Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor Frederico Ferreira Valente Nunes Thesis to obtain the Master of Science Degree in Civil Engineering Thesis supervised by Prof. Maria do Rosário Maurício Ribeiro Macário Examination Committee Chairperson: Prof. João Torres de Quinhones Levy Supervisor: Prof. Maria do Rosário Maurício Ribeiro Macário Member of the Committee: Doutor Vasco Domingos Moreira Lopes Miranda dos Reis September 2015
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor
Frederico Ferreira Valente Nunes
Thesis to obtain the Master of Science Degree in
Civil Engineering
Thesis supervised by
Prof. Maria do Rosário Maurício Ribeiro Macário
Examination Committee
Chairperson: Prof. João Torres de Quinhones Levy
Supervisor: Prof. Maria do Rosário Maurício Ribeiro Macário
Member of the Committee: Doutor Vasco Domingos Moreira Lopes Miranda dos Reis
September 2015
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes |
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes |
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And our people shall leave to find a new India,
One that does not exist yet,
On boats built from the same material dreams are made of.
Fernando Pessoa, in Renascença Portuguesa
E a nossa grande raça partirá em busca de uma Índia nova,
Que não existe no espaço,
Em naus que são construídas daquilo de que os sonhos são feitos.
Fernando Pessoa, in Renascença Portuguesa
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes |
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Abstract (and key-words)
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Abstract (and key-words)
In this Master Dissertation we analysed the equity in air transportation in the European Union (EU)
regarding routes and ticket prices. This study aimed to analyse whether the European Union policies in
this field of transportation are considering the equity as a factor, whether they ensure the main purposes
of the EU and whether they are improving the cohesion between countries. For this, three different
indicators were created in order to evaluate equity in air transportation in the EU: Availability, the
existence of routes between countries; Affordability, if the prices take into account the purchasing power
of each country; and Business Convenience, to evaluate the cost of travelling by air on business in
Europe. After this analysis, the same procedures were applied to two Federative Nations, the United
States of America and Brazil, in order to analyse the differences and similarities and to develop
recommendations focused on improving EU political measures.
Key-words: equity; air transportation; European Union; transport policies; equity indicators.
Resumo (e palavras-chave)
Nesta tese de mestrado foi analisada a equidade no transporte aéreo dentro da União Europeia (UE),
no que se refere a rotas e preços de viagem. Estes dados tiveram como objetivo servir de base à análise
das políticas europeias e entender se a equidade é um fator chave no desenho destas políticas, se
estão a ser cumpridos os propósitos iniciais da União e se estas políticas permitem uma maior coesão
no espaço europeu. Para isso foram criados três indicadores com o objetivo de avaliar a equidade no
transporte aéreo na EU: Availability (Disponibilidade), se existem rotas entre os estados membros;
Affordability (Esforço Económico), se os preços têm em conta o poder de compra de cada país; e
Business Convenience (Facilidade de Negócio), por forma a avaliar o custo de viajar de avião para
realizar negócios na Europa. Posteriormente a mesma análise foi realizada para duas federações, os
Estado Unidos da América e o Brasil, com o objetivo de descobrir semelhanças e diferenças por forma
a desenvolver recomendações focadas em melhorar as políticas europeias.
Palavras-chave: equidade; transporte aéreo; União Europeia; políticas de transporte; indicadores de
equidade.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Abstract (and key-words)
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Acknowledgements
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Acknowledgements
This work is based on a bigger project than me or you, the reader. In fact it is based on
something that has begun many decades ago, when people of Europe, tired of war, had the idea of
building a common ground for improvement and friendship. Therefore my deepest gratitude to everyone
who worked and works to create, build and improve the European Union.
In a more personal level I have to thank all those who, with their friendship, helped me to reach
this point where I am about to get my Master Degree: my parents, who told me what hard work and
persistence are, in order to accomplish my dreams; my grandmother who told me how to be kind, how
to respect the others and how to be the best person possible; my brothers and other family for being
always present and to give me a good and safe environment to build my life; to all my friends that
fortunately I was able to find and accompanied me since childhood, that everyday give me reasons to
smile, laugh and love them; a special thanks to Joana Barbosa, Inês Marques, Patrícia Cabral, João
Paiva and Jorge Miguel for all their support during the writing of this dissertation, for the company and
for all their suggestions that have certainly improved this project.
An even more special thanks to my supervisor, Professor Maria Rosário Macário for all the
dedication and support, the wise words and the suggestions that made this dissertation possible; for her
advice that made my journey in Civil Engineering to reach this point in spite of my passion for
transportation and transportation policies.
Finally my gratitude to two of my schools, Escola Salesiana de Manique and Instituto Superior
Técnico, where I studied from my 10th anniversary until the 23rd, that gave me the hard and soft skills to
be what I am today and to become what I will be tomorrow.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Acknowledgements
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | List of Abbreviations
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List of Abbreviations
EAS – Essential Air Service PPP – Purchasing Power Parity
EC – European Council PSO – Public Service Obligations
EP – European Parliament TEA-21 – Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
EU – European Union UNSD – United Nations Statistic Division
FAA – Federal Aviation Administration USA – United States of America
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
Countries abbreviations according to Interinstitutional Style Guide (underlined the short name):
AT – Republic of Austria IE – Ireland
BE – Kingdom of Belgium IT – Italian Republic (Italy)
BG – Republic of Bulgaria LT – Republic of Lithuania
CY – Republic of Cyprus LU – Grand Duchy of Luxemburg
CZ – Czech Republic LV – Republic of Latvia
DE – Federal Republic of Germany MT – Republic of Malta
DK – Kingdom of Denmark NL – Kingdom of the Netherlands
EE – Republic of Estonia PL – Republic of Poland
EL – Hellenic Republic (Greece) PT – Portuguese Republic (Portugal)
ES – Kingdom of Spain RO - Romania
FI – Republic of Finland SE – Kingdom of Sweden
FR – French Republic (France) SI – Republic of Slovenia
HR – Republic of Croatia SK – Slovak Republic (Slovakia)
HU – Hungary UK – United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland
States, from United States of America, abbreviations:
AL – Alabama MT – Montana
AK – Alaska NE – Nebraska
AZ – Arizona NV – Nevada
AR – Arkansas NH – New Hampshire
CA – California NJ – New Jersey
CO – Colorado NM – New Mexico
CT – Connecticut NY – New York
DE – Delaware NC – North Carolina
DC – District of Columbia ND – North Dakota
FL – Florida OH – Ohio
GA – Georgia OK – Oklahoma
HI – Hawaii OR – Oregon
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | List of Abbreviations
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ID – Idaho PA – Pennsylvania
IL – Illinois RI – Road Island
IN – Indiana SC – South Carolina
IA – Iowa SD – South Dakota
KS – Kansas TN – Tennessee
KY – Kentucky TX – Texas
LA – Louisiana UT – Utah
ME – Maine VT – Vermont
MD – Maryland VA – Virginia
MA – Massachusetts WA – Washington
MI – Michigan WV – West Virginia
MN – Minnesota WI – Wisconsin
MS – Mississippi WY – Wyoming
MO – Missouri
States, from Federative Republic of Brazil, abbreviations:
AC – Acre PB – Paraíba
AL – Alagoas PR – Paraná
AP – Amapá PE – Pernambuco
AM – Amazonas PI – Piauí
BA – Bahia RJ – Rio de Janeiro
CE – Ceará RN – Rio Grande do Norte
DF – Distrito Federal RS – Rio Grande do Sul
ES – Espírito Santo RO – Rondônia
GO – Goiás RR – Roraima
MA – Maranhão SC – Santa Catarina
MT – Mato Grosso SP – São Paulo
MS – Mato Grosso do Sul SE – Sergipe
MG – Minas Gerais TO - Tocantins
PA – Pará
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Index
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Index
1. Introduction and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 1
2. Literature Review ............................................................................................................................. 5
Table 3 - Equity and Transport (Banister) ............................................................................................... 7
Table 4 - Standardized scores to interpolate index scores: (Voorhees, 2009) ....................................... 9
Table 5 - Matrix to analyse Availability .................................................................................................. 21
Table 6 - Organisation of the information regarding the distance between capitals ............................. 21
Table 7 - Hubs chosen as representative of UE, USA and Brazil ......................................................... 22
Table 8 - Organisation of the information regarding the calculus of the Affordability indicator ............. 23
Table 9 - Organisation of information regarding the calculus of the Business Convenience indicator . 23
Table 10 – Indicators for the case study ............................................................................................... 24
Table 11 - Organisation of the top best and worst results for each indicator ........................................ 27
Table 12 – Order of the Classification of the Regions ........................................................................... 27
Table 13 - List of European Airports with at least 20% of the country’s passengers ............................ 29
Table 14 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for EU .............................................................................. 30
Table 15 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from their main airports to the
rest of European countries .................................................................................................................... 32
Table 16 - Descending order of the connectivity of the European Regions according to indicator (1) . 32
Table 17 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other countries, for the EU ................................................................................................... 34
Table 18 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity to each country main airport, in
the EU .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Table 19 - Descending order of the connectivity of the European Regions according to indicator (2) . 35
Table 20 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections to each country main
airport, for the EU .................................................................................................................................. 37
Table 21 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for EU ............................................................................. 38
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Table 22 – Top countries with more and less affordability in the European Union ............................... 39
Table 23 - Descending order of the Affordability of the European Regions .......................................... 39
Table 24 - Outcome of the Affordability Indicator for EU taking just into account the minimum prices 40
Table 25 - Business relative cost outcome, for the EU ......................................................................... 41
Table 26 – Top countries with the best and the worst Business Convenience, in the EU .................... 42
Table 27 - Descending order of the Business Convenience of the European Regions ........................ 42
Table 28 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Business Convenience in the EU ............................ 44
Table 29 - List of Brazil airports with at least 20% of the state’s passengers ....................................... 45
Table 30 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for Brazil .......................................................................... 46
Table 31 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from their main airport to the
rest of the states, in Brazil ..................................................................................................................... 48
Table 32 - Descending order of the connectivity of the Brazil Regions according to indicator (1) ........ 48
Table 33 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other states, for Brazil .......................................................................................................... 48
Table 34 - Descending order of the connectivity of Brazil Regions according to indicator (2) .............. 49
Table 35 – Top states with more connectivity and less connectivity to main airports of the rest of Brazil
states ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 36 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections to each state main airport,
for Brazil................................................................................................................................................. 51
Table 37 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for Brazil ......................................................................... 52
Table 38 – Top states with more and less Affordability in Brazil ........................................................... 52
Table 39 - Descending order of the Affordability of Brazil Regions ...................................................... 52
Table 40 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Affordability in Brazil ................................................ 53
Table 41 - Business relative cost outcome for Brazil ............................................................................ 54
Table 42 – Top states with best and worst Business Convenience, in Brazil ....................................... 55
Table 43 - Descending order of the Business Convenience of Brazil Regions ..................................... 55
Table 44 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Business Convenience in Brazil .............................. 56
Table 45 - List of USA airports with at least 20% of the state’s passengers ......................................... 57
Table 46 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for the USA ...................................................................... 59
Table 47 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from main airports to the rest of
the states, in the USA ............................................................................................................................ 62
Table 48 - Descending order of the connectivity of the USA Regions according to indicator (1) ......... 62
Table 49 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other states, for the USA ...................................................................................................... 63
Table 50 – Top states with more connectivity and less connectivity to main airports of the rest of USA
states ..................................................................................................................................................... 64
Table 51 - Descending order of the connectivity of the USA Regions according to indicator (2) ......... 64
Table 52 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections from the main airport to
each one of the other states, for the USA ............................................................................................. 66
Table 53 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the USA .................................................................... 67
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Index
X
Table 54 – Top states with more and less Affordability in the USA ...................................................... 68
Table 55 - Descending order of the Affordability of the USA Regions .................................................. 68
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Index
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Figure 14 - Relation between the percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) and the
country’s area, in the EU ....................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 15 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the EU. Green means more Affordable (negative
result) than red (positive result). ............................................................................................................ 38
Figure 16 -Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the EU taking just into account the minimum prices.
