Exodus in the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Book of Exodus

Composition, Reception, and Interpretation

Edited by

Thomas B. DozemanCraig A. EvansJoel N. Lohr

leiden | boston

This is a digital offprint for restricted use only | © 2014 Koninklijke Brill NV

Contents

Preface ixAbbreviations xList of Contributors xix

part 1General Topics

Reading Exodus in Tetrateuch and Pentateuch 3William Johnstone

Exodus in the Pentateuch 27Konrad Schmid

Exodus and History 61Lester L. Grabbe

part 2Issues in Interpretation

TheMiracle at the Sea: Remarks on the Recent Discussion about Originand Composition of the Exodus Narrative 91

Jan Christian Gertz

From the Call of Moses to the Parting of the Sea: Reflections on thePriestly Version of the Exodus Narrative 121

Thomas Römer

Wilderness Material in Exodus (Exodus 15–18) 151Rainer Albertz

Lawgiving at the Mountain of God (Exodus 19–24) 169Wolfgang Oswald

Decalogue 193Christoph Dohmen


vi contents

The Origin, Development, and Context of the Covenant Code (Exodus20:23–23:19) 220

David P. Wright

The Promise of the Land as Oath in Exodus 32:1–33:3 245Suzanne Boorer

Tabernacle 267Helmut Utzschneider

part 3Textual Transmission and Reception History

Exodus in the Dead Sea Scrolls 305Sidnie White Crawford

Textual and Translation Issues in Greek Exodus 322Leonard J. Greenspoon

Exodus in Syriac 349Jerome A. Lund

The Vetus Latina and the Vulgate of the Book of Exodus 370David L. Everson

The Exodus Theology of the Palestinian Targumim 387Bruce Chilton

The People of the Covenant or the People of God: Exodus in Philo ofAlexandria 404

Gregory E. Sterling

Exodus in the New Testament: Patterns of Revelation andRedemption 440

Craig A. Evans

Exodus in Josephus 465Paul Spilsbury


contents vii

The Reception of the Book of Exodus in the Book of Jubilees 485Lutz Doering

Exodus in the Fathers 511Joel C. Elowsky

Exodus in Rabbinic Interpretation 535Burton L. Visotzky

part 4Exodus and Theology

The GodWho Gives Rest 565Walter Brueggemann

Issues of Agency in Exodus 591Terence E. Fretheim

Indices

Index of Scripture and Other AncientWritings 613Index of Modern Authors 660


© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi: 10.1163/9789004282667_013

Exodus in the Dead Sea Scrolls

Sidnie White Crawford

The book of Exodus is a very important text among the Dead Sea Scrolls,especially in the collection found in the eleven caves in the vicinity of KhirbetQumran (“the Qumran collection”). Because of the variety of texts and thefragmentary nature of the manuscripts, each text (or group of texts) will betreated individually. At the end of this essay, I will draw some conclusionsconcerning the status and use of Exodus in the Qumran collection.

1 Exodus Manuscripts

Eighteen fragmentary manuscripts of the book of Exodus itself were foundin caves 1, 2, and 4 at Qumran.1 The oldest, 4QExod-Levf, dates paleographi-cally to c. 250bce, while the latest, 4QExodk, dates between 30–135ce.2 Theeighteen manuscripts between them cover parts of all the chapters of Exodus,beginning with 1:1–6 (4QExodb, 4QpaleoGen-Exodl) and ending with 40:8–27

