F. Plank, Early Germanic 1 FROM VERY EARLY GERMANIC AND BEFORE TOWARDS THE “OLD” STAGES OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES, IN PARTICULAR OLD ENGLISH 160,000+ years of human population history summarised up to ca. 10,000 Before Now: Journey of Mankind: The Peopling of the World http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/
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5. EarlyGmc>OEF. Plank, Early Germanic 1
FROM VERY EARLY GERMANIC AND BEFORE TOWARDS THE “OLD” STAGES OF THE
GERMANIC LANGUAGES, IN PARTICULAR OLD ENGLISH 160,000+ years of
human population history summarised up to ca. 10,000 Before Now:
Journey of Mankind: The Peopling of the World
http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/
F. Plank, Early Germanic 2
The origin of Language (capital L: a capacity common to all members
of the species Homo sapiens) and the early diversification of
languages (little l: individual historical manifestations of that
capacity) – are fascinating questions and challenges for
geneticists, palaeontologists, archaeologists, physical and
cultural anthropologists. Alas, this is not something historical
linguists, speaking with professional authority, could do
much/anything to shed light on. No speech acts performed by early
homines sapientes have come down to us to bear witness to their
mental lexicons & grammars. From human fossils a little can be
inferred about the organs implicated in the production and
perception of speech, but nothing of substance can be inferred
about the linguistic working of brains (the mental lexicon &
grammar). Palaeogenetics is our only hope – but genes specifically
enabling traits of Language or languages remain to be identified
and to be extracted from fossils. Speech acts were given greater
permanence through writing only much later: from around 3,200 BCE
in Mesopotamia as well as in Egypt, from around 1,200 BCE in China,
and from around 600 BCE in Mesoamerica.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 3
The technology for actually recording speech (and other) sounds was
only invented in 1857.
(And do listen to the earliest ever speech and song documents here
– it’s French, Au claire de la lune and more:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRbIJc05QTA)
Phonautograph and phonautogram (c. 1857): apparatus for recording
sound vibrations graphically, with vibrations produced in cone
traced in soot on lamp-blacked cylinder;
invented by Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville (1817–79)
https://imgur.com/gallery/DKDp8
https://time.com/5084599/first-recorded-sound/
F. Plank, Early Germanic 4
Now, what cannot be observed, and recorded for analysis, must be
(rationally) hypothesised. The standard method in historical
linguistics for rationally forming hypotheses about a past from
which we have no direct evidence is the comparative method.
Alas, the comparative method for the reconstruction of linguistic
forms (lexical as well as grammatical) only reaches back some 8,000
years maximum, given the normal life expectancy and limits on the
recognisability of forms and meanings. And it is questionable
whether constructions can be rigorously reconstructed. The
comparative method consists in identifying systematic
correspondences – typically differences, not identities! – between
languages and suggesting plausible stories to account for how such
difference could develop from earlier sameness.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 5
For example (and simplifying, as usual at this stage), long
parallel lists can be drawn up of current English words with /t/
corresponding to current German words with /ts/:
E toll, ten, two, to, town, tit, snout, heart, salt, smut, cat, sit
... G Zoll, zehn, zwei, zu, Zaun, Zitze, Schnauze, Herz, Salz,
Schmutz, Katze, sitzen ...
The meanings of these words in English and German are either the
same or can be plausibly connected (e.g., a town is or used to be
an enclosed, ‘fenced in’ place of habitation).
Such pairs are so numerous that they must be considered systematic
rather than acidental. Let’s therefore set aside pairs, far less
numerous, which do not show the same correspondence of /t/ and
/ts/, such as bite – beissen (beizen being something else), taboo –
Tabu (*Zabu), rat – Ratte (Ratz only in Bavarian dialect), czar or
tsar /zA…, tsA…, *tA…/ – Zar.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 6
A historical story that would make sense of correspondences would
be as follows.
Let’s assume that English and German derive from a single ancestral
language (spoken at a time that linguists left to their own devices
can’t specify with any precision: population historians and
archaeologists, better at the absolute dating of past peoples and
events, will hopefully lend a hand): these word pairs (“cognates”)
would then be explained as being part of the shared heritage,
acquired again and again by new generations. But how have they come
to sound systematically different?
The continuation of the story is that (ancestors of) the speakers
of German, once they had split off from (ancestors of) the speakers
of English, would begin to pronounce /t/’s as [ts] (the relevant
phonological features would be [continuant] or [strident]).
Then, after a period of applying a pronouncing rule with the effect
of affricating voiceless stops (also affecting /p/ and partly also
/k/: pound/Pfund, apple/Apfel, rump/Rumpf, elk/Elch, sickle/Sichel
...), and not hearing anybody pronouncing such words with a stop
any longer in their own speech community
F. Plank, Early Germanic 7
(nor encountering alternations of [p, t, k] and [pf, ts, kx] in
different morphological environments), they would eventually
restructure these words in their mental lexicons so as to have
basic affricates in the lexical representation of these words. A
hypothetical reverse story of historical de-affrication – with /ts/
[ts] in the common ancestral language and with the English changing
the pronunciation to [t] and eventually the lexical representation
to /t/ – would make less phonological sense. Words such as
ton/Tonne, taboo/Tabu, state/Staat, chat/chatten etc., entering the
language as later loans, would therefore be spared affrication in
German, with the pronunciation rule /t/ → [ts] no longer active,
and would therefore sound the same in the two (independently)
borrowing languages, as such giving no evidence of original
historical relatedness. Likewise, though it did not get affricates
from stops through a historical sound change, English might itself
get [ts] through borrowing words such as czar from other languages
with affricates (such as Russian); but then, the aversion to
F. Plank, Early Germanic 8
affricates might be so strong as to lead to more native-like
pronunciations of such loans (as [zA…] rather than [tsA…]).
There are other non-correspondence pairs which cannot be explained
as due to later borrowing: bite – beissen, eat – essen, vat – Fass,
foot – Fuss, out – aus, that – das(s), what – was, it – es, winter
– Winter, stone – Stein, etc. These will need closer study: perhaps
the environments of the relevant sounds made a difference, and/or
further changes happened subsequently.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 9
No other method for throwing light on the distant linguistic past
is considered sound by experts – notwithstanding the numerous
efforts of amateurs (who may well be experts in their own fields,
such as genetics, palaeontology, archaeology) to trace the history
of lexicons and grammars back further through the mass comparison
of words or other such dubious ventures.
Mass comparatists hope that the more words they find with similar
sound and similar meaning, the stronger will be their case for a
historical relationship between the languages compared. However,
words which sound similar and mean something similar now will in
all probability have sounded differently and will have meant
something different in the past of each of the languages concerned,
and are therefore unreliable guides into those earlier times when
the languages compared would conceivably have been close family
members and possibly even one single language.
Given the inherent limitations of the scholarly methods of
historical linguistics as currently practised (and given the nature
of its subject matter, it is difficult to see how matters could
improve dramatically), sadly, some 95% of the linguistic history of
mankind are bound to remain forever in the dark.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 10
The Journey of Mankind shown above assumes monogenesis: all
exemplars of homo sapiens ever can ultimately be traced back to the
same mother. There is substantial genetic support for this theory.
What is hotly debated is precisely how other species came into
play: now extinct, there formerly were Neandertals, Denisovans and
perhaps further species of the genus Homo (e.g. homo floresiensis),
and they demonstrably mixed and intermarried with “us”. It is an
open question whether they had Language, in the sense of a system
for the expression of thought and feeling and for communication
based on a mental lexicon & grammar. But what does that mean
for Language and languages? Can all languages ever spoken also be
traced back to a single language spoken in our common ancestral
community some 150,000 years ago, “proto-Human”? Is English, for
example, the way it is because it is historically descended from
proto-Human, allowing for lexical and grammatical changes that over
time have distinguished it, or its more immediate ancestors, from
other languages? Possibly, but not necessarily.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 11
New languages have been devised even recently, with no model to
follow, namely sign languages of village deaf communities, and oral
languages may equally have been invented or reinvented more than
once in the past. Therefore, genetic monogenesis of homo sapiens
does not necessarily preclude linguistic polygenesis – even
disregarding the possible contributions of Neandertals and
Denisovans.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 12
Where does deep time seriously begin for historical linguists
specially interested in the Germanic languages? Perhaps here: The
Nostratic or Eurasian super/macrofamily
Comprising these families (all or some – you choose):
Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Kartvelian, perhaps also
Afroasiatic, (Elamo-) Dravidian, Sumerian, Etruscan, Nivkh,
Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Eskimo-Aleut.