Green means more Affordable (negative result) than red (positive result). .......................................... 40
Figure 17 - Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for the EU. Green means better Business
cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result). ........................................................................... 41
Figure 18 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution to the EU GDP ........... 43
Figure 19 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the GDP per capita, in the EU ............. 43
Figure 20 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the compensation of employees per
capita, in the EU .................................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 21 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the resident population, in the EU ....... 43
Figure 22 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the foreign resident population, in the EU
Figure 23 - Outcome of Avaiability Indicator for Brazil (Percentage of connections from the main
airport to each one of the other states (1) on the right and Percentage of connections to each state
main airport (2) on the left). Green means better connections and Red worse connections. ............... 46
Figure 24 - Geographical division of Brazil according to the law since 1969 (Source: Instituto Brasileiro
de Geografia e Estatística) .................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 25- Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states and the states percentage in Brazilian GDP ..................................................................... 49
Figure 26 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states and the Inequality of Income distribution, in Brazil ............................................................ 49
Figure 27 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states
percentage on Brazilian GDP ................................................................................................................ 50
Figure 28 - Relation between the Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the
states percentage on Brazilian GDP ..................................................................................................... 51
Figure 29 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for Brazil. Green means more Affordable (negative
result) than red (positive result). ............................................................................................................ 51
Figure 30 – Relation between the Affordability and GDP per capita, in Brazil ...................................... 53
Figure 31 -Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for Brazil. Green means better Business
cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result). ........................................................................... 54
Figure 32 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution of the states to the
Brazilian GDP ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Figure 33 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the states GDP per capita, in Brazil .... 56
Figure 34 - Outcome of Avaiability Indicator for the USA (Percentage of connections from the main
airport to each one of the other states (1) on top and Percentage of connections to each state main
airport (2) down). Green means better connections and Red worse connections. ............................... 59
Figure 36 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states and the states percentage in USA GDP ........................................................................... 63
Figure 37 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other countries and the Resident Population, in the USA ..................................................................... 63
Figure 38 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states and the foreign-born Population (%), in the USA .............................................................. 63
Figure 39 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states percentage on
USA GDP............................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 40 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states resident
population, in the USA ........................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 41 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the
other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states foreign-
born residents (%), in the USA .............................................................................................................. 66
Figure 42 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the USA. Green means more Affordable (negative
result) than red (positive result) ............................................................................................................. 67
Figure 43 - Relation between the Affordability and the states contribution for the USA GDP .............. 69
Figure 44 - Relation between the Affordability and the compensation of employees per capita, in the
USA ....................................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 45 - Relation between the Affordability and the Foreign-born Population, in the USA .............. 69
Figure 46 - Relation between the Affordability and the GDP per capita, in the USA ............................ 70
Figure 47 - Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for the USA. Green means better
Business cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result). ........................................................... 71
Figure 48 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution of each state to the USA
GDP ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 49 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the Inequality of income distribution, in
the USA ................................................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 50 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the Resident Population, in the USA... 73
Figure 51- Trans-European Transport Network (Source: European Comission) .................................. 78
RO Bucharest Henri Coanda International Airport 7 643 467 10 781 863 70,89%
SK Bratislava Bratislava Airport 1 373 078 1 635 058 83,98%
SI Ljubljana Ljubljana Joze Pucnik Airport 1 321 100 1 357 363 97,33%
ES Madrid Adolfo Suarez Madrid - Barajas Airport 39 729 027 186 688 195 21,28%
SE Stockholm Stockholm Arlanda Airport 20 681 554 34 519 764 59,91%
UK London London Heathrow Airport 72 367 054 231 469 055 31,26%
Sources in Annex 1.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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4.1. Availability
After processing the data found, it was possible to produce Annex 3, where all country
destinations for each one of the airports sample are shown. In Figure 5 and Table 14 the final numbers
are shown.
Table 14 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for EU
Co
un
try
Percentage of connections to each country main airport
(2)
Airports
Percentage of connections from the
main airport to each one of the other countries (1)
AT 96,30 Vienna International Airport 85,19 BE 96,30 Brussels and Brussels South Charleroi Airports 92,59 BG 62,96 Sofia Airport and Burgas Airport 74,07 HR 59,26 Dubrovnik, Split and Zagreb Airports 66,67 CY 55,56 Larnaca and Paphos International Airports 59,26 CZ 92,59 Václav Havel Airport Prague 96,30 DK 85,19 Copenhagen Airport 81,48 EE 51,85 Tallinn Airport 44,44 FI 81,48 Helsinki Airport 62,96 FR 100,00 Charles de Gaulle Airport 92,59 DE 96,30 Frankfurt Airport 96,30 EL 81,48 Athens International Airport 62,96 HU 85,19 Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport 77,78 IE 81,48 Dublin Airport 100,00 IT 96,30 Leonardo da Vinci - Fiumicino Airport 92,59 LV 70,37 Riga International Airport 70,37
Figure 5 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for the EU (Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries (1) on the right and Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) on the left). Green means better connections and Red worse connections.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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LT 55,56 Kaunas and Vilnius Airports 70,37 LU 48,15 Luxembourg Findel Airport 70,37 MT 51,85 Malta International Airport 88,89 NL 96,30 Amsterdam Airport Schiphol 96,30 PL 92,59 Warsaw Chopin Airport 88,89 PT 66,67 Lisbon Portela Airport 70,37 RO 77,78 Henri Coanda International Airport 70,37 SK 33,33 Bratislava Airport 37,04 SI 33,33 Ljubljana Joze Pucnik Airport 29,63 ES 88,89 Adolfo Suarez Madrid - Barajas Airport 77,78 SE 88,89 Stockholm Arlanda Airport 88,89 UK 100,00 London Heathrow Airport 81,48
Analysis of the outcomes
If we start by analysing the indicator “Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other countries (1)” it is possible to see the top five groups of countries with more and less
connectivity to other European countries from their main airport (Table 15) and to see the descending
order of the connectivity of the European regions (Table 16). The EU regions will be analysed as the
regions suggested by the United Nations Statistic Division (UNSD, Figure 6).
According to this division four regions are considered:
Northern Europe: United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia and
Sweden;
Western Europe: France, Luxemburg, Belgium, Germany, Austria and the Netherlands;
Southern Europe: Portugal, Spain, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Malta, Cyprus and Greece;
Eastern Europe: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania.
Figure 6 - Geographical division of Europe according to the United Nations Statistic Division
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 15 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from their main airports to the rest of European countries
More Connectivity on indicator (1) Less Connectivity on indicator (1)
Country Indicator (1) result Country Indicator (1) result
Ireland 100% Slovenia 29,63%
Netherlands
Germany
Czech Republic
96,30% Slovakia 37,04%
Italy
France
Belgium
92,59% Estonia 44,44%
Sweden
Poland
Malta
88,89% Cyprus 59,26%
Austria 85,19% Greece
Finland 62,96%
Table 16 - Descending order of the connectivity of the European Regions according to indicator (1)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (1)
Regions Classification
Western Europe 21
Northern Europe
Eastern Europe 14
Southern Europe 11
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more benefitial
Looking to Table 15 it is possible to see that the majority of countries with more connectivity are
Western Europe countries (five), followed by Northern Europe (four). On the other hand the majority of
the countries with less connectivity are in Southern Europe (four). This is again the outcome from Table
16 when it is seen that the southern countries are less connected to the EU countries than the western
countries. Looking to Figure 5 it is also easy to see that Western European countries clearly have more
connections than the rest of Europe, and that these connections tend to decrease when it is a peripheral
country. It is also possible to see that Slovakia has always a low number of connections: this is the result
of the proximity of the capital, Bratislava, from the Austrian capital, Wien, what makes most citizens
travel from Wien instead of Bratislava. The same happens in Slovenia, where Zagreb, the Croatian
capital, is too near the border and therefore Slovenian citizens prefer to travel from Zagreb than from
Ljubljana.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
33
Also we can find correlations of this indicator with the countries percentage in the European
GDP, with the Total Resident Population and with the Balance of travel and tourism as a percentage of
GDP. Figure 7 to 9 and Table 17 show the outcomes of the study.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0,01% 0,10% 1,00% 10,00% 100,00%
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
co
un
trie
s
% EU GDP
Figure 7 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries and the countries percentage in EU GDP
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 40 80
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
co
un
trie
s
Resident Population (million)
Figure 8 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries and the Resident population in each country, in the EU
Croatia
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
-5 0 5 10 15
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
co
un
trie
s
Balance of travel and tourism as a % of GDP
Figure 9 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries and the balance of travel and tourism as a percentage of the country’s GDP, in the EU
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 17 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries, for the EU
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other countries (1)
% EU GDP Resident
Population
Balance of travel and
tourism as a % of GDP
Pearson Correlation ρ Not significant Not significant Not significant
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs 0,618 0,537 -0,676
rcritical 0,515 0,515 0,534
In what concerns the relation between the first indicator and the percentage of the countries
contribution to the EU GDP, it is possible to see clearly that there is a relation between the two variables.
Although this relation can only be seen when the horizontal axis is on logarithmic scale, it is possible to
see that normally a low contribution to EU GDP is correlated with a low percentage of connection to the
major European Airports of each country. Nevertheless this relation is only valid for countries with a
contribution of less than 1% to EU GDP, which means 10 countries.
Also, high levels of resident population tend to correspond to high levels of connectivity, with
countries with more than 20 million inhabitants with at least 77% of connectivity. Nevertheless, the
countries in this case are only six (France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom)
which does not permit to conclude that there is such a strong correlation (the Spearman’s coefficient is
too close to the critical value).
Finally we can see that there is a really strong correlation between this type of connectivity and
the balance of travel in each country GDP. We can see that countries where tourism has a positive
contribution (foreign people spend more money in the country than the resident people overseas) have
less connectivity. Nevertheless, this result can be explained, as the Figure shows, by the relation of the
Compensation of employees and the Balance of travelling: citizens of countries where the compensation
is higher tend to spend more money aboard, making a deficit in the country’s balance (the Spearman’s
correlation coefficient for this case is -0,76 and the rcritical is 0,53).
Croatia
Luxemburg
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
-5 0 5 10 15Co
mp
ensa
tio
n o
f em
plo
yees
p
er c
apit
a (t
ho
usa
nd
PP
S)
Balance of travel and tourism as a % of GDP
Figure 10 - Relation between the Compensation of employees per capita and the Balance of travel and tourism as a Percentage of GDP, in the EU
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Secondly the analysis of the indicator “Percentage of connections to each country main airport
(2)” has the following Top 5 more and less connected groups (Table 18) and the following order of
regions (Table 19):
Table 18 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity to each country main airport, in the EU
More Connectivity on indicator (2) Less Connectivity on indicator (2)
Country Indicator (2) result Country Indicator (2) result
France
United Kingdom 100%
Slovakia
Slovenia 33,33%
Austria
Belgium
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
96,30% Luxemburg 48,15%
Czech Republic
Poland 92,59% Malta 51,85%
Spain
Sweden 88,89%
Latvia
Cyprus 55,56%
Denmark
Hungary 85,19% Croatia 59,26
Table 19 - Descending order of the connectivity of the European Regions according to indicator (2)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (2)
Regions Classification
Western Europe 21
Northern Europe 14
Eastern Europe 13
Southern Europe 11
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more beneficial
Once again it is possible to see that Northern Europe leads the top 5 of the best connected
countries (five out of thirteen) and Southern Europe has the worst place with four out of seven, of the
least connected countries. The same conclusion can be taken from Table 19, where the connectivity of
Western Europe is almost 100% higher than the Southern Europe.
