Exploring coping strategies used by national adolescent netball players across domains

Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2013, 7,161-177© 2013 Human Kinetics, inc.

Exploring Coping StrategiesUsed by National Adolescent Netball

Players Across Domains

Tracey J. Devonport, Andrew M. Lane, and Kay BiscombUniversity of Wolverhampton

Coping is highly relevant to performance in any domain where individuals strive toattain personally important goals. Thirty-three female national standard adolescentnetball players participated in focus group and one-on-one interviews. Participantsreported Stressors experienced in not only sport, but also in other areas of life.They also reported coping strategies used and factors that might infiuence thestressor-coping process. Results identified Stressors that derived from attempts toachieve highly important personal goals in different areas of daily life, includingacademic, sport, and social settings. Usage of future-oriented coping strategiessuch as planning, prioritizing, time-management, goal setting, and problem solv-ing were associated with successfully managing multiple Stressors and a sense ofwell-being. The present study illustrated the potential contribution of encourag-ing athletes to use future-oriented coping strategies when seeking the attainmentof goals across domains. Future research should look to test the effectiveness ofinterventions designed to promote usage of future-oriented coping strategies.

Keywords: future-oriented coping; personal and situational factors; adolescence;cognitive appraisal; sport

Stress refers to the process through which individuals perceive and respondto particular events (termed "Stressors") that are appraised as challenging, harm-ful, threatening, or beneficial (Lazarus, 1991, 1999, 2000; Lazarus & Folkman,1984). Research has highlighted that athletes involved in high-level sport typicallyexperience a number of Stressors (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005). However,a review of the sport-specific coping literature demonstrates that researchers rarelyacknowledge Stressors beyond the sport domain (MacNamara & Collins, 2010;McKenna & Dunstan-Lewis, 2004). Stressors commonly cited include those relatedto training and competition load (McKay, Niven, Lavallee, & White, 2008); rolesin the sport organization (e.g., role ambiguity; Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu,2006); sport relationships and interpersonal demands (e.g., interpersonal conflict;Tamminen & Holt, 2010a) and organizational structure (e.g., lack of participationin decision making; Retcher, Hanton, Mellalieu, & Neil, 2011).

The authors are with the School of Sport, Performing Arts and Leisure, Department of Sport and Physi-cal Activity, University of Wolverhampton, WalsaJl, UK.

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162 Devonport, Lane, and Biscomb

The scant body of literature that has explored Stressors beyond sport indicatesthat adolescent athletes represent a population that concurrently experiences, orindeed anticipates experiencing, a combination of sport, academic, employment,and social Stressors (Dugdale, Eklund, & Gordon, 2002; MacNamara & Collins,2010; McKenna & Dunstan-Lewis, 2004). For example, Sullivan and Nashman( 1998) reported that United States Olympic Committee (USOC) sport psychologistsworking with Olympic athletes (including adolescents) revealed nonperformanceissues including life balance, relationship issues, and consequences of failure to beamong athletes' primary Stressors. Furthermore, findings from social psychologyon adolescent populations, in which athletes form a subgroup, indicate a number ofdevelopmental Stressors including the development of identity, integrating into peergroups, physiological changes in tbe body, and cognitive development (Frydenberg,2008). As adolescents should still be developing adaptive coping strategies, it mightnot be surprising that they find coping with multiple Stressors difficult (Frydenberg& Lewis, 2004; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). For example, Frydenbergand Lewis (2002) found that female adolescents in particular expressed a reducedability to cope, and their use of nonproductive strategies increased significantly asa result (as compared with males).

We argue that a limitation of the extant literature is that researchers rarely usea holistic approach to investigating Stressors and coping even though evidence hasdemonstrated that nonsport specific Stressors are influential. Within the context ofthis study, we use the term "holistic," as this term captures the notion that individualsface Stressors in multiple domains of their life (see Friesen & Orlick, 2010). Adopt-ing a holistic approach acknowledges that sport considerations (such as selectionissues or training demands) and nonsport considerations (such as relationship issuesor exam pressures) all influence an athlete's ability to cope and ultimately influenceone's ability to train and compete optimally. Research suggests that an inability tocope with Stressors can result in poor psychological, social, and physical function-ing (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2004,2009). In a sport context, if individuals are unableto cope with Stressors, then they are at risk for experiencing poor performance andfeelings of dissatisfaction with their experiences, and they may possibly drop out(Sagar, Lavallee, & Spray, 2009). Conversely, evidence suggests that successfulathletes often are able to cope with such Stressors (Lazarus, 2000; Uphill & Jones,2007). Given the implications for performance and well-being, we support thecontention that athletes should be supported in learning to employ strategies tocope with Stressors within and beyond sport. In other words, practitioners shouldencourage athletes to apply coping training flexibly, exploring ways in which theycould transfer the use of coping strategies from one situation to another.