Member languages of this supposed superfamily are (now) located in
Europe, North/Northeast Asia, Arctic; the supposed Urheimat: The
Fertile Crescent.
When was the supposed proto-language spoken? Meso/Epipalaeolithic,
end of last glacial period (20,000 – 9,500 BCE)
Established (is it?) by which methods? Comparative method and/or
mass comparison, fantasy.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 13
Here is how the supposed superfamily may have split up into
families:
from A. Bomhard, Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic, 2008 Most of these
subfamilies of supposed Nostratic are themselves beyond reasonable
doubt. Eurasiatic emphatically isn’t. One level further down in
this family tree, Indo-European is universally accepted (as are
Uralic and Altaic) – although there are many questions about it
(and even more about Uralic and Altaic) that remain.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 14
The Common Indo-European speech community:
the best, though not uncontroversial candidates are the Sredny Stog
culture (±4500–3500 BCE) of nomadic Kurgan (burial mound) builders,
fast travellers on horse-drawn chariots spreading in all directions
in several waves of migrations/invasions. Competing IE Urheimat
theories; current favourites:
1. Pontic-Caspian Steppe/Kurgan theory: unity until 4th or 5th
millennium BCE; 2. Anatolian theory: wave(s) of advance of farming,
since 7th millennium BCE
or earlier;
but many alternative yarns have been spun(see second map below) : •
Out-of-India theory; • Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm: “Old
Europeans” themselves as the Proto-
Indo-Europeans, not later immigrants; • Sprachbund theory
(Trubetzkoy); • ...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 15
[from Beekes, Comparative Indo-European linguistics, 1995]
F. Plank, Early Germanic 16
Suggested IE Urheimaten
[J. P. Mallory, In search of the Indo-Europeans, 1989, p144]
F. Plank, Early Germanic 17
How did the Proto-Indo-Europeans speak? What was their lexicon and
grammar like?
Entertaining and instructing each other with a fable about a sheep
and horses, they might have said something like this, as August
Schleicher saw it in 1868:
[Das] schaf und [die] rosse [Ein] schaf, [auf] welchem wolle nicht
war (ein geschorenes schaf) sah rosse, das [einen] schweren wagen
fahrend, das [eine] große last, das [einen] menschen schnell
tragend. [Das] schaf sprach [zu den] rossen: [Das] herz wird beengt
[in] mir (es thut mir herzlich leid), sehend [den] menschen [die]
rosse treibend. [Die] rosse sprachen: Höre schaf, [das] herz wird
beengt [in den] gesehen-habenden (es thut uns herzlich leid, da wir
wissen): [der] mensch, [der] herr macht [die] wolle [der schafe [zu
einem] warmen kleide [für] sich und [den] schafen ist nicht wolle
(die schafe aber haben keine wolle mehr, sie werden geschoren; es
geht ihnen noch schlechter als den rossen). Dies gehört-habend bog
(entwich) [das] schaf [auf das] feld (es machte sich aus dem
staube)
Avis akvsas ka Avis, jasmin varn na ast, dadarka akvams, tam, vgham
garum vaghantam, tam, bhram magham, tam, manum ku bharantam. Avis
akvabhjams vavakat: kard aghnutai mai vidanti manum akvams agantam.
Akvsas vavakant: krudhi avai, kard aghnutai vividvant-svas: manus
patis varnm avisms karnauti svabhjam gharmam vastram avibhjams ka
varn na asti. Tat kukruvants avis agram bhugat.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 18
This is of course hypothetical, a text fabricated on then current
hypotheses about the reconstruction of forms and on assumptions
about rules of syntactic construction. As reconstructions changed,
so changed this story. Here are two recent versions, based on the
reconstructions of Frederik Kortlandt (2007) and Craig Melchert
(2009) (from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable):
euis i:uesk:e euis i ueli nst e:ums uit:, t:o k’reum uoom uent:m,
t:o m’em porom, t:o tmenm o:u prent:m. uuk:t euis i:uos, eto me :rt
nerm uit’ent:i e:ums ’ent:m. ueuk:nt: i:ues, :luti ue, eto nsme
:rt: uit’ent:i, nr p:ot:is uiom ueli sue kermom uesti k:rneut:i, ui
k:e ueli nesti. t:o :e:luus euis plenom puk’t.
Hówis (h)ék ws-ke
háwej josméj hwl hnáh né hést, só hék woms derk t. só gr húm wóhom
wéhet; méhm bhórom; só (dh)gémonm hk u bhéret. hówis hék wojbh(j)os
wéwk()et: (dh)hémonm spék joh hék oms-ke héeti, k r moj aglmutór.
hék ws tu wéwkont: k ludhí, howei! tód spék jomes/n, n sméi
aghnutór k r: (dh)hém pótis s háwjm hwl hnh ghérmom wéstrom
(h)wébht, háwibh(j)os tu hwl hnáh né hésti. tód k ek luws hówis
haróm bhugét.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 19
Short though it is, this (hypothetical) text gives you a glimpse at
the lexicon and grammar (and the world) of people telling each
other such stories; for details we would have to turn to the
specialist Indo-Europeanist literature. The oldest real texts in a
Indo-European language only date from some 4,000 years ago, quite
some time after the dissolution of proto-language unity. The
languages earliest recorded in writing are Hittite, Mycenaean
Greek, and Vedic Sanskrit. Germanic followed much later.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 20
(early) Indo-European dispersal
Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BCE
according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The magenta area corresponds to
the assumed Urheimat (Pontic Caspian Steppe: Samara culture, Sredny
Stog culture). The red area corresponds to the area which may have
been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BCE;
the orange area to 1000 BCE.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses
F. Plank, Early Germanic 21
... a little later, European Colonial Expansion, 15th century CE
and after
Countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages Countries
with an IE minority language with official status
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages
after Proto-IE unity
Linguistically speaking, the null hypothesis would be a flat tree
(at the root): all daughters as sisters
Extinct older IE languages not included in this tree include poorly
attested Venetic, Messapian, Thracian, Illyrian, Phrygian,
Paionian, Macedonian, Ligurian (IE?).
F. Plank, Early Germanic 23
... but linguistic diversity, reflecting the complex histories of
speech communities, is usually emerging in a more complex
manner
as (again) August Schleicher saw it in 1861 (Anatolian not yet in
the picture):
Best known among rival hierarchical trees is the Kentum–Satem tree
(West plus Tocharian vs. East). Even better ...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 24
“Best” Indo-European tree, according to Don Ringe, Tandy Warnow et
al. [Computational Phylogenetics in Historical Linguistics at
http://www.cs.rice.edu/~nakhleh/CPHL/]
Note: Indo-Iranian splitting off late (???); Albanian as Germanic’s
closest relative (???)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 25
In family tree representations (Stammbaum), a node represents a
language, in particlar a proto-language, the direct ancestor to two
or more daughter languages. Subgrouping more than one language as
daughters of one proto- language is motivated if there are one or
several innovations shared by the languages concerned. (The
reasoning is that if two languages share the same innovation, it
likely has happened only once rather than twice independently;
hence we posit a single proto-language for these two languages and
assume the innovation has already happened when they were still one
language.) Thus, such a tree thus visualises the relative
chronology of shared innovations as languages/speech communities
are splitting up.
The length of branches can be used (but often isn’t) to represent
the length of time between innovation events splitting up
unity.
The spatial (left/right) ordering of nodes and branches can be used
to represent the geographical locations (east/west, north/south) of
the speech communities concerned.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 26
Compare other visualisations of historical relatedness:
Wellentheorie (Johannes Schmidt 1856ff, Hugo Schuchardt 1868ff, et
al.): representing the gradual spread of innovations from a centre
across speech communities – thus, focus on space, no representation
of relative chronology. (Try to translate the IE wave diagram above
into a tree, and vice versa.)
http://www.hispanoteca.eu/Lexikon%20der%20Linguistik/w/WELLENTHEORIE%20%20%20Teor%C3%ADa%20de%20las%20ondas.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_model
F. Plank, Early Germanic 27
Isogloss map from R. Anttila, Historical and comparative
corresponding NeighborNet by Paul Heggarty linguistics, 21989;
relevant for Germanic, out of 24: (the more similar, the closer)
18: new tense system from perfect
http://www.languagesandpeoples.com/Eng/ 19: umlaut
SupplInfo/AnttilaNeighborNet.htm 20: -ww-, -jj- | stop + w, j 21:
-ggj- | -ddj- ... and why not others, like First Consonant
Shift?