Also for this indicator it is possible to find correlations between this indicator and the countries
percentage in the European GDP, with the Total Resident Population, with the Total Foreign Residents
and with the Countries areas. The Figures 11 to 14 show these results as well as Table 20. In Figures
11 and 12 the results of the first indicator, already analysed, will also be shown.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Germany
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
-100% -50% 0% 50% 100% 150%
%
% EU GDP
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each oneof the other countries (1)
Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections to each country mainairport (2))
Figure 11 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries (1) and Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) and the countries percentage on EU GDP
Germany
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
3 4 5 6 7 8
%
Resident Population (million)
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each oneof the other countries (1)
Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections to each country mainairport (2))
Figure 12 -- Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries (1) and Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) and the Resident Population, in the EU
Germany
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 2 4 6 8
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
to
each
co
un
try
mai
n a
irp
ort
Foreign Residents (million)
Figure 13- Relation between the Percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) and the foreign residents, in the EU
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 20 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections to each country main airport, for the EU
Percentage of connections to each country main airport
(2)
% EU
GDP
Resident
Population
Foreign
Residents Area
Pearson Correlation ρ 0,596 0,609 0,531 0,552
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs 0,894 0,836 0,749 0,564
rcritical 0,515 0,515 0,515 0,515
In what concerns the percentage of the countries’ contribution to the EU GDP and the Resident
Population, the relation in this indicator is really similar to the first one. Nevertheless in this case the
Spearman’s correlation factor is even stronger.
On the other hand two new correlations appear in this indicator: the foreign resident’s indicator
shows that the connectivity measured by this indicator grows with the foreign population and that
countries with a bigger area have a higher connectivity.
Regarding the Foreign Residents an interesting conclusion can be reached: countries with larger
foreign communities have more connections to the other countries by secondary airports than countries
with small communities. One possibility for this evidence is that foreign residents tend to find the
cheapest flights to visit their home country which, most of the times, leave from secondary airports where
airport charges are lower.
In the case of the correlation with the countries area, it is also easy to understand that big
countries tend to have more airports and therefore their connectivity may be higher. Nevertheless, this
reason does not justify the correlation with this second indicator but not with the first one.
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
to
each
co
un
try
mai
n a
irp
ort
Area (thousand km2)
Figure 14 - Relation between the percentage of connections to each country main airport (2) and the country’s area, in the EU
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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4.2. Affordability
After gathering all the information needed, it was possible to produce Figure 15 and Table 21.
It is once again important to remember that this indicator was built according to the EU average and
therefore a negative affordability means less effort when compared with the average countries and a
positive affordability means a higher effort when compared with the average countries.
Table 21 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for EU
%Affordability
%Affordability
AT 30,45 IT 9,87
BE 82,75 LV -11,88
BG -6,32 LT -32,31
HR 43,57 LU -28,05
CY -74,03 MT -58,07
CZ 55,97 NL 6,80
DK -11,04 PL -4,73
EE 13,82 PT 57,69
FI -33,49 RO -24,38
FR 62,92 SK -64,39
DE -14,32 SI -2,71
EL -42,79 ES -33,76
HU 10,55 SE -53,03
IE -45,47 UK 104,51
Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Affordability”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified countries is
presented on Table 22 as well as the order of the regions on Table 23.
Figure 15 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the EU. Green means more Affordable (negative result) than red (positive result).
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 22 – Top countries with more and less affordability in the European Union
Higher Affordability Lower Affordability
Country Indicator result Country Indicator result
Cyprus -74,03% United Kingdom 104,51%
Slovakia -64,39% Belgium 82,75%
Malta -58,07% France 62,92%
Sweden -53,03% Portugal 57,69%
Ireland -45,47% Czech Republic 55,97%
Table 23 - Descending order of the Affordability of the European Regions
Descending order of the Affordability
Regions Classification
Northern Europe
South Europe 13
Eastern Europe 15
Western Europe 19
* A lower classification means smaller effort to the citizens therefore it is more beneficial
It is also important to remember that this outcome takes into account the maximum and minimum
prices for each connections (we will see in a while the consequence of this type of analysis). The analysis
of this table shows some interesting results. First of all it is interesting to see that Western Europe is the
region where more effort is put on citizens to travel, according to money available. This is the result of
two different things: first of all the distances between capitals in this part of Europe are quite smaller
than in the rest of Europe what reduces the variable costs but maintains the fixed costs, making the cost
per kilometer higher than in the other regions; secondly, because of the smaller distances in this region,
the train is fairly competitive in time and cost when compared with the plane, which means that a higher
effort does not mean less possibility to travel in this region, just the opposite.
It is also interesting to see that there is no correlation between any of the indicators chosen and
the results of this indicator. This shows that the prices are made according to different criteria that
depend of many variables. Nevertheless, it also shows that the prices are not made having in mind the
affordability of the citizens.
Another thing that was possible to see while gathering the data was that the countries with the
biggest hubs in Europe also had higher maximum prices than the other countries. The reason was easy
to find out: there are many airlines coming from faraway Europe that make two stops along the way (for
example Tokyo-Amsterdam-London); this makes the trip Amsterdam-London more expensive than in a
single flight from Amsterdam-London. Therefore it is interesting to see the results if we only take into
account the minimum average price, as Figure 16 and Table 24 shows.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 24 - Outcome of the Affordability Indicator for EU taking just into account the minimum prices
%Affordability %Affordability
Min+Max € Min € Variation Min+Max € Min € Variation
AT 30,45 77,51 47,06 IT 9,87 -36,98 -46,85
BE 82,75 121,06 38,31 LV -11,88 -9,08 2,80
BG -6,32 64,64 70,96 LT -32,31 7,49 39,80
HR 43,57 173,85 130,28 LU -28,05 16,47 44,52
CY -74,03 -73,19 0,84 MT -58,07 -52,10 5,97
CZ 55,97 -0,66 -56,63 NL 6,80 27,81 21,01
DK -11,04 -59,26 -48,22 PL -4,73 5,03 9,76
EE 13,82 28,31 14,49 PT 57,69 -41,95 -99,64
FI -33,49 -39,52 -6,03 RO -24,38 9,97 34,35
FR 62,92 -27,01 -89,93 SK -64,39 -19,42 44,97
DE -14,32 -49,93 -35,61 SI -2,71 17,05 19,76
EL -42,79 -42,53 0,26 ES -33,76 -22,48 11,28
HU 10,55 60,39 49,84 SE -53,03 -74,15 -21,12
IE -45,47 -61,55 -16,08 UK 104,51 -20,73 -125,24
The difference between the two Figures shows the importance and the impact of low cost
airlines in Europe. In the west part of Europe when we only take just into account the minimum prices
(where low cost airlines are leaders) we see a great improvement in citizens Affordability, but in the east
part of Europe there is almost no difference or, if there is, it is a difference for the worst. Therefore we
may conclude that there is a lack of low cost destinations in this part of Europe which is a consequence
of the low purchasing power from the citizens of those countries (in most cases). It is also important to
see that most of low cost airlines in Europe have their hubs in the Western European countries which
makes travelling to the east part of Europe more expensive and makes the variable cost increase (and
low cost airlines tend to get low prices by decreasing the fixed costs). Nevertheless there are some new
low cost airlines in this part of Europe, as Wizz Air in Hungary, what gives us the expectation that in a
near future this situation may change.
Figure 16 -Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the EU taking just into account the minimum prices. Green means more Affordable (negative result) than red (positive result).
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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4.3. Business Convenience
The distance between European capitals was calculated with the coordinates and applying
Equation 7 (results in Annex 4), the information about the GDP of each country in 2012 was taken from
official records on PortData.pt (Annex 5) and the information regarding the number of airlines from
openflights.org.
Applying the formula for this indicator, Table 25 and Figure 17 show the outcomes for this
indicator.
Table 25 - Business relative cost outcome, for the EU
Business
relative cost Difference with the EU average
Business
relative cost Difference with the EU average
AT 345 -72,56% IT 772 -38,65%
BE 465 -63,06% LV 1631 29,57%
BG 1358 7,90% LT 1961 55,80%
HR 1186 -5,79% LU 925 -26,52%
CY 3191 153,51% MT 1744 38,56%
CZ 537 -57,33% NL 453 -63,98%
DK 619 -50,86% PL 1024 -18,64%
EE 2838 125,40% PT 1320 4,84%
FI 1276 1,33% RO 1292 2,66%
FR 480 -61,90% SK 1902 51,09%
DE 521 -58,64% SI 1287 2,21%
EL 3706 194,39% ES 949 -24,60%
HU 922 -26,76% SE 1111 -11,73%
IE 1038 -17,52% UK 394 -68,74%
Average 1259
Figure 17 - Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for the EU. Green means better Business cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result).
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Business Convenience”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified
countries is presented on Table 26 as well as the order of the regions on Table 27.
Table 26 – Top countries with the best and the worst Business Convenience, in the EU
Best Business Convenience Worst Business Convenience
Country Indicator result Country Indicator result
Austria -72,56% Greece 194,39%
United Kingdom -68,74% Cyprus 153,51%
Netherlands -63,98% Estonia 125,40%
Belgium -63,06% Lithuania 55,80%
France -61,90% Slovakia 51,09%
Table 27 - Descending order of the Business Convenience of the European Regions
Descending order of the Business Convenience
Regions Classification
Western Europe 5
Northern Europe
Eastern Europe 16
Southern Europe 19
* A lower classification means a smaller distance to make business and therefore it is more beneficial
The analysis of this table shows results that were probably already expected: all the countries
with the best business convenience are Western Europe countries (except UK) and the five worst
business convenience countries are in Southern or Eastern Europe. These results would be already
expected due to the fact that the countries with a bigger GDP and the European larger hubs are in
Western Europe. What is interesting to see is that due to the fact that in Eastern Europe the distance
between countries is smaller the business convenience would be reasonably decent if the number of
airlines were not taken into account. Nevertheless the most important thing to take from this indicator is
that Southern Europe has almost four times worst business convenience than Western Europe.
In the case of Portugal, Spain, Malta and Cyprus the situation is even more worrying because
the countries in the eastern part of Europe have the possibility of making deals with other countries
which despite not being in the European Union, they are near. In the case of Malta and Cyprus, even if
they have close neighbours, being an island gives them higher transportation costs, and in the case of
Portugal and south and western Spain the problem is more noticeable because there are not too close
neighbours or if there are, there is the Mediterranean Sea to cross.
Also the analysis of this indicator shows correlations with three indicators: GDP per capita,
contribution of the countries to the EU GDP, compensation of the employees per capita (taking into
account PPP rates), resident population and foreign residents, as the Figures 18 to 22 and Table 28
show.
