer chains can be introduce by crosslinking chemicals, then it reinforce the cotton fibers and prevent the permanent displacement of the polymer chains when the fibers are stressed. It is therefore much more difficult for creases to form or for the fabric to shrinkon washing.

In crease-resist finishing of cotton, following steps are followed

1. Padding the material with a solution containing a condensation polymer precursor and a suitable polymerizationcatalyst.

2. Drying and curing in a stenter frame to form crosslink between the polymer chain and adjacent polymer chain.

The catalyst allows the reaction to be carried out 130-180 degree temperature range usually employed in the textile industry and within the usual curing time(within 3 minutes, maximum).

Mainly three classes of catalysts are commonly used now a day.

Ammonium salts , e.g.Ammonium chloride, sulphate and nitrate. Metal salts e.g. Magnesium chloride, Zinc nitrate, Zinc chloride. Catalyst mixture e.g. magnesium chloride with added organic and inorganic acids or acid donors.

The purpose of the additives is to offset or counterbalance partly or completely the adverse effect of the crosslinking agent. Thus softening and smoothing agents are applied not only to improve the handle, but also to compensate as much aspossible for losses in tear strength and abrasion resistance. Every resin finish recipe contains surfactants as emulsifiers, wetting agents and stabilizers. these surface-active substances are necessary to ensure that the fabric is wet rapidly and thoroughly during padding and the components are stable in the liquor.

References[edit]

1. ^ Jump up to: a  b Dictionary of Fiber & Textile Technology. KoSa. 1999. ISBN 9780967007106.

COTTON FIBERSUpdated: April, 2004- Raghavendra R. Hegde, Atul Dahiya, M. G. Kamath

(Xiao Gao and Praveen Kumar Jangala)

1. INTRODUCTION

Cotton today is the most used textile fiber in the world.Its current market share is 56 percent for all fibersused for apparel and home furnishings and sold inthe U.S. [1]. Another contribution is attributed tononwoven textiles and personal care items. It isgenerally recognized that most consumers prefer cottonpersonal care items to those containing synthetic fibers.World textile fiber consumption in 1998 was approximately45 million tons. Of this total, cotton representedapproximately 20 million tons. [2]. The earliest evidenceof using cotton is from India and the date assigned to

this fabric is 3000 B.C. There were also excavations ofcotton fabrics of comparable age in Southern America.Cotton cultivation first spreadfrom India to Egypt, China and the South Pacific. Eventhough cotton fiber had been known already in SouthernAmerica, the large-scale cotton cultivation in NorthernAmerica began in the 16th century with the arrival ofcolonists to southern parts of today's United States. [3].The largest rise in cotton production is connected withthe invention of the saw-tooth cotton gin by Eli Whitneyin 1793. [4] With this new technology, it was possible toproduce more cotton fiber, which resulted in big changesin the spinning and weaving industry, especiallyin England.

2. COTTON CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION IN MILLION TONS INYEAR 2002

The graph bellow shows Production and consumption ofleading cotton producing countries in Millions of tonesin year 2002 [5].

COUNTRIES

PRODUCTION CONSUMPTION

US

3.8 1.7

India

2.5 3

Pakistan

1.8 1.9

Turkey 0.9 1.4

Brazil

0.7 0.9

Indonesia

0.4 0.6

China

4.8 5.9

Today, cotton is grown in more than 80 countriesworldwide. The Distribution of cotton is shown in thebellow Map:

3. CHARATERISTICS OF COTTON

Cotton, as a natural cellulosic fiber, has a lot ofcharacteristics, such as;

Comfortable Soft hand

Good absorbency

Color retention

Prints well

Machine-washable

Dry-cleanable

Good strength

Drapes well

Easy to handle and sew

4. END USES OF COTTON:

Apparel - Wide range of wearing apparel: blouses, shirts,dresses, childrenswear, active wear, separates, swimwear, suits,jackets, skirts, pants, sweaters, hosiery, neckwear.

Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, bedspreads, comforters,throws, sheets, towels, table cloths, table mats, napkins

5. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COTTON FIBERS

5.1 FIBER STRUCTURE AND FORMATION

The botanical name of American Upland cotton is GossypiumHirsutum and has been developed from cottons of CentralAmerica. Upland varieties represent approximately 97%of U.S. production [4].

Each cotton fiber is composed of concentric layers. Thecuticle layer on the fiber itself is separable from thefiber and consists of wax and pectin materials. Theprimary wall, the most peripheral layer of the fiber, iscomposed of cellulosic crystalline fibrils. [9] Thesecondary wall of the fiber consists of three distinctlayers. All three layers of the secondary wall includeclosely packed parallel fibrils with spiral winding of25-35o and represent the majority of cellulose within thefiber. The innermost part of cotton fiber- the lumen- iscomposed of the remains of the cell contents. Before bollopening, the lumen is filled with liquid containing thecell nucleus and protoplasm. The twists and convolutionsof the dried fiber are due to the removal of this liquid.