1 D. Barthélemy, “Exode,” in Qumran Cave i (ed. D. Barthélemy and J.T. Milik; djd 1; Oxford:Clarendon, 1955), 50–51; M. Baillet, “Exode (i),” in Les ‘Petites Grottes’ de Qumran (ed. M. Bail-let, J.T. Milik, R. de Vaux; djd 3; Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), 49–52; M. Baillet, “Exode (ii),” in Les‘Petites Grottes’ de Qumran (ed. M. Baillet, J.T. Milik, and R. de Vaux; djd 3; Oxford: Claren-don, 1962), 52–55; M. Baillet, “Exode (iii),” in Les ‘Petites Grottes’ de Qumran (ed. M. Baillet,J.T.Milik, andR. deVaux; djd 3;Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), 56; JamesR.Davila, “4QGen–Exoda,”inQumranCave 4, vii, Genesis toNumbers (ed. EugeneUlrich et al.; djd 12; Oxford: Clarendon,1994), 7–30; Patrick W. Skehan, Eugene Ulrich, and Judith E. Sanderson, “4QpaleoGenesis–Exodusl,” inQumran Cave 4, iv, Palaeo-Hebrew andGreek BiblicalManuscripts (djd 9; Oxford:Clarendon, 1992), 17–50; Patrick W. Skehan, Eugene Ulrich, and Judith E. Sanderson, “4Qpa-leoExodusm,” in Qumran Cave 4, iv, Palaeo-Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts (djd 9;Oxford: Clarendon, 1992), 53–132; Frank Moore Cross, “4QExodb,” “4QExod–Levf,” in QumranCave 4, vii, Genesis to Numbers (ed. Eugene Ulrich et al.; djd 12; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 79–96, 133–144; and Judith E. Sanderson, “4QExodc–e,” “4QExodg–k,” inQumranCave 4, vii, Genesisto Numbers (ed. Eugene Ulrich et al.; djd 12; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 97–132, 145–152. Also,a small fragment of Exodus, frgDSS 161 (Exod 23:8–10), has recently been acquired by South-western Baptist Theological Seminary; it is not yet published.

2 Brian Webster, “Chronological Index of the Texts from the Judaean Desert,” in The Texts fromthe JudaeanDesert: Indices and an Introduction to theDiscoveries in the JudaeanDesert Series(djd 39; ed. Emanuel Tov; Oxford: Clarendon, 2002), 351–446 (378, 434).


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(4QExod-Levf). In addition, one other fragmentary manuscript of Exodus wasfound inWadiMurabbaʾat (MurExod), which dates paleographically to the latefirst–early second century ce.3 Two of these manuscripts, 4QExod-Levf and4QpaleoExodm, are especially important because they contain a text of Exodusthat was the Vorlage of Exodus as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch. In par-ticular, 4QpaleoExodm, an extensivemanuscript that contains portions of Exod6:25–37:16 in forty-three fragmentary columns, shares all themajor expansionsof the SamaritanExodus,withone exception. That exception is thedistinctivelySamaritan expansion, the new tenth commandment instructing the Israelitestobuild analtar onMt.Gerizim.4 Thepresenceof thesemanuscripts inQumranCave 4 indicates that this textual tradition was shared by Jews and Samaritans,and is older than the definitive rupture between the Jews and the Samaritansin the late second century bce.5

2 Rewritten Scriptures

2.1 Reworked PentateuchThe first group of texts reworking the book of Exodus for exegetical purposes isthe group known as Reworked Pentateuch. The five manuscripts in this group,4q1586 and 4q364–367,7 are not copies of one another, but differ in extentand purpose.8 4q364 and 4q365 self-present as complete manuscripts of the

3 J.T. Milik, “Genèse, Exode, Nombres,” in Les Grottes de Murabbaʾat (ed. P. Benoit, J.T. Milik,R. de Vaux; djd 2; Oxford: Clarendon, 1961), 77–78.

4 See Judith E. Sanderson, An Exodus Scroll from Qumran: 4QpaleoExodm and the SamaritanTradition (hss 30; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986). For the importance of 4QpaleoExodm inrevealing the history of the text of Exodus, see Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls and theOrigins of the Bible (sdssrl; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999).

5 Magnar Kartveit, The Origin of the Samaritans (VTSup 128; Leiden: Brill, 2009), 259–312.6 John M. Allegro, “Biblical Paraphrase: Genesis, Exodus,” in Qumrân Cave 4, i (4q158–4q186)

(djd 5; Oxford: Clarendon, 1968), 1–6; see also John Strugnell, “Notes en marge du volume vdes ‘Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan’,”RevQ 7 (1970): 163–276.

7 Emanuel Tov and Sidnie White, “Reworked Pentateuch,” in Qumran Cave 4, viii, ParabiblicalTexts, Part i (ed. Harold Attridge et al.; djd 13; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 187–352.