Research has demonstrated the importance of coping with Stressors and thepotential fragility of adolescent athletes, particularly female athletes (Holt, Kow-alski, Gaudreau, & Crocker, 2005). The present study offers a theory-led accountof the way in which adolescent athletes cope with multiple Stressors. Tamminenand Holt (2010b, p. 1577) argued that, "the failure to adopt diverse theories withina field of research may lead to a reduction in scholarly inquiry, creativity, andgrowth." The present study addresses this limitation proposed by Tamminen andHolt by utilizing Lazarus's conceptualization of coping (1999, 2000; Lazarus &Folkman, 1984) and proactive coping theory (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Schwarzer& Tauben, 2002). These are both process theories that emphasize the importance of

stress and Coping in National Adolescent Netball 163

appraisal in determining coping. However, while Lazarus's work focuses on eventsthat have occurred in the past or are occurring in the present moment, proactivecoping theory (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002) is focusedon future-oriented coping.

The transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984),later revised to the cognitive motivational relational theory (Lazarus, 1991, 1999,2000), has been the guiding theory for a great deal of coping research (Aldwin,1994; Frydenberg & Lewis, 2004). In the transactional model, stress is describedas a dynamic process involving transactions between the environment and personalfactors (e.g., personality traits. Long & Sangster, 1993; emotions. Uphill & Jones,2007; or physical resources, Hobfoll & Walfisch, 1986). Lazarus and Folkman(1984) used the term cognitive appraisal to explain the process through whichindividuals interpret and respond to transactions within their environment. Thisinvolves both primary and secondary appraisals. During primary appraisal, anindividual considers the significance of a situation with regard to personal values,personal beliefs, situational intentions, goal commitments, and well-being (Lazarus& Folkman, 1984). Secondary appraisal refers to a cognitive-evaluative processthat focuses on minimizing harm or maximizing gains through coping responses.This involves an evaluation of coping options and available resources that mayinclude social, physical, psychological, and material assets (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus& Folkman, 1984).

In an attempt to clarify the nature of coping, researchers have attempted toplace coping strategies into higher-order themes that identify the intended purposeof the coping response (Lazarus, 2000; Schwarzer & Luszczynska, 2008). Fourcoping functions are commonly used in the coping literature (Lazarus & Lazarus,2006): \) problem-focused coping involves altering the circumstances causing thedistress; 2) emotion-focused coping focuses on the regulation of stressful emotions;3) avoidance-focused coping involves disengaging from the Stressor and focus-ing attention on alternative tasks; and 4) appraisal-focused coping is focused onrationalizing an encounter or placing events in perspective.

As coping research has moved toward positive psychology, the conceptualiza-tion of coping has adapted to include self-regulated, future-oriented, goal attainmentstrategies (Frydenberg & Lewis, 2004; Schwarzer & Luszczynska, 2008). Positivepsychology represents a shift in the focus of psychology from negative elementsof human functioning (e.g., mental disorders, incapacity, and prejudice) towardhealth and well-being by promoting positive emotions, character traits, and condi-tions that foster achievement strivings (Frydenberg, 2012). There are clear benefitsin seeking to establish the contribution of coping behaviors toward performanceenhancement, health, and well-being.

Future-oriented coping developed from a shift toward positive psychologyand includes anticipatory, preventative, and proactive coping. Anticipatory copingis intended to deal with a critical event that is certain, or almost certain, to occurin the near future (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997). In preventative coping, individualsconsider and prepare for critical events that may or may not occur in the distantfuture. The intention is to develop resources so that the consequences of stress-ful events, should they occur, would be less severe (Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002).Proactive coping involves the activation of internal (e.g., optimism, self-efficacy)and external resources (e.g., practical help, emotional sustenance) to facilitate the


achievement of personal goals. By contrast, reactive coping describes efforts todeal with a stressful encounter that has already happened, or is happening concur-rently, rather than one that will be encountered in the near future (Schwarzer &Luszczynska, 2008).