The cross section of the fiber is bean-shaped, swellingalmost round when moisture absorption takes place.

The overall contents are broken down into the followingcomponents.

5.2 RAW COTTON COMPONENTS:

80-90% Cellulose

6-8% Water

0.5 - 1% Waxes and fats

0 - 1.5% Proteins

4 - 6% Hemicelluloses and pectin’s

1 - 1.8% Ash

During scouring (treatment of the fiber with causticsoda), natural waxes and fats in the fiber are saponifiedand pectin’s and other non-cellulose materials arereleased, so that the impurities can be removed by justrinsing away. After scouring, a bleaching solution(consisting of a stabilized oxidizing agent) interactswith the fiber and the natural color is removed.Bleaching takes place at elevated temperature for a fixedperiod of time [1]. Mercerization is another process ofimproving sorption properties of cotton. Cotton fiber isimmersed into 18- 25% solution of sodium hydroxide oftenunder tension [9]. The fiber obtains better luster andsorption during mercerization.

After scouring and bleaching, the fiber is 99% cellulose.Cellulose is a polymer consisting of anhydroglucose unitsconnected with 1,4 oxygen bridges in the beta position.

The hydroxyl groups on the cellulose units enablehydrogen bonding between two adjacent polymer chains. Thedegree of polymerization of cotton is 9,000-15,000 [1].Cellulose shows approximately 66% crystallinity, whichcan be determined by X-ray diffraction, infraredspectroscopy and density methods.

Each crystal unit consists of five chains ofanhydroglucose units, parallel to the fibril axis. Onechain is located at each of the corners of the cell andone runs through the center of the cell. The dimensionsof the cell are a = 0.835nm, b = 1.03 nm and c = 0.79 nm.The angle between ab and BC planes is 84º for normalcellulose, i.e., Cellulose I [8].

5.3 REPEAT UNIT OF CELLULOSE

The current consensus regarding cellulose crystallinity(X-ray diffraction) is that fibers are essentially 100%crystalline and that very small crystalline unitsimperfectly packed together cause the observed disorder.

The density method used to determine cellulosecrystallinity is based on the density gradient column,where two solvents of different densities are partiallymixed. Degree of Crystallinity is, then, determined fromthe density of the sample, while densities of crystallineand amorphous cellulose forms are known (1.505 and 1.556respectively). Orientation of untreated cotton fiber ispoor because the crystallites are contained in the microfibrils of the secondary wall, oriented in the steepspiral (25-30o) to the fiber axis.

6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON

6.1  FIBER LENGTH

Fiber length is described [7] as "the average length ofthe longer one-half of the fibers (upper half meanlength)" This measure is taken by scanning a "beard " ofparallel fibers through a sensing region. The beard isformed from the fibers taken from the sample, clasped ina holding clamp and combed to align the fibers. Typicallengths of Upland cottons might range from 0.79 to1.36in.

Cottons come from the cotton plant; the longer strandtypes such as Pima or Sea Island produce the finest typesof cotton fabrics [18].

6.2  LENGTH UNIFORMITY

Length uniformity or uniformity ratio is determined as "a ratio between the mean length and the upper half meanlength of the fibers and is expressed as apercentage"[7]. Typical comparisons are illustratedbelow.

LENGTH UNIFORMITY UNIFORMITY INDEX [%]

Very High >85

High 83-85

Intermediate 80-82

Low 77-79

Very Low <77

Low uniformity index shows that there might be a highcontent of short fibers, which lowers the quality of thefuture textile product.

6.3 FIBER STRENGTH

Fiber strength is measured in grams per denier. It isdetermined as the force necessary to break the beard offibers, clamped in two sets of jaws, (1/8 inch apart)[7]. Typical tensile levels are illustrated. The breakingstrength of cotton is about 3.0~4.9 g/denier, and thebreaking elongation is about 8~10%. [20]

DEGREE OF STRENGTH FIBER STRENGTH [g/tex]

Very Strong >31

Strong 29-30

Average 26-28

Intermediate 24-25

Weak <23

6.3  MICRONAIRE

Micronaire measurements reflect fiber fineness andmaturity. A constant mass (2.34 grams) of cotton fibersis compressed into a space of known volume and airpermeability measurements of this compressed sample aretaken. These, when converted to appropriate number,denote Micronaire values.

COTTON RANGE MICRONAIRE READING

Premium 3.7-4.2

Base Range 4.3-4.9

Discount Range >5.0

6.4  COLOR

The color of cotton samples is determined from twoparameters: degree of reflectance (Rd) and yellowness(+b). Degree of reflectance shows the brightness of thesample and yellowness depicts the degree of cottonpigmentation. A defined area located in a Nickerson-Hunter cotton colorimeter diagram represents each colorcode. The color of the fibers is affected by climaticconditions, impact of insects and fungi, type of soil,storage conditions etc. There is five recognized groupsof color: white, gray, spotted, tinged, and yellowstained. As the color of cotton deteriorates, the processability of the fibers decreases.