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Figure 20 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the compensation of employees per capita, in the EU
Figure 18 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution to the EU GDP
Austria
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0% 0% 1% 10% 100%
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nvi
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
EU
ave
rage
)
% EU GDP
Luxembourg
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0 20 40 60 80
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nvi
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
EU
ave
rage
)
GDP per capita (thousand PPS)
Figure 19 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the GDP per capita, in the EU
Luxembourg
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0 10 20 30 40
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nvi
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
EU
ave
rage
)
Compensation of employees per capita (thousand PPS)
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0 40 80
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nvi
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
EU
ave
rage
)
Resident Population (million pax)
Figure 21 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the resident population, in the EU
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Case of Study – European Union
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Table 28 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Business Convenience in the EU
Rio de Janeiro Galeão International Airport 17 109 590 26 922 394
63,55%
Rio de Janeiro Santos Dumont Airport 9 102 187 33,81%
RN Natal Augusto Severo International Airport 2 375 771 2 375 771 100,00%
RS Porto Alegre Salgado Filho International Airport 7 993 164 8 033 158 99,50%
RO Porto Velho Governador Jorge Teixeira International Airport
905 103 905 103 100,00%
RR Boa Vista Boa Vista International Airport 350 195 350 195 100,00%
SC Florianópolis Hercílio Luz International Airport 3 872 637
5 657 828 68,45%
Navegantes Navegantes International Airport 1 202 625 21,26%
SP
São Paulo Congonhas Airport 17 119 530 66 200 985
25,86%
São Paulo Guarulhos International Airport 36 678 452 55,40%
SE Aracaju Santa Maria International Airport 1 343 899 1 343 899 100,00%
TO Palmas Palmas Airport 778 245 778 245 100,00%
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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5.1.1. Availability
After processing the data found, it was possible to produce Annex 7, where all state destination
for each of the airport sample are shown. In Table 30 and Figure 23 the final numbers are shown.
Table 30 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for Brazil
Sta
te Percentage of
connections to each state main airport (2)
Airports
Percentage of connections from the
main airport to each one of the other states (1)
AC 19,23 Plácido de Castro - Rio Branco International Airport
30,77
AL 42,31 Zumbi dos Palmares International Airport 42,31
AP 23,08 Macapá International Airport 38,46
AM 69,23 Eduardo Gomes International Airport 69,23
BA 69,23 Dep. Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport
69,23
CE 76,92 Pinto Martins International Airport 73,08
DF 100,00 Brasília International Airport 100,00
ES 26,92 Eurico de Aguiar Sallles Airport 26,92
GO 57,69 Saint Genoveva Airport 46,15
MA 46,15 Marechal Cunha Machado International Airport 46,15
MT 42,31 Marechal Rondon International Airport 34,62
MS 38,46 Campo Grande International Airport 34,62
MG 80,77 Tancredo Neves International Airport 69,23
PA 61,54 Val de Cans International Airport 65,38
PB 26,92 Presidente Castro Pinto International Airport 19,23
Figure 23 - Outcome of Avaiability Indicator for Brazil (Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states (1) on the right and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) on the left). Green means better connections and Red worse connections.
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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PR 61,54 Afonso Pena International Airport 65,38
PE 65,38 Guararapes International Airport 69,23
PI 23,08 Senador Petrônio Portella Airport 23,08
RJ 88,46 Galeão and Santos Dumont Airports 84,62
RN 50,00 Augusto Severo International Airport 50,00
RS 61,54 Salgado Filho International Airport 50,00
RO 38,46 Governador Jorge Teixeira International Airport
46,15
RR 7,69 Boa Vista International Airport 19,23
SC 30,77 Hercílio Luz and Navegantes International Airports
30,77
SP 100,00 Congonhas and Guarulhos Airports 88,46
SE 34,62 Santa Maria International Airport 42,31
TO 30,77 Palmas Airport 38,46
Analysis of the outcomes
If we start by analysing the indicator “Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other states (1)” it is possible to see the top five groups of states with more and less
connections from their main airport to each one of the other states (Table 31) and to see the descending
order of the connectivity of the Brazil regions (Table 32). Brazil regions will be analysed as legally
established since 1969 (Figure 24).
According to this division five regions are considered:
North Region: Tocantins, Pará, Amapá, Roraima, Amazonas, Rondônia and Acre;
Central-West Region: Mato Grosso, Goiás, Distrito Federal and Mato Grosso do Sul;
Southeast Region: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo and Minas Gerais;
South Region: Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paraná.
Figure 24 - Geographical division of Brazil according to the law since 1969 (Source: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística)
North Region
Northeast Region
Central-West Region
Southeast Region
South Region
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Table 31 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from their main airport to the rest of the states, in Brazil
More Connectivity on indicator (1) Less Connectivity on indicator (1)
State Indicator (1) result State Indicator (1) result
Distrito Federal 100% Roraima
Paraíba 19,23%
São Paulo 88,46% Piauí 23,08%
Rio de Janeiro 84,62% Espírito Santo 26,92%
Ceará 73,08% Acre
Santa Catarina 30,77%
Amapá
Bahia
Minas Gerais
Pernambuco
69,23% Mato Grosso
Mato Grosso do Sul 34,62%
Table 32 - Descending order of the connectivity of the Brazil Regions according to indicator (1)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (1)
Regions Classification
Southeast Region 23
South Region 17
Northeast Region 14
Central-West Region 11
North Region 10
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more beneficial
Looking at Table 31 and 32, it is interesting to see that four out of the five regions have a place
on the Top 5 best connected and all five regions have a place on the worst connected. This reality shows
that in every region there is a state with more importance and therefore with better connections with the
rest of the states and, looking closer to the data, it appears to be a hub-and-spoke model due to the fact
that the airports from a same region seem to be better connected with each other than with the others.
Also we can find correlations of this indicator with the state percentage in the Brazilian GDP and
with the Inequality of income distribution. Figures 25 and 26 and Table 33 show the outcomes of the
study.
Table 33 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states, for Brazil
Percentage of connections from the main airport
to each one of the other states (1)
% Brazil GDP Inequality of Income Distribution
Pearson Correlation ρ 0,548 0,548
Spearman’s Correlation rs 0,663 Not significant
rcritical 0,524 Not significant
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Figure 25 clearly shows that states with higher contributions to the country’s GDP have larger
connections to the other states. Surprisingly, Figure 26 shows that the bigger the inequality of the income
distribution is, the bigger the connection to the other states and, even more unsuspected it is to see that
there is no correlation between the state’s contribution to the country’s GDP and the Inequality of Income
distribution (it is not in the richer states that the inequality is bigger).
In second place the analysis of the indicator “Percentage of connections to each state main
airport (2)” has the following Top 5 more and less connected groups (Table 35) and the following order
of regions (Table 34):
Table 34 - Descending order of the connectivity of Brazil Regions according to indicator (2)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (2)
Regions Classification
Southeast Region 25
South Region 18
Northeast Region
Central-west Region 14
North Region 8
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more beneficial
Distrito Federal
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0% 1% 10% 100%
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
sta
tes
% Brazilian GDP
Figure 25- Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states and the states percentage in Brazilian GDP
Distrito Federal
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0,40 0,45 0,50 0,55 0,60
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
co
un
trie
s
Inequality of income distribution
Figure 26 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states and the Inequality of Income distribution, in Brazil
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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Table 35 – Top states with more connectivity and less connectivity to main airports of the rest of Brazil states
More Connectivity on indicator (2) Less Connectivity on indicator (2)
State Indicator (2) result State Indicator (2) result
Distrito Federal
São Paulo 100% Roraima 7,69%
Rio de Janeiro 88,46% Acre 19,23%
Minas Gerais 80,77% Piauí
Amapá 23,08%
Ceará 76,92% Paraíba
Espírito Santo 26,92%
Amazonas
Bahia 69,23%
Tocantins
Santa Catarina 30,77%
Once again, looking at Table 34 and 35 it is possible to see that four out of five regions appear
in the Top 5 best and worst connected regions. It is interesting to notice that even if the South Region
does not have any state in the Top 5 best connected states, it lies in the second place in the overall
classification. The only thing to point out is that the North Region is in fact the worst connected region
not having a place in the best Top 5 and having four places on the worst Top 5.
Also in this case it is possible to find correlations of this indicator with the state percentage in
the Brazil GDP and with the state GDP per capita. Figures 27 and 28 and Table 36 show the outcomes
of the study.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0% 1% 10% 100%
%
% Brazil GDP
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one ofthe other states (1)
Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections from the main airport to eachone of the other states (1))
Linear (Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2))
Figure 27 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states percentage on Brazilian GDP
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Table 36 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections to each state main airport, for Brazil
Percentage of connections to each state
main airport (2)
% Brazil GDP GDP per capita
Pearson Correlation ρ 0,626 0,506
Spearman’s Correlation rs 0,789 Not significant
rcritical 0,524 Not significant
Regarding the relation with the state’s contribution to the country’s GDP, the correlation is similar
to the first indicator and shows that the bigger the importance of the state, the greater the connection to
the other states. In the case of the GDP per capita, the correlation is being pulled out by the result of
the Distrito Federal: if we look to the figure we will see that there is no special correlation between the
data.
5.1.2. Affordability
After gathering all the information
needed, it was possible to produce Figure
29 and Table 37. It is once again important
to remember that this indicator was built
according to the Brazil average and
therefore a negative affordability means less
effort when compared with the average
states and a positive affordability means a
greater effort when compared with the
average states.
Distrito Federal
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
to
each
sta
te m
ain
air
po
rt (
2)
GDP per capita (x103 R$)
Figure 28 - Relation between the Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states percentage on Brazilian GDP
Figure 29 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for Brazil. Green means more Affordable (negative result) than red (positive result).
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Table 37 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for Brazil
%Affordability
%Affordability
AC -8,62 PB 73,46 AL 39,95 PR -12,04 AP 45,31 PE -0,34 AM -50,32 PI 77,70 BA 17,77 RJ -34,32 CE 21,11 RN 4,00 DF -74,33 RS -54,75 ES -42,12 RO -36,53 GO 33,45 RR -30,10 MA 22,21 SC 32,04 MT -56,47 SP -24,18 MS -31,75 SE 34,70 MG 0,24 TO 50,63 PA 43,66
Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Affordability”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified states are
presented on Table 38 as well as the order of the regions on Table 39.
Table 38 – Top states with more and less Affordability in Brazil
Higher Affordability Lower Affordability
State Indicator result State Indicator result
Distrito Federal -74,33% Piaui 77,70%
Mato Grosso -56,47% Paraíba 73,46%
Rio Grande do Sul -54,75% Tocantins 50,62%
Amazonas -50,32% Amapá 45,31%
Espírito Santo -42,12% Pará 43,66%
Table 39 - Descending order of the Affordability of Brazil Regions
Descending order of the Affordability
Regions Classification
Central-West Region 5
Southeast Region 9
South Region 11
North Region 12
Northeast Region 18
* A lower classification means smaller effort to the citizens therefore it is more beneficial
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The analysis of these two tables shows some interesting results that differ from the results of
the European Union situation. In this case most of the states with less effort to travel are also states
where the selected Hubs are. Nevertheless, we can see in the overall analysis that the results are a
combination of different variables that have impact on this indicator:
- First of all we have again the impact of the fixed costs that make the Southeast Region, where are
three of the six Hubs, not to be in the first position of the ranking;
- Secondly it is important to notice that the Central-West Region is geographically in the middle of
the country and it is the region where the Federal District (Distrito Federal) is. The Federal District
is becoming one of the main Hubs of domestic flights what makes the trips to this destination
cheaper because most of the times it is not the final destination;
- Thirdly, we can see the impact of the purchasing power of the state’s citizens in this ranking: the
Northeast Region has the poorest states of Brazil, what makes the flights for these states more
interesting to the tourists than to the citizens themselves. Therefore the prices are higher and the
GDP per capita lower, which results in the worst place in the ranking.
Regarding what was said, a correlation is visible between the results and the GDP per capita.
Figure 30 and Table 40 show the outcome of the study.
Table 40 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Affordability in Brazil
Affordability
GDP per capita
Pearson Correlation ρ -0,663
Spearman’s Correlation rs -0,703
rcritical -0,524
As it is possible to see the correlation is moderately strong between the results of the indicator
and the GDP per capita, especially according to Spearman Correlation. In fact looking to the Figure, we
can see that the states with less GDP have a higher effort to travel than the states with higher GDP.