8 For more in-depth discussions, see George J. Brooke, “4q158: Reworked Pentateucha or Re-worked Pentateuch a?” dsd 8 (2001): 219–241; Sidnie White Crawford, Rewriting Scripturein Second Temple Times (sdssrl; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008); Michael H. Segal,“4QReworked Pentateuch or 4QPentateuch?” in The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After TheirDiscovery (ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman, Emanuel Tov, and James C. VanderKam; Jerusalem:Israel Exploration Society, 2000), 391–399; andMollyM. Zahn, Rethinking Rewritten Scripture:


exodus in the dead sea scrolls 307

Pentateuch, albeit with a hyperexpanded text, while 4q158, 4q366 and 4q367are collections of Pentateuchal passages, sometimes reworked for exegeticalpurposes. 4q158 and 4q365 rework passages fromExodusmost extensively, andso will be treated at length.

2.1.1 4q1584q158 consists of fifteen fragments, most of which represent passages fromExodus, with interpolations from Genesis and Deuteronomy. The order of thepassages from Exodus on the fragments proceeds according to the order foundin the received text.9 Some fragments (5, 10–12) contain no substantive changesfrom the received text of Exodus, while other fragments show evidence ofextensive reworking for exegetical purposes. The latter fragments will be dis-cussed below. Because of its fragmentary nature, it is impossible to determinethe original extent and purpose of 4q158, except to say that one of its purposesmust have been the exegesis through reworking of selected Exodus passages.10

Fragments 1–2 present Gen 32:25–32 (with an expansion) followed by Exod4:27–28.11 Lines 3–13 containGen 32:25–32, the story of Jacobwrestlingwith theangel at Penuel. Exodus 4:27–28, Aaron’s meeting with Moses at Sinai, followsin the next line (lines 14–15). The reason for the juxtaposition of these twopassages is not entirely clear. The best suggestion is that the passage in Exodusimmediately preceding Exod 4:27 narrates the story of God’s attack on Mosesat night on the road to Egypt (Exod 4:24–26), so that the two passages (Exod4:24–26 followed by Gen 32:25–32) portray important figures in a dangerousphysical encounter with a night demon/divine being.12 This suggestion wouldmean that Gen 32:25–32 was interpolated between Exod 4:26 and 27. However,since there are no remains of Exod 4:24–26 preserved on the fragments, theconnection remains uncertain.

In the canonical versions, Exod 4:28 states thatMoses told Aaron everythingthat had happened to him in Midian, but no actual speech of Moses to Aaron

Composition and Exegesis in the 4QReworked Pentateuch Manuscripts (stdj 95; Leiden:Brill, 2011).

9 Michael H. Segal, “Biblical Exegesis in 4q158: Techniques and Genre,” Textus 19 (1998):45–62 (here 53 n. 23).

10 Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 61.11 For a discussion of the Genesis passage, see Sidnie White Crawford, “Genesis in the Dead

Sea Scrolls,” in The Book of Genesis: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation (ed. CraigA. Evans, Joel N. Lohr, and David L. Peterson; Leiden: Brill, 2012), 353–375 (355).

12 Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 169; Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 48; Zahn, Rethinking RewrittenScripture, 54–56.


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is recorded in any version of Exodus. The scribe of 4q158 repairs this gap byintroducing material in lines 16–19 that portrays Moses actually speaking toAaron:

16. The Lord [has spoken] to me, saying, ‘When you have brought the [peo-ple?] out[

17. to go as slaves, and consider, they number thir[ty (or three)1318. the Lord, God …

Here we see Moses recounting his revelation from God at the burning bush,and relaying further information to Aaron concerning the future exodus.

Fragment 4 combines material from three passages in Exodus, Exod 3:12,24:4–6 and 6:3, as well as Gen 17:7. The main context is the sealing of thecovenant atMount Sinai, Exod 24:3–8, of which vv. 4–6 appear in this fragment.The scribe has altered the text in the following ways:

– Line 3 (Exod 24:4) adds the word רפסמל , “to the number of.”– Line 4 (Exod 24:5) The phrase תלעולעיו in the received text is changed to לעיו

ח[בזמהלעהלועהתא , thereby making Moses the one making the sacrifice onthe altar that he built.