Work at the University of Tennessee has led to colormeasurement using both a spectrometer CIE-based averagecolor measurement and a color uniformity measurementusing image analysis to improve the accuracy and provideadditional measurement for color grading [19]. Later theinvestigators developed two color grading systems usingexpert system and neural networks.

6.5  TRASH

A trash measurement describes the amount of non-lintmaterials (such as parts of cotton plant) in the fiber.Trash content is assessed from scanning the cotton samplesurface with a video camera and calculating thepercentage of the surface area occupied by trashparticles. The values of trash content should be withinthe range from 0 to 1.6%. Trash content is highlycorrelated to leaf grade of the sample.

6.6  LEAF GRADE

Leaf grade is provided visually as the amount of cottonplant particles within the sample. There are seven leafgrades (#1-#7) and one below grade (#8).

6.7  PREPARATION

Preparation is the classer's interpretation of fiberprocess ability in terms of degree of roughness orsmoothness of ginned cotton.

6.8  EXTRANEOUS MATTER

Extraneous matter is all the material in the sample otherthan fiber and leaf. The classer either as “light” or“heavy” determines the degree of extraneous matter.

6.9  NEPS

A nep is a small tangled fiber knot often caused byprocessing. Neps can be measured by the AFIS nep testerand reported as the total number of neps per 0.5 grams ofthe fiber and average size in millimeters. Nep formationreflects the mechanical processing stage, especially from

the point of view of the quality and condition of themachinery used.

7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON

Cotton swells in a high humidity environment, in waterand in concentrated solutions of certain acids, salts andbases. The swelling effect is usually attributed to thesorption of highly hydrated ions. The moisture regain forcotton is about 7.1~8.5% and the moisture absorption is7~8%. [20]

Cotton is attacked by hot dilute or cold concentratedacid solutions. Acid hydrolysis of cellulose produceshydro-celluloses. Cold weak acids do not affect it. Thefibers show excellent resistance to alkalis. There are afew other solvents that will dissolve cotton completely.One of them is a copper complex of cupramonium hydroxideand cupriethylene diamine (Schweitzer's reagent [11])

Cotton degradation is usually attributed to oxidation,hydrolysis or both. Oxidation of cellulose can lead totwo types of so-called oxy-cellulose [12], depending onthe environment, in which the oxidation takes place.

7.1 INSERT FORMULA OR EQUATION: OXY-CELLULOSE

Also, cotton can degrade by exposure to visible andultraviolet light, especially in the presence of hightemperatures around 250~397° C [20] and humidity. Cottonfibers are extremely susceptible to any biologicaldegradation (microorganisms, fungi etc.)

7.2 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON

Cotton fibers show double refraction when observed inpolarized light. Even though various effects can be

observed, second order yellow and second order blue ischaracteristic colors of cellulosic fibers. [10] Atypical birefringence value as shown in the table ofphysical properties, is 0.047.

7.3 COTTON CLASSIFICATION

Cotton classification is used to determine the quality ofthe cotton fiber in terms of grade, length and Micronaire[1]. USDA [7] classification specifically identifies thecharacteristics of fiber length, length uniformity,strength, Micronaire, color, preparation, leaf andextraneous matter. In the past, these qualities wereclassified just by hand-and-eye of an experiencedclasser. Since 1991, all classification has been carriedout with a set of up-to-date instruments, called"HVI"(High Volume Instrumentation) classification [1].However, measuring techniques of other qualities ofcotton fiber, such as fiber maturity and short fibercontent, are also being developed. 

7.4. COTTON IN NON-WOVENS

Cotton is the most important apparel fiber throughout theworld. It is a fiber that was used fairly extensivelyduring the early, developmental period of the Nonwovensbusiness primarily because the emerging dry-laidproducers came from the textile industry and had anintimate knowledge of cotton and its processingcharacteristics [25].It was in the early part of 20thCentury that a few cotton mills in the US wanted to findways to upgrade the waste cotton fibers into saleableproducts. The first method used was bonding the shortcotton fibers (fiber waste) with latex and resin. These

