Expert / Edutool 2012

EXPERT – theoretical and empirical background

Pirkko Hyvönen, [email protected] researherKTK/ LET, Oulun yliopisto

mailto:[email protected]

AFTER THIS LECTURE

Pirkko Hyvönen, [email protected]/ LET, Oulun yliopisto

Explain, why is expertise and expert performance important to learn in higher education.

Describe different types of expertise and particularly differences between routine and adaptive expert.

Reflect, what kind of expertise is needed in work life today.

Understand, that learning expertise can be designed.

BACKGROUND Universities are expected to educate experts,

who are competent to excel in changing and complex circumstances in work life, but education does not provide competencies for it. (Hyvönen, Impiö, Järvelä, 2010).

LET master’s program aims to educate experts in learning and educational technology.

The students will be competent to work in schools and work places and use their expertise in adapting to changing situations, solving problems, creating social innovations and integrating technologies in practices.

Education is based on LET research and it provides a strong support for learning.

Education is also one of the research contexts.

STEREOTYPES related to EXPERTISE

GenderAgeEducationObjective truth

TalentSkillsSpecialist

Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993

Expertise is more than general intelligence: ”Capasity to perform consistently at a superior level” (Weisberg, 2006)

DEFINITIONS IN DICTIONARIES FROM 1968-2011

1968: One who is very skillful and well-informed in some special field (Webster)

2005: Characteristics , skills and knowledge that distinguishes experts from novices and less experienced people (Wikipedia)

2011: person, who in certain domain can recognise problems and solve them efficiently. Expertise includes knowledge, experiences and skills for expressing. (Wikipedia)

DOMAIN-SPECIFIC EXPERTISE

- Informal and formal domains

Salomon (1997). Wine expertise Norman et al. (2006). Medicine and surgery Durco & Dattel (2006). TransportationSonentag et al. (2006). Software designKellogg (2006). Professional writingRoss et al. (2006). Decision makingLehman & Gruber (2006). MusicHodges et al. (2006). SportsButterworth (2006). MathematicsCobet & Charness (2006). ChessVoss & Wiley (2006). HistoryBrennenkmeyer & Spillane (2008). Problem-solving

TYPES OF EXPERTISE Bransford, 2001; Bransford et al., 2000; Brophy, Hodge, & Bransford, 2004; Crawford, 2007; Hatano & Inagagi, 1986

Which kind of expertise is valued and aimed; and how to design learning processes, evaluations, learning outcomes and instructions. EXPERTS and experienced non-experts (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993)

Career may conform merely to the routines, not advancing expertise and problem-solving

EXPERTS and novicesROUTINE EXPERTS

Everyday skills, routines, are developed in familiar environments and in familiar tasks. Routine experts can develop their accuracy and fluency.

ADAPTIVE EXPERTSSet of cognitive, meta-cognitive, social, and emotional strategies, where individuals abandon ‘routine’ problem-solving strategiesAdaptive experts are more flexible, inventive, spontaneous, encouraging and creative. They deal with novel, unexpected situations and problems, and build knowledge at the same time. They increase their core competencies plus and go beyond their comfort zone!

Acting and dealing with problems

ROUTINE EXPERTS ADAPTIVE EXPERTSHoloyok: truly expert, Bransford: competencies plus

COMPETENT TO SOLVE PROBLEMS THAT ARE FAMILIAR AND EXPECTED

Surface level perceptions,Do not see hidden messages, does not see problems Weak skills to solve new problems, but can solve familiar problemsSee one suitable way to solve problemsWant to solve the problem quickly, and move to next tasksSparce knowledge base -> may think quicly Mainly procedural knowledgeWhen situation unexpectably changes, efficiency decreases, because they triy to solve problem by imitating familiar solutions that are not suitable for the situationDo not learn in problem-solving

COMPETENT TO SOLVE PROBLEMS THAT ARE NOVEL AND UNEXPECTED

Make perceptions of problem and its context; dissect various different perspectivesSee a problem as an opportunity to learn, learn in problem-solving and produce new knowledgeClassify, label, analyse problemsPerceive patterns and differenciesStart to organise problem around central concepts or ideaPonder forward, theoretical reasoningDence knowledge base thinking may take timeThink and identify novel solutions and possibilitiesStrong conceptual understandingFlexible in using knowledgeEvidence-based argumentation

GENERATING THE BEST- Find the best solution DETECTION and RECOGNITION- Detect and perceive features that

novices cannotQUALITATIVE ANALYSIS-Analyse problems, develope problem representations MONITORING- Have good self-monitoring and predicting skills STRATEGIES- Use the best and effective strategies in a given situation OPPORTUNISTIC- Can use whatever sources of information that are available COGNITIVE EFFORTCan retrieve relevant domain knowledge

DOMAIN-LIMITED- Have not necessarily knowledge about

other domains OVERTLY CONFIDENT- eg. in music and physicsGLOSSING OVER- Sometimes they overlook detailsCONTEXT-DEPENDENT WITHIN A DOMAIN- Sometimes rely too much for contextual cuesINFLEXIBLEINACCURATE PREDICTION, JUDGMENT

AND ADVICE- Cannot always take the perspectives of

novices BIAS AND FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS- Analyse problems in other domain

through the priciples of their own domain

EXPERTS EXCELL AND FALL SHORT (Chi, 2006)

EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE

let.oulu.fi / [email protected]

EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE

Informants (N=13) are experts in different formal domains

On what ground they are considered experts? They are in a leading and demanding position Key persons in their field Considered as more competent than other people in the field Long career and high education They consider themselves as experts Each of them are experts at least on two domains

”Expertise is easiest to identify when it differs most dramatically from what ordinary people can do” (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993)

(Hyvönen, Impiö & Järvelä, 2010)


EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE How experts define expertise?