Lines 1–2 do not contain the verses preceding Exod 24:4; rather they containintroductory material partly drawn from Exod 3:12b. Line 2 reads, םירצממםעה

ןו[דבעת , “(when you bring forth) the people from Egypt, they will ser[ve …”.Exod 3:12 portraysGodpromisingMoses that after he brings the Israelites out ofEgypt, theywill worshipGodonMount Sinai. Line 1, הכלהוצ , “commanded you,”probably introducesGod commandingMoses concerningwhat should happenwhen the Israelites reach Sinai. In lines 3–5, Exod 24:4–6,Moses is seen carryingout the sacrifice that God promised would take place in 3:12.

Like lines 1–2, lines 6–8 contain paraphrasedmaterial drawn fromelsewherein the Pentateuch:

6. [לאוםהרבאלאיתארהרשא (“that I revealed to Abraham and to …”)7. [םיהולאלם]ע[לוהמהל]תו[יהלםתא (“with them to b[e] to them and to the

people God”)8. [ם[לעד]ע (“forever”)

13 Strugnell, “Notes en marge,” 169–170, reconstructs “thirty”; Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 52,reconstructs “three.”



These lines recall the covenant promise toAbraham inGen 17:7: “I will establishmy covenant betweenme and you, and your descendants after you throughouttheir generations, as an everlasting covenant, to be your God, and your descen-dants after you.” It is with those very descendants that the covenant at Sinaiis being established. The lines also echo Exod 6:7: “And I will take you as mypeople, and I will be your God, and you will know that I am yhwh your God,who brought you from the burdens of Egypt.” That promise is fulfilled in thecovenant ceremony in Exod 24. Thus 4q158 explicates the main passage, Exod24:4–6, with material taken from elsewhere in the Pentateuch, drawing on thecommon theme of the covenant.14

Fragments 6–8 present an interesting example of the layers of exegesisthat can sometimes be discerned in a reworked text. The fragments containa portion of the Decalogue (frg. 7; Exod 20:12, 16, 17), surrounded by Exod20:19b–21 with interpolations from Deuteronomy (frg. 6), and Exod 20:22–26with interpolations fromDeuteronomy (frgs. 7–8). Theorder of the fragments iscertain.15Although this exact configurationof the verses fromExod20 is uniqueto 4q158, the path by which this configuration was reached can be teased out.

The base text for frgs. 6–8 is the Samaritan Pentateuch version of Exod 20,minus thenew tenth commandment concerning analtar onMt.Gerizim.16 Thisversion of Exod 20 contains passages interpolated fromDeuteronomy, yieldingthe following text: Exod 20:1–19a, Deut 5:24–27, Exod 20:19b–21, Deut 5:38–39,Deut 18:18–22, Deut 5:30–31, Exod 20:22–26. 4q158 seems to have inheritedthat version, but rearranged the passages, as far as can be discerned from theextantmaterial, as follows: Exod 20:1–6, 18–19a (not preserved), Deut 5:[24]–27,Exod 20:19b–21, Deut 5:28–29, Deut 18:18–22, Exod 20:[7]–17, Deut 5:30–31, Exod20:22–26.17 Thus the first two commandments are narrated as spoken directlyby God to the people, followed by the people’s request that they should nolonger hear the voice of God. This is followed by passages from Deuteronomypromising a prophet, and then that very prophet, Moses, narrates the rest ofthe Decalogue. The passage then continues with the people being dismissed,

14 Zahn, RethinkingRewrittenScripture, 51, notes that this is the onlymention of the promisesto the patriarchs in any version of the Exodus Sinai narrative.

15 Zahn, Rethinking Rewritten Scripture, 64. See the helpful chart in Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,”56.

16 This was first recognized by Strugnell, “Notes enmarge,” 172. 4QpaleoExodm also containsthis version of Exod 20, indicating that it is not uniquely Samaritan but a commonPalestinian textual tradition. Skehan, Ulrich, and Sanderson, “4QpaleoExodm,” 101–103.