F. Plank, Early Germanic 28
The Common Germanic people, about to split up: the Jastorf culture,
600–300 BCE
= the people who distinguished themselves through practising
cremation burials in extensive urnfields, and who formed the speech
community who, among other uniquely distinctive linguistic
innovations, shifted IE consonants (“Grimm’s Law”)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo- European_languages
Diversification of Indo-Europeans ca 500 BCE, showing a somewhat
wider spread of Germanic (purple)
Note: This is an archaeological, not a linguistic map!
F. Plank, Early Germanic 30
... some context ...
There is much about the question of Germanic ethnogenesis that
continues to be controversial. On linguistic grounds, what we can
confidently say is that a speech community must have emerged and
continued to remain united or allied within which certain
innovations relative to earlier IE lexicon-and-grammar were made
and could spread – after the Indo-Europeans had split up (ca.
4500–3500 BCE) and prior to ca. 500 BCE, when it itself split up.
This population would thus have had from two to four millennia to
stay put or move about and to form new cultural, ethnic, and
linguistic groups, over which period the people to become Germanic
were at some time and at some place in especially close contact
with the peoples to become Albanian (the Illyrians and/or
Thracians), Italic, Celtic, and Baltic, and also with peoples not
of Indo- European descent (Etruscan/Raetic, pre-Basque/Vasconic and
other Iberian, Megalithic cultures, Afroasiatic, Uralic ...).
F. Plank, Early Germanic 31
more archaeological-historical maps ...
Nordic Bronze Age Culture, Expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BCE
–1 CE ca. 1200 BCE: pre-Germanic? (after Penguin Atlas of World
History 1988):
Settlements before 750 BCE (?) New settlements by 500 BCE New
settlements by 250 BCE New settlements by 1 CE
F. Plank, Early Germanic 32
Eventually: no longer Common Germanic, but separate populations and
speech communities
languages missing here: †Norn, †Old Gutnish, Old High German,
†Langobardic, Dalecarlian (“only” a dialect group within Swedish?),
the three descendants of Frisian (West Fr., North Fr., Saterland
Fr.), Flemish, Letzeburgesch (descendants, in a sense, of Dutch and
High German, respectively), ... and all these Englishes?
Note: Middle High German is a downward-branching node – but what is
the brace above it supposed to mean? (→ convergence/amalgamation
rather than divergence?)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 33
from Robinson, Old English and its closest relatives, 1992 from
Hutterer, Die germanischen Sprachen, 1990
F. Plank, Early Germanic 34
There have been recent suggestions of a different subgrouping of
Germanic with “English” as a separate high level branch. Encouraged
by population-genetic findings supposedly suggesting a west/east
division still recognisable in the current British population, this
“English” branch is supposed to have split off very early through a
population sailing westwards from continental Scandinavia and
settling on the British Isles (with the tribe of the Belgae
sometimes suggested as the supposed speakers of this language to
have branched off first from Common Germanic) before the coming of
the Romans, alongside an earlier “Atlantic” population that had
come in from the west. This idea has made headlines in the popular
press, but it is science fiction so far as languages and their
history are concerned, based on faulty linguistic data, wrong
interpetations of correct data, and flawed method, and is at odds
with all responsible historical linguistic reconstruction
work.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 35
Evidence for very early Germanic
http://www.tollundman.dk/ A speaker of very early Germanic: Tollund
Man. He died approximately 375–210 BCE, between 30 and 40 years
old, hanged in a ritual sacrifice and buried in a peat bog near
Tollund in Jylland, Denmark. (He is now on display in Silkeborg
Museum.) No DNA analysis yet; who knows, he may have been a
captured non-Germanic speaking foreigner! No sample of his speech
or writing has been preserved.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 36
0. Hypothetical inference rather than observation 0.1. Comparative
reconstruction: systematic form correspondences across languages
(differences, not identities!) → proto-forms, accompanied by
stories about change; relative chronology of different
innovations;
reconstructability of (morphological, syntactic)
constructions?
0.2. Glottochronology: supposedly constant rate of lexical
turnover: 14 replacements out of 100 on Swadesh List over 1,000
years
→ absolute chronology of splits of speech communities; but is the
method valid???
F. Plank, Early Germanic 37
Schleicher’s fable again (as per reconstruction) Proto-Germanic,
phonetic evolution only
Awiz ehwz-uh: awiz, hwisi wull ne est, spihi ehwanz, ain kur wag
wegand, ain-uh mek bur, ain-uh guman ahu berand. Awiz nu ehwamaz
wiuhi: hert agnutai mek, witand ehwanz akand guman. Ehwz weuh:
hludi, awi! hert agnutai uns witundumaz: gumô, fadiz, wull awj
hwurniudi sibi warm westr. Awj-uh wull ne isti. Þat hehluwaz awiz
akr buki.
Proto-Germanic, with grammar and vocabulary modernised Awiz
ehwz-uh: awiz, s wull ne habd, sahw ehwanz, ainan kurjan wagn
teuhand, ainan-uh mikil kuriþ, ainan-uh guman sneumundô berand.
Awiz nu ehwamaz sagd: hertô sairþi mek, sehwand ehwanz akand guman.
Ehwz sagddun: gahauz, awi! hertô sairþi uns sehwandumiz: gumô,
fadiz, uz awz wull wurkþi siz warm wastij. Awiz-uh wull ne habaiþi.
Þat hauzidaz awiz akr flauh.
English The Sheep and the Horses: a sheep that had no wool saw
horses, one pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one
carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: “My heart
pains me, seeing a man driving horses”. The horses said: “Listen,
sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master,
makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And
the sheep has no wool”. Having heard this, the sheep fled into the
plain.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language See also
Quiles, López-Menchero et al. 2009.
http://dnghu.org/indo-european-schleicher-fable.pdf
F. Plank, Early Germanic 38
1. Loanwords in other languages, antedating the earliest Germanic
texts Gmc loans in Finnish (preserved until today)
rengas ‘ring’ Go hriggs, ON hringr, OHG, OE (h)ring Since Finnish
is phonologically rather conservative, this suggests the assumption
that hringaz, as comparatively-reconstructed on the evidence of
later Germanic languages alone, always showing stem vowel /i/, <
Proto-Gmc *hrengaz, with a different stem vowel; also with a
non-zero exponent, -z/-r, for NOM.SG, as only retained in Gothic
and Old Norse/Icelandic (= marked nominative, vis-à-vis ACC.SG -Ø,
typologically unusual!) kuningas ‘king’ OE cyning, OHG chuning,
OIcel konungr, PGmc *kunningaz (without umlaut; and again with
non-zero exponent -z/-r for NOM.SG) kulta ‘gold’ OE gold, OHG gold,
ON goll/gull, Go gulþ, PGmc *gulþa- (with the original vowel
retained in Finnish)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 39
kauppa ‘trade’ OHG koufen, OS kpian, ON kaupa, Go kaupn, PGmc
*kaup--n; which is a verb derived from a noun: OE cpa, OHG koufo in
turn borrowed from Lat caupo ‘small tradesman, innkeeper’ (whence
also E cheap)
Gmc loans in Latin rus ‘Auer(ochse)’ OE r, OHG ro, ON úrr, PGmc *rn
(also borrowed by Gk oros)
alcs ‘elks’ OE elh, eolh; eol(h)a-, OHG elahho, ON elgr, PGmc
*algiz; PIE *el-k-, with the vowel /a/ in Lat suggesting it was
borrowed from Gmc rather than derived from the IE root
glsum ‘amber’ > ‘glass’ OE glæs, OHG glas, WGmc *glasa-n
ganta ‘(wild) goose’ OE gs, OHG gans, ON gáns, PGmc *gans-; PIE
*ghans-, whence regular Lat (h)nser; therefore Lat ganta (OFr
jante, E gannet), Sp ganso (Go *gansus) must be loans
F. Plank, Early Germanic 40
sp(n-) ‘hair-dye’ > OE spe, OHG seiffa, WGmc *saip- ‘make-up,
soap’ (also borrowed by Finnish: saip(p)io, saip(p)ua)
Chariomrus proper name PGmc *harja-mraz ‘heer-berühmt’
companio ‘companion’ a calque (loan translation) of OHG gileibo,
‘one with whom one shares a bread-loaf’ (collective prefix gi- →
cum-, noun leib → panis)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 41
2. Early texts (inscriptions, usually short, sometimes plain,
sometimes poetic)
2.1. Negau Helmet B, unearthed in today’s Slovenia and dated 5th
century BCE, but inscription added later, 3rd/2nd century BCE
(written from right to left!; here transliterated):
HARIGASTI TEI[VA] / / / IP [?] or: HARIGASTIZ FEFAKIT?
