Fa Nda Mental

8/3/2019 Fa Nda Mental

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COMPUTERCOMPUTER


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The "computer" is derived from the wordThe "computer" is derived from the word"compute"which means to calculate. So a"compute"which means to calculate. So acomputer is normally considered to be acomputer is normally considered to be acalculating device that can performcalculating device that can perform

arithmetic and logical operations at a veryarithmetic and logical operations at a veryfast speed.fast speed.OROR

A computer is an electronic device thatA computer is an electronic device thataccepts data, processes it and gives resultsaccepts data, processes it and gives results

after that prosessing.after that prosessing.


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Electronic and Electrical differenceElectronic and Electrical difference

Electricals means your simple heating systems andElectricals means your simple heating systems andmotors where there is only physical work needed tomotors where there is only physical work needed tobuild it for example fans, water heaters, pumps, boilers,build it for example fans, water heaters, pumps, boilers,motors, which have moving or heating parts in it, but inmotors, which have moving or heating parts in it, but inelectronics its all about the micro chips, computerelectronics its all about the micro chips, computermother boards, televisions, air conditioners, processors,mother boards, televisions, air conditioners, processors,mobiles, signals amplification, reception andmobiles, signals amplification, reception andbroadcasting of the same.etc.broadcasting of the same.etc.


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DataData

Refers to the symbols that representRefers to the symbols that represent

facts, objects,or ideas.facts, objects,or ideas.InformationInformation

The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes;The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes;

the words, numbers, sounds, and graphics.the words, numbers, sounds, and graphics.

ProcessingProcessing

Manipulation of the data in many ways.Manipulation of the data in many ways.


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High speed of operation:High speed of operation: Reliable and accurate:Reliable and accurate:

Decision making:Decision making:

Storage:Storage: Automatic:Automatic:

Versatile:Versatile: Obedient:Obedient:

Computer CharactersticsComputer Characterstics


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High speed of operation:High speed of operation:

A computer is a very highA computer is a very high

speed data processingspeed data processing

machine capable of operatingmachine capable of operatingat electronic speeds. Mostat electronic speeds. Most

instruction in a computer areinstruction in a computer are

carried out in less than acarried out in less than amillion of a second. Speed of amillion of a second. Speed of a

computer can be specified incomputer can be specified in

terms of number ofterms of number of


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Reliable and accurate:Reliable and accurate:

Computers are reliable andComputers are reliable and

they always produce accuratethey always produce accurate

results although whileresults although whileworking at high speeds.working at high speeds.

Instruction execution isInstruction execution is

carried out without anycarried out without anymistakes.mistakes.


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Decision making:Decision making:

Computer is capable of takingComputer is capable of taking

decision while choosing fromdecision while choosing from

many options. It can comparemany options. It can compare2 states of operands,2 states of operands,

depending upon the results ofdepending upon the results of

comparison it can proceed tocomparison it can proceed toinitiate actions.initiate actions.


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Storage:Storage:

Computer can store largeComputer can store large

amount of information andamount of information and

permit faster reference to thepermit faster reference to thestored data in its memory. Atstored data in its memory. At

any stage there would be noany stage there would be no

data loss or data corruptiondata loss or data corruptiononce it is stored.once it is stored.


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Automatic:Automatic:

computer is an automaticcomputer is an automatic

machine that is once themachine that is once the

program and data are loadedprogram and data are loadedinto its memory, the computerinto its memory, the computer

carry out the execution withcarry out the execution with

no human intervention.no human intervention.


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Versatile:Versatile:

Computer is becomingComputer is becoming

popular, because of itspopular, because of its

versatility i.e, it can beversatility i.e, it can beapplied and used a variety ofapplied and used a variety of

application; it can be used forapplication; it can be used for

general purpose simplegeneral purpose simplecalculations; At the same timecalculations; At the same time

the computer can bethe computer can be

developed and employed in adeveloped and employed in a


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Obedient:Obedient:

Instructions are carried outInstructions are carried out

obediently without anyobediently without any

question or enquiries made byquestion or enquiries made bythe computer. Because asthe computer. Because as

such computer is not ansuch computer is not an

intelligent machine but aintelligent machine but aprogrammable black boxprogrammable black box

which has no common sense.which has no common sense.


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Part of computerPart of computer

HardwareHardware

SoftwareSoftware

LivewareLiveware FirmwareFirmware


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HardwareHardware

Includes the electronic andIncludes the electronic and

mechanical devices thatmechanical devices that

process the data; refers to theprocess the data; refers to thecomputer as well ascomputer as well as

peripheral devices.peripheral devices.


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SoftwareSoftware

A computer program thatA computer program that

tells the computer how totells the computer how to

perform particular tasks.perform particular tasks.


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LivewareLiveware

live ware is just a programlive ware is just a program

that lets you arrange yourthat lets you arrange your

speaker setup and how laudspeaker setup and how laudeach one will be it also letseach one will be it also lets

you choose what the soundyou choose what the sound

will sound like (ex. in a cavewill sound like (ex. in a caveor on a mountain) it also giveor on a mountain) it also give

you the ability to change youryou the ability to change your

voice but only if you have avoice but only if you have a


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FirmwareFirmware

A software code written andA software code written and

saved within the read-onlysaved within the read-only

memory (ROM)memory (ROM)


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HardwareHardware


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The Input & Output Device:-The Input & Output Device:-

Input:-Input:-

Input unit is the deviceInput unit is the device

through which the data andthrough which the data andinstructions are fed to theinstructions are fed to the

computer example keyboard,computer example keyboard,

mouse, joystick, scanner, etc.mouse, joystick, scanner, etc.


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Keyboard:-Keyboard:-

Keyboard is an input device,Keyboard is an input device,

similar as a typewriter facesimilar as a typewriter face

(QWERTY) this having many(QWERTY) this having manymore keys. These keys aremore keys. These keys are

used to input data controlused to input data control

cursor and pointer locationscursor and pointer locationsand to control dialogue withand to control dialogue with

the computer.the computer.


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Mouse:-Mouse:-

It is also input device andIt is also input device and

containing three click buttonscontaining three click buttonsfor giving commands. Itfor giving commands. It

enables a user to pin and clickenables a user to pin and click

at links icons or other imagesat links icons or other imageson a monitor by controllingon a monitor by controlling

the cursor movement.the cursor movement.