Distrito Federal
-100%
-60%
-20%
20%
60%
100%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Aff
ord
abili
ty (
wh
en c
om
par
ed w
ith
th
e av
erag
e o
f th
e st
ates
)
GDP per capita (thousand R$)
Figure 30 – Relation between the Affordability and GDP per capita, in Brazil
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5.1.3. Business Convenience
The distance between states capitals was calculated by the states capitals coordinates using
Equation 7 (results in Annex 8), the information about the GDP of each state in 2013 that was taken
from official records of Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Annex 9) and the information
regarding the number of airlines from openflights.org.
Applying the formula for this indicator, in Table 41 and Figure 31 the outcomes for this indicator
are shown.
Table 41 - Business relative cost outcome for Brazil
Business
relative cost Difference with Brazil’s average
Business
relative cost Difference with Brazil’s average
AC 5610 156,46% PB 2419 10,57%
AL 2034 -7,00% PR 1160 -46,96%
AP 4791 119,05% PE 1840 -15,88%
AM 2632 20,35% PI 2572 17,57%
BA 1259 -42,42% RJ 411 -81,20%
CE 2002 -8,47% RN 2181 -0,28%
DF 382 -82,53% RS 1621 -25,88%
ES 1362 -37,72% RO 4714 115,50%
GO 1318 -39,74% RR 5210 138,20%
MA 2322 6,16% SC 1488 -31,99%
MT 1749 -20,05% SP 304 -86,08%
MS 1672 -23,55% SE 2074 -5,18%
MG 712 -67,43% TO 2787 27,42%
PA 2429 11,07% Average 2187
Figure 31 -Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for Brazil. Green means better Business cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result).
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Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Business Convenience”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified
states is presented on Table 42 as well as the order of the regions on Table 43.
Table 42 – Top states with best and worst Business Convenience, in Brazil
Best Business Convenience Worst Business Convenience
States Indicator result States Indicator result
São Paulo -86,08% Acre 156,46%
Distrito Federal -82,53% Roraina 138,20%
Rio de Janeiro -81,20% Amapá 119,05%
Minas Gerais -67,43% Rondônia 115,50%
Paraná -46,96% Tocantins 27,42%
Table 43 - Descending order of the Business Convenience of Brazil Regions
Descending order of the Business Convenience
Regions Classification
Central-west Region 5
Southeast Region 9
South Region 11
North Region 12
Northeast Region 18
* A lower classification means a smaller distance to make business and therefore it is more beneficial
Looking to both tables is interesting to see that Southeast Region has three out of five of the
best business conveniente places on the Top 5, but is Central-west Region the one with the best
business convenience in Brazil. In the other side, all states in the Top 5 of the Wost Business
Convenience are of the North Region what explains the four times difference between the best rated
and worst rated regions.
For this indicator it is possible to find correlations with the percentage of contribution to the
Brazilian GDP and with the GDP per capita. Figures 32 and 33 and Table 44 show the outcomes of the
study.
São Paulo
-90%
-40%
10%
60%
110%
160%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nve
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
Bra
zil a
vera
ge)
% Brazil GDP
Figure 32 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution of the states to the Brazilian GDP
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Table 44 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Business Convenience in Brazil
Business Convenience
% Brazil GDP GDP per capita
Pearson Correlation ρ -0,555 Not significant
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs -0,898 -0,604
rcritical 0,524 0,524
The results from this indicator show that the higher the percentage of the state’s contribution to
the country’s GDP and the higher the GDP per capita, the better the Business Convenience is. The
reason for this result is that, in a country with such different contributions to the GDP (it spans from
0,17% in Roraima to 32,08% in São Paulo), distance tends not to have so much effect on the indicator
and the contribution makes the biggest difference. Also with more money, cames more business trips
what in Brazil has a big impact in domestic flights, increasing connections in the most rich states.
Distrito Federal-90%
-40%
10%
60%
110%
160%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Bu
sin
ess
Co
nve
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
Bra
zil a
vera
ge)
GDP per capita (thousand R$)
Figure 33 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the states GDP per capita, in Brazil
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5.2. USA
Applying the principle that a representative airport is the ones with at least 20% of the countries
air passengers, we can see in Table 45 the airports that will be used for the study. In Annex 10, all
American International Airports are given and their share of the country’s passengers, which served as
basis for the production of the next table.
Table 45 - List of USA airports with at least 20% of the state’s passengers
State City Airport Passengers State
Passengers %
AL Birmingham
Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport
1 335 215 2 334 798
57,19%
Huntsville Huntsville International Airport 505 541 21,65%
AK Anchorage Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport 2 325 030 3 967 193 58,61%
AZ Phoenix Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport 19 525 829 22 256 307 87,73%
AR Fayetteville Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport 558 218
1 729 450 32,28%
Little Rock Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport 1 055 608 61,04%
CA Los Angeles Los Angeles International Airport 32 427 115
89 040 919 36,42%
San Francisco San Francisco International Airport 21 706 567 24,38%
CO Denver Denver International Airport 25 497 348 26 926 648 94,69%
TN Memphis Memphis International Airport 4 930 935
10 399 776 47,41%
Nashville Nashville International Airport 4 432 527 42,62%
TX
Dallas-Fort Worth
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport 27 100 656 67 544 782
40,12%
Houston George Bush Intercontinental Airport 19 528 631 28,91%
UT Salt Lake City Salt Lake City International Airport 9 910 493 9 999 947 99,11%
VT Burlington Burlington International Airport 64 079 64 079 100,00%
VA
Washington, D.C.
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport 8 736 804 24 466 050
35,71%
Washington, D.C.
Washington Dulles International Airport 11 276 481 46,09%
WA Seattle/ Tacoma
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport 15 406 243 17 884 275 86,14%
WV Charleston Yeager Airport 264 818
414 317 63,92%
Huntington Tri-State Airport 115 263 27,82%
WI Milwaukee General Mitchell International Airport 3 861 333 5 336 419 72,36%
WY Jackson Jackson Hole Airport 305 566 505 243 60,48%
Source: FAA Airports, Calendar Year 2011 Enplanements for U.S. Airports, by State
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5.2.1. Availability
After processing the data found, it was possible to produce Annex 11, where all state destination
for each of the airport sample are shown. In Table 46 and Figure 34 the final numbers are shown.
Table 46 - Outcome of Availability Indicator for the USA
Sta
te Percentage of
connections to each state main airport (2)
Airports
Percentage of connections from the
main airport to each one of the other states (1)
AL 28,57 Birmingham-Shuttlesworh and Huntsville International Airports
22,45
AK 24,49 Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport 24,49
AZ 77,55 Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport 65,31
AR 28,57 Northwest Arkansas and Bill and Hillary Clinton Airports
30,61
CA 77,55 Los Angeles and San Francisco International Airports
79,59
CO 83,67 Denver International Airport 81,63
CT 30,61 Bradley International Airport 26,53
DE 0,00 Wilmington-Philadelphia Regional Airport 10,20
DC 0,00 NO AIRPORT 0,00
FL 81,63 Miami and Orlando International Airports 63,27
Figure 34 - Outcome of Avaiability Indicator for the USA (Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states (1) on top and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) down). Green means better connections and Red worse connections.
Alaska
Hawaii
Alaska
Hawaii
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GA 91,84 Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport 83,67
HI 28,57 Honolulu International Airport 28,57
ID 18,37 Boise Airport (Boise Air Terminal) (Gowen Field)
18,37
IL 95,92 Chicago O'Hare and Chicago Midway International Airports
95,92
IN 46,94 Indianapolis International Airport 36,73
IA 28,57 Des Moines International Airport 28,57
KS 20,41 Manhattan and Wichita Dwight Airports 18,37
KY 51,02 Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky and Louisville International Airports
51,02
LA 44,90 Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport
48,98
ME 18,37 Bangor and Portland International Airports 22,45
MD 73,47 Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport
69,39
MA 51,02 Gen. Edward Lawrence Logan International Airport
61,22
MI 79,59 Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport 87,76
MN 83,67 Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport (Wold–Chamberlain Field)
83,67
MS 14,29 Gulfport-Biloxi and Jackson-Evers International Airports
16,33
MO 57,14 Kansas City and Lambert-St. Louis International Airports
65,31
MT 18,37 Billings Logan, Bozeman Yellowstone and Missoula International Airports
26,53
NE 32,65 Eppley Airfield 32,65
NV 81,63 McCarran International Airport 85,71
NH 26,53 Manchester–Boston Regional Airport 26,53
NJ 69,39 Newark Liberty International Airport 69,39
NM 30,61 Albuquerque International Sunport 30,61
NY 79,59 John F. Kennedy and La Guardia Airports 73,47
NC 75,51 Charlotte/Douglas International Airport 69,39
ND 12,24 Bismarck and Hector Airports 12,24
OH 55,10 Cleveland-Hopkins and Port Columbus International Airports
60,42
OK 33,33 Will Rogers World and Tulsa Airports 32,65
OR 48,98 Portland International Airport 44,90
PA 67,35 Philadelphia International Airport 69,39
RI 26,53 Theodore Francis Green State Airport 32,65
SC 32,65 Charleston International Airport / Charleston AFB
22,45
SD 16,33 Rapid City and Sioux Falls Airports 18,37
TN 55,10 Memphis and Nashville Airports 69,39
TX 85,71 Dallas/Fort Worth and George Bush International Airports
81,63
UT 67,35 Salt Lake City International Airport 67,35
VT 16,33 Burlington International Airport 18,37
VA 77,55 Ronald Reagan Washington and Washington Dulles International Airports
77,55
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WA 63,27 Seattle–Tacoma International Airport 57,14
WV 12,24 Yeager and Tri-State Airports 20,41
WI 46,94 General Mitchell International Airport 51,02
WY 14,29 Jackson Hole Airport 12,24
Analysis of the outcomes
If we start by analysing the indicator “Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other states (1)” it is possible to see the top five groups of states with more connections from
this main airport to each one of the other states (Table 47) and to see the descending order of the
connectivity of the American regions (Table 48). The USA regions will be analysed as suggested by the
United States Census Bureau (Figure 35).
According to this division nine regions are considered:
New England: Connecticut, Maine, Massachussets, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont;
Mid-Atlantic: New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania
East North Central: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio and Wisconsin;
West North Central: Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota and South
Dakota;
South Atlantic: Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia,
Washington D.C. and West Virginia;
East South Central: Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi and Tennessee;
West South Central: Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas;
Mountain: Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming;
Pacific: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon and Washington.
Figure 35 - Geographical division of the USA according to the United States Census Bureau (Source: www.census.gov)
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Table 47 – Top countries with more connectivity and less connectivity from main airports to the rest of the states, in the USA
More Connectivity on indicator (1) Less Connectivity on indicator (1)
State Indicator (1) result State Indicator (1) result
Illinois 95,92% Delaware 10,20%
Michigan 87,76% North Dakota
Wyoming 12,24%
Nevada 85,71% Mississippi 16,33%
Georgia
Minnesota 83,67%
Idaho
Kansas
South Dakota
Vermont
18,37%
Colorado
Texas 81,63% West Virginia 20,41%
Table 48 - Descending order of the connectivity of the USA Regions according to indicator (1)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (1)
Regions Classification
Mid-Atlantic 39
South Atlantic 36
East North Central 31
Mountain 28
Pacific 26
West South Central 25
East South Central 20
West North Central 19
New England 16
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more beneficial
Looking at Table 47 it is possible to see that the majority of the states with more connectivity
are in the East North Central and Mountain regions (both with two positions). On the other hand the
majority of states with less connectivity are in the West North Central and in the South Atlantic regions
with three and two positions, respectively. Nevertheless these results are not that important when
compared with Table 48 results due to the fact that the regions with more connectivity do not have the
more connected states.
Also we can find correlations of this indicator with the state percentage in the USA GDP, with
the Total Resident Population and with the Foreign-born population. Figures 36 to 38 and Table 49 show
the outcomes of the study.