cf. Go harjis, ON herr, OE here, OHG heri etc., PGmc *harja-
‘Heer’; Go gasts, ON gestr, OHG gast etc., PGmc *gasti- ‘stranger,
guest’;
OIcel týr, tivar theonym, PGmc *teiwa- (cf. Lat deus?)
see reproductions at:
http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/germ/runealph.htm
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Negau_helmet_inscription.jpg
http://www.khm.at/de/kunsthistorisches-
museum/sammlungen/antikensammlung/vorroemisches-italien-und-
alpenkulturen/?aid=5&cHash=5a30e0b072
F. Plank, Early Germanic 42
F. Plank, Early Germanic 43
F. Plank, Early Germanic 44
However, the Germanicness of the inscription on Negau Helmet B as
well as its precise reading are controversial: it could be (partly)
Raetic/Etruscan, in script as well as language; the proper name
contained in this short inscription, probably naming the owner of
the helmet (perhaps a mercenary, since Germanic warriors did not
usually were metal helmets; another popular reading, however, is
‘to the god Harigast’ [DAT] ), which is clearly Germanic,
though.
For some discussion and further references see the article ‘Negauer
Helm’ by R. Nedoma in Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde,
vol. 21, pp52–61. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2nd edn.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 45
Another contender for being the oldest Runic Germanic text, the
inscription on the Meldorf fibula, dated to the first half of the
1st century CE on archaeological grounds, is also
controversial:
The four letters on it have alternatively been read as Runic (iþih
or iwih if read from right to left, hiþi or hiwi if read from left
to right, ‘for Hiwi’, a woman’s name in the dative, or ‘for the
spouse/mater familias’), pre-Runic, Latin (IDIN, ‘for Ida’ or ‘for
Iddo’, a woman’s or a man’s name), or Latin-in-the-Runic-
fashion.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 46
Thus, with this sort of inscription, even when legible and
decipherable, there are problems (perhaps insurmountable) of
identifying (a) the script (Is it Runic as used by Germanic people
or another similar script as used by other people, perhaps a people
from which the Germanic writers “borrowed” their Runic alphabet?)
and (b) the language written in whatever script it is written in
(Is it early Germanic or another language, perhaps a language
Germanic speakers were in contact with?) Dating from ca. 160 CE,
the Vimose Comb, one of several inscribed finds from Funen,
Denmark, is not much younger, and its inscription is impossible to
misread: harja.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 47
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vimose_inscriptions
The problem is what it means: the owner’s name, Harja, plain and
simple? other names, abbreviated: Harjaríkar or Harj? designation
of the tool it is written on: comb (‘das zu den Haaren gehörige’)?
den Kamm, accusative singular? or rather warrior (‘der zum Heer
gehörige Krieger’)? or member of the tribe of the Harii? or guide
of the dead???
http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2.asp?findno=20&ort=Vimose&objekt=Kamm
F. Plank, Early Germanic 48
Though initially not always easily distinguished, the earliest
Germanic writing was in Runic, an alphabetic type of script. This
is a script, attested in several regional varieties, that in
principle presents no problems of interpretation: the sound values
of the (originally 24) letters (“runes”) have long been figured out
– and the names of the runes in fact reveal them (thus F fehu
‘cattle, wealth’, U ruz ‘aurochs’, etc.).
The origin of the Runic script is less clear. Among the several
theories, the one most widely accepted sees it as derivative of Old
Italic, especially Alpine scripts, used for writing non-IE
languages such as Etruscan and Raetic as well as IE languages such
as Venetic, Lepontic, Ligurian, and Gallian. All these scripts in
turn – like probably all alphabetic scripts of the Old World –
ultimately derive from the Phoenician or Proto-Canaanite alphabet
(or, technically, abjad, with letters only for consonants), in use
from ca. 1200–150 BCE and itself derived from Egyptian
hieroglyphs.
More recently the Germanic Runic script has been linked directly
with the script of the Phoenicians, a people based on the
Mediterranean coast in the Near East, thriving from ca. 1200–800
BCE and trading all over the Mediterranean and along the Atlantic
coast as far as Northwestern Europe (in particular Ireland); their
language was Semitic, a close relative of Hebrew.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 49
Later, it was mostly the Latin alphabet, in one form or another,
that was used for writing Germanic languages. The ancestor of the
Latin alphabet was the Etruscan script, which in turn was based on
a form of the Greek alphabet, which ultimately derived from the
Phoenician abjad.
But Germanic languages were – or indeed are – also written in a few
further scripts, all of the alphabetic type. Gothic had its own,
Greek-derived script (devised by Bishop Ulfilas, a Visigoth, 4th
century CE); Yiddish is commonly written in Hebrew script (since
the 13th century); Sütterlin was sometimes (first half of 20th
century) used for hand-written German.
Another early writing system was used in the British Isles, from
the 4th–9th centuries CE, Ogham; but Ogham – most likely based on
the Latin alphabet, despite its very different look – was only used
for inscriptions in Irish and related Celtic languages. For concise
general background on the Runic script, as well as a fascinating
general survey of scripts, see Daniels & Bright, The world’s
writing systems, Oxford: Oxford University Press, esp. Sections 23
and 25.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 50
Elder Futhark Elder Futhark is thought to be the oldest version of
the Runic alphabet, and was used, from ca. 150–800 CE, in the parts
of Europe which were home to Germanic peoples, including
Scandinavia. Other versions probably developed from it. The names
of the letters are shown in Common Germanic, the reconstructed
ancestor of all Germanic languages.
Notes: The letter k is also called knaz (torch) or kan (skiff). The
meaning of the letter name perþ is unknown.
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm
F. Plank, Early Germanic 51
A page from the Codex Argenteus or "Silver Bible", a 6th-century
manuscript containing Bishop Ulfilas's 4th century translation of
the Christian Bible into the Gothic language.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_alphabet
F. Plank, Early Germanic 52
Sample text in Yiddish (read right to left!)
Transliteration Yeder mentsh vert geboyrn fray un glaykh in koved
un rekht. Yeder vert bashonkn mit farshtand un gevisn; yeder zol
zikh firn mit a tsveytn in a gemit fun brudershaft.
English Translation All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Article
1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)
Hear a recording of this text by Tobi Ash
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/yiddish.htm
F. Plank, Early Germanic 53
Sütterlin Sütterlin was created by the Berlin graphic artist L.
Sütterlin (1865-1917), who modelled it on the style of handwriting
used in the old German Chancery. It was taught in German schools
from 1915 to 1941 and is still used by the older generation.
Sample text in Sütterlin
F. Plank, Early Germanic 54
Ogham stone from the Isle of Man showing the droim in centre. Text
reads BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI], or in English, "Of
Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham
F. Plank, Early Germanic 55
Back to Runic. Inscriptions which are uncontroversially Germanic
and reasonably well interpretable, in script as well as lexicon
& grammar, only date from the late 2nd and 3rd century CE and
are almost all found further north, on the Danish isles (Seeland,
Funen), in Jutland and Schleswig, and in southern Sweden (Schonen).
They are carved in stone or scratched on wooden, bone, horn, or
metal artefacts (weapons, jewellery, amulets, vessels,
coins).