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JoystickJoystick

A joystick is a pointing deviceA joystick is a pointing device

with a vertical lever mountedwith a vertical lever mounted

on a base. It is mainly usedon a base. It is mainly usedfor computer games andfor computer games and

ultrasounds scanners inultrasounds scanners in

hospitals.hospitals.


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Scanner:-Scanner:-

A scanner is a input deviceA scanner is a input device

used to capture information,used to capture information,

such as, photographs andsuch as, photographs anddocuments on paper anddocuments on paper and

translate the information intotranslate the information into

a raster (bitmap) computera raster (bitmap) computerimage.image.


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Output:-Output:-

A output unit is a device onA output unit is a device on

which the result is shown forwhich the result is shown for

examples, monitor andexamples, monitor andprinter.printer.


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Monitor:-Monitor:-

A monitor of computer is like aA monitor of computer is like a

T.V. it is an output device. AT.V. it is an output device. A

CPU processes the data then ifCPU processes the data then ifcomes in this output device. Itcomes in this output device. It

allows the user to see theallows the user to see the

output. There are differentoutput. There are differentkinds of computers monitor,kinds of computers monitor,

two main categories are;two main categories are;

black and white and colorblack and white and color


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Speakers:-Speakers:-

You can use speakers on aYou can use speakers on a

multimedia machine to listenmultimedia machine to listen

to the sound files, which canto the sound files, which canbe audio, recorded by abe audio, recorded by a

microphone or audio CDs.microphone or audio CDs.


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Printer:-Printer:-

The keyboard can input only textThe keyboard can input only text

through keys provided in it. If wethrough keys provided in it. If we

want to input a picture, thewant to input a picture, the

keyboard cannot help us. Scannerkeyboard cannot help us. Scanneris an optical device that can inputis an optical device that can input

any graphical chart or picture andany graphical chart or picture and

display it back. The commondisplay it back. The commonoptical scanning devices areoptical scanning devices are

Magnetic Ink CharacterMagnetic Ink Character

Recognition (MICR), Optical MarkRecognition (MICR), Optical Mark


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Dot-matrix printerDot-matrix printer

Dot-matrix printers createDot-matrix printers create

characters by striking pinscharacters by striking pins

against an ink ribbon. Eachagainst an ink ribbon. Eachpin makes a dot, andpin makes a dot, and

combinations of dots formcombinations of dots form

characters and illustrations.characters and illustrations.Dot matrix printers areDot matrix printers are

inexpensive and relativelyinexpensive and relatively

faster than daisy wheelfaster than daisy wheel


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SpeedSpeed

Given in characters perGiven in characters per

second (cps), the speed cansecond (cps), the speed can

vary from about 50 to overvary from about 50 to over500 cps. Most dot-matrix500 cps. Most dot-matrix

printers offer different speedsprinters offer different speeds

depending on the quality ofdepending on the quality ofprint desired.print desired.


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Print qualityPrint quality

Determined by the number ofDetermined by the number of

pins (the mechanism)pins (the mechanism)

That prints the dots), it canThat prints the dots), it canvary from 9 to 24. the bestvary from 9 to 24. the best

dot-matrix printer (24 pins)dot-matrix printer (24 pins)

can produce near letter-can produce near letter-quality type, although you canquality type, although you can

still see a difference if youstill see a difference if you

look closely.look closely.


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Ink-jet printerInk-jet printer

Ink-jet printers work byInk-jet printers work byspraying ionized ink at aspraying ionized ink at asheet of paper. Magnetizedsheet of paper. Magnetized

plates in the inks path directplates in the inks path directthe ink onto the paper in thethe ink onto the paper in thedesired shapes. Ink-jetdesired shapes. Ink-jet

printers are capable ofprinters are capable ofproducing high quality printproducing high quality printapproaching to that producedapproaching to that produced

by laser printers. A typicalby laser printers. A typical


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In general, the price of ink-In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower than thatjet printers is lower than thatof laser printers. However,of laser printers. However,

they are also considerablythey are also considerablyslower. Another draw-back ofslower. Another draw-back ofink-jet printers is that theyink-jet printers is that they

require a special type of inkrequire a special type of inkthat is apt to smudge onthat is apt to smudge oninexpensive copier paper.inexpensive copier paper.


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Laser printerLaser printer

Laser printer utilizes a laserLaser printer utilizes a laserbeam to produce an image onbeam to produce an image ona drum. The light of the lasera drum. The light of the laser

alters the electrical charge onalters the electrical charge onthe drum wherever it hits. Thethe drum wherever it hits. Thedrum is then rolled through adrum is then rolled through a

reservoir of toner, which isreservoir of toner, which ispicked up by the chargedpicked up by the chargedportions of the drum. Finally,portions of the drum. Finally,

the toner is transferred to thethe toner is transferred to the


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System unitSystem unit

Case that holds the powerCase that holds the power

supply, storage devices, andsupply, storage devices, and

the circuit boards (includingthe circuit boards (includingthe motherboard).the motherboard).


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C.P.U (Central Processing Unit):-C.P.U (Central Processing Unit):-

A C.P.U is a processing deviceA C.P.U is a processing device

that takes the command fromthat takes the command from

input device, process it theninput device, process it then

give the on the monitor. It isgive the on the monitor. It is

also called the brain of thealso called the brain of the

computer. CPU has acomputer. CPU has amicrochip that is installed onmicrochip that is installed on

a motherboard. It performsa motherboard. It performs

the calculations and controlsthe calculations and controls


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Types Of MemoryTypes Of Memory

Primary MemoryPrimary Memory

Secondary MemorySecondary Memory


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Storage Devices:-Storage Devices:-

The data is stored in storageThe data is stored in storage

devices for processing data asdevices for processing data as

well for future references.well for future references.

There are two storageThere are two storage

devices.devices.

primary storage deviceprimary storage device secondary storage devicesecondary storage device


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PrimaryPrimary

RAM : Random AccessRAM : Random Access

Memory:-Memory:- Ordinary memoryOrdinary memory Used for storing programsUsed for storing programs

which are currently runningwhich are currently running

and data which is beingand data which is beingprocessed.processed.