17 This reconstruction follows the excellent analysis of Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 56–58.


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and Moses remaining on Sinai to receive further instructions from God. Thusthe scribe of 4q158 felt free to reorder his base text for exegetical purposes.

Fragment 7 also contains a unique example of the type of harmonizationknown as “command and fulfillment.”18 This occurs in the interpolated verse,Deut 5:30, in which God commands Moses to tell the people to return to theirtents. However, in the received text (in any version) there is no mention of thepeople fulfilling that command. The scribe of 4q158has supplied the fulfillmentin line 5: וילהאלשיאםעהובושיו , “and the people returned, eachman to his tent.”This demonstrates yet another exegetical move in these fragments; the scribehas not only reorderedhis received text, but addedmaterial to fill in a perceivedgap in the text.

Fragment 14 does not contain a recognizable text from Exodus as we knowit, but does contain vocabulary and themes found in Exod 6 and 15, includingthreementions of Egypt (lines 4, 5 and6) and thephrase םיבבל in line 7 (cf. Exod15:18). The fragmentmay represent additionalmaterial, an exegetical reworkingthat predicts the events of the Exodus, belonging somewhere in the vicinity ofExod 6.19

2.1.2 4q3654q365 contains thirty-eight identified fragments, twelve of which contain por-tions of Exodus. While 4q365 mostly follows the received text of Exodus withminor variants, in two instances it contains unique expansion that indicateexegetical activity on the part of the scribe or his Vorlage.

Fragment 5 preserves Exod 14:10 plus an addition. After line 1, which containsv. 10, line 2 continues with [ב]כר[תואמששוסוסםיפלא , “two thousand (or“thousands?”) horses and six hundred [char]iots[,” indicating the strength ofthe Egyptian force pursuing the fleeing Israelites. The number of chariots istaken from Exod 14:7, while the number of horses is unclear. This is a smallexegetical addition, probably for purposes of clarification.

Fragments 6a, col. ii and 6c contain a major addition, unknown in anyother version of Exodus. The addition follows Exod 15:20–21 (“And Miriam theprophet, the sister of Aaron, took her tambourine in her hand and all thewomen went out after her with tambourines and with dancing. And Miriamsang to them: ‘Sing to yhwh, for he has triumphed gloriously; horse and riderhe has thrown into the sea.’ ”). The received text contains only one line fromMiriam’s Song; the addition in 4q365 supplies the rest of the song, which reads,

18 Zahn, Rethinking Rewritten Scripture, 37; Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 58–59.19 Zahn, Rethinking Rewritten Scripture, 59–61; Segal, “Biblical Exegesis,” 55.



1. you despised (or, less likely: with an olive branch)[2. for the majesty of[3. You are great, a deliverer[4. the hope of the enemy has perished and he is for[gotten (or: has ceased,

or: is praised)205. they perished in the mighty waters, the enemy (or: enemies) [6. Extol the one who raises up, [a r]ansom… you gave(?) [7. [the one who do]es gloriously [

Although the song is very fragmentary, vocabulary recalling the Song of the Seain Exodus 15:1–21 is recognizable: the term תואג in lines 2 and 7 appears in 15:1and 7, and the phrase םירידאםימב , “in themightywaters,” line 5, is found in 15:10.The composer of the song clearly wished to draw a parallel between Miriam’sSong and Moses’.

Victory songs sung by women are found throughout the scriptural corpus,in the mouths of Deborah (Judges 5:2–31), Judith (Jdt 16:1–7), Hannah (1Sam2:1–10), and Mary (Luke 1:46–55). Also, other women are portrayed as playinginstruments and dancing to celebrate military victories, e.g. Jephthah’s daugh-ter (Judg 11:34).21 Therefore it is not surprising that at some point during thetextual transmission of Exodus a scribe expanded Miriam’s song in 15:22 to afull composition. This song, however, did not continue to be passed on in thetextual tradition of Exodus.22

2.2 The Temple ScrollThe Temple Scroll was found in three, possibly four copies at Qumran,4QRouleau du Temple (4q524), 11QTemplea (11q19), 11QTempleb (11q20), and11QTemplec? (11q21).23 It has been variously described as a pseudepigraphon,

20 “Praised” is the suggestion of Hanna Tervanotko, Denying Her Voice: The Figure of Miriamin Ancient Jewish Literature (Finland: Bookwell Oy, 2013), 143.