Runic writing often had ritual and magical functions; rarely it was
also used for recording poetry. It always remained essentially
epigraphic (sometimes purely ornamental), and was never used for
practical every-day purposes. Hence the brevity of the inscriptions
– sometimes frustrating when your interest is in early Germanic
syntax.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 56
2.2. Nøvling clasp, North Jutland, Denmark, ca. 200 CE (=
North-West Germanic, before North-West split and after East Gmc had
split off)
http://runer.ku.dk/VisGenstand.aspx?Titel=N%C3%B8vling-fibula
F. Plank, Early Germanic 57
B i D a W a R I j a r T a l G I D a I (Runic inscription) b i d a w
a r i j a z t a l g i d a i (transliteration in Latin alphabet)
["bI.da.Æwa.rI.jaz."tal.gI.de…] ((some) phonetic transcription)
bidawarijaz talgidai (segmented into words ) bid-a-war-ija-z
talg-i-d-ei (words internally segmented)
[[stem-THEME]NOUN-[[stem-THEME]NOUN-NOM.SG]]NOUN
[[[stem-THEME]-PAST]-SBJ:3SG.IND.PAST]VERB ((some) morphological
analysis) ‘oath’ ‘guardian’ ‘carve’ (meaning of stems) proper name
transitive verb ((some) morphosyntactic analysis) NP:Subject
VP:Predicate ((some) syntactic analysis) (1) a proper name is 3rd
person verb inflects for 3rd person subject (more syntax: something
missing?) (2) a transitive verb needs a direct object (1) ‘the
bearer of this name and writer of this inscription’ (1st person!)
(missing information provided by (2) ‘what you see here: this
inscription on this clasp’ context and situation) ‘I, Bidward
(“Oath-Protector”), carved this.’ (translation/meaning) Nøvling
clasp, North Jutland, Denmark, ca. 200 CE
F. Plank, Early Germanic 58
B i D a W a R I j a r T a l G I D a I (Runic inscription) b i d a w
a r i j a z t a l g i d a i (transliteration in Latin alphabet)
["bI.da.Æwa.rI.jaz."tal.gI.de…] ((some) phonetic
transcription)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 59
bidawarijaz talgidai (segmented into words)
bid-a-war-ija-z talg-i-d-ei (words internally segmented)
[[stem-THEME]N-[[stem-THEME]N-NOM.SG]]N
[[[stem-THEME]-PAST]-SBJ:3SG.IND.PAST]V ((some) morphological
analysis)
‘oath’ ‘guardian’ ‘carve’ (meaning of stems) proper name transitive
verb ((some) morphosyntactic analysis) NP:Subject VP:Predicate
((some) syntactic analysis)
(more syntax: something missing?) (1) a proper name is 3rd person
verb inflects for a 3rd person subject (2) a transitive verb needs
a direct object
(missing information provided by context and situation) (1) ‘the
bearer of this name = the writer of this inscription’ (1st person!)
(2) ‘what you see here: this inscription on this clasp’ ‘I, Bidward
(“Oath-Protector”), carved this.’ (translation/meaning)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 60
ordering of meaningful parts
endinga: PAST TENSE endingb: CASE.NUMBER on nouns,
PERSON.NUMBER.MOOD.TENSE on verbs • word-external:
Subject – Predicate (or Sbj – Verb – Adv on an alternative reading:
talgide i ‘carved in’)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 61
dependencies among meaningful parts • The verbal word of the
predicate carries an indicator of the subject, identifying
it in terms of its person and number (= Subject-Verb Agreement);
the object remains unindicated. • Any word-internal dependencies?
(e.g., of themes on stems or vice versa, of endings on themes or
stems or vice
versa) • Which parts are prosodically more prominent (= stress
accent) than the others? Stems more prominent than non-stems (Gmc
stem accent); first constituents of compounds more prominent than
second (Gmc compound
stress rule). (Any evidence? → meter)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 62
identifiable meaningful parts?
= educated guesses, based (i) on elementary phonological,
morphological, syntactic analysis (which would require much more
extensive textual material, if to be done
seriously – but then we can rely on much previous scholarship);
(ii) on some knowledge of modern Germanic languages, connected to
early
Germanic lexicon & grammar through some 80 cycles of language
acquisition;
(iii) on assumptions about how the forms and meanings concerned
could plausibly have developed over time, especially if undergoing
regular changes.
The method known as COMPARATIVE RECONSTRUCTION (see extra notes)
attempts to make sense of internal linguistic history by doing
precisely these three things, but very systematically.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 63
grammatical
-(e)d PAST tense of weak verbs (-(e)d/-(e)t), as everywhere in
Germanic;
-e 3SGSbj in PAST tense of weak verbs, as in Modern German;
-z NOM.SG of strong masc. nouns -r in Modern Icelandic (e.g.
hund-ur NOM.SG, hund ACC.SG ‘dog’);
• Of 6 morphological exponents, these 3 are still in use in some
modern Gmc languages, and 1 of them has survived in all (dental
preterite). Nominal and verbal themes/stem formatives as well as
nominal case-number and verbal agreement and mood marking have
undergone reduction.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 64
lexical
bid- ModE V, N bid ‘ask, demand’, ‘offer’, ‘announce’, ‘command,
decree’ (OE had two distinct verbs, biddan ‘ask, demand’ and bodan
‘offer,
proclaim, announce, command’);
war- ModE beware, aware, wary, weir; ward, warden; guard NHG wahr,
gewahr, (be-)wahren, Wehr; Warte V ‘take care, be careful in’; when
agent-nominalised: ‘one who VERBs’;
talg- ModE tally ‘rod of wood marked with notches recording
payments; reckoning; score’; Lat tlea ‘cutting, rod, stick’?
for relevant meaning compare ModE carve, NHG Kerbe, also cf. Greek
gráphein ‘schreiben, ritzen’; ModE write, NHG ritzen, a different
word for (roughly) the same concept.
• Of 3 stems at least 2 are still around, after two
millennia.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 65
For other readings of the Nøvling Clasp and references see:
http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno=6&ort=
Lundeg%C3%A5rde,%20N%C3%B8vling&objekt=fibula
F. Plank, Early Germanic 66
The language of this inscription is Indo-European i.e., it shares
much of its lexicon and grammar with other Indo-European languages,
and much of its grammar and lexicon can be regularly derived from
(reconstructed) Proto-Indo-European; e.g. bid- OE biddan ‘ask,
demand’ (class V strong verb); OHG bitten; PGmc *bed-ja; compare Gk
pistis ‘faith’, peithein ‘persuade’, L fidere ‘to trust’, foedus
‘treaty’ ...; PIE *bhidh- ‘command, persuade, trust’, with the
Germanic form, bid, due to Grimm’s Law, and with the other IE
languages also changing the respective consonants in their own ways
(PIE *bh > Gk p, Lat f ..); [or is this story more plausible:
PGmc b- < PIE gwh-?]; war- PGmc *war-- ‘observe, take care’,
*war- ‘care, attention’ < PIE *wer- ‘observe, take care’
(-a)-s NOM.SG of non-neuter nouns; compare Latin -s, Gk -s
...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 67
But it shows certain innovations relative to Proto-Indo-European,
which define an Indo-European language as Germanic (being shared by
all
Germanic languages, unless later abandoned, and by no non-Germanic
languages),
and indeed as non-East-Germanic (= Germanic minus Gothic and other
such East Germanic, with the remainder later differentiated as
North and West Germanic).