Folkman and Moskowitz (2004) suggested that "an important motivation forstudying coping is the belief that within a given culture certain ways of coping aremore and less effective in promoting emotional well-being and addressing problemscausing distress, and that such information can be used to design interventions tohelp people cope more effectively with the stress in their lives" (p. 753). How-ever, the transactional models that have guided a great deal of the literature stateexplicitly that coping strategies are inherently neither good nor bad (Lazarus &Folkman, 1984). The contention is that the adaptive qualities of coping processesneed to be evaluated in the specific stressful context in which they occurred. Forexample, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested that problem-focused coping isuseful when situations are amenable to change; whereas, emotion-focused copingis useful when situations are not amenable to change, or it is inappropriate to tryto engender change. Evidence also suggests that coping strategies employed earlyin the process, before the Stressor has manifested itself, are preferable in terms ofhealth and performance outcomes (Greenglass & Fiksenbaum, 2009). The pro-posed benefits of proactive coping are numerous. They are proposed to include: (a)reducing the impact of a stressful event should it occur; (b) enhancing versatilityin managing an event by affording the time to develop a range of strategies; (c)possibly averting a stressful event altogether; (d) resource generation; and (e) pro-moting personal growth (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002).There are benefits in exploring coping among a population exposed to multipleStressors, as it affords an opportunity to consider Stressors and coping both withinand across domains.

The aim of this study was firstly to explore the Stressors and personal andsituational factors influencing Stressor appraisals experienced by junior nationalnetball players. The second aim was to explore how these athletes cope with suchStressors. We adopted a qualitative approach to identify and elaborate upon factorsrelevant to both aims of the current study. This approach allows a holistic overviewof the Stressors these athletes experience and the way in which they cope (Lazarus,1999,2000). For example, they allow a researcher to ascertain the adaptive qualitiesof coping relative to the stressful context in which occurred, or where Stressors areunknown; they allow proactive coping to be identified and evaluated. As coping isrecognized to be a subjective process, this presents a strength of using a qualitativeapproach (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Tamminen & Holt, 2010b).

Method

Participants

Thirty-three female players between the ages of 14-18 years {M= 16.7, SD = 1.2years) playing at either Under-seventeen (U17) or Under-nineteen (U19) nationalrepresentative level volunteered participation. All participants were recruited thoughpurposeful sampling and were selected on the basis that they were currently, or had

stress and Coping In National Adolescent Netball 165

been, an active member of the England netball Talent Program within the previ-ous netball season. England Netball distributed letters and consent forms invitingparticipation in the current study. Twenty-four players participated in one of threefocus groups, with the nine remaining participants completing individual inter-views. It should be noted that 100% of athletes of the Talent Program volunteeredto participate in the study.

Interview Procedure

The University ethics committee approved this study. Participants signed informedconsent forms at the start of the research, and no incentives for participation wereoffered. Where participants were under the age of 16, parental consent was alsorequired. The semistructured interview schedule covered five themes of inquiry:(a) the Stressors experienced as a national junior netball player; (b) other Stressorsexperienced as an adolescent female; (c) coping strategies used; (d) personal andsituational factors influencing coping efforts; and (e) possible changes to facilitatecoping. All participants were asked to consider Stressors encountered and copingstrategies used during the present netball season.

The three focus group interviews took place over the same national squadweekend. Individuals were assigned to focus groups based on the position theyplayed on a netball court (defense, attack, midcourt). Multiple focus groups wereused because (a) any one focus group may be nonresponsive, therefore increasingthe number of focus groups enhances the opportunities for rich data to be provided;(b) multiple groups with similar participants can be used to detect patterns andtrends across groups; and (c) they allow participants to react, agree or disagree,build on, and provide further insight into the comments made by other participants(Krueger, 1994). However, an acknowledged limitation of focus groups is that it isnot possible to identify agreement/disagreement figures.

Nine individual interviews occurred in players' homes. Three athletes whohad recently withdrawn from the Talent Program were recruited as volunteers inan attempt to select participants who may have had different experiences of thesports organization. Lambert and Loiselle (2008) have contended that the combina-tion of individual interviews and focus groups positively contributes to knowledgeproduction and synthesis.

Data AnalysisAll interviews were transcribed verbatim resulting in 115,714 words of interviewtext (individual interviews - 68,702 words; focus group interviews = 47,012 words).All participants were provided with a copy of their interview transcripts to checkfor accuracy and add/omit comments as necessary. Thereafter, the computer soft-ware NVivo 2 (2002; QSR International; Burlington, MA) was used to facilitatethe organization of quotes into meaningful themes.