This type of memory isThis type of memory is

v l til - it l ll itvolatile - it loses all its


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TypeType

Dynamic: Changes thruDynamic: Changes thru

processingprocessing

Static: Remains constantStatic: Remains constant(power on)(power on)


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ROM : Read Only MemoryROM : Read Only Memory

(preprogrammed):-(preprogrammed):-

Non-volatile, with contentsNon-volatile, with contents

permanently etched into thepermanently etched into the

memory chip at thememory chip at the

manufacturing stagemanufacturing stage

Used for example to hold theUsed for example to hold the

bootstrap loader, the programbootstrap loader, the programwhich runs as soon as thewhich runs as soon as the

computer is switched on andcomputer is switched on and

instructs it to load theinstructs it to load the


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Secondary MemorySecondary Memory

Cd- Compact DiskCd- Compact Disk

DrivesDrives

Dvd-------Dvd------- Floppy Disk:-Floppy Disk:-


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Cd- Compact DiskCd- Compact Disk

The compact disk is also aThe compact disk is also a

portable storage device. Youportable storage device. You

use a CD writer to store datause a CD writer to store data

on the compact disk. The dataon the compact disk. The data

can be read using a CD drive.can be read using a CD drive.


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DVDDVD

Dvd known as "DigitalDvd known as "Digital

Versatile Disc" or "DigitalVersatile Disc" or "Digital

Video Disc," is anVideo Disc," is an

optical discoptical disc

storagestorage media format. Itsmedia format. Its

main uses aremain uses are videovideo andand datadata

storage. Most DVDs are of thestorage. Most DVDs are of thesame dimensions as compactsame dimensions as compact

discs (discs (CDsCDs) but store more) but store more

than six times as much data.than six times as much data.

Fl Di kFl Di k
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Floppy Disk:-Floppy Disk:-

It is similar to magnetic diskIt is similar to magnetic diskdiscussed above. It is 3.5 inchdiscussed above. It is 3.5 inchin diameter. These come inin diameter. These come in

single or double density andsingle or double density andrecorded on one or bothrecorded on one or bothsurface or the diskette. Thesurface or the diskette. The

capacity of a high-density 3.5capacity of a high-density 3.5inch floppy it is 1.44 megainch floppy it is 1.44 megabytes it is cheaper than anybytes it is cheaper than any

other storage devices and isother storage devices and is


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SOWTWARESOWTWARE

A li ti S ftA li ti S ft


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Application Software:-Application Software:-

Application software is aApplication software is a

subclass of computersubclass of computer

software that employs thesoftware that employs the

capabilities of a computercapabilities of a computer

directly and thoroughly to adirectly and thoroughly to a

task that the user wishes totask that the user wishes toperform.perform.


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Types of Application Software:Types of Application Software:

Word Processing Software:Word Processing Software:

Allows users to create, edit aAllows users to create, edit a

document. Example: MS Word,document. Example: MS Word,

Word Pad etc.Word Pad etc.

Spreadsheet Software: AllowsSpreadsheet Software: Allows

users to create document andusers to create document andperform calculation. Example:perform calculation. Example:

Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc.Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc.


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Database Software: AllowsDatabase Software: Allows

users to store and retrieveusers to store and retrieve

vast amount of data.vast amount of data.

Example: MS Access, MySQL,Example: MS Access, MySQL,

Oracle etc.Oracle etc.

Presentation GraphicPresentation GraphicSoftware: Allows users toSoftware: Allows users to

create visual presentation.create visual presentation.

Example: MS Power PointExample: MS Power Point


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Multimedia Software: AllowsMultimedia Software: Allows

users to create image, audio,users to create image, audio,

video etc. Example: Realvideo etc. Example: Real

Player, Media Player etc.Player, Media Player etc.


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System Software:- SystemSystem Software:- System

software is any computersoftware is any computer

software which manages andsoftware which manages and

controls computer hardwarecontrols computer hardware

so that application softwareso that application software

can perform a task. Operatingcan perform a task. Operatingsystems, such as Microsoftsystems, such as Microsoft

Windows, Mac OS X or Linux,Windows, Mac OS X or Linux,

are prominent examples ofare prominent examples of

O ti S tOperating System


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Operating SystemOperating System

Software Instructions forSoftware Instructions for

ComputerComputer Operating system is set ofOperating system is set of

instructions loaded each timeinstructions loaded each time

a computer is starteda computer is started Program is instructionsProgram is instructions

loaded when neededloaded when needed


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Roles of the operating systemRoles of the operating system


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p g yp g y

The operating system has variousThe operating system has various

roles:roles:

Management of theManagement of the

random access memoryrandom access memory: the: the

operating system isoperating system is

responsible for managing theresponsible for managing the

memory space allocated tomemory space allocated to

each application and, whereeach application and, whererelevant, to each user. Ifrelevant, to each user. If

there is insufficient physicalthere is insufficient physical

memory, the operatingmemory, the operating
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The virtual memory lets youThe virtual memory lets you

run applications requiringrun applications requiring

more memory than there ismore memory than there is

available RAM on the system.available RAM on the system.

However, this memory is aHowever, this memory is a

great deal slower.great deal slower.


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Management of input/output:Management of input/output:

the operating system allowsthe operating system allows

unification and control ofunification and control of

access of programmes toaccess of programmes to

material resources via driversmaterial resources via drivers

(also known as peripheral(also known as peripheral

administrators oradministrators or

input/output administrators).input/output administrators).


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Management of execution ofManagement of execution ofapplications: the operatingapplications: the operatingsystem is responsible forsystem is responsible for

smooth execution ofsmooth execution ofapplications by allocating theapplications by allocating theresources required for themresources required for them

to operate. This means anto operate. This means anapplication that is notapplication that is notresponding correctly can beresponding correctly can be

"killed"."killed".


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Management ofManagement ofauthorisations: the operatingauthorisations: the operatingsystem is responsible forsystem is responsible for

security relating to executionsecurity relating to executionof programmes byof programmes byguaranteeing that theguaranteeing that theresources are used only byresources are used only by

programmes and users withprogrammes and users withthe relevent authorisations.the relevent authorisations. File management: theFile management: the

operating system managesoperating system manages


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Information management: theInformation management: the

operating system provides aoperating system provides a

certain number of indicatorscertain number of indicators

that can be used to diagnosethat can be used to diagnose

the correct operation of thethe correct operation of the

machine.machine.