These innovations are either reanalyses of Indo-European lexicon
and grammar or lexical and grammatical borrowings from
non-Indo-European languages.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 68
Germanic innovations, relative to PIE (or some IE subgroup
including Gmc-to-be) Phonology • word stress phonological >
morphological: prosodic prominence of stem syllable, not varying
between stem and affix • pitch accent (Stoßton/acute,
Schleifton/circumflex) > stress accent (loudness, length, pitch)
• Auslautgesetze: shortening of unstressed final syllables by one
mora (final syllables are typically involved in inflection, now
unstressed owing to stem stress) • First Consonant Shift, in three
successive stages (Grimm’s Law), Verner’s Law • mid-low interchange
of back vowels: /o/ > /a/, // > // (e.g., Lat octo, Gk κτ –
Go ahtau, ON tta, OE eahta, OS, OHG ahto; Lat mter, Gk μτηρ – ON
mder, OE mðor, OS mdar, OHG muoter)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 69
• other vowels: short: // > /a/; /e/ > /i/ before high vowel,
/u/ > /o/ before non-high vowel, with intervening nasals
blocking the vowel harmonising; long: // > // (> / , / in
Gothic and North&West Gmc respectively))
• syllabic nasals and liquids > vocalised as /um, um, ur,
ul/
F. Plank, Early Germanic 70
Inflection • verbs: reduction of tense and aspect oppositions to a
single contrast, PRES – PRET
• verbs: reduction of verbal voice oppositions, from ACTIVE –
PASSIVE – MIDDLE to essentially just ACTIVE (and marginally a
MIDDLE in passive function) • verbs: reduction of mood oppositions,
from four or five moods to just three,
INDICATIVE – OPTATIVE (subsuming SUBJUNCTIVE) – IMPERATIVE
• verbs: reductions of finiteness oppositions, to INFINITIVE (newly
created from verbal noun) – PARTICIPLE I – PARTICIPLE II • nouns
and pronouns: reduction of number oppositions, with DUAL restricted
to 1st and 2nd person of pronouns (and in Gothic also of
verbs)
• nouns, pronouns, adjectives: reduction of case oppositions
(syncretism), from eight to four or five (NOM, ACC, GEN, DAT,
(INS))
• verbs: systematisation of ablaut, an inherited pattern of
qualitative and quantitative vowel alternations (ultimately
conditioned by accent), for purposes of inflection and derivation
(6 or 7 ablaut series, with stem-vowel alternations exploited for
tense, person-number, and finiteness inflection of “strong”
verbs)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 71
• verbs: creation of dental suffix as PRET tense exponent of “weak”
verbs (= derived, could not participate in tense distinction
through ablaut)
< univerbation of periphrastic construction with AUX/light verb
‘do’ (most plausible source, although several others have also been
suggested)
• adjectives: creation of “weak” inflection class (= definite),
differentiated from “strong” • nouns: extension of (“weak”)
n-declension Syntax • grammaticalisation of function words
(adpositions, auxiliaries) to counterbalance the weakening of
nominal and verbal inflections (What is cause and what
effect?)
• despite relatively free order at clause level (= determined by
information structure), a certain inclination to verb-second, or at
any rate light-verb second (clitics in Wackernagel position; are
verbs generally prosodically light in Gmc?)
• inclination to verb-final especially in COMP-introduced
subordinate clauses
F. Plank, Early Germanic 72
Lexicon • massive borrowings of culturally salient vocabulary from
outside Indo- European (at least one third, with about two thirds
IE heritage; donor language/culture? superstrate rather than
substrate, given the nature of the loans?)
• SEAFARING: sea, ship, boat, sail, rudder, steer, haven • CARDINAL
DIRECTIONS: north, east, south, west • SOCIAL ORGANISATION: folk,
kin, king, wife, thing, sake, thief, swear, knight • WAR: sword,
shield, helmet, bow • certain ANIMALS: carp, eel, fowl, bear, lamb,
meat • CLIMATE: rain
F. Plank, Early Germanic 73
Grimm’s Law/First Consonant Shift in terms of features:
1. p, t, k > f, T, x [–voiced] → [+cont] kw xw
2. b, d, g > p, t, k [+voiced] → [–voiced] gw kw
3. bh, dh, gh > (B, D, V >) > b, d, g [+aspirate] →
[–aspirate] gwh Vw gw/g/w Verner’s Law
f, T, x, s > v, D, V, z [+cont] → [+voiced] / V __
[–stress]
(after Grimm’s Law 1, before Stem Stress; reflexes in
“Grammatischer Wechsel”) Grimms Law in motion:
http://www-personal.umich.edu/~clunis/wow/grimm/
F. Plank, Early Germanic 74
1. Lat pater Go fadar [D], ON faþer, OE fæder, OS fader, OHG fater
Lat tres Go þreis, ON þrr, OE þre, OS thr, OHG thr, dr Lat centum
Go hund, ON hund(raþ), OS OE hund, OHG hunt Lat quod Go hwa, ON
huat, OE hwæt, OS hwat, OHG hwaz
not in /sp, st, sk/: Lat spuere Go speiwan, OHG spwan not /t/ in
/pt, kt/: Lat octo Go ahtau, OHG ahto 2. Lat turba Go þaurp, ON
þorp, OE þorp, OS thorp, OHG dorf Lat decem Go taíhun, ON ti, OE
ten, OS tëhan, OHG zëhan Lat augere Go aukan, ON auka, OE acian, OS
kian, OHG ouhhn 'vermehren' Lat venire Go qiman, ON koma, OE cuman,
OS kuman, OHG koman/quëman (< *gwem-) 3. Lat fero Go baíran, ON
bera, OE OS OHG bëran Lat nebula ON nifl-, OE nifol, OS neal, OHG
nëbul Grk θυγτηρ Go daúhter, OS dohtar, OHG tohter Lat hostis Go
gasts, ON gestr, OE giest, OS OHG gast IE *segwh- Go siggwan, OIcel
syngva, OS OHG singan Lat formus Go warmjan, OS OHG warm Verner’s
Law Grk πατρ Go fadar [D] Lat fráter Go broþar [T]
F. Plank, Early Germanic 75
Grammatischer Wechsel IE stem accent suffix accent but: alternation
VOICELESS VOICED often levelled!
OHG heffen huobun, gihaban ziohan zugun, gizogan kiosan kurun,
gikoran
ldan leiten swëhur swigar
verbal inflections
Proto-IE Gk Lat Go OHG OE athematic/thematic SG 1 *-mi/*-oH phér-
fér- bair-a bir-u ber-u/o 2 *-si/*-eh1i phér-eis fér-(i)s bair-is
bir-is(t) bir-is 3 *-ti/*-eti phér-ei fér-(i)t bair-iþ bir-it
bir-iþ PL 1 *-mes/*-omes phér-omen fér-imus bair-am bër-ums ber-aþ
2 *-t(h1)e/*-et(h1)e phér-ete fér-itis bair-iþ bër-et ber-aþ 3
*-enti/*-onti phér-ousi fér-unt bair-and bër-ant ber-aþ
*-n9ti
F. Plank, Early Germanic 77
remember the family tree ...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 78
Common North-West Germanic, after East Gmc had split off (2nd/1st
c. BCE) • onset cluster /Tl/ in Gothic – /fl/ elsewhere in
Gmc
PIE Go ON OE OS OHG /tl/ or /pl/? þliuhan flja flon fliohan fliohan
flee
Has Gothic retained /Tl/ and have the others (jointly) dissimilated
to /fl/? Or have the others (jointly) retained /fl/ and has Gothic
assimilated to /Tl/? The second seems to be the case (if it is true
that the corresponding PIE stem is *pleu-) – in which case we
wouldnt have a shared NWGmc innovation here, but merely a shared
retention, which is less significant for subgrouping. Nonetheless,
retentions define the limits of speech communities just as
innovations do. In the following cases we have shared NWGmc
innovations rather than retentions:
• long mid vowel lowering: Gothic /e…/ – /a…/ elsewhere in
Gmc
PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG ltan láta ltan ltan lzzan let ga-dþ-s dáð tt
‘deed’
F. Plank, Early Germanic 79
• monophthongisation of unstressed */ai/, */au/
PGmc Go OE OHG blind-ai blint-e ‘blind-NOM.PL’ ahtau eahta ahto
‘eight’ • *-am > *-um
PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG dag-am tag-um ‘day-DAT.PL’ qiþ-am kveþ-um
quëd-um ‘say-1PL.PRES.IND’ • rhotacism: Gothic /z/ – /r/ [® Â?]