products were used mainly as industrial wipes. AfterWorld War II, products like draperies, tablecloths,napkins and wiping towels were developed. It was realizedthat woven fabrics have much better properties thanNonwovens; so, the approach was to claim the market wheresuperior qualities of woven or knit fabrics were notessential but where qualities better than those of paperwere needed. As the quality requirements for nonwovenfabrics increased and particularly as the need for white,clean fabric emerged; the use of raw cotton becameunacceptable and was abandoned by the industry except fora few isolated product areas. Within the last decade,bleached cotton fiber suitable for processing onconventional nonwoven equipment has become available andhas substantially increased interest in this fiber. Thisis particularly true in medical and healthcareapplications, wiping and wiper markets, and some apparelmarkets. The raw cotton consists of about 96% celluloseand 4% of waxes, pectin, and other pertinacious and plantmaterial. These minor constituents that must be removedin the scouring and bleaching process to give the soft,clean, white, absorbent fiber that is satisfactory forthe nonwovens industry after the application of anappropriate finishing oil. The fiber length of cotton isimportant, particularly as to its process ability. Longerstaple cotton (0.75 in. to 1.25 in.) is satisfactory fornonwoven production. The fiber has excellent absorbencyand feels comfortable against the skin. It has fairlygood strength both wet and dry, and has moderatedimensional stability and elastic recovery. But theresilience of cotton is relatively low, unless it iscross-linked by a chemical treatment. In nonwovenapplications, the purity and absorbency of bleachedcotton are utilized in growing medical and healthcareapplications. The spun lace process usually produces such

fabrics. For similar reasons, cotton spun lace fabricsare well accepted in personal and related wipes,especially in Japan and the ASIAN region. In a sense,bleached cotton fiber for nonwoven application is arelatively new fiber. It is a comparatively expensivefiber and available from only a few sources.Consequently, its use still is restricted to specializedapplications. This situation is likely to change in thefuture as the price is further reduced and availabilityincreased.

8. FIBER PROCESSING

About 30% of world cotton machines harvest production. Australia, Israel and USA are the only countries where all cottons are picked by machines. Fifteen percent of world cotton production is ginned on roller gins and almost all rest of cotton is saw ginned in most countries [14].Cotton fibers in non-wovens are generally used in their bleached form. A lot of research and development has taken place for the efficient production of bleached fibers. The Kier bleaching processproduces most of the bleached cotton fibers. Since cottonof lesser grades is useful for non-wovens, a conventionalcleaning system does not suffice. This might include a coarse wire carding, called Cotton Master Cleaners, for cleaning the cotton.

The conventional bleaching method for cottons meant for non-wovens is a 9 step process are:

a) Fiber opening and cleaningb) Alkali scouring applicationc) Alkali reaction staged) Rinsinge) Bleach application

f) Bleach reaction stageg) Rinsingh) Finish applicationi) Drying

A continuous textile processing system and method have been disclosed recently for producing a nonwoven web containing bleached cotton fibers in a single line systemwhich includes a supply of fibers such as a bale opening device, The final nonwoven web consisting of bleached cotton fibers may be made into highly purified and absorbent wipes, pads, and other articles for medical, industrial, or domestic use [17].

Finally, there is opening and bale formation.

         Cotton Incorporated patented a processing line, which promised better productivity and quality. It consists of:

a) Fiber opening and Cleaningb) Formation of webc) Steam purging and Alkali impregnation onto the sandwiched cotton web between 2 porous conveyors.

d) After reaction, a pressure squeezing operation.e) Similar processes for bleaching and then finishing.

         The recent system for scouring a bleaching of cotton fiber is the Continuous Wet Finishing Technique' patented by Lawrence Girard and Walter E Meyer and assigned to Greenville Machinery Corporation. It consists of:

a. Opening and Cleaning

b. Conversion of fibers into a bat, weighing 10-30 ounces/sq. yard, by Needle punching or Air-lay technique.

c. Scouring

d. Bleaching

e. Finishing

f. Washing

g. Drying

h. Fiber opening

Advantages of Continuous Finishing Techniques are:

a) Uniformity of scouring and bleachingb) Uniformity of finish applicationc) Shorter time in process for the materialsd) Lower water consumption and less effluent for treatmente) The ability to provide additional chemical treatments to the cotton.

8.1. COST OF PRODUCING COTTON

The international cotton advisory committee (ICAC)undertakes a survey of the cost of the production ofcotton every three years based on the data from 31countries. [16] Several factors are considered, such asland rent, fertilizers, insect control, irrigation,harvesting and ginning. The cost of seed cotton is morethan $500 in USA to produce one hectare of seed cotton.The net cost of producing lint from one hectare (thevalue of seed and land rent were excluded from the totalcost) is highest in Australia (US$1,056) followed bythe USA (US$889), Pakistan (US$814), Zimbabwe (US$426)and China (US$416). It is most expensive to produce akilogram of lint in

the USA (US$1.20), Australia (US$0.75) and china(US$0.48).

8.2. WEB PROCESSING WITH COTTON

Cotton fibers are used in the manufacture of nonwovenseither alone or in a blend. The various processes for themanufacture of non-wovens are:

8.3. HYDROENTANGLEMENT:

This method of bonding provides strength to theNonwovens, comparable to woven fabric of the same basisweight. This method yields high strength withoutinterfering with the absorbency, tensile strength andaesthetic properties of cotton. This type of nonwovenscan be wet processed like the conventional woven textilesfor bleaching, dyeing and finishing. To manufacture softloose nonwovens, partially entangled webs are produced bysubjecting cotton webs to low water jet pressures(approx. 300-500 psi). These types of webs can be wetprocessed in a pad/batch state. The limitations of thisprocess are that production has been limited to fiberblends because of problems in recycling water and thequality of bleached cotton.