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Types of operating systemTypes of operating system

There are several types ofThere are several types of

operating system, definedoperating system, defined

according to whether they canaccording to whether they can

simultaneously managesimultaneously manage

information measuringinformation measuring 16 bits16 bits

,,

32 bits32 bits

,,

64 bits64 bits

or more.or more.
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SystemProgrammingSingle userMulti-SystemProgrammingSingle userMulti-userSingle taskMulti-taskDOS16userSingle taskMulti-taskDOS16

bitsX X Windows3.116/32 bitsX notbitsX X Windows3.116/32 bitsX not

pre-emptiveWindows95/98/Me32pre-emptiveWindows95/98/Me32bitsX cooperativeWindowsNT/200032bitsX cooperativeWindowsNT/200032

bits X pre-emptiveWindowsXP32/64bits X pre-emptiveWindowsXP32/64

bits X pre-emptiveUnix / Linux32/64bits X pre-emptiveUnix / Linux32/64

bits X pre-emptiveMAC/OS X32bits X pre-emptiveMAC/OS X32bits X pre-emptiveVMS32 bits X pre-bits X pre-emptiveVMS32 bits X pre-

emptiveemptive


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Programming LanguageProgramming Language

You are aware with the termYou are aware with the termlanguage. It is a system oflanguage. It is a system ofcommunication betweencommunication betweentwo persons. Some of thetwo persons. Some of thebasic natural languages thatbasic natural languages thatwe are familiar with arewe are familiar with are

English, Hindi, Oriya, etc.English, Hindi, Oriya, etc.These are the languagesThese are the languagesused to communicateused to communicate

among with your computer.among with your computer.


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Specially developed so thatSpecially developed so that

are could pass your data andare could pass your data and

instructions to the computerinstructions to the computer

to do specific job. You mustto do specific job. You must

have heard names likehave heard names like

FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, etc.FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, etc.

these are called Programmingthese are called Programming

Language.Language.


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Low level languagesLow level languages

The term low level meansThe term low level means

closeness to the way in whichcloseness to the way in which

the machine has been built.the machine has been built.

Low level languages areLow level languages are

machine oriented and requiremachine oriented and require

extensive knowledge ofextensive knowledge of

computer hardware and itscomputer hardware and its

configuration.configuration.


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High-level languageHigh-level language

You know that assemblyYou know that assembly

language and machinelanguage and machine

language require extensivelanguage require extensiveknowledge of computerknowledge of computer

hardware. To overcome thishardware. To overcome this

limitation, a user writes thelimitation, a user writes theinstructions in English likeinstructions in English like

sentences to perform thesentences to perform the

logic of the problemlogic of the problem


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BLAISE PASCAL (1623 - 1662)BLAISE PASCAL (1623 - 1662)

In 1642, the FrenchIn 1642, the French

mathematician andmathematician and

philosopher Blaise Pascalphilosopher Blaise Pascal

invented a calculating deviceinvented a calculating device

that would come to be calledthat would come to be called

the "Adding Machine".the "Adding Machine".


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Originally called a "numericalOriginally called a "numerical

wheel calculator" or thewheel calculator" or the

"Pascaline", Pascal's"Pascaline", Pascal's

invention utilized a train of 8invention utilized a train of 8

moveable dials or cogs to addmoveable dials or cogs to add

sums of up to 8 figures long.sums of up to 8 figures long.

As one dial turned 10 notchesAs one dial turned 10 notches

- or a complete revolution - it- or a complete revolution - it

mechanically turned the nextmechanically turned the next


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Pascal's mechanical AddingPascal's mechanical Adding

Machine automated theMachine automated the

process of calculation.process of calculation.

Although slow by modernAlthough slow by modern

standards, this machine didstandards, this machine did

provide a fair degree ofprovide a fair degree of

accuracy and speed.accuracy and speed.


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Charles BabbageCharles Babbage

Born in 1791, CharlesBorn in 1791, CharlesBabbage was an EnglishBabbage was an Englishmathematician and professor.mathematician and professor.

In 1822, he persuaded theIn 1822, he persuaded theBritish government to financeBritish government to financehis design to build a machinehis design to build a machine

that would calculate tables forthat would calculate tables forlogarithms.logarithms.

With Charles Babbage'sWith Charles Babbage's

creation of the "Analyticalcreation of the "Analytical


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Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973)Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973)

Aiken thought he could createAiken thought he could createa modern and functioninga modern and functioning

model of Babbage's Analyticalmodel of Babbage's Analytical

Engine.Engine.

He succeeded in securing aHe succeeded in securing a

grant of 1 million dollars forgrant of 1 million dollars forhis proposed Automatichis proposed Automatic

Sequence Calculator; the MarkSequence Calculator; the Mark

I for short. From IBM.I for short. From IBM.


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In 1944, the Mark I wasIn 1944, the Mark I was"switched" on. Aiken's"switched" on. Aiken's

colossal machine spanned 51colossal machine spanned 51

feet in length and 8 feet infeet in length and 8 feet in

height. 500 meters of wiringheight. 500 meters of wiring

were required to connect eachwere required to connect each

component.component.

H d Aik (1900 19 3)


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Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973)Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973)

The Mark I did transformThe Mark I did transformBabbage's dream into realityBabbage's dream into reality

and did succeed in puttingand did succeed in putting

IBM's name on the forefrontIBM's name on the forefront

of the burgeoning computerof the burgeoning computer

industry. From 1944 on,industry. From 1944 on,

modern computers wouldmodern computers would

forever be associated withforever be associated with

digital intelligence.digital intelligence.

ENIAC 1946


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ENIAC 1946ENIAC 1946

Electronic NumericalElectronic NumericalIntegrator And ComputerIntegrator And Computer

Under the leadership of J.Under the leadership of J.Presper Eckert (1919 - 1995)Presper Eckert (1919 - 1995)

and John W. Mauchly (1907 -and John W. Mauchly (1907 -

1980) the team produced a1980) the team produced amachine that computed atmachine that computed at

speeds 1,000 times fasterspeeds 1,000 times faster

than the Mark I was capablethan the Mark I was capable


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Using 18,00-19,000 vacuumUsing 18,00-19,000 vacuumtubes, 70,000 resistors and 5tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5

million soldered joints thismillion soldered joints this

massive instrument requiredmassive instrument required

the output of a small powerthe output of a small power

station to operate it.station to operate it.



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It could do nuclear physicsIt could do nuclear physicscalculations (in two hours)calculations (in two hours)

which it would have takenwhich it would have taken

100 engineers a year to do by100 engineers a year to do by

hand.hand.