elsewhere in Gmc
PGmc Go ON OE OS OHG auso eyra eare ra ear *wz-um ws-um vár-um
wr-on wr-um ‘(we) were’
F. Plank, Early Germanic 80
• other umlaut only innovated in NWGmc reduplicating verbs
abandoned, only retained in Go verbal middle/passive inflection
abandoned, only retained in Go compound demonstrative ‘this’ only
in NWGmc OIce FEM sjá (þessi), OE FEM
þios, OFr/OS thius, OHG desiu [more, yet to come]
F. Plank, Early Germanic 81
2.3a. Golden Horn(s) of Gallehus, North Schleswig, 5th century
(North Germanic)
Orignals stolen and melted down in 1802; copies stolen again and
damaged in 2007. See further:
http://oldtiden.natmus.dk/udstillingen/yngre_jernalder/guldhornene/language/uk/
http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno=
28&ort=Gallehus&objekt=Goldhorn
ek hlewagastiR holtijaR horna tawido
‘I, Lee-Guest [= Protected Guest; or: Fame-Guest], son of Holt [or:
from Holt/Woodlander], made this horn [or: this couple of
horns]’
F. Plank, Early Germanic 82
The language of this inscription is Germanic, showing these Gmc
innovations: Phonology: Grimm’s Law, having applied to ek, gastiR,
holt, horna – cf. PIE *e(om) (cf. Lat ego), *ghosti-s (cf. Lat
hostis), *kd-o-s (cf. Gk kládos ‘twig’), *(a)er- (cf. Lat corn);
Morphology: weak preterite tense with dental suffix right after
verb stem; marked nominative singular, with accusative singular
unmarked (in some declensions – owing to the Auslautgesetze: loss
of final consonants other than /z, r/ in unstressed syllables,
which eliminated ACC.SG -m but preserved NOM.SG -z/-r, e.g.,
*stain-az *stain-am > stain-s/-r, stain); derived patronymic or
noun of provenance (specifically Gmc?); Syntax: basic clause order
SOV; order Name – Apposition; no DEF marking through articles (but
these three syntactic traits are shared by all early IE languages);
compounding (esp. AN and NN, such as hlewa-gastir, bid-ward above)
as a common construction principle, often in preference to
syntactic phrases;
F. Plank, Early Germanic 83
Lexicon: descriptive proper personal names (‘Lee-/Fame-Guest’,
‘Oath-Protector’, ‘Bee-Wolf’), often bi-partite (compounds); hlewa
‘shelter’, cf. ModE lee (the sheltered side), also luke-warm; PGmc
*hlw-: not known outside Gmc, hence presumably not IE;
tawido, cf. ON tæja ‘do, make’, Go taujan ‘do, make’, OE tawian
‘prepare’, OHG zown ‘do, make’, zawn ‘gelingen’: no convincing
analogues outside Gmc.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 84
Within Germanic, it shows characteristics of (early) North
Germanic: Phonology: 1SG personal pronoun ek (vowel quality
retained) rather than ik; 1SG.PRET.IND inflection of weak verb -o
rather than -a or -e; unstressed theme vowel in gastiR retained;
Morphology: marked nominative singular retained (as also in
Gothic). Is this ordinary language or a poem? typical old (common)
Germanic metrical structure: one line of two halflines, of two
trochaic/dactylic feet each, the first with anacrusis; alliteration
(identical onsets of prominent syllables of first, second, and
third foot) rather than end-rhyme (inspired by stem stress, with
left rather than right word edge prosodically prominent?)
ek (hlewagastiR) (holtijaR) ≤ (horna) (tawido)
F. Plank, Early Germanic 85
2.3b. Tjurkø Bracteate C, Blekinge, Sweden, 5th century (North
Germanic) For picture and interpretation see Düwel, Runenkunde.
Stuttgart: Metzler, 3rd edn., pp48, 51–52; further:
http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/abfragen/standard/deutung2_eng.asp?findno=
137&ort=Tjurk%F6+I&objekt=Brakteat+%28C%2DTyp%29
http://www.arild-hauge.com/danske_runeinnskrifter4.htm
wurte runoR an walhakurne : heldaR kunimudiu
word-by-word gloss: wrought runes on Welsh-corn warrior
tribe-protector translation: ‘Held(ar) made (wrought) these runes
on the Welsh-grain for Kunimu(n)d(ur)’
F. Plank, Early Germanic 86
Syntax: V dO oO S iO i.e., verb-initial declarative main clause,
and direct and oblique objects before subject and indirect object,
thus: entire TOPIC/GIVEN part before COMMENT/NEW part, without
introductory expletive/presentative 3SG.NEUT subject pronoun (with
word order, rather than specialised function words, such as
articles, being used for information structuring);
preference for compounding (here walha-kurne, kuni-mundur);
Lexicon: descriptive proper personal names (‘Warrior’,
‘Tribe-Protector’, others such as Hengist, Horsa), often bi-partite
(compounds); rne ‘Rune’, cf. NHG raunen; exclusively Gmc, *rn
‘secret consultation, mystery’? (later borrowed into non-Gmc
languages such as French and Finnish, runo ‘poem, song’; but also
cf. OIr rún ‘mystery’, perhaps Lat rmor ‘rumour’; < PIE *reu-
‘graben’?).
Another Germanic-style poem: wurte runoR ≤ an walha-kurne heldaR
kunimudiu
F. Plank, Early Germanic 87
Remember the family tree ...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 88
2.4. What we would like to see here now is Common West Germanic in
action: that is, texts. To qualify, they would have to date from
between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE – that is, from after the
estrangement and separation of North Gmc and West Gmc (perhaps
owing to other speech communities moving in, disconnecting what
used to be a NWGmc population and dialect continuum, with NWGmc
groups themselves also migrating in centrifugal directions) and
before distinct languages or language groups would crystallise out
of the dialects of the Ingvaeonic (North Sea Gmc), Istvaeonic
(Rhine-Weser Gmc), and Erminonic (Elbe Gmc) tribal confederations.
But it seems there aren’t any: literary pursuits won’t have been at
a premium in this unsettled period. Still, we can identify
innovations which were shared among West Germanic dialects, and
only among these, as well as innovations only shared among North
Germanic, giving evidence of a period in the history of these two
sets of peoples where novel linguistic practices would spread
within the subsets of either one or the other set (West Gmc, North
Gmc), but not beyond.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 89
Below is a selection of innovations that came to distinguish WGmc.
Their relative dating has sometimes been controversial, though, and
this has sometimes been felt to throw doubt on this whole
subgrouping scenario, even questioning the reality of West Germanic
as a period for innovations shared across all of WGmc and not
shared with anybody of more distant ancestry. Look forward to
Advanced Gmc Hist Ling, where (I think) the just verdict will be in
favour of WGmc.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 90
West Germanic innovations, relative to Proto-Germanic (or to Gmc
minus East Gmc, = North-West Gmc) (Note: West Germanic is sometimes
also referred to as South Germanic, in view of the future location
of descendant speech communities, with English extending furthest
to the north.)