Consistent with previous qualitative investigations, an inductive-deductiveapproach to data analysis was used in the current study (Esterberg, 2002; Nicholls,Levy, Grice, & Polman, 2009). The first and third author read and inductivelycoded one focus group and one individual interview (the same interviews) indi-vidually and then during a group meeting (Dale, 1996). Discussions between the


first and third author resulted in either consensus regarding a theme, or changesuntil consensus was attained (Dale, 1996). An inductive analysis of interview datahelped capture an accurate representation of the Stressors, personal and situationalfactors perceived as influencing coping, and resultant coping strategies discussedby participants. Inductive coding is a process whereby the researchers analyze theinterview data to identify patterns, themes, and interrelationships. For instance, "Ihave a commitment they can't understand" and "they know what it means to me"were categorized under the theme "awareness/understanding." The rule of inclusionfor awareness/understanding was "the ability or inability of others to perceive or tobe conscious of the individuals' circumstances and/or desires." Once these themeshad been created, deductive procedures were used in that prior empirical researchconcerning stress and coping helped interpret the data. For example, where a copingstrategy appeared to fit into an established classification of coping used in previousresearch, data were deductively analyzed within that particular theme (Compas,Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen, & Wadsworth, 2001). The use of narrativesprovided by participants then can be used to represent key findings (Lazarus, 2000).All names presented to represent a participant or when participants refer to othersare pseudonyms used to protect identity and help maintain confidentiality.

ResultsIn presenting the results, reference is made to 'n -' both within the coding hier-archies and within the text. This number reflects the number of participants (themaximum being 33) referring to the theme being described. It is worth noting thatwithin the three focus groups, not all participants commented on every issue raised.This was due to a number of mitigating factors including agreement with and/orsaturation of the point being made (no perceived need to add further comment),lack of confidence to interject or make a comment, or the conversation had movedon before an opportunity arose to contribute. This represents a limitation of the datapresented in terms of how completely it represents the views of all participants.

Interview data presented a range of potential Stressors coded under four firstorder themes (see Figure 1 ) using theory-led deductive analytical processes (Anshel& Delany, 2001; Dugdale et al , 2002; Wheaton, 1997). As Figure 1 displays,these four themes include acute stress (n = 32), chronic stress (n = 30), expected/anticipated stress (n = 29), and unexpected stress (n = 19). Results indicate thatthe primary Stressor identified by all 33 players arose from difficulties encounteredwhen trying to combine commitments. A perceived need to achieve success in sportand academic study resulted in participants (n = 33) identifying a combination ofsport and nonsport specific Stressors described across accounts of chronic, acute,expected, and unexpected Stressors.

When exploring expected and unexpected stress, findings indicated that 29players expressed the view that they felt able to use future-oriented coping strate-gies when dealing with expected stress to negate or minimize its impact. Further,23 participants reported that using future-oriented coping strategies was helpfulfor performance. For example, Anna (U19 player) explained, "I think if you'vegot expected Stressors then you prepare yourself for it . . . so when it happens youcan respond to it, there's no need to be stressed about it 'cause you're ready." By


Example Raw Data Themes

• Arguments withsignificant others

• Making a mistake• As.scs.sment situation.s

(sport and academic)

• High expectations fromothers

• Trying to be 'modelatlilete'

• Combined commitments

• Pressure to do well• Training demands• Coursework completion

• Ditlerent eoaching styles• Negative comments• Unplanned social events

First Order Themes

Acute: Shortdtiratioti

(II = .12:97%)

Chrotiic: Lotigduratioti(/; = .•?(); 91%)

Expected:

Anticipated

(n = 29; 88%)

Unexpected: Notanticipated(;i=l9;58%)

General Dimension

Sources ofstress

Figure 1 — The perceived sources of stress among national adolescent netball players.

contrast, 18 participants believed their reactions to unexpected stress were moreemotionally intense than with an expected Stressor. The following focus groupdialogue is indicative of this perception; Kristy (U17): "Straight away you getmadder quicker;" Bethany (U19): "Yeah I think you get an extreme reaction toit because, I guess you just weren't planning on it happening." One participant(Amanda, U19) perceived expected Stressors to be more difficult to manage thanunexpected Stressors. She explained, "I'm a worrier... so if it's unexpected I thinkI'd cope with it a lot better actually more than if it was expected 'cause it wouldjust be instant and I'd worry about it then rather than sort of days and days before."

Fourteen players believed it was desirable to try to manage Stressors from theoutset to help prevent an acute Stressor becoming a chronic Stressor. Jo withdrewfrom the England netball program (U19) because she was unable to cope with aStressor that was initially acute: "It [negative comments from coach] used to makeme more 'Oh I'm gonna prove [coach] wrong,' towards the end I was like 'Oh I'mnot bothered now,' that's when I decided that I didn't want to do it." The ongoingcriticisms became a chronic Stressor that influenced Jo's confidence: "I thought'I'm not as good as everybody else here' and things like that." These participantsfelt that the longer a Stressor persisted, thereby becoming a chronic Stressor, themore challenging coping could become. Ongoing combined commitments wereperceived by all 33 participants to be particularly problematic. For example, Cath-erine (U19 player; focus group) listened to her teammates discussing the challengesof combined commitments and then commented: "When I was doing my A' levels.