The system's program couldThe system's program couldbe changed by rewiring abe changed by rewiring a

panel.panel.


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TRANSISTOR1948TRANSISTOR1948


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TRANSISTOR1948TRANSISTOR1948

In the laboratories of BellIn the laboratories of BellTelephone, John Bardeen,Telephone, John Bardeen,

Walter Brattain and WilliamWalter Brattain and William

Shockley discovered theShockley discovered the

"transfer resistor"; later"transfer resistor"; later

labelled the transistor.labelled the transistor.

Ad tAd t


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Advantages:Advantages:

increased reliabilityincreased reliability

1/13 size of vacuum tubes1/13 size of vacuum tubes

consumed 1/20 of theconsumed 1/20 of theelectricity of vacuum tubeselectricity of vacuum tubes

were a fraction of the costwere a fraction of the cost

TRANSISTOR 1948TRANSISTOR 1948


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TRANSISTOR 1948TRANSISTOR 1948

This tiny device had a hugeThis tiny device had a hugeimpact on and extensiveimpact on and extensive

implications for modernimplications for modern

computers. In 1956, thecomputers. In 1956, the

transistor won its creators thetransistor won its creators the

Noble Peace Prize for theirNoble Peace Prize for their

invention.invention.


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ALTAIR 1975ALTAIR 1975


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The invention of theThe invention of thetransistor made computerstransistor made computers

smaller, cheaper and moresmaller, cheaper and more

reliable. Therefore, the stagereliable. Therefore, the stage

was set for the entrance ofwas set for the entrance of

the computer into thethe computer into the

domestic realm. In 1975, thedomestic realm. In 1975, the

age of personal computersage of personal computers

commenced.commenced.


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Under the leadership of EdUnder the leadership of EdRoberts the MicroRoberts the Micro

Instrumentation andInstrumentation and

Telemetry Company (MITS)Telemetry Company (MITS)

wanted to design a computerwanted to design a computer

'kit' for the home hobbyist.'kit' for the home hobbyist.



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Based on the Intel 8080Based on the Intel 8080processor, capable ofprocessor, capable of

controlling 64 kilobyes ofcontrolling 64 kilobyes of

memory, the MITS Altair -memory, the MITS Altair -as the invention was lateras the invention was later

called - was debuted on thecalled - was debuted on the

cover of the January editioncover of the January editionof Popular Electronicsof Popular Electronics

magazine.magazine.


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Presenting the Altair as anPresenting the Altair as anunassembled kit kept costs tounassembled kit kept costs to

a minimum. Therefore, thea minimum. Therefore, the

company was able to offercompany was able to offer

this model for only $395.this model for only $395.

Supply could not keep up withSupply could not keep up with

demanddemand



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ALTAIR FACTS:ALTAIR FACTS:

No KeyboardNo Keyboard

No Video DisplayNo Video DisplayNo Storage DeviceNo Storage Device


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IBM (PC)1981IBM (PC)1981


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IBM (PC)1981IBM (PC)1981

On August 12, 1981 IBMOn August 12, 1981 IBMannounced its own personalannounced its own personal

computer.computer.

Using the 16 bit Intel 8088Using the 16 bit Intel 8088

microprocessor, allowed formicroprocessor, allowed for

increased speed and hugeincreased speed and hugeamounts of memory.amounts of memory.

Unlike the Altair that was soldUnlike the Altair that was sold

as unassembled computeras unassembled computer

IBM (PC)IBM (PC)


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( )( )

19811981

To satisfy consumer appetitesTo satisfy consumer appetitesand to increase usability, IBMand to increase usability, IBM

gave prototype IBM PCs to agave prototype IBM PCs to a

number of major softwarenumber of major software

companies.companies.

For the first time, smallFor the first time, smallcompanies and individualscompanies and individuals

who never would havewho never would have

imagined owning a "personal"imagined owning a "personal"

MACINTOSH (1984)MACINTOSH (1984)


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IBM's major competitor was aIBM's major competitor was acompany lead by Stevecompany lead by Steve

Wozniak and Steve Jobs; theWozniak and Steve Jobs; the

Apple Computer Inc.Apple Computer Inc. The "Lisa" was the result ofThe "Lisa" was the result of

their competitive thrust.their competitive thrust. This system differed from itsThis system differed from its

predecessors in its use of apredecessors in its use of a

"mouse" - then a quite foreign"mouse" - then a quite foreign



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Apple's brainchild was theApple's brainchild was theMacintosh. Like the Lisa, theMacintosh. Like the Lisa, the

Macintosh too would makeMacintosh too would make

use of a graphical useruse of a graphical userinterface.interface.

Introduced in January 1984 itIntroduced in January 1984 itwas an immediate success.was an immediate success.

The GUI (Graphical UserThe GUI (Graphical User

Interface) made the systemInterface) made the system



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The Apple Macintosh debuts inThe Apple Macintosh debuts in1984. It features a simple,1984. It features a simple,

graphical interface, uses thegraphical interface, uses the

8-MHz, 32-bit Motorola 680008-MHz, 32-bit Motorola 68000CPU, and has a built-in 9-inchCPU, and has a built-in 9-inch

B/W screen.B/W screen.


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Genration ComputerGenration Computer


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Genration ComputerGenration Computer

FIRST GENERATION (1945 1956)FIRST GENERATION (1945-1956)


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FIRST GENERATION (1945-1956)FIRST GENERATION (1945-1956)

First generation computersFirst generation computerswere characterized by the factwere characterized by the factthat operating instructionsthat operating instructions

were made-to-order for thewere made-to-order for thespecific task for which thespecific task for which thecomputer was to be used.computer was to be used.

Each computer had a differentEach computer had a differentbinary-coded program called abinary-coded program called amachine language that told itmachine language that told ithow to operate. This made thehow to operate. This made the


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Other distinctive features ofOther distinctive features offirst generation computersfirst generation computers

were the use of vacuum tubeswere the use of vacuum tubes

(responsible for their(responsible for theirbreathtaking size) andbreathtaking size) and

magnetic drums for datamagnetic drums for data

storage.storage.