8.4. NEEDLE PUNCHING:

Needle punched cotton provides highly efficient filtermedia based on the irregular fiber shape and absorptionproperties. Increased tenacity in the wet condition canbe an important advantage for cotton filters. To buildstrength, scrim materials can be used as in bed blanketsand industrial fabrics. Needles of 36-42 gauges have been

found appropriate for the production of cotton needlepunched nonwovens. For very heavy fabrics, use is made ofgauge 32 and for finer fabrics 40-42 gauge needles arebeing used.

8.5. THERMAL BONDING:

In this process cotton webs with blends of thermoplasticfibers are passed between 2 hot rollers (Calendarrollers). The thermoplastic fiber softens/melts and bondsthe web. The initial work was done with polyester as thethermoplastic fiber. Later polypropylene was extended forthe study because of economics, density and meltingtemperature considerations. This was mainly to study theapplication as a diaper lining material. Substantial workis still being done to develop this type of nonwovens.

8.6. OTHER BONDING SYSTEMS:

a. Impregnating the web with a resin or other adhesive material.

b. Stripping off of the web with adhesive, which bonds the fiberstogether at regular intervals.

c. Stitch bonding: cotton web is stitched like in sewing and theproduct performance depends on web weight, stitch/inch and typeof sewing thread.

9. APPLICATIONS AND MANUFACTURERS OF COTTON NON-WOVENS

Cotton nonwovens are used as swabs, puffs, wipes,filters, weddings, personal care products like in diapers& feminine hygiene products, semi-durable segments likebedding, household furnishing, pillow fillers, etc.

9.1.MANUFACTURERS OF COTTON

BARHARDT MANUFACTURING

BBA NONWOVENS VERATEC

BRANNOC FIBERS Ltd.

COTTON INCORPORATED

IHSAN SONS (PVT) LIMITED

LEIGH FIBERS

TEXTILES AND NONWOVENS DIRECTORY

10. RECENT RESEARCH

New instrumentation to measure cotton contamination [21].

Cotton linters to replace the traditional 100% wood pulp fibersfor producing absorbent cores for disposable diapers and faminepads [22]

New quality measurements of small sample cotton are beingdeveloped [26

Cotton is being blended with kenaf fibers to improve the softnessand hand [27]

Buckeye Technologies has developed 100% natural cotton for tamponmanufacture [29

Clustering analysis is developed for cotton trash classification[30]

New method to improve the dyeability of cotton with reactivedyes. [31]

10.1 RECENT DOVELOPMENTS IN COTTON

10.1.1 COLORED COTTON

Cotton fiber is dyed with chemical dyes in order to getwide range of colors. These chemical dyes and theirfinishing demands large amount of water in turn whenthese water is disposed they cause soil and waterpollution. Many dyes are of chemical origin; particularlythe azure ones and these are not environment friendly.Hence many countries, including India, have prohibiteduse of these dyes.

The negative effects of dyeing can be reduced bynaturally colored cotton. This colored cotton isdeveloped by gene transplantation. Crossing the genesfrom wild cotton varieties with the cultivated white onesdevelops this colored cotton. The research is beingconducted at The University of Agricultural Sciences(UAS), Dharwad Karnataka India, to promote thecultivation of natural colored cotton. The colors thathave been developed are White, Orange, Red, Yellow,Green, Purple, Brown, Blue, And Black. These negativeeffects of dyeing can be avoided by extensive researchand growth of colored cotton. (33).

10.1.2. BT COTTON

Cotton requires severe pesticide in order to combatnumerous pests after some years of use of pesticide byfarmers these pests develop resistance to Particularpesticide. This resistance force farmers to use moreamounts of pesticides. BT Cotton is developed bytransgenic technique of implanting Bacillus Thuringiensbacterial gene in to cottonseeds, which makes the cottonplant and seeds resistant to majority of pestsincluding bollworm (A. Lepidoptera), Tobacco budworm(Heliothis virescens). Bt cotton is now one of the mostwidely used transgenic crops. It is currently grownthroughout the United States. More than 2 million acresof Bt cotton are grown in the United States alone. Othercountries include China, India, and Australia.(34) According to Dept. of Agricultural and ResourceEconomics, University of Arizona. Bt cotton planted from1996 to 1998 is estimated to have yielded 5% more onaverage than if traditional and decreased the quantity offoliar spray [35].