I was playing my games nonstop like you lo t . . . I couldn't deal with it any more,I would go home and try and do some work and it was mad, I would sit there andcry, I was like 'oh my god, I've got to be up until four o'clock doing this' and Icouldn't do it anymore." Catherine explained that she had reached a stage of bumoutand sought a resolution with the Talent Director. Had she not identified a way ofreducing her commitments she intended to withdraw from the Talent Program tofocus on her studies.

Players identified a wide range of coping strategies deductively classifiedby coping function and temporal features (see Figure 2). Many of the strategiesidentified could serve different functions that varied in accordance with temporalconsiderations. The influence of temporal characteristics on the selection and effi-cacy of coping strategies was evidenced when describing the impact of expectedand unexpected Stressors on coping behaviors. When faced with expected Stress-ors, 29 players reported the use of future-oriented coping that served one or morefunction. However, when faced with an unexpected Stressor, 19 players describedhow the situation enforced reactive coping, which associated with an increase inintense unpleasant emotions, leading to these 19 players using emotion-focusedcoping strategies (e.g., blocking or ignoring the Stressor, putting it in perspective).

Amanda (U19) demonstrated the varied function of social support as a copingstrategy in accordance with its temporal application. When training for netballperformance, Amanda used her father to assist with self-regulation to facilitate theattainment of a long-term personal goal. She and her father "... would go out fora jog together and he used to help me with the physical side by giving me someskills to do ... he knew what I needed to do with my game." By contrast, whenconsidering withdrawal from the England netball program and anticipating theresponse of her parents, she consulted a friend who "... helped me understand ita bit more, like how to tell my parents, comforting me sort of thing." These twoexamples demonstrated differences in the function (instrumental support versusappraisal/emotional support) and temporal use (proactive coping versus anticipa-tory coping) of social support.

When reviewing Figure 2, it can be observed that the greater the temporaldistance of the coping typology, the less frequently it was cited by participants.Seventeen players provided examples of reactive coping where the individual reactedto a Stressor they had experienced already, or that currently was being experienced.Twenty-three players provided examples of anticipatory coping where they soughtto manage a Stressor that was certain, or fairly certain, to occur in the near future.Fourteen players provided examples of preventative coping where they preparedfor a Stressor that may or may not occur in the longer-term future. Finally, eightplayers provided examples of proactive coping whereby they prepared for thelonger-term and indeterminate future. These findings indicate that while playersusing future-oriented coping experienced benefits in terms of well-being and goalattainment, the majority of players (n = 25) did not testify to the use of proactivecoping, a form of coping associated with the greatest psychosocial benefits.

The influence of personal and situational factors was apparent when exploringcoping function. For example, 18 players exhibited a greater use of emotion-focusedcoping when they perceived little or no control over a situation, or felt it inappropri-ate to try to change the situation. Conversely, where players (n = 27) felt they were

Example Raw Data Themes First Order Themes General Dimension

Goal-settingPriorilizing aetivilies

Positive selt-tntkSeek emotional support

Take il as an experienceSee the big pict\ire

Ignore things I don'lwant to doPut it offuntil lastminute

Problem-tbcused: Strategies directedtowards environment and the .seit toalter circtimstances Cüusiug distress,(n = 27; 82%)

Emotion-focused: Strategies to regulatestressful emotions, (ii = 24; 73%)

Appraisal-focused: Strategics toappraise or reappraise stressfulsituations, (ii = 16; 48%)

Avoidance-focused: Strategies u.sed todisengage from the slressor placingattention on alternative tasks.(» = 14; 42%)

Copingfunction

• Think about when itwill be over

• Positive self-talk

• Ask coaches whatI'll be doing

• Give something up(to create time)

Write dowfi prioritiesGel advice (o help

Set achievable goalsPlan aheiid andstick to it

Reactive coping: Efforts to deal with astressliil encounter that has happened oris happening at the present tiine.( H = 1 7 ; 5 2 % )

Anticipatory coping: Eflbrts to dealwith a critical event that is certain orfairly certain to occur in the near ftiture{n = 2.3; 70%)

Preventative coping: Efforts to preparefor uncertain events in the more distantfiiture.(n = 14: 42%)

Proactive coping: Ellorts to prepare foran indeterminate ftiture incoiporatingboth coping and self-rcKulatory skills,(n = 8; 24%)

Temporalcoping

Figure 2 — The perceived functions of coping among national adolescent netball players.