SECOND GENERATION (1956-SECOND GENERATION (1956-


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1963)1963)

Throughout the early 1960's,Throughout the early 1960's,there were a number ofthere were a number ofcommercially successfulcommercially successful

second generation computerssecond generation computersused in business, universities,used in business, universities,and government fromand government fromcompanies such as Burroughs,companies such as Burroughs,

Control Data, Honeywell, IBM,Control Data, Honeywell, IBM,Sperry-Rand, and others.Sperry-Rand, and others.These second generationThese second generationcomputers were also of solidcomputers were also of solid

state desi n and containedstate desi n and contained


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They also contained all theThey also contained all thecomponents we associatecomponents we associatewith the modern daywith the modern daycomputer: printers, tapecomputer: printers, tapestorage, disk storage,storage, disk storage,memory, operating systems,memory, operating systems,

and stored programs. Oneand stored programs. Oneimportant example was theimportant example was theIBM 1401, which wasIBM 1401, which wasuniversally accepteduniversally accepted

throu hout industr and isthrou hout industry and is

THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)


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THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)

Though transistors were clearlyThough transistors were clearlyan improvement over the vacuuman improvement over the vacuum

tube, they still generated a greattube, they still generated a great

deal of heat, which damaged thedeal of heat, which damaged thecomputer's sensitive internalcomputer's sensitive internal

parts. The quartz rock eliminatedparts. The quartz rock eliminated

this problem. Jack Kilby, anthis problem. Jack Kilby, anengineer with Texas Instruments,engineer with Texas Instruments,

developed the integrated circuitdeveloped the integrated circuit

(IC) in 1958.(IC) in 1958.


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The IC combined threeThe IC combined threeelectronic components onto aelectronic components onto a

small silicon disc, which wassmall silicon disc, which was

made from quartz. Scientistsmade from quartz. Scientistslater managed to fit evenlater managed to fit even

more components on a singlemore components on a single

chip, called a semiconductor.chip, called a semiconductor.


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As a result, computers becameAs a result, computers becameever smaller as more componentsever smaller as more components

were squeezed onto the chip.were squeezed onto the chip.

Another third-generationAnother third-generationdevelopment included the use ofdevelopment included the use of

an operating system that allowedan operating system that allowed

machines to run many differentmachines to run many differentprograms at once with a centralprograms at once with a central

program that monitored andprogram that monitored and

coordinated the computer'scoordinated the computer's

FOURTH GENERATION (1971-FOURTH GENERATION (1971-


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Present)Present)

In 1981, IBM introduced itsIn 1981, IBM introduced itspersonal computer (PC) forpersonal computer (PC) for

use in the home, office anduse in the home, office and

schools. The 1980's saw anschools. The 1980's saw anexpansion in computer use inexpansion in computer use in

all three arenas as clones ofall three arenas as clones of

the IBM PC made the personalthe IBM PC made the personal

computer even morecomputer even more

affordable. The number ofaffordable. The number of


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Ten years later, 65 millionTen years later, 65 millionPCs were being used.PCs were being used.Computers continued theirComputers continued their

trend toward a smaller size,trend toward a smaller size,working their way down fromworking their way down fromdesktop to laptop computersdesktop to laptop computers

(which could fit inside a(which could fit inside abriefcase) to palmtop (able tobriefcase) to palmtop (able tofit inside a breast pocket). Infit inside a breast pocket). Indirect competition with IBM'sdirect competition with IBM's

''

FIFTH GENERATION (Future)FIFTH GENERATION (Future)


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FIFTH GENERATION (Future)FIFTH GENERATION (Future)

Many advances in the science ofMany advances in the science ofcomputer design and technologycomputer design and technologyare coming together to enable theare coming together to enable thecreation of fifth-generationcreation of fifth-generationcomputers. Two such engineeringcomputers. Two such engineeringadvances are parallel processing,advances are parallel processing,which replaces von Neumann'swhich replaces von Neumann's

single central processing unitsingle central processing unitdesign with a system harnessingdesign with a system harnessingthe power of many CPUs to workthe power of many CPUs to workas one.as one.


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Computers today have someComputers today have someattributes of fifth generationattributes of fifth generation

computers. For example, expertcomputers. For example, expert

systems assist doctors in makingsystems assist doctors in makingdiagnoses by applying thediagnoses by applying the

problem-solving steps a doctorproblem-solving steps a doctor

might use in assessing a patient'smight use in assessing a patient'sneeds. It will take several moreneeds. It will take several more

years of development beforeyears of development before

expert systems are in widespreadexpert systems are in widespread

Analog computerAnalog computer


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Analog computerAnalog computer

An analog computer operates onAn analog computer operates oninputs of continuously varyinginputs of continuously varying

electrical voltages. An example ofelectrical voltages. An example of

the use of an electronic analogthe use of an electronic analogcomputer is that of controlling acomputer is that of controlling a

flight simulator for training pilots.flight simulator for training pilots.

The computer responds to theThe computer responds to thecockpit simulator controlcockpit simulator control

movements made by the pilotmovements made by the pilot

feels as if he is controlling anfeels as if he is controlling an

Types of computersTypes of computers


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Types of computersTypes of computers

Computers, in general are ofComputers, in general are ofthree types as per thethree types as per the

electronic signal theyelectronic signal they

transmit.transmit. analog computeranalog computer

digital computerdigital computer hybrid computerhybrid computer


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Analog computers are usedAnalog computers are usedmainly in scientific design andmainly in scientific design and

production environments.production environments.

Each one has to beEach one has to beconstructed to do a specificconstructed to do a specific

job and will respond very job and will respond very

quickly to change in thequickly to change in the

measurement of inputsmeasurement of inputs

Digital computerDigital computer


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Digital computerDigital computer

In digital computersIn digital computersmathematical expression aremathematical expression arerepresented as binary digitsrepresented as binary digits

(0 and 1) and all operations(0 and 1) and all operationsare done using these digits atare done using these digits ata very high rate. It meansa very high rate. It means

that the computer operates onthat the computer operates onelectrical inputs that haveelectrical inputs that haveonly two states, ON and OFF.only two states, ON and OFF.These computes are widelyThese computes are widely

Personal computersPersonal computers


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Personal computerse so a co pute s

Almost all the computer usersAlmost all the computer usersare familiar with the personalare familiar with the personalcomputers. They normallycomputers. They normallyknow what the personalknow what the personalcomputer is and what are itscomputer is and what are itsfunctions.functions.