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Table 49 - Significant Correlation Factors for Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states, for the USA
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each
one of the other states (1)
% USA GDP Resident
Population
Foreign-born
Population (%)
Pearson Correlation ρ 0,598 0,621 Not significant
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs 0,793 0,801 0,529
rcritical 0,387 0,387 0,387
As it is possible to see in Figure 36, there is in fact a strong correlation between the indicator
(1) and the percentage of each state in the US GDP. Although this correlation is better seen in a
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0% 1% 10% 100%
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
sta
tes
% USA GDP
Figure 36 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states and the states percentage in USA GDP
California
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0 10 20 30 40 50
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
sta
tes
Resident Population (million)
Figure 37 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other countries and the Resident Population, in the USA
California
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Per
cen
tage
of
con
nec
tio
ns
fro
m t
he
mai
n a
irp
ort
to
eac
h
on
e o
f th
e o
ther
co
un
trie
s
Foreign-born Population (%)
Figure 38 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states and the foreign-born Population (%), in the USA
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logarithmic scale, it is possible to see the Pearson correlation represented by the tendency line. As it is
clear, a low contribution for the US GDP is normally related with less connectivity according to this
indicator and, on the other hand, high contributions to the US GDP are related with high levels of
connectivity.
Secondly, the connectivity is also related to the Resident Population and, although this is visible
in the Pearson Correlation, the relation is also very clear in the Spearman’s correlation with high
numbers in the resident population corresponding to high levels of connectivity. Finally, although there
is a small correlation between Foreign-born population and the connectivity according to this indicator,
this correlation is not as strong as the two before and it is not obvious in Figure 38.
In second place the analysis of the indicator “Percentage of connections to each state main
airport (2)” has the following Top 5 more and less connected groups (Table 50) and the following order
of regions (Table 51).
Table 50 – Top states with more connectivity and less connectivity to main airports of the rest of USA states
More Connectivity on indicator (2) Less Connectivity on indicator (2)
State Indicator (2) result State Indicator (2) result
Illinois 95,92% Delaware 0,00%
Georgia 91,84% North Dakota
West Virginia 12,24%
Texas 85,71 Mississippi
Wyoming 14,29%
Colorado
Minnesota 83,67%
South Dakota
Vermont 16,33%
Florida
Nevada 81,63%
Idaho
Maine
Montana
18,37%
Table 51 - Descending order of the connectivity of the USA Regions according to indicator (2)
Descending order of the connectivity according to indicator (2)
Regions Classification
South Atlantic 39
Mid-Atlantic 37
East North Central 32
Mountain
Pacific 28
West South Central 25
East South Central 24
West North Central 18
New England 15
* A higher classification means more connectivity and therefore it is more beneficial
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While looking at Table 50 and 51 it is possible to see that there are two regions with states in
opposite situations: the South Atlantic and the Mountain regions both have two positions on the Top 5
of the best connected but also have two and three, respectively, on the Top 5 of the less connected.
Also it is possible to see that the New England region is worse connected than the other regions.
Also in this case it is possible to find correlations of this indicator with the state percentage in
the USA GDP, with the Total Resident Population and with the Foreign-born population. Figures 39 to
41 and Table 52 show the outcomes of the study.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
10% 100%
%
% USA GDP
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the otherstates (1)
Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one ofthe other states (1))
Linear (Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2))
Figure 39 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states percentage on USA GDP
Figure 40 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states resident population, in the USA
0,00%
20,00%
40,00%
60,00%
80,00%
100,00%
120,00%
140,00%
0 10 20 30 40 50
%
Resident Population (million)
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the otherstates (1)
Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one ofthe other states (1))
Linear (Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2))
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Table 52 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states, for the USA
Percentage of connections to each state main airport
(2)
% US GDP Resident
Population
Foreign-born
Residents
Pearson Correlation ρ 0,619 0,647 0,528
Spearman’s Correlation rs 0,850 0,848 0,578
rcritical 0,387 0,387 0,387
As it is possible to see, the distribution of the data for this indicator is really similar to the first
one, and no more analysis is needed. As a result we can assume that this indicator is not as determinant
for the USA case as it was for the EU, as it was already seen.
5.2.2. Affordability
After gathering all the information needed, it was possible to produce Table 53 and Figure 42.
It is once again important to remember that this indicator was built according to the USA average and
therefore a negative affordability means less effort when compared with the average states and a
positive affordability means a bigger effort when compared with the average states.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
%
Foreign Residents
Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the otherstates (1)
Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2)
Linear (Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2))
Figure 41 - Relation between the Percentage of connections from the main airport to each one of the other states (1) and Percentage of connections to each state main airport (2) and the states foreign-born residents (%), in the USA
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Table 53 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the USA
%Affordability
%Affordability
AL 96,21 MT 53,69 AK -57,06 NE -6,30 AZ -48,84 NV -18,98 AR 46,36 NH -45,03 CA -74,04 NJ -44,26 CO -51,85 NM 16,84 CT -51,41 NY -44,32 DE No Flights from
the selected Hubs
NC 10,27 DC ND -4,69 FL -26,62 OH -3,43 GA -26,56 OK -17,21 HI -34,84 OR -57,46 ID 60,26 PA -5,70 IL -40,13 RI -41,19 IN 44,48 SC 87,10 IA 46,71 SD 45,84 KS 45,27 TN 54,44 KY 75,26 TX -51,38 LA -26,09 UT -26,87 ME 25,38 VT 46,00 MD -36,48 VA -24,51 MA -18,14 WA -62,63 MI 12,85 WV 197,40 MN -36,08 WI -4,95 MS 124,52 WY 952,56 MO -0,32
Figure 42 - Outcome of Affordability Indicator for the USA. Green means more Affordable (negative result) than red (positive result)
Alaska
Hawaii
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Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Affordability”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified states is
presented on Table 54 as well as the order of the regions on Table 55.
Table 54 – Top states with more and less Affordability in the USA
Higher Affordability Lower Affordability
State Indicator result State Indicator result
California -74,04% Wyoming 952,56%
Washington -62,63% West Virginia 197,40%
Oregon -57,46% Mississippi 124,52%
Alaska -57,06% Alabama 96,21%
Colorado -51,85% South Carolina 87,10%
Table 55 - Descending order of the Affordability of the USA Regions
Descending order of the Affordability
Regions Classification
Pacific 3
Mid-Atlantic 11
New England 18
South Atlantic 21
West South Central 22
East North Central
Mountain 29
West North Central 30
East South Central 47
* A lower classification means smaller effort to the citizens therefore it is more beneficial
First of all it is important to underline two aspects: firstly District Columbia and Delaware do not
have results for this analysis – the District of Columbia does not have airports and the Delaware main
Airport does not have flights to the selected Hubs; secondly, Wyoming only has connections to one of
the selected Hubs (Denver International Airport, Colorado) which is only at eight-hour-drive distance
from the Wyoming main airport, therefore, the result is not representative for the analysis.
Regarding Table 54 and 55, we can notice that the regions with less effort are the ones next to
the Pacific and the Atlantic, having the first four places in the Regions Top. It is also possible to see that
(excluding Wyoming) all bottom five states are in the East South Central and South Atlantic Regions.
The reason why the South Atlantic Region is not in the bottom of the regions ranking is because it has
other States that even if they are not on the Top Higher Affordability they have fairly good affordability.
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When we look to the results of the correlation with the selected indicators, a relation is visible
between the results and the contribution to the USA GDP, with the compensation of employees, with
the Foreign Born Population and with the GDP per capita. Figures 43 to 46 and Table 56 show the
outcome of the study.
California
West Virginia
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Aff
ord
abili
ty (
com
par
ed w
ith
th
e U
SA
Ave
rage
)
% USA GDP
District of Columbia
West Virginia
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
30 40 50 60 70 80
Aff
ord
abili
ty (
com
par
ed w
ith
th
e U
SA
Ave
rage
)
Compensation of employees per capita (thousand PPS)
California
West Virginia
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Aff
ord
abili
ty (
com
par
ed w
ith
th
e U
SA
Ave
rage
)
Foreign-born Population (%)
Figure 43 - Relation between the Affordability and the states contribution for the USA GDP
Figure 44 - Relation between the Affordability and the compensation of employees per capita, in the USA
Figure 45 - Relation between the Affordability and the Foreign-born Population, in the USA
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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Table 56 - Significant Correlation Factors for Affordability indicator
Affordability
% USA
GDP
Compensation of
the employees per
capita
Foreign-born
Population (%)
GDP per
capita
Pearson
Correlation ρ
Not
significant Not significant Not significant Not significant
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs -0,449 -0,732 0,681 -0,579
rcritical 0,387 0,387 0,387 0,387
As it is possible to see on Figure 43 and Table 56, although there is a correlation with the state’s
contribution to the USA GDP, it is not significant or even noticeable. On the other hand we can see a
strong correlation with the other indicators, where states with a higher compensation of the employees
per capita, higher foreign born population and higher GDP per capita also have a higher affordability.
During this analysis it is possible to see that all the results tend to benefit people who live near
the east and west coast, regarding the location of the selected Hubs and the higher affordabilities. This
is also compatible with the states where more people live and where the GDP per capita is higher. In
other words, the USA live a situation where most part of the flights tend to go from one cost to the other,
what means higher number of passengers and also longer distances: these two points make the prices
go down because of competition between flight companies and also because of the reduced impact of
fixed costs when compared with variable costs. On the other hand, the states inland tend to have lower
affordability because of the balance of the ticket prices (that are higher because of lower competition
and bigger impacts of the fixed costs) and the state’s GDP (that is lower than in the east and west coast
states).
5.2.3. Business Convenience
The distance between states capitals was calculated by the states capitals coordinates using
Equation 7 (results in Annex 12, the information about the GDP of each state in 2013 which was taken
District of Columbia
West Virginia
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
0 50 100 150 200
Aff
ord
abili
ty (
com
par
ed w
ith
th
e U
SA
Ave
rage
)
GDP per capita (thousand $)
Figure 46 - Relation between the Affordability and the GDP per capita, in the USA
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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from official records of the U.S. Department of Commerce (Annex 13) and the information regarding the
number of airlines from openflights.org. Applying the formula for this indicator, on Table 57 and Figure
47 the outcomes for this indicator are shown.
Table 57 - Business relative cost outcome for USA
Business
relative cost Difference with
the USA average
Business
relative cost Difference with
the USA average
AL 2400 15,28% MT 4180 100,79%
AK 6473 210,98% NE 2053 -1,38%
AZ 1123 -46,03% NV 1390 -33,24%
AR 1609 -22,69% NH 3436 65,05%
CA 1065 -48,82% NJ 1101 -47,11%
CO 962 -66,75% NM 2536 21,84%
CT 1887 -9,37% NY 723 -65,28%
DE 3170 52,30% NC 915 -56,05%
DC No Airports ND 3145 51,10%
FL 841 -59,59% OH 1068 -48,67%
GA 305 -85,37% OK 1929 -7,33%
HI 8649 315,50% OR 2719 30,60%
ID 4268 105,03% PA 819 -60,65%
IL 377 -81,87% RI 3351 60,97%
IN 1074 -48,40% SC 2448 17,58%
IA 2143 2,97% SD 2971 42,73%
KS 2303 10,66% TN 1031 -50,47%
KY 1371 -34,12% TX 636 -69,46%
LA 1120 -46,18% UT 1684 -19,09%
ME 4052 94,66% VT 3595 72,70%
MD 1022 -50,91% VA 803 -61,40%
MA 1063 -48,91% WA 2100 0,87%
MI 784 -62,32% WV 2818 35,36%
MN 751 -63,94% WI 1099 -47,18%
MS 2745 31,88% WY 3498 68,03%
MO 743 -64,32% Average 2082
Figure 47 - Outcome of the Business Convenience indicator for the USA. Green means better Business cost (negative result) and red worse (positive result).