169


able to, and it was appropriate to change the situation, problem-focused copingwas evidenced. The issue of control was particularly apparent to this adolescentpopulation. Theela (U19, focus group) felt others were controlling and that thischanged as she aged.

In the example provided by Theela, a lack of control produced emotionalconsequences (e.g., moodiness, crying), ultimately becoming a chronic Stressorand causing physical consequences (e.g., "run down," a British term reflectingperceptions of extreme fatigue). To prevent the reoccurrence of these physical andemotional consequences, she assumed more control by engaging future-oriented,problem-focused coping to ensure she established clear personal priorities. The useof planning, time management, and prioritizing as future-oriented problem-focusedstrategies were commonly cited when seeking to manage combined Stressors andfacilitate the achievement of personally meaningful goals.

All participants identified personal factors that influenced the generation ofbeliefs regarding Stressors and coping capability (see Figure 3). These were clus-tered as related personal factors including the following: (a) motivation (n = 19),personal goals {n = 20), and priorities (n = 23); (b) cognitive development (n = 5),age (n = 11), and experience (n = 19); and (c) confidence (n = 12), enjoyment (n =20), and fatigue (n = 22). Amanda (U19) described the importance of motivation:"You have to be very self-motivated to give up your free time [for netball commit-ments], to deal with pressure as well 'cause it is obviously very stressful; you haveto be very committed." Twenty players expressed the view that setting clear goalsenabled them to identify priorities and establish strategies for goal attainment, thusmaintaining motivation. Within one focus group a lengthily discussion took placeregarding the influence of cognitive development, age, and experience on copingcapacity. Judith (U17) was encouraged by other focus group members to recounther experiences as a 15-year-old when she was selected to attend Under-nineteensquad weekends: "I just did what I was told; I didn't question it. They realizedonce I got there that physically I could match anyone, but that mentally I justwasn't ready. Over the last year I've grown up and I'm now okay with the wholething, but it was just horrible." Judith explained that her inability to cope mentallyundermined her confidence resulting in an unpleasant and upsetting experience.Upon noting this, the coaches placed her back in the Under-seventeen environmentwhere she felt more able to cope with the demands placed upon her. The exampleprovided by Judith concurrently highlights the impact of enjoyment and confidenceon appraisal and coping.

Figure 3 presents those situational factors perceived as influencing appraisaland coping. These fall under two related clusters: a) resources (social resources[n = 25], physical resources [n = 11], team issues [n = 21], and awareness/under-standing [n = 23]); and b) situational characteristics (duration [n = 14], novelty/familiarity [n = 17], and control and combined commitments [n = 18]). All 33players off̂ ered examples where situational factors and resources operated in con-junction to determine their influence. An illustrative quote was provided by Louise(U19): "In this example, friends (social resource) did not appreciate (awareness/understanding) the demands of netball (duration, control) or the player's personalmotivation (motivation, priorities) for netball. In this instance, friends contributedto stress as opposed to alleviating it."

Example Raw Data Themes First Order Themes General Dimension

Not motivated enough lo copeWant to do it vounself. not for anvbodv else

I'd achieved whal 1 wanted toHow much it means to you

Get your priorities rightRevision for mv C¡CSEs is more important

I've grown up and become a dilTcrent personI don't think I was mature enough

More pressures the older you getOur age you're not fully in control

You leam how to manage itI ean cope with it because I'm used to it

I've become a loi more contldentGoing in feeling confident helps

I ctijoy itI just didn't enjoy it

I get tired and moodyYou get emotionally tired

I would always worryI can'l ask for help

Motivation (n = 19; 58%)

"*• Personal Goals (n = 20; 61%)

-»• Priorities (n = 23; 70%)

Cognitive development(/; = 5; 15%)

-*• Age (n = 11; 33%)

-*• Experience (n = 22; 67%)

- • Conftdence (// = 12; 36%)

-+• Enjoyment (n = 20; 61 %)

-+• Fatigue (/( = 22; 67%)

Personal dispositions(/)=12;36%)

Personalfactors

Without my parents I wouldn't be able to do ilNo-one will train with me

DiQicult to fínd a place to do speed enduranceAccess to support in ditVerent counties

I rdt a bit of an outcastTeam heads drop it's hard lo keep your^ up

I have a commitment they can't understandTeaehers don'l understand

It got harder as it went onConlinuous pressures not good

1 wasn't used lo that training intensityLearning to live without parents

You've gol no eontrol over ilOthers have the say

Exams, training, work, social eventsFeels like you're been pulled in every direction

-*• Social resources (77 = 25; 76%)

Physical/location(77= 11; 33%)

-*• Team issues (77 = 21 ; 64%)

_^ Awareness /tmderstanding(77 = 23; 70%)

-*• Duration of Stressor (77 = 14; 42%)

_^ Novelty /familiarity(77 = 1 7 ; 5 2 % )

Control (77= 18; 55%)

Combined commitments(77 = 33; 100%)

Situationalfactors

Figure 3 — Personal and situational factors associated with upon appraisal and coping strategies.