10.1.3 COTTON’S FUTURE TRENDS

The world's cotton fiber production is approximately 89million bales [6]. In 1997, a production forecast [6]shows that the U.S. is the largest cotton producer (18.4million bales), followed by China (17.5 million bales),India (12.8 million bales), Pakistan (8.0 million bales)and the former U. S. S. R. republics (7.7 million bales).Other important cotton producers are Australia, Egypt,Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Greece and Mexico.The highest cotton consumption is attributed to China(21.2 million bales), India (12.9 million bales) and U.S.(11.3 million bales).

SUPPLIES: The world production will increase a littlebit. The 1998 U.S cotton crop is best described as adisaster due to cool wet spring in the west andinadequate rainfall in the southeast [24].

CONSUMPTION: World cotton consumption is lagging a bitbehind production. After a surge in the mid-1980s, worldcotton consumption has been rather flat. But the longterm potential for cotton demand remains large [23].

All cotton plantings for 1999 are expected to total 14.6million acres, 9 percent above 1998, and 5 percentgreater than 1997. Upland cotton is expected to total14.2 million acres, up 9 percent from last year. Growersplanted 318,200 acres of American-Pima cotton. This is a3% decrease from last year's number, but 27% higher thanthe acreage of 2 years ago. Planting in Georgia startedextremely slow due to a severely dry spring, but by June1 was nearly on pace with average. Conversely, Texasexperienced a near normal planting season although somereplanting was necessary due to wind and hail damage[15].

11.Graph of World cotton area/World cotton yields/Worldcotton production/World cotton consumption[11] Graph ofCotton Prices

12. CONCLUSION

Cotton nonwovens can be recycled, re-used or disposed offby natural degradation conditions. Cotton is a readilyrenewable resource with long-term supply assurance.Extensive research works is improving bleached fiberquality and quantity. Nonwoven industries are producingvarious types of nonwovens with different manufacturingtechniques, for better production. Cotton share of thetextile fiber market has been steadily increasing andwill continue to increase as cotton-containing items ispreferred by the consumers.

REFERENCES:

1.      Cotton for Nonwovens”: A Technical Guide, CottonIncorporated.

2.      Lawrence H. Shaw; " Cotton’s Importance in the TextileIndustry", Symposium, Lima, Peru, May 12, 1998

3.      Tortora, P.G., Collier, B.J.: “Understanding Textiles”,5th edition, Prentice-Hall, 1997

4.      Kadolph, S.J., Langfold, A.J.: Textiles, 8th edition,Prentice-Hall, 1998

5.      www.freedoniagroup.com

6.      U.S. cotton Market, Monthly Economic Letter,Cotton Incorporated, Market Research, Sep 15th, 1997

7.      “The Classification of Cotton”, USDA AgriculturalMarketing Service, cotton Division, AgriculturalHandbook 566, September 1995,br>

8.      Shaw, C., Eckersley, and F.: " cotton", Sir IsaacPitman & Sons Ltd., London, 1967

9.      Duckett, K.E.: "Surface Properties of Cotton Fibers",Surface Characteristics of Fibers and Textiles,edited by M.J.Schick. “Fiber Science Series”, MarcelDekker, Inc. 1975, p 67,br>

10.  Matthew's “Textile Fibers, Their Physical, Microscopic andChemical Properties”, edited by Herbert R. Mauersberger,6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1954

11.  Webster's Third New International Dictionary,edited by Phillip Babcock Dove, G. & C. MerriamCompany, 1963.

12.  Gordon Cook, J.: “ Handbook of Textile Fibers, Part I. NaturalFibers”, Merrow Publishing Co. Ltd., 1968

13.  Lawrence H, Shaw: "Cotton’s future trend ", 28th AnnualCongress of the Commercial Cotton Growers ofZimbabwe, June 5, 1996

14.  M. Rafiq chaudhry: "Harvesting and ginning of cotton in theworld", Technical information section, InternationalCotton Advisory Committee, Washington, D. C. 1997

15.  National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics Board, U.S.Department of Agriculture. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/field/pcp-bba/acrg0699.txt Released June 30, 1999

16.  16.M Rafig Chaudhry: "Cost of Producing a Kilogram ofcotton", Technical information section, InternationalCotton Advisory Committee, Washington, D. C. 1997

17.  US Patent5634243, Ripley; W. G. June 3, 1997

18.  http://www.mini-magic.com/mini/fabric.htm

19.  Kermit E. duckett: "Color grading of cotton-measurement",Beltwide cotton conference, Orlando, Jan. 5-8, 1999

20.  J. Brandrup; E. H. Immergut; "Polymer Handbook", 1989

21.  M. Dean Ethridge, 57th Plenary Meeting ofInternational Cotton Advisory Committee, Santa Cruz,Bolivia, Oct. 12-16, 1998