This is the computer mostlyThis is the computer mostly

preferred by the home users.preferred by the home users.These computers are lesser inThese computers are lesser incost than the computers givencost than the computers givenabove and also, small in size;above and also, small in size;


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This computer is small in sizeThis computer is small in sizeand you can easily arrange itand you can easily arrange it

to fit in your single bedroomto fit in your single bedroom

with its all accommodation.with its all accommodation.Today this is thought to beToday this is thought to be

the most popular computer inthe most popular computer in

all.all.

MinicomputerMinicomputer


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co putep

This computer is next in heThis computer is next in heline but less offers less thanline but less offers less than

mainframe in work andmainframe in work and

performance. These are theperformance. These are thecomputers, which are mostlycomputers, which are mostly

preferred by the small type ofpreferred by the small type of

business personals, colleges,business personals, colleges,etc.etc.

MainframesMainframes


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Another giant in computersAnother giant in computersafter the super computer isafter the super computer is

Mainframe, which can alsoMainframe, which can also

process millions of instructionprocess millions of instructionper second and capable ofper second and capable of

accessing billions of data.accessing billions of data.


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This computer is commonlyThis computer is commonlyused in big hospitals, air lineused in big hospitals, air linereservations companies, andreservations companies, andmany other huge companiesmany other huge companiesprefer mainframe because ofprefer mainframe because ofits capability of retrievingits capability of retrievingdata on a huge basis.data on a huge basis.


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This is normally to expensiveThis is normally to expensiveand out of reach from aand out of reach from asalary-based person whosalary-based person who

wants a computer for hiswants a computer for hishome.home.

This kind of computer canThis kind of computer can

cost up to thousands ofcost up to thousands ofdollars.dollars.


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Governments specially useGovernments specially usethis type of computer for theirthis type of computer for theirdifferent calculations anddifferent calculations andheavy jobs. Differentheavy jobs. Differentindustries also use this hugeindustries also use this hugecomputer for designing theircomputer for designing theirproducts.products.

In most of the HollywoodsIn most of the Hollywoodsmovies it is used formovies it is used foranimation purposes. This kindanimation purposes. This kindof computer is also helpful forof computer is also helpful for

Hybrid computerHybrid computer


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y py p

Hybrid computers areHybrid computers arecomputers with combinedcomputers with combinedfeatures of both digital andfeatures of both digital andanalog type. Desirableanalog type. Desirablefeatures of analog and digitalfeatures of analog and digitalmachines can be combined tomachines can be combined tocreate a hybrid computer.create a hybrid computer.

This type of computerThis type of computeroperates by counting as welloperates by counting as wellas by measuring. In otheras by measuring. In otherwords, the output can bewords, the output can be

either in the form of numberseither in the form of numbers


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These measures will be convertedThese measures will be convertedinto digital form and a digitalinto digital form and a digitaldevice checks for anydevice checks for anyabnormality. Further, we can alsoabnormality. Further, we can alsoinput digital data like your marksinput digital data like your marksand get digital results like theand get digital results like theresult of your class. Anotherresult of your class. Another

example is a modem. (whichexample is a modem. (whichconverts the digital signals intoconverts the digital signals intoanalog, carry it along the line andanalog, carry it along the line andat the receiving end againat the receiving end again

chan es it back into di italchan es it back into di ital

Number SystemNumber System


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You may regard each digit as a boxYou may regard each digit as a boxthat can hold a number. In thethat can hold a number. In the

binary system, there can be only twobinary system, there can be only two

choices for this number -- either achoices for this number -- either a"0" or a "1"."0" or a "1".

In the octal system, there can beIn the octal system, there can be

eight possibilities:eight possibilities: "0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7"."0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7".


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In the decimal system, there are tenIn the decimal system, there are tendifferent numbers that can enter thedifferent numbers that can enter the

digit box:digit box:

"0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7","0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7","8", "9"."8", "9".

In the hexadecimal system, we allowIn the hexadecimal system, we allow

16 numbers:16 numbers: "0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7","0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7",

"8", "9", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", and"8", "9", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", and

"F""F"

Convert From Decimal to AnyConvert From Decimal to AnyBaseBase


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Again, let's think about what you doAgain, let's think about what you doto obtain each digit. As an example,to obtain each digit. As an example,

let's start with a decimal numberlet's start with a decimal number

1234 and convert it to decimal1234 and convert it to decimalnotation. To extract the last digit,notation. To extract the last digit,

you move the decimal point left byyou move the decimal point left by

one digit, which means that youone digit, which means that you

divide the given number by its basedivide the given number by its base

1010..

1234/10 = 123 + 4/101234/10 = 123 + 4/10


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The remainder of 3 is the next last digit.The remainder of 3 is the next last digit.You repeat this process until there isYou repeat this process until there is

nothing left. Then you stop. In summary,nothing left. Then you stop. In summary,

you do the following:you do the following:

Quotient RemainderQuotient Remainder

----------------------------- 1234/10 =----------------------------- 1234/10 =

123 4 --------+ 123/10 = 12123 4 --------+ 123/10 = 12

3 ------+ | 12/10 = 1 2 ----+3 ------+ | 12/10 = 1 2 ----+| | 1/10 = 0 1 --+ | | || | 1/10 = 0 1 --+ | | |

(Stop when the quotient is 0.)(Stop when the quotient is 0.)

| | | | | | | || | | | | | | |

1 2 3 4 Base 101 2 3 4 (Base 10)


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Now, let's try a nontrivial example. Let's express aNow, let's try a nontrivial example. Let's express adecimal number 1341 in binary notation. Note thatdecimal number 1341 in binary notation. Note thatthe desired base is 2, so we repeatedly divide thethe desired base is 2, so we repeatedly divide thegiven decimal number bygiven decimal number by 22..


----------------------------- 1341/2 = 670----------------------------- 1341/2 = 6701 ----------------------+ 670/2 = 335 01 ----------------------+ 670/2 = 335 0--------------------+ | 335/2 = 167 1--------------------+ | 335/2 = 167 1------------------+ | | 167/2 = 83 1------------------+ | | 167/2 = 83 1----------------+ | | | 83/2 = 41 1----------------+ | | | 83/2 = 41 1--------------+ | | | | 41/2 = 20 1--------------+ | | | | 41/2 = 20 1

------------+ | | | | | 20/2 = 10 0------------+ | | | | | 20/2 = 10 0----------+ | | | | | | 10/2 = 5 0----------+ | | | | | | 10/2 = 5 0--------+ | | | | | | | 5/2 = 2 1 --------------+ | | | | | | | 5/2 = 2 1 ------+ | | | | | | | | 2/2 = 1 0 ----+ | | | |+ | | | | | | | | 2/2 = 1 0 ----+ | | | || | | | | 1/2 = 0 1 --+ | | | | | | | | | || | | | | 1/2 = 0 1 --+ | | | | | | | | | |

(Stop when the quotient is 0)(Stop when the quotient is 0)


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Let's express the same decimal numberLet's express the same decimal number1341 in octal notation.1341 in octal notation.