1) Expertise is future-oriented having a developmental and advancing perspective. They are expected to innovate new or re-new existing practice, processes and products.

2) Developmental perspective and performance is conjugated with need of constant learning and understanding things and processes (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). - Factual, procedural and self-

regulative knowledge- Multifaceted domains

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3) Expertise is increasingly a social and collaborative phenomenon, which lay both opportunities and challenges for the path of expertise.

- Opportunity: social view, collaboration and even technologies in collaboration can enhance construction of shared expertise

- Challenge: collaboration is effective way of learning, but does not happen easily

- Social skills, communication, use of technologies- Learning from and with other people- Understanding other people: without it domain-specific

expertise cannot be exploited

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4) Experts Have a strong self-confidence, and trust on their team to develop,

create and construct new solutions Knows how to act rationally in certain situations Have sensibility to perceive situations Are diligent, curious, flexible, self-initiative, and modest

Expert’s work is not automatic nor easy. (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993; Hyvönen, Impiö & Järvelä, 2010; Tsui, 2009)

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EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE What are the problems like?

Situations are always complex and difficult, and you can never be fully prepared for them. Problems in working life involves more than running through ‘routines’.

1) Understand people and interacting with them. Problems with people are related to communication, social interaction, shared understanding and emotional constrains, such as envy and hostile atmospheres, which tend to prevent developing innovations and also expertise.

2) Inadequate technical tools. Although many ICT tools are in use, there are still lack of tools and software that solve very compound problems.3) Decision-making problems (Johnson, 1988; Jonassen, 2007): experts at times have to make decisions without the necessary information. 4) Sharing tacit knowledge5) Dealing with time, motivation, prioritization and overlapping tasks


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EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE How do the experts perform ‘routine’ and ‘adaptive’ expertise in their

work?

“There is no such thing as routines in my work.”

1) Degree of routines declines, when complexity of work and experience of individual increases: “The more I have experience in this work, the less there are routine cases.”

Cycle: ability to make perceptions and decisions augments environment can provide complexity in relation to her abilities and edge of competence

2) Creativity, insight and playfulness (see, Brophy et al., 2004; Hyvönen, 2008; Weisberg, 2006) seems to play a role in adaptive expertise.

3) To some extend adaptive experts can adjust the complexity

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EXPERTISE IN WORK LIFE How useful education has been for

their current position?

1) Overall, formal education has not satisfactorily provided resources for their current work; instead, it has provided basic general knowledge. Education is lacking of important areas that are needed in work life, such as communication, negotiation and presentation, even writing and discussing skills were not adequately provided.

2) Only exception was education in engineering, that has provided skills in problem-solving and foreign languages, which are essential in expert work.


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HOW TO LEARN TO BE AN ADAPTIVE EXPERT?

Bransford, 2001; Brophy, Hodge, & Bransford, 2004; Crawford, 2007; Hatano & Inagagi, 1986

Help students to understand their own processes of knowing and problem-solving!

Normal learning does not provide expertise, but can lead to ”good enough” tai ”satisfying” level.

Normal learning can reach satisfying basic level. Then it is possible to free mental resources in order to use them for higher level activities (in knowledge construction, skills and self-regulation)

Formal education produces the users of experts, but not experts! (Geisler, 1994)

Formal education does not nesessarily produce experts, rather experienced non-experts (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993)

Learning expertise is a path or journey of competence building, including also regressions (Alexander, 2003; Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1986; Lajoie, 2003) Learning expertise comprices of three overlapping

dimensions: knowledge construction (Bransford et al, 2000;

Sawyer, 2006) expert-like performance (eg., Bereiter &

Scardamalia, 1993; Tynjälä, 2007) self-regulation (Boekaerts, Pintrich & Zeidner,

2000; Lin, Schwarz & Hatano, 2005)

It is a transitional learning process where goals are set, monitored, reflected and scaffolded (Lajoie, 2003)

How to learn to be an adaptive expert? Bransford, 2001; Brophy, Hodge, & Bransford, 2004; Crawford, 2007; Hatano & Inagagi, 1986

Structured collaborative problem-solving method (Hyvönen & Impiö)

1. To establish the basis for collaborative problem solving process:to get to know each others, to acknowledge mental resourses and to construct common understanding of the task and underlying theories (activating prior knowledge)To design virtual and face-to-face phases and technological tools to be used.