171


DiscussionThe aim of the current study was to explore the stress and coping experiences ofjunior national netball players with a view identifying the Stressors encountered andcoping typically used by this sample. Lazarus (1999,2000) highlighted the need tounderstand the unique and contextually situated demands that unique populationsface. This is necessary to understand the coping process among such populationsand to tailor interventions to the unique demands/constraints they may face andresponse capabilities they may possess.

Stressors were deductively coded under four sources: acute, chronic, expected,and unexpected (see Figure 1 ). Players were able to articulate a number of Stressorsfor each source resulting from sport, academic, work, social, and developmentalfactors. There was consensus among all players that combined commitmentsproduced a challenging Stressor, and one that at times, they felt unable to copewith. This perception is meaningful, as research suggests that the failure to copeeffectively with chronic stress is undesirable and can result in symptoms suchas slower and less accurate decision-making; heightened unpleasant emotions;reduced self-esteem and confidence; and health problems (Anshel, Kim, Kim,Chang, & Eom, 2001 ; Colligan & Higgins, 2006). Twenty-three players reportedbeing highly motivated to achieve personal goals in sport and academic domains,while at the same time not wishing to compromise social goals. In failing to cope,these players felt that meaningful goals were being compromised. The cognitivemotivational relational theory (Lazarus, 1991, 1999, 2000) highlights the impor-tance of considering individual goal commitments (across domains) because oftheir influence on appraisal and subsequent coping. Previous sport coping researchwhich has tended to focus on sport-specific Stressors in detail thereby overlook-ing the interactional and reciprocal nature of personal goals set across domains(Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005; Nicholls, Jones, Poiman, & Borkoles, 2009;Woodman & Hardy, 2001).

When exploring expected and unexpected Stressors, players reported to feelthat unexpected stress, which they experienced most often in the sporting context,produced stronger emotional responses and impaired coping. Hatzigeorgiadis (2006)argued that an athlete's ability to manage unexpected rather than expected stress-ors is possibly more important in a sports context. When describing the effectivemanagement of Stressors, and the attainment of personally desirable outcomes, allplayers identified the importance of future-oriented coping. Within the illustrativequotes provided, players referred to the efficacy of future-oriented strategies includ-ing planning, prioritizing, time-management, goal setting and problem solving.However, within the interviews players most often described efforts focused onthe near and certain future evidencing anticipatory coping (n = 23). Fewer playersdescribed the use of preventative (n = 14) and proactive coping (n = 8) indicatingthat as the focus of coping became more temporally distant and ambiguous, lessconsideration was afforded to goal management and self-regulation.

Coping theorists have suggested that adaptive coping strategies such as theones described above are associated with enhanced health and general well-being(Greenglass, 2002). They engage efforts to develop general resources facilitatingthe achievement of personal goals and personal growth (Greenglass & Fiksenbaum,2009; Schmitz & Schwarzer, 1999). However, players noted that the use of thesestrategies was impaired when faced with unexpected Stressors. It would seem

Stress and Coping in National Adolescent Netball 173

prudent to help players use these strategies effectively (e.g., planning, prioritizing,time-management, goal setting, problem solving; Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002) toenhance coping self-efficacy and f̂ acilitate the use of future-oriented coping. Copingself-efficacy is a person's subjective appraisal of their ability to cope with thedemands of a stressful or traumatic situation (Bandura, 1997; Chesney, Neilands,Chambers, Taylor, & Folkman, 2006). Increasing coping self-efficacy is a desiredoutcome, as research indicates that coping beliefs help determine coping effortsin response to Stressors (Bandura, 1997; Chesney et al., 2006). When coping self-efficacy beliefs are high, individuals focus their eflForts on addressing environmentaland emotional demands via the use of active coping strategies. However, whencoping self-efficacy is low, efforts are more likely to be directed toward avoidantcoping strategies.

In reviewing the coping literature, it is apparent that comparatively few studieshave attempted to explore the personal and situational factors that can influence theappraisal process, and of those that have, few have been conducted in a sportingcontext (Giacobbi & Weinberg, 2000; Thatcher & Day, 2008). This observationof the literature might be considered as somewhat surprising given the conten-tion of the cognitive motivational relational theory of stress and coping (Lazarus,1991, 1999,2000). This theory suggests that cognitive appraisal and the meaningsgenerated from them are always relational because they must simultaneously takeinto account personal factors along with environmental demands, constraints, andopportunities (Crocker, Kowalski, & Graham, 1998). Given the importance ofappraisal in the coping process (Dugdale et al., 2002), consideration of personaland situational variables may enable the identification of those players more likelyto appraise events and situations as stressful and/or least able to cope. This wouldallow the possibility of interventions intended to alter the circumstances causingdistress and facilitate coping.