Alaska
Hawaii
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Brazil and USA – Comparative Analysis
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Analysis of the outcomes
In the case of the indicator “Business Convenience”, the Top 5 of the best and worst classified
states is presented on Table 58 as well as the order of the regions on Table 59.
Table 58 – Top states with more and less business convenience, in the USA
Best Business Convenience Worst Business Convenience
States Indicator result States Indicator result
Georgia -85,37% Hawaii 315,50%
Illinois -81,87% Alaska 210,98%
Texas -69,46% Idaho 105,03%
Colorado -66,75% Montana 100,79%
New York -65,28% Maine 94,66%
Table 59 - Descending order of the business convenience, in the USA
Descending order of the Business Convenience
Regions Classification
Mid-Atlantic 10
South Atlantic 13
East North Central 17
West South Central 23
East South Central 29
Mountain 31
West North Central 32
Pacific 37
New England 44
* A lower classification means a smaller distance to make business and therefore it is more beneficial
As it is possible to see on Table 58 and corroborated by Table 59, the states with higher
business cost are in the New England and in the Pacific Region and the ones with lower business cost
are in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic regions. In fact, the business cost for the New England region
is more than four times higher than the Mid-Atlantic region, and even if we take into account that the
New England is a small region and that Pacific region has Alaska and Hawaii that do not share their
borders with other states, the West North Central region also has more than three times the business
cost than the Mid Atlantic region. Nevertheless is important to say that these differences are smaller
than the one analysed in EU and Brazil cases.
For this indicator it is possible to find correlations with the contribution to the USA GDP, with the
Inequality of income distribution and with the resident population. Figures 48 to 50 and Table 60 show
the outcomes of the study.
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Table 60 - Significant Correlation Factors for the Business Convenience in the USA
Business Convenience
% USA GDP Inequality of
Income Distribution
Resident
Population
Pearson Correlation ρ Not Significant Not Significant Not Significant
Spearman’s
Correlation
rs -0,881 -0,498 -0,860
rcritical 0,387 0,387 0,387
Figure 48 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the contribution of each state to the USA GDP
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
250%
300%
0% 1% 10% 100%Bu
sin
ess
Co
nve
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
USA
ave
rage
)
% USA GDP
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
250%
300%
0,40 0,42 0,44 0,46 0,48 0,50 0,52 0,54Bu
sin
ess
Co
nve
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
USA
ave
rage
)
Inequality of income distribution
Figure 49 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the Inequality of income distribution, in the USA
-100%
-50%
0%
50%
100%
150%
200%
250%
300%
0 10 20 30 40Bu
sin
ess
Co
nve
nie
nce
(d
iffe
ren
ce w
ith
USA
ave
rage
)
Resident Population (million pax)
Figure 50 - Relation between the Business Convenience and the Resident Population, in the USA
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The analysis of Table 60, shows a clear correlation between this indicator and the contribution
to the USA GDP and the resident population. Nevertheless we can see that the states with higher
contribution to the USA GDP are also the ones with the larger population (correlation of 0,975). Once
again we can see the importance of the economic factors in this indicator.
What is strange to see is that the business convenience improves for states with more inequality
in income distribution. One possible explanation is that in states with higher contributions to the USA
GDP there is a large upper-high class society what makes the gap between poor and rich to get bigger
and therefore this correlation with the inequality in income distribution. Nevertheless it would be
expected this to happen in Brazil and not in the USA, and therefore we could not find a reasonably
explanation for this correlation.
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6. Conclusion: Global analysis and Suggestions
After the hard analysis of the results of the study, it is important to consolidate the outcomes
and to face the real challenges that these outcomes present. Therefore, a Global Analysis will be made
and some Policy Suggestions will be shared.
6.1. Global analysis
Table 61 shows the outcomes of the correlation study for the EU, the USA and Brazil.
As it was stated in the beginning of this work, the idea was to compare the situation in the EU,
the USA and Brazil in order to find similarities and differences and to search for policy approaches that
can be applied in the EU in order to increase the cohesion of the European territory. Therefore, it is
important to analyse these similarities and results for each one of the indicators.
Availability
When we look to the first indicator that gives us the percentage of connections from the main
airport to each one of the other states/countries it is clear to see that this percentage gets higher when
the country has a higher GDP and a large population. Also, we can see that this percentage is not really
positively influenced by tourism, which (in the case of the EU) means that countries from Northern and
Western Europe which have a lower impact of Tourism on the GDP have higher connectivity.
• EU, USA, BR: ↑ % GDP
• EU, USA: ↑Resident Population
• EU: ↓ % Tourism GDP
• BR: ↑ Gini Coeficient
Improvement in Percentage of connections from the main airport
to each one of the other countries/states(1)
• EU, USA, BR: ↑ % GDP
• EU, USA: ↑Resident Population
• EU, USA: ↑Foreign-born Population
• EU: ↑ Area
• BR: ↑ GDP per capita
Improvement in Percentage of connections to each country/state
main airport (2)
•BR, USA: ↑ GDP per capita
•USA: ↑ % GDP
•USA: ↑ Compensation of employees
•USA: ↑ Foreign-born Population
Improvement in Affordability
• EU, USA, BR: ↑ % GDP
• EU, BR: ↑ GDP per capita
• EU, USA: ↑ Resident Population
• EU: ↑ Compensation of the employees
• USA: ↑ Inequality in income distribution
• EU: ↑ Foreign Resident Population
Improvement in Business Convenience
Table 61 - Outcomes of the correlation study for the EU, the USA and BR
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We also see that in Brazil the connectivity tends to increase with the inequality of income
distribution. This is not something we can compare with the developed countries situation due to the
fact that Brazil has a large low social class that can not afford to travel by airplane (it uses the bus), and
therefore the airplane passengers (and the connectivity) increase with the increase of a powerful upper
class.
From these outcomes we can say that:
Population and GDP have a positive impact on the connectivity;
Tourism is not necessarily a way to increase connectivity; business and wealth have a greater
impact on it.
When we look to the second part of the indicator that shows the connections to each
country/state main airport, two different correlations appear and we can see that this indicator increases
with a larger foreign born population and larger countries/states areas. This correlation is even stronger
in Europe where we can see that the difference between the minimum and maximum flight prices vary
a lot more than in the USA, for example. Therefore we can assume two things: that in Europe the flight
prices tend to vary more due to low cost airlines (in the EU the cost per kilometre decreases 52% if we
take only into account the minimum prices, while in Brazil decreases 30% and in the USA decreases
19%); and low cost airlines tend to use secondary airports what increases the country connectivity
globally, instead of the connectivity through the main airports.
From these outcomes we can say that:
Low cost airlines have a great importance in the connectivity of a country;
When the country/state area increases, there are more secondary airports and therefore more
possibilities of connections with reduced prices to other countries.
Affordability
First of all it is interesting to see that there is no correlation between the flight prices and the
GDP or the GDP per capita in Europe, which does not happen in Brazil and the USA. This obviously
means that there is not the concern from the airlines to make prices affordable for citizens who pretend
to travel or it can mean that the airlines already make the prices as low as possible even if we are talking
about a rich or a poor country.
Nevertheless, due to the fact that airlines have a profit margin, they could make some
adjustments bearing in mind that they should reduce it (and consequently reduce the prices) creating
some relation with the countries purchasing power.
That way, it is possible to say that:
Higher GDP, GDP per capita and Compensation of employees make it more affordable for citizens
to travel and therefore, prices should be established according to people’s purchasing power.
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Business Convenience
The result of the Top 5 regions shows two completely different situations. In the EU the
geographical centre of the union has lower business costs because the most important markets are
located there. In the USA there is not a single economic center, because in both coasts there is important
markets; therefore the geographical center of the country should be also the one with the best business
convenience due to the proximity to both coasts. Nevertheless we see the importance of the number of
airlines operating in that states what brings a mix of colors in the USA map of Business Convenience.
This brings a new look to what really means pheripherality and what the consequences of it are.
In the case of this indicator the correlations were really different between the studied cases, but
in all three or at least two out of three we can see important correlations with economic indicators
(contribution to the countries/union GDP and GDP per capita) and with the resident population. Once
again we can say that economic factors have special importance in this matters.
Looking to the outcomes of this indicator it is possible to say that:
The business cost of travelling is greatly influenced by many indicators but the most important is to
see the relation between these indicators and GDP per capita and GDP. Therefore the only way to
make business travel more affordable is through a more equitable economic and financial
distribution between all countries.
6.2. Policy Suggestions
First of all, as we have already seen, most of the asymmetries that we face can and would be
solved if the territory was homogenous, this means, if the impact of each territory in the economy of the
European Union was the same, if each country had the same population, and so on. Nevertheless we
know that if in some cases nothing can be done (it is impossible to fit the population of Germany in the
island of Malta), other things can be improved with other types of policies that can make a difference in
a far future. Anyway, this future is too far away or probably will never be reached which means that in
both cases policies must be addressed to improve citizens “travelling life”.
Even if some myths were destroyed, as Portugal being “on the edge” of Europe it could be a
reason for remoteness per se (just by comparing the situation in Europe to the situation in the USA or
even Brazil, where Florida, Washington and Porto Alegre, for example, are not, in terms of air
transportion, considered remote destinations), some other “myths” are real, as being far from mainland
to be a disadvantage, as we saw with Hawaii, Alaska, Malta or Cyprus.
At this point it is important to remember that this study intends to give some ideas as to how the
European Union authorities should deal with this situation and improve the cohesion inside Europe. In
some way the idea is to extrapolate the Public Service Obligations in Air Transportation from countries
to the Union, and to give that responsibility to the European authorities as PSO is a responsibility of the
national governments. In fact this is not a new idea, as we have already seen, as the USA have already
done the Essential Air Service and the Alternative Essential Air Service. Nevertheless, it is important to
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reinforce that the main idea is to evaluate the situation in Europe, as we have done so far, and to shed
some light on some policies that can be addressed.
Another thing that is important to remember is that the European Authorities have limited power
inside the EU to establish new strategies to fix the problems that were found. Therefore some of the
suggestions could be halted until the powers of the European Parliament or the European Commission
are reinforced. As an example, we can say that tax benefits or airport tax benefits could be an idea, but
it would have a difficult application due to the fact that the European authorities can not collect taxes.
Trans-European Transport Network + Air Transportation
The current construction of the Trans-European Transport Network (Figure 51) assures the
connection of main cities, ports and logistics and economic points of interest by train, road and sea
transportation. This idea is accurate if we take into account only the connection between neighbouring
member states or between regions of Europe where countries are small enough to bring several of them
together by this means of transportation.
Nevertheless, it is equally important to ensure that the connection of the most peripheral
countries (such as Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Greece, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Finland, Sweden, the United Kingdom and Ireland) is made without the need of travelling to
central Europe. Therefore some political decisions should be made to ensure that these connections
are taken into account, in particular, through air transportation.
Geographical parameters in the distribution of Community Assistance
Figure 51- Trans-European Transport Network (Source: European Comission)
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The distribution of community money support should take into account that the geographical
position of each European country has an impact on their economy. This impact can be measured by
two different ways:
the proximity to the economic core of Europe;
and the position as an intermediary country in the economic route of peripheral countries.
The first point is somehow already taken into account in the contributions to the EU budget. For
those who do not know, the EU budget receives contributions from Traditional Own Resources (which
consists of duties that are charged on imports of products coming from a non-EU state – 12%), resources
based on Value Added Tax (a uniform percentage rate that is applied to each member state’s
harmonized VAT taxes – 11%) and resources based on Gross National Income (as a uniform rate
applied to the GNI of each Member state – 76%). This way “revenue flows into the budget in a way
which is roughly proportionate to the economic prosperity of the Member States” (European Comission,
2010).