2. To understand the context of the problem, and the problem and to define learning goals

Problems are authentic cases from work life; they are new and ill-structured, where multiple solutions are possible

The core of a problem should be analysed and defined Reseach-based approach3. To find possible solutions by constructing new knowledge based on the

learning sciences, but adapted to authentic work life.4. To choose the solution and work (play) with it until the problem will be

solved


FEATURES OF THE COLLABORATIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD

1. Problems are not as in work life, but real assignment from work life..2. Collaboration is enhanced all way long.3. Working takes place as expert teams by students, work life persons

and other invited experts.4. Evaluation, monitoring, reflection and planning are central in the

process.5. Playfulness and creativity are encouraged to free cognitive resources6. Autonomy in designing blended model to work and use technologies

meaningfully (AC, Skype, GoogleDocs, mind maps etc.) For rich interaction For making thinking visible and audible For knowledge construction

7. Academic, research-based approach and understanding8. The outcomes as social innovations, such as novel models to carry on


Examples of open problems by Elektrobit (EB) 2010

1. Open Source & Developer Communities Various developer communities are now important in software designing. Many software adaptations are based on open source platform (eg. Linux, Symbian, Qt, Android, MeeGo), while various informal communities work as developers. One temporal question is how open source culture and joining in developer communities can be promoted? 2. Motivation and managers Managers face questions and situations that are linked to motivation and flow of work. In order to help managers to coach team members they need to understand, what motivation means and what affect to motivation. How to increase understanding among coaching managers? How manager could help experts to maintain their motivation through work career?

Heiss, Janice J. (2007)

http://java.sun.com/features/authors.html


Examples of results for problems by Elektrobit (EB) 2010Posters and booklets

ReferencesAlexander, P. A. (2003). The development of expertise: The journey from acclimation to proficiency. Educational Researcher, 32(8): 10–14. Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1993). Surpassing ourselves. An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company.Bransford, J. (2001). Thought on adaptive expertise. Retrieved June 15, 2008, from http://www.vanth.org/docs/AdaptiveExpertise.pdf.Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, and school. Washington: National Academy Press.http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9853Brenninkmeyer, L. D. & Spillane, J. P. (2008). Problem-solving processes of experts and typical school principals: A quantitative look. School Leadership & Management, 28(5), 435–468.Brophy, S., Hodge, L., & Bransford, J. (2004). Work in progress – Adaptive expertise: Beyond apply academic knowledge. Frontiers in Education 3 (FIE): S1B/28- S1B/30, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1408679.Chi, M. T. H. (2006). Two approaches to the study of experts’ characteristics. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance (pp. 21–30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Chi, M.T.H., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem-solving. In R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (pp. 7–75).Chi, M. T. H. & Koeske, R. D. (1983). Network representation of a child’s dinosaur knowledge. Developmental Psychology, 19(1): 29–39. Crawford, V, M, (2007), Adaptive expertise as knowledge building in science teacher’s problem solving. Paper accepted for the proceedings of the European Cognitive Science Conference. Delphi, Greece.Ericsson, K. A. (2006). An introduction to Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance: Its development, organization, and content. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 3–19). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

http://www.vanth.org/docs/AdaptiveExpertise.pdf

http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9853

Hatano, G. & Inagagi, K. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In H. Stevenson, H. Azuma & K. Hakuta (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan (pp. 262–272). New York (N.Y.): Freeman.Hatano, G. & Oura, Y. (2003). Commentary: Reconceptualizing school learning usinginsight from expertise research. Educational Researcher, 32(8): 26–29.Hmelo-Silver, C., Marathe, S. & Liu, L. (2007). Fish swim, rocks sit, and lungs breathe: Expert-novice understanding of complex systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(3), 307 – 331. Holoyoak, 1991Johnsson, E. J. (1988). Expertise and decision under uncertainty: Performance and process. In T. H. Michele, H. Chi, R. Glaser & M. T. Farr (Eds.), The nature of expertise (pp. 209–228). Hillsdale (N.J.): Lawrence Erlbaum.Jonassen, D. H. (2007). What makes scientific problems difficult? In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Learning to solve complex scientific problems (pp. 3–23).Lajoie, S. P. (2003). Transitions and trajectories for studies of expertise. Educational Researcher, 32(8): 21–25.Lin, X., Schwartz, D.L., & Bransford, J. (2007). Intercultural adaptive expertise: Explicit and implicit lessons from Dr. Hatano. Human Development, 50, 65–72. Posner, M. J. (1988). Introduction: What is it to be an expert? In M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J.F. Farr (Eds.), The nature of expertise (pp. xxix–1). Hillsdale (N.J.): Lawrence Erlbaum . Tsui, A.B.M. (2009). Distinctive qualities of expert teachers. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 15(4), 421–439.Weisberg, R. W. (2006). Modes of expertise in creative thinking: Evidence from case studies. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (Eds.), (pp. 761-787). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Development of adaptation of expertise: The role of self-regulatory processes and beliefs. In K. A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. J. Feltovich & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 705–722). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Yates and Tschirhart (2007).

Expert / Edutool 2012

Education

problems bransford

new problems

experts excell

perceptions of problem

kind of expertise

expertise includesknowledge

skills andknowledge

skills forexpressing