Results demonstrated that the combination of personal and situational factorsperceived as influencing appraisal and coping appeared unique to each individual,a finding consistent with past research (Burke, 2002). However, there were clustersof related factors identified in all interviews (presented in Figure 2). Personal fac-tors included motivational (motivation, personal goals, priorities), developmental(cognitive development, age, experience) and affective factors (confidence, enjoy-ment, fatigue). Situational factors included resources (social resources, physicalresources, team issues, awareness/understanding) and situational characteristics(duration, novelty/familiarity, control, combined commitments). The first ordertheme personal dispositions (n= 12) was presented as a single factor, an umbrellaterm representing behaviors and thoughts that generalize across domains, andperceived to be consistent over time.

Due to the concept of transaction contained within the cognitive motivationalrelational theory of stress and coping (Lazarus, 1991,1999,2000), Lazarus stresseda need to evaluate those personal and situational factors that are perceived to influ-ence appraisal separately, but to interpret them interdependently. Participants inthe current study evidenced the interaction of personal and situational factors ininfluencing appraisal and coping. For example, in the illustrative quote providedby Theela, she demonstrated the influence of personal experience when identify-ing threats to goal achievement. She delimited commitments explaining that herprevious experiences influenced her appraisal of what was deemed a threat to herhealth, well-being, and goal achievement (Lazarus, 2000). By contrast, Michelle


felt unable to say no to requests for commitment despite being cognizant of theconsequences. Michelle demonstrates the influence of communication dispositionsin managing the potential impact of situational factors and thereby stress transac-tions. In support of this supposition. Hardy, Burke, and Crace (2(K)5) described theimportance of communication in mediating performance and satisfaction. Findingssuch as these highlight the value in establishing on a case-by-case basis those situ-ational and personal factors that influence appraisal and coping.

To date, a great deal of the coping literature has assessed reactive coping(Dugdale et al., 2002; Frydenberg & Lewis, 2004). However, the majority ofcoping behaviors described by participants in the current study (see Figure 2)were intended to develop resources to maximize gain, or minimize loss from theconsequences of stressful events should they occur in the short to median termfuture (Peacock, Wong, & Reker, 1993; Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002). Commonlyused strategies typified future-oriented coping and included planning, prioritizing,time-management, goal setting, and problem solving. A further notable findingwas the extensive use of social support as a multifunctional coping strategy by allparticipants. This finding replicates those of past research adding support to thecontention that young women are likely to use social support networks when theyexperience or anticipate difficulties (Greenglass, 2002). Research has demonstratedthat without the support of family, friends, coaches and teachers, it is difficult foradolescents to persist with the necessary demands that the development of talentrequires (Albert & Runco, 1986; Rimm, 1991).

An acknowledged limitation of the current study is the use of a retrospectiveresearch design. While the current study has established perceived Stressors andassociated coping behaviors among junior national athletes across domains, werecommend that these findings be further explored using a longitudinal prospec-tive design. Coping is described as a dynamic process that fluctuates over time inresponse to changing demands and appraisals of the situation, as such retrospectiveapproaches may not fully capture the dynamics of coping (Lazarus, 1991, 1999).A longitudinal prospective design whereby individuals self-report, or are observedin different contexts and at different times, may more effectively capture copingas a process (Lazarus, 1999).

ConclusionsFindings evidence the utility of future-oriented coping thereby outlining the poten-tial benefits of coping interventions intended to facilitate the use and efficacy ofsuch strategies. We suggest that coping interventions intended for use with this orsimilar populations should address strategies such as planning, time-management,goal setting, problem solving, and communication. Furthermore, given the findingthat all participants deemed combined Stressors to be the most prevalent and chronicStressor, it is recommended that the generalization of coping skills is a key objectiveof a coping intervention (Smith, 1999). It would also seem pertinent to establishlong-term social support for individuals engaging with coping interventions associal support was perceived to be of importance in the current study.

Practitioners looking to develop coping interventions with distinct populationsshould first undertake a detailed analysis of Stressors and associated coping as


evidenced in the current study. An intervention program grounded in the experiencesof participants may enhance intervention design and efficacy by focusing attentionon pertinent determinants of Stressors and coping behaviors.

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