22.  H. Charles Allen, Jr.; "Cotton in Absorbent Cores",Nonwovens World, August-septembet, 1999, 71-78

23.  Mark D. Lange, "Cotton Markets in the Crystal Ball’, TextileMonth, June, 1998, 37-40

24.  ATI Special report, "Outlook for U.S cotton 1999",ATI, May 1999, 140-156

25.  CottonFibers: http://www.nonwovens.com/facts/technology/fibers/cotton.html

26.  Judith M. Bradow, etc; "Quality Measurements", TheJournal of Cotton Science, 1:48-60, (1997)

27.  P. Bel-beiger, etc; "Textile Technology, Cotton/KenafFabrics: A Viable Natural Fabrics", the Journal ofCotton Science, 3:60-70, (1999)

28.  "A Guide to Fibers For Nonwovens", Nonwoven Industry, June1999, 60-82

29.  "Readers Service, Natural Cotton Fiber", Nonwoven Industry,Jan. 1999, 74

30.  B. Xu and C. fang; "Clustering Analysis For Cotton TrashClassification", Textile Research Journal, 69(9), 656-662, 1999

31.  Y. Cai, etc; "A New Method for Improving the Dyeability ofcotton with reactive Dyes", Textile Research Journal,69(6), 440-446, 1999

32. http://www.cottoninc.com

33. http://www.hindu.com

34. http://www.sciencenews.org

35. http://www.bt.ucsd.edu

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Chemicals used in textile processing10012013

Here’s to new beginnings and fresh starts! I hope you are all looking forward to a fulfilling 2013.

Zydex IndustriesEverybody seems to be up in arms about chemicals used in fabrics, some of which have gotten lots of media attention recently, such as PBDE’s,which were featured in the Chicago Tribune series “Playing with Fire”   and NPE’s, featured in Greenpeace’s “Toxic Threads” campaign. But whyare these chemicals in our fabrics – how are they used, and why? What do they do to us – if anything?

We thought it would be a good idea to take a look, individually, at some of the chemicals used in textile processing and try to answer thosequestions: what the chemicals are designed to do, what they can do to us – and whether we can avoid using them.

One thing I know for sure – the textile industry uses lots of chemicals. During manufacturing, it takes from 10% to 100% of the weight of thefabric in chemicals to produce that fabric.(1) And the final fabric, if made of 100% natural fibers (such as cotton or linen), contains about 27%, by weight, chemicals.(2) And many of those chemicals are simply not benign.

Why does the industry use so many chemicals? What are they used for?

Most fabrics are finished in what is called “wet processing” where the process is accomplished by applying a liquid – which accomplishes somesort of chemical action to the textile – as opposed to “dry processing”, which is a mechanical/physical treatment, such as brushing. It is aseries of innumerable steps leading to the finished textile, each one of which also has a complex number of variables, in which a specialchemical product is applied, impregnated or soaked with the textile fiber of the fabric. A defined sequence of treatments can then befollowed by another sequence of treatments using another chemical substance. Typically, treatments are arranged to permit a continuous modeof sequences.

The chemicals used can be subdivided into:• Textile auxiliaries – this covers a wide range of functions, from cleaning natural fibers and smoothing agents to improving easy careproperties. Included are such things as:o Complexing agents, which form stable water-soluble complexeso Surfactants, which lowers the surface tension of water so grease and oil to be removed more easilyo Wetting agents, which accelerates the penetration of finishing liquorso Sequestering agentso Dispersing agentso Emulsifiers• Textile chemicals (basic chemicals such as acids, bases and salts)• Colorants, such as:o Dyeso Dye-protective agentso Fixing agentso Leveling agentso pH regulatorso Carrierso UV absorbers• FinishesThe 2010 AATCC (American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists) Buyer’s Guide lists about 2,000 chemical specialties in over 100categories offered for sale by about 66 companies, not including dyes. The types of products offered run the gamut from antimicrobial agentsand binders to UV stabilizers and wetting agents.

The chemicals used get very specific: for example, Lankem Ltd. is one such manufacturer of a range of textile chemicals. According to theirwebsite, their Kemtex AP, for example, is an “anti-precipitant” to be used “where dyes of opposing ionicity may be present in the same bath”and their Kemtex TAL is a levelling agent for wool which is a “highly effective level dyeing assistant for acid, acid milling andprematallised dyes on wool.”

In addition to the branded products supplied by chemical companies, which are made of unknown components because they’re proprietary, we knowmany chemicals are necessary to achieve certain effects, such as PBDEs for fire retardants, formaldehyde resins for crease resistance orPFOA’s for stain protection.The chemicals used in these branded products to create the effects above include chemicals which have been proven to be toxic, or to cause

cancers or genetic mutations in mammals (i.e., us too). The following is by no means an all-inclusive list of these chemicals:• Alkylphenolethoxylates (APEOs)• Pentachlorophenols (PCP)• Toluene and other aromatic amines• Dichloromethane (DCM)• Formaldehyde• Phthalates• Polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( PBDE’s)• Perfluorooctane sulfonates (PFOS)• Heavy metals – copper, cadmium, lead, antimony, mercury among othersSo starting next week, we’ll begin by looking at the some of the chemicals used in textile processing, to give you an idea of why we’remaking all the fuss about organic fabrics.