----------------------------- 1341/8 =----------------------------- 1341/8 =

167 5 --------+ 167/8 = 20167 5 --------+ 167/8 = 20

7 ------+ | 20/8 = 2 4 ----+ |7 ------+ | 20/8 = 2 4 ----+ |

| 2/8 = 0 2 --+ | | | (Stop| 2/8 = 0 2 --+ | | | (Stop

when the quotient is 0)when the quotient is 0)| | | | 2 4 7 5| | | | 2 4 7 5

(OCT; Base 8) Let's express the same(OCT; Base 8) Let's express the same

decimal number 1341 in hexadecimaldecimal number 1341 in hexadecimal

notationnotation


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Let's express the same decimalLet's express the same decimalnumber 1341 in hexadecimalnumber 1341 in hexadecimal

notation.notation.

Quotient RemainderQuotient Remainder----------------------------------------------------------

1341/16 = 83 13 ------+1341/16 = 83 13 ------+

83/16 = 5 3 ----+ |83/16 = 5 3 ----+ |5/16 = 0 5 --+ | | (Stop5/16 = 0 5 --+ | | (Stop

when the quotient is 0)when the quotient is 0)

| | | 5 3| | | 5 3


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ExampleExample. Convert the decimal number. Convert the decimal number3315 to hexadecimal notation. What about3315 to hexadecimal notation. What aboutthe hexadecimal equivalent of the decimalthe hexadecimal equivalent of the decimalnumber 3315.3?number 3315.3?

Solution:Solution: Quotient RemainderQuotient Remainder

----------------------------- 3315/16 =----------------------------- 3315/16 =207 3 ------+ 207/16 = 12207 3 ------+ 207/16 = 12

15 ----+ | 12/16 = 0 12 --+ | |15 ----+ | 12/16 = 0 12 --+ | |(Stop when the quotient is 0)(Stop when the quotient is 0)

| | | C F 3| | | C F 3(HEX; Base 16)(HEX; Base 16)

(HEX; Base 16) Product Integer(HEX; Base 16) Product Integer


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-------------------------------- | | |-------------------------------- | | || 0.3*16 =| 0.3*16 = 44.8 4 ----.8 4 ----

+ | | | | | 0.8*16 =+ | | | | | 0.8*16 = 1212.8 12.8 12

------+ | | | | 0.8*16 =------+ | | | | 0.8*16 =1212.8 12 --------+ | | |.8 12 --------+ | | |

0.8*16 =0.8*16 = 1212.8 12.8 12

----------+ | | :----------+ | | :

---------------------+ :---------------------+ :

Thus, 3315.3 (DEC) -->Thus, 3315.3 (DEC) --> CF3.4CCC...CF3.4CCC...(HEX)(HEX)


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Note that from the Base ConversionNote that from the Base ConversionTable, you can easily get the binaryTable, you can easily get the binary

notation from the hexadecimalnotation from the hexadecimal

number by grouping four binarynumber by grouping four binarydigits per hexadecimal digit, or fromdigits per hexadecimal digit, or from

or the octal number by groupingor the octal number by grouping

three binary digits per octal digit,three binary digits per octal digit,

and vice versa.and vice versa.

HEX 5 3 D BIN 0101 0011HEX 5 3 D BIN 0101 0011

1101 OCT 2 4 7 5 BIN 0101101 OCT 2 4 7 5 BIN 010

Convert From Any Base ToConvert From Any Base ToDecimalDecimal


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Let's think more carefully what aLet's think more carefully what adecimal number means. Fordecimal number means. For

example, 1234 means that there areexample, 1234 means that there are

four boxes (digits); and there are 4four boxes (digits); and there are 4one's in the right-most box (leastone's in the right-most box (least

significant digit), 3 ten's in the nextsignificant digit), 3 ten's in the next

box, 2 hundred's in the next box,box, 2 hundred's in the next box,

and finally 1 thousand's in the left-and finally 1 thousand's in the left-

most box (most significant digit).most box (most significant digit).

The total is 1234:The total is 1234:


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Original Number: 1 2 3 4Original Number: 1 2 3 4| | | || | | |

How Many Tokens: 1 2 3How Many Tokens: 1 2 3

4 Digit/Token Value: 1000 1004 Digit/Token Value: 1000 10010 1 Value: 1000 + 20010 1 Value: 1000 + 200

+ 30 + 4 = 1234or simply,+ 30 + 4 = 1234or simply,

1*1000 + 2*100 + 3*10 + 4*1 =1*1000 + 2*100 + 3*10 + 4*1 =

1234 Thus, each digit has a value:1234 Thus, each digit has a value:

10^0=1 for the least significant10^0=1 for the least significant

digit, increasing to 10^1=10,digit, increasing to 10^1=10,

^ ^^ = ^ =


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Likewise, the least significant digit in aLikewise, the least significant digit in ahexadecimal number has a value ofhexadecimal number has a value of16^0=1 for the least significant digit,16^0=1 for the least significant digit,increasing to 16^1=16 for the next digit,increasing to 16^1=16 for the next digit,

16^2=256 for the next, 16^3=4096 for16^2=256 for the next, 16^3=4096 forthe next, and so forth. Thus, 1234 meansthe next, and so forth. Thus, 1234 meansthat there are four boxes (digits); andthat there are four boxes (digits); andthere are 4 one's in the right-most boxthere are 4 one's in the right-most box

(least significant digit), 3 sixteen's in the(least significant digit), 3 sixteen's in thenext box, 2 256's in the next, and 1next box, 2 256's in the next, and 14096's in the left-most box (most4096's in the left-most box (mostsignificant digit). The total is:significant digit). The total is:

1*4096 + 2*256 + 3*16 + 4*1 =1*4096 + 2*256 + 3*16 + 4*1 =


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