For the second point however, some member states are being favoured and there is no
redistribution procedures for this situation. For example, when a truck departures from Lisbon to
Germany to make some business, there are some costs associated with the payment of roadways in
countries like Spain and France. Therefore these two countries are being beneficiated with their
geographical position at the expense of a peripheral country, Portugal. The same can be applied in the
opposite way, when Spain brings cargo to go overseas in Sines Port, in Portugal. Similar examples
could be applied in air transportation.
Therefore, it would be interesting to think of a mechanism that would improve equality, by
decreasing the benefits and losses of the member states because of their geographical position.
Public Service Obligation in Air Transportation by the EU and/or Route Development Funds
The same way as countries have public service obligations to increase cohesion inside their
territories, due to different possible reasons, the EU should have the same.
Normally, a Public Service Obligation appears when there is no interest from private companies
to provide a service because there is no interesting revenue from this service. Nevertheless, this
ideology should be improved and changed from “no service” to “no quality service” (being quality the
price, the quality of the service or the frequency of the service).
In Portugal, the national government has created rules that established the maximum value a
flight from Portugal mainland to Madeira or Azores can cost (134 € and 119 €, respectively). This way,
Portugal ensured that national citizens from these islands can connect with the mainland ensuring
national cohesion. A similar strategy could be created in the EU, with EC establising a maximum price
per route that nationals from each country could pay to travel. This would be a great way not only to
improve cohesion in Europe but also to adress some of the questions that were analysed in this study:
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The Affordability indicator would improve due to the fact that ticket prices would decrease for some
selected countries with less GDP and far from inland;
By establishing the necessary routes to improve the availability of flights and by subsidising these
routes, the availability indicator would improve;
Business Convenience, would improve due to the fact that the number of routes and airlines
operating on them would improve and more flights and passengers would mean also improvements
on the GDP.
Nevertheless is important to say that is not indented to transfer the air transportation business
risk from the hands of the private airlines and putted in the hands of the European Authorities. What is
suggested is a careful analysis to find possible situations where the creation of Route Development
Funds would be necessarily to create demand, and therefore in a short period of time give the business
risk back to private airlines, and in possible situations where the demand will never be enough and there
is actually the need of increasing cohesion and connectivity between EU territories by subsidising these
routes
6.3. Case Study Evaluation
After finalising this case study it is important to evaluate and find possibilities of improvement.
During the elaboration of this study, the gathering of information was a difficult task, due to the fact that
most of the time the information was not easily available or the source was not official. Therefore this
work could be improved by the use of more accurate information if it was available.
Also, the information used is always changing and there is the possibility that some of the
information is not accurate during the time of the reading of this work. Therefore in this work we tried to
give all the information needed to repeat the analysis in the future if someone desires to see the evolution
of the situation. Nevertheless it is important to ensure that everything possible was done to guarantee
the trust in the data and in the results of the study.
In the case of the Affordability indicator, it would be interesting to analyse the results for all pairs
of countries in the EU because the price connections between smaller countries would increase due to
the decrease of the low cost flights between these destinations and consequently the affordability
indicator would become worse. Nevertheless it was impossible to make this kind of analysis due to the
huge amount of information that would be needed and, once again, cannot be found easily.
Probably it would be possible to create other indicators to analyse the same as it was proposed
in this work, but the reality is that the information needed to evaluate each one of the suggested
indicators is massive and to create and evaluate more indicators would make this project endless.
Nevertheless, we encourage other people to create and evaluate new indicators and try to find new
correlations of the current situation with other economical, financial and social indicators.
6.4. Concluding Remarks
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Equity is often related to solidarity being therefore a major aspect of European Union ideology.
Nevertheless we face a situation nowadays where equity is not addressed when analysing and
considering different projects. In fact only Germany considers equity between regions in their projects
but not in every aspect of the word or even in all fields of application.
The European Comission has created a work team to address this problem and to increase the
awareness of the subject, hoping with this to create new studies that may in the future become the new
European rules that will try to improve the equity between member states.
Nevertheless, as we saw, if equity in transportation is a non-subject most of the times in the EU,
equity in air transportation is even more neglected. When the EC presents the Trans-European
Transport Network, almost no words are related with Air transportation or in increasing connectivity
between countries far from each other and far from Western Europe. Therefore I would say that there is
great opportunity for future works in this area.
As we have seen many of the problems that we face nowadays in the European Union in the
field of equity in air transportation (as it is addressed in this study) can and would be majorly corrected
just by decreasing the asymmetries between European countries in what concerns economical matters.
Nevertheless other problems would not be solved, as the importance of the population for this subject.
Several outcomes were taken from this study and it is based on them that the policy suggestions
were made. First of all, it is important to understand that being on the periphery of Europe is not per se
a disadvantage in what concerns connectivity. As it was seen in Brazil and the United States of America,
if a peripheral country/state has economical importance its connection will be assured.
Secondly it is of the utter importance to underline the significance of low cost airlines in the EU.
They ensure a better, more frequent and more affordable connection between European countries
consequently ensuring the cohesion between member states.
Thirdly, although tourism can improve the economy of a country, it is not that important in what
concerns improving their equity in transportation. Tourism in Southern European countries tend to be
majorly seasonal which does not contribute to a long standing equity in air transportation.
Finally, we see that nowadays there are already some programmes that try to correct these
assymetries between states. In fact an implementation in the EU of a service similar to PSO would
improve several of the indicators of this study. These Public Service Obligations should be presented in
two ways: one which ensures the connection between member states that nowadays are not connected
and in which the connections would greatly improve the cohesion in the EU territory and also expand
national economies; and another where it establishes maximum prices that would be subsidised by the
European Union in order to increase cohesion, namely with island-member-states (Cyprus and Malta,
for example) and with more peripheral countries (Portugal, Greece, Estonia, Latvia and others).
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As it is obvious, this study does not intend to make any extrapolation between the relation of
each country with the EU and the relation of each country with the rest of the world. Each country should
take advantage of their geographical, cultural, political and economical situation to improve their
connection with all the other countries of the World, not forgetting that these connections with other parts
of the world can, and will, improve their connection inside the EU.
6.5. Further Research
In the end of this study it is easy to say that a lot more work can be done on this subject. First
of all because, as we saw, the question of equity in transportation is not well studied yet and when
applied to air transportation between countries was in fact never addressed.
Projects submitted to the European Commission for approval and allocation of EU funds, are
submitted to a series of evaluation according to certain parameters. Nevertheless, improvements in the
equity between member states or between regions are not, for now, subject to evaluation. Nevertheless
the EU has given the first steps by creating a work team (TEACOST) to get awareness on this subject
with the objective of increasing the number of studies in the area and, in the future, creating parameters
that may give Equity the right importance. Therefore, the creation of new indicators and the analysis of
the impact of projects in decreasing asymmetries in the field of transportation is a new and unexplored
field for studies.
Also, in the author’s opinion, there is a lot more space for analysis for an indicator like
Affordability. First, because in this study we did not study all the pairs of connections inside the European
Union and also because by collecting information about the prices it would be possible to understand a
lot about their dynamic. Also, by changing the construction of the indicator, it may be possible to get
new approaches to the problem and therefore to find new possibilities of improvement.
Besides giving importance to equity in the evaluation of new projects, it is also important to think
where the EU authorities may have to intervene to create good conditions for the private initiatives to
exist and to increase the connection between European countries. If it is true that National Governments
have the right to create Public Service Obligations, there is no reason for the EU not to have the right of
using the same strategy in a trans-national situation.
Consequently, there is a lot of space for improvement of public strategies in this field and the
idea of European Public Service Obligation should be considered. A study like this may identify possible
routes and possible criteria to the application of such services. A study like this could lead to a change
in some policies in the EU and hopefully a more connected Europe.
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(2015, January 5). Retrieved from Danmarks Statistik: http://www.dst.dk/en.aspx
(2015, January 5). Retrieved from EUROCONTROL: https://www.eurocontrol.int/
(2015, January 5). Retrieved from Hungarian Central Statistical Office: https://www.ksh.hu/?lang=en
(2015, January 5). Retrieved from Swedavia, Swedish Airports: http://www.swedavia.com/
(2015, March 20). Retrieved from United States Census Bureau: www.census.gov
(2015, January 5). Retrieved from Urzad Lotnictwa Cywilnego: http://www.ulc.gov.pl/en
(2015, January 2). Retrieved from US Department of Transportation Environmental Justice:
http://www.dotcr.ost.dot.gov/asp/ej.asp
Air Transport. (2015, January 5). Retrieved from Department of Civil Aviation, Republic of Cyprus:
West Bridgford East Midlands Airport 4 334 117 1,87%
Exeter Exeter International Airport 741 465 0,32%
Glasgow Glasgow International Airport 7 363 764 3,18%
Glasgow Glasgow Prestwick Airport 1 145 836 0,50%
Guernsey Guernesey Airport 886 396 0,38%
Humberside Humberside Airport 236 083 0,10%
Inverness Inverness Airport 608 184 0,26%
Isle of Man Isle of Man Airport 739 683 0,32%
St. Marys Isles of Scilly Airport 89 170 0,04%
Jersey Jersey Airport 1 453 863 0,63%
Kirkwall Kirkwall Airport 159 325 0,07%
Leeds Leeds Bradford International Airport 3 318 358 1,43%
Liverpool Liverpool John Lennon Airport 4 187 493 1,81%
Manchester Manchester Airport 20 751 581 8,97%
Newcastle upon Tyne
Newcastle Airport 4 420 839 1,91%
Newquay Newquay Cornwall Airport 174 891 0,08%
Norwich Norwich International Airport 463 401 0,20%
Scatsta Scatsta Airport 298 308 0,13%
Stornoway Stornoway Airport 122 410 0,05%
Sumburgh Sumburgh Airport 212 233 0,09%
Southampton Southampton Airport 1 722 758 0,74% [1] Statistics Austria, Civil Aviation Statistics, 2013 [2] Belgium AIP, 2013 [3] Bulgarian AIP, 2013 [4] Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Traffic in Airports, 2013 [5] Department of Civil Aviation, Republic of Cyprus, 2011 [6] Czech AIP, 2012 [7] Statistics Denmark, 2013 [8] Tallinn Airport Statistics, 2013 [9] Finland AIP, 2011 [10] Résultats d’activité des aéroports Français 2013, Statistiques de traffic, Union des Aéroports Français [11] German Airport Statistics, 2013 [12] Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Infrastructure, Transport and Network, 2013 [13] Hungarian Central Statistical Office, 2013 [14] Ireland Statistics, 2010
[15] Assaeroporti, 2012 [16] Latvian AIP, 2014 [17] AZWorldAirports, 2012 and Lithuanian AIP, 2014 (Vilnius Airport) [18] Belgian AIP, 2013 [19] Maltese AIP, 2013 [20] Statistics Netherlands – Aviation, 2013 [21] Warsaw: Civil Aviation Office, 2013 [22] ANA Relatório de Contas, 2013 [23] Website of each airport (2013) [24] Slovakia AIP, 2013 and Poprad-Tatry Airport, 2013 [25] Slovenian AIP, 2013 and AZWorldAirports, 2011 (Portoroz Airport) [26] AENA, 2013 [27] Swedavia, Swedish Airports, 2013 [28] CAA Statistics, 2013
Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Annex
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Exploring Connectivity in Air Transport as an Equity Factor| Frederico Valente Nunes | Annex
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Annex 3 – Airport Destinations in the EU
AT
BE
BG
HR
CY
CZ
DK
EE
FI
FR
DE
EL
HU
IE
IT
LV
LT
AT Vienna International Airport 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1