(1) Environmental Hazards of the Textile Industry, Hazardous Substances Research Centers, South and Southwest Outreach Program, US EPA fundedconsortium, June 2006.(2) Lacasse and Baumann, Textile Chemicals: Environmental Data and Facts; German Environmental Protection Agency, Springer, New York, 2004, page 609.

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Date : January 10, 2013

Categories : Uncategorized

5 responses10012013

Andy (11:06:06) :

Love your website. How DO we persuade manufacturers around the world that our globe is a home, not a resource to plunder

for gain. How DO we persuade the consumer that cheap clothing & textiles generally mean harming the planet. We have

several supply partners that embrace green initiatives in a massive way – why? – BECAUSE IT SAVES THEM MONEY. One of our

dyehouses puts cleaner water back into the river than it took out!

Reply

6022013

deliberatelypositive (04:59:58) :

Thank you so much for all this great information. My daughter has been working in a fabric store for 6 months. She’s

asthmatic (previously not severe) and a few weeks ago ended up in the ER with severe chest pain and difficulty

breathing. The Doc’s said it was a combination of her asthma & hyperventilating…. however since that day she has not

been able to work as every time she has tried, she’s in the store about an hour maybe two -her chest starts hurting

again and it’s painful for her to breath. Remembering some strange & awful smells that have come out of clothes &

fabrics after washing them, I did some research in a book I’ve had for 20+ years (Is This Your Child by Doris Rapp,

M.D.), I came across info on chemicals in fabrics. My daughter’s store managers (a national chain fabric store) and her

doctor, along with ourselves did not realize just how MANY chemicals are actually in the fabric’s that she has

constantly handled in the store. Although now she will have to find another job, we all learned a huge lesson here!

Thank you .. thank you… thank you!!

~Suse

~have a peaceful, pleasant, positive & prosperous day~!~

Reply

6022013

O Ecotextiles (14:48:22) :

Sadly, this is not the first time we’ve heard this story. We’ve talked to people like your daughter who work in fabric

stores and showrooms, or who unpack boxes of new clothing and hang them on the sales floor, and people who must wear

uniforms for their jobs – all these people develop a variety of problems from mildly irritating to life changing. I hope

your daughter is well now.

Reply

14082014

Sandy P (21:26:51) :

Aug. 2014: I am assuming this is a live website & blog. I taught quiltmaking for ten years during the ’70’s when the

only quilt cloth readily available to us was polyester/cotton broadcloth. After several years of teaching, 10 mos. of

the year, I found that I began shaking after my classes. Having attended teachers college I was not uncomfortable

teaching and found that walking in the outside air (I won’t say fresh air as we lived in the city) alleviated the

trembling. As time went on, I found myself sensitive to medical procedures (swallowing a liquid before an X-ray), Gravol

(disorientation, shortness of breath) and in 1985, during emergency surgery, I had a serious reaction under the

anaesthetics and afterward. I ended up with neuro-toxicity and what I came to understand, finally, was Multiple Chemical

Sensitivities (MCS) which the Chemical Industry claims is Idiopathic, trying to avoid responsibility for what chemicals

can do to the human body, through skin contact or inhalation (as I had though a hot steam iron on my cloth). I still

suffer from MCS today and now live in the country away from the pollution of the city, but in having my blood tested

many years ago, two chemicals that showed up were Touluene and Pentachlorolphenol. I’ve signed on for your newsletters.

S.P., Canada

Reply

20082014

O Ecotextiles (00:02:30) :

Hi Sandy: I’m so sorry to hear about your chemical sensitivities. Unfortunately, we have heard many others who, like

you, worked with textiles – for example, unpacking clothing from boxes and then hanging for display, or in showrooms

where new lines might trigger symptoms. We’re canaries in the coal mine. I hope we can somehow realize the effects that

chemicals (in many products, not just textiles) have on our health and do something about it!

Leigh Anne

Reply

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TWO SISTERS ON A MISSION.

Patty and Leigh Anne founded this company to make the whole world safer while making our personal environments more beautiful.

After forming O Ecotextiles in 2004, they began a world-wide search for manufacturing partners interested in a cradle-to-cradleprocess of creating no-impact, perfectly safe, incredibly luxurious fabrics.

They began working with people around the world: Romanian farmers who dew- or field-ret hemp stalks; a Japanese mill owner committed to “green” processes, even new methods such as using ozone to bleach fabric; a 100-year-old Italian mill that produces no wastewater; a Chilean mill shifting to entirely green processes; an Italian dye house that produces biodegradable, heavy-metal free textiles.

The first fabrics coming out are, as the sisters envisioned, sophisticated, stylish and "green."

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