Phonology • Consonant Gemination (plus Umlaut; later loss of /j/,
retained in OS as /i/;
later sometimes degemination after long syllable)
'V Cα j → 'V Cα Cα j (C ≠ /r/)
Gothic ON OS OE OHG saljan selja sellian sellan sellen kunjis
kynjes kunnies cynnes chunnes (‘race’, GEN.SG) bidjan biDja biddian
biddan bitten satjan setja settian settan setzen skapjan skepja
scieppan scepfen (*þakjan) þekja thekkian þeccan decchan
F. Plank, Early Germanic 91
gemination also before /r, l/, rarely before /w, m, n/
baitrs bitr bittar bittor bittar
no gemination of /r/
farjan feria ferian ferian ferjen (‘fahren’, TRANS)
• /D/ (whether original PGmc or due to Verner’s Law) > /d/, in
all positions (thus, e.g., ON flóD, faDir – OE fld, fæder);
tendency also for other voiced spirants to become voiced stops
especially in West Germanic, most completely in Upper German (but
in certain environments also in East and North Gmc)
• loss of final /z, r/ in unaccented syllables (eliminating marked
NOM.SG, e.g. PGmc *stain-az, Proto-Norse *stain-az (>
ON steinn), Faroese stein-ur, Go stains > OE stn, OS stn, OHG
stein ‘stone’)
• various processes of diphthongisation, with one source element a
glide (geminate, final, or intervocalic):
F. Plank, Early Germanic 92
Morphology • certain high-frequency verbs appear in short,
irregular forms (e.g., OE dn ‘do’, gn ‘go’, OHG also stn ‘stand’,
vs. Go –, gaggan, standan; in IE originally reduplicating)
• for 2nd person singular indicative preterite of strong verbs WGmc
has *-i (e.g., OE bund-e, OS bund-i, OHG bunt-i ‘(thou) boundest’),
drawing on a former aorist ending (IE -es), whereas North as well
as East Gmc continue earlier perfect endings (ON ba-zt, Go
ban-st)
• an inflected infinitive (“gerund”) with suffix *-ja is innovated,
to be added onto the bare infinitive in -n: e.g., OE niman, to
nimenne (DAT), OHG nëman, zi nëmanne
• originally neuter weak nouns shift to masculine gender, e.g. PGmc
*naman-, Go namo, ON naf-n NEUT (cf. Lat nomen); OHG, OS namo, OE,
OFris nama MASC ‘name’
• a derivational suffix OE -had, which turns nouns or also
adjectives into nouns designating states or conditions of being
(cild-had ‘childhood’, preost-had ‘priesthood’ etc.), OS/OFr -hed,
OHG -heit is created from the noun PGmc *haidus ‘quality, manner’,
which was originally the head of a noun-noun compound; no
comparable downgrading of *haidus in EGmc and NGmc
F. Plank, Early Germanic 93
• copula ‘be’ is everywhere in Gmc suppletive, combining IE stems
*h1es-/*s- (‘be’, cf. Lat es-t 3SG, s-um 1SG) and *wes- (‘live’?,
cf. Skt va-ati 3SG of ‘dwell’); but in WGmc the IE stem *bhuH-
(‘grow, become’?, cf. Skt bháv- ati 3SG of ‘become’, Lat fu-it
3SG.IND.PERF of ‘be’) is used as a third stem for indicative
present (all three persons in OE, only 1st and 2nd in OHG/OS, only
SG in OS), subjunctive and infinitive and present participle (OE
only), and 2SG.IMP (OE and OHG); in OE yet another stem is used in
2SG.IND, IE *h1er- /*h1or- ‘to have moved/arisen = to be’; also, in
OE the forms based on *bhuH- coexist with ones based on *h1es-/*s-
and *h1er-/*h1or-. (The actual endings which are combined with the
stem *bhuH- are in fact those of the *h1es-/*s- stem.)
Go ON OE OS OHG PRES IND SG 1 im em eom beo(m) bium bim/bin 2 is
est eart bis(t) bis(t) bis(t) 3 ist es is biþ is(t) ist PL 1 sijum
erom sind(on) bioþ sind(un) birum(es) 2 sijuþ eroþ sind(on) bioþ
sind(un) birut/bir(e)nt 3 sijun ero sind(on) bioþ sind(un) sint(un)
IMP SG 2 (sijais) ves wes beo wis bis/wis INF, PRET wisan vesa
wesan beon wesan wësan
F. Plank, Early Germanic 94
Lexicon • high-frequency reduplicating verb PIE *dh-, WGmc *d- ‘to
do’ only retained in WGmc (OE dn, PRET dyde, OS dn, OHG tuon),
replaced in EGmc and NGmc by other Gmc verbs (Go taujan, ON
gøra)
• masculine form of numeral ‘2’ derived from WGmc distributive
numeral (*twajina-): OE twgen, OFris twne, OHG zwne, vs. Go twai,
ON tveir
• coordinative conjunction OE and/ond/end, OHG anti/enti/inti/unti
vs. Go jah and auk, ON ok
• and some 5% of further vocabulary only shared among WGmc, either
as retentions or new formations: e.g., E/G great/groß, clean/klein,
sheep/Schaf, knight/Knecht, ghost/Geist, path/Pfad, nest/Nest,
speak/sprechen, fight/fechten, make/machen
F. Plank, Early Germanic 95
Once more, remember the family tree, homing in on “Anglo-Frisian”
...
F. Plank, Early Germanic 96
2.5. Again we are missing texts from the period where Ingvaeonic,
as distinct from Istvaeonic and Erminonic, had not yet separated
into Anglo-Frisian and Old Saxon.
While Ingvaeonic/North Sea Gmc as such is a robustly valid group
(notwithstanding substantial non-Ingvaeonic admixtures of Old
Saxon), its status as a proto-language to be subgrouped into two
branches, as in the family tree reproduced above, is actually quite
controversial; a dialect continuum spanning all of Ingvaeonic, with
Old Saxon forming a transition to Istvaeonic and Erminonic, is
probably a safer assumption than privileging an English-Frisian
special relationship. The similarity within Ingvaeonic can be
illustrated by a quick comparative look at a passage from the Old
Saxon Genesis (Fragment I, mid-9th century; original orthography
retained) and its translation into Old English (Genesis B):
F. Plank, Early Germanic 97
Old Saxon ... Nu uuit hriuuig mugum [mugon] sorogon for them sîa,
uuand he hunk selo gibôd, that uuit hunk sulic uuîti uuardon
scoldin, harama [haramo] mêstan. ...
Old English ... N wit hrowige magon sorgian for þs sðe: forþon h
unc self bebad, þæt wit unc wte warian sceolden, hearma mstne.
...
Mod English ... Now we two, rueing, must sorrow for this
conduct/fate. For He us two Himself warned that we two our two s
punishment should beware/avoid, greatest of harms.
[after http://homepages.bw.edu/~uncover/oldrievegenesisb.htm] For
lexical and morphological analysis of this passage see Hutterer,
Die germanischen Sprachen, p251.
Also, comparatively read the Old Saxon, Old English, and Old
Frisian chapters in Robinson, Old English and its closest
relatives, and study the comparative table on pp250–251 as well as
the entire Chapter 10.
F. Plank, Early Germanic 98
Anglo-Frisian (and Old Saxon) innovations, relative to common
WGmc
Phonology
• a non-event: stops unchanged, no Second (or High German)
Consonant Shift (cf., e.g., E pound, ten, elk – G Pfund, zehn,
Elch)
• loss of nasal before fricatives /s z, f v, T D/, with
compensatory lengthening (and nasalisation?) of the preceding
vowel:
OS s, OE s, OFris s OHG uns OS ff, OE ff, OFris ff OHG fimf OS
thar, OE þer, OFris ther OHG andar
(A similar change also occurred, later and independently, in the
Upper High German dialect of Alemannic (= Erminonic). Before /h x/
it had also occurred earlier, in PGmc, before /s z, f v/ also in
Old Norse.)
• fronting (“brightening”) of /a/ > /æ/ (> /e/) (e.g., E
street, deed, meal – G Straße, Tat, Mahl), except before nasal,
where /a/ > /O/ (“Verdumpfung”, e.g., reflexes in E long, done –
G lang, getan); probably separate changes for long and short /a/,
the short-vowel change taking place independently in OE and
OFris
F. Plank, Early Germanic 99
• /au/ > OE /a/, OFris //, OS // (e.g., E cheap – G
kauf-en)
• palatalisation and assibiliation: /k, g, sk/ > /tS, j, S/
before front vowels: e.g., E chin, yellow, yesterday; OFris tsyurka
‘church’ – G Kinn, gelb, gestern;
/sk/ > /S/ also outside Anglo-Frisian: e.g., E ship – G
Schiff
• weakening of /g/ after vowel to glide and off-glide of diphthong
(cf. E day, way, hail – G Tag, Weg, Hagel)
• another non-event: no defricativisation of final /B/ (from IE
/bh/ by Grimm’s Law); compare OE wf – OHG wp • dropping of final
/r/ (< /s/) of personal and interrogative pronouns
OS, OE h OHG er cf. Go is (with onset /h/ added) OS hw, OE hw OHG
wer Go was OS w, OE w OHG wir Go weis OS m, OE m OHG mir Go
mis
F. Plank, Early Germanic 100
Morphology • verbs: one form for all three persons in the plural
(throughout all tenses and moods); thus OE -Vþ, -Vn (see OE
Inflection Tables), OFris -Vth, -Vn, equally in OS; cf. G wir
hör-en, ihr hör-t, sie hör-en (with 2PL distinct from 1/3PL)
Lexicon • 3rd person personal pronoun exclusively with h- stem: OE
h, him, ho, hire, hit – OFris hi, him, hiu, hit ‘he, him, she, her,
it’
• replacement of old 3rd person reflexive pronoun continuing PIE
*se, PGmc *sek(e) (cf. Go sik, ON sik, OHG sih) by personal pronoun
(and eventual re-creation of a reflexive pronoun with self)
• OE drge (ModE dry) < *drugi-, vs. OHG trockan < *druknu •
...