21 Tervanotko, Denying Her Voice, 145–148; Crawford, Rewriting Scripture, 48–49; GeorgeJ. Brooke, “Power to the Powerless: A Long-Lost Song of Miriam,”bar 20 (1994): 62–65.

22 Tervanotko, Denying Her Voice, 148–150, argues that the targums to Exodus may haveknown this Song of Miriam.

23 Émile Puech, “4QRouleau du Temple,” in Qumrân Grotte 4, xviii, Textes Hébreux (4q521–4q528, 4q576–4q579) (djd 25; Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), 85–114; Yigael Yadin, The TempleScroll (3 vols. and supplement; rev. Eng. ed.; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1983);Florentino García Martínez, Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar, and Adam S. van der Woude, “11QTem-pleb,” and “11QTemplec?,” inQumranCave 11, ii, 11q2–18, 11q20–31 (djd 23;Oxford: Clarendon,1998), 357–410; 411–414.


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a sepher torâh (Book of the Law), and an example of Rewritten Scripture, all ofwhich are partially accurate; taken together they capture the true nature of theTemple Scroll.24 As a pseudepigraphon, the Temple Scroll places its narrativein the mouth of God, speaking in the first person to Moses on Mount Sinai. Asa sepher torâh, it functions as divine law, giving commandments concerningthe construction of a massive temple complex, the conduct of festivals, puritylaws, laws relating to the king, and laws concerning life in the land surround-ing that vast temple. As Rewritten Scripture, it reuses material from the booksof Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy (in their canonical order) topresent a new composition, related to the Pentateuch but separate from it.25

The oldest copy of the Temple Scroll, 4q524, dates paleographically to themid-second century bce.26 Therefore, the book itself must have been com-posed sometime prior to that. There is general agreement that the TempleScroll was redacted together from sources; possible fragments of one of thesesources, 4q365a, have been recovered from Cave 4.27

The Temple Scroll reuses the book of Exodus to set the scene for the entirescroll. Although col. 1 is lost, col. 2 contains the end of the introduction, usingExod 34 as its base text. Exod 34:1–2 depicts God commandingMoses to ascendMount Sinai a second time, to replace the tablets of the Law that were lost inthe golden calf episode. Thus the setting of the Temple Scroll is covenantal,and its laws are meant to be binding on the Israelites just like the laws of thePentateuch.

Column 2, line 1 opens with Exod 34:10:

[vacat הכמעה[שועי]נארשאאוהארוניכ[

[ for it is a terrible thing that I] am doing [with you. vacat]

24 Sidnie White Crawford, The Temple Scroll and Related Texts (cqs 2; Sheffield: SheffieldAcademic Press, 2000), 17.

25 Crawford, Rewriting Scripture, 86.26 Puech, “Rouleau du Temple,” 87.27 For discussions of the sources of the Temple Scroll, see Andrew Wilson and Lawrence

M. Wills, “Literary Sources of the Temple Scroll,”htr 75 (1982): 275–288; Michael O. Wise,A Critical Study of the Temple Scroll from Qumran Cave 11 (saoc 49; Chicago: OrientalInstitute of the University of Chicago, 1990); Crawford, Temple Scroll, 22–24. For 4q365a,see S. White, “4QTemple?” in Qumran Cave 4, viii, Parabiblical Texts, Part 1 (ed. HaroldAttridge et al.; djd 13; Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 319–334, and Sidnie White Crawford,“4QTemple? (4q365a) Revisited,” in Prayer and Poetry in the Dead Sea Scrolls and RelatedLiterature (ed. Jeremy Penner, Ken M. Penner, and Cecilia Wassen; stdj 98; Leiden: Brill,2011), 87–96.



Lines 2–7 continue through v. 13, with modifications; lines 7–11 contain anaddition concerning idol worship:

7. … and the graven images of [their go]ds [you will burn]8. [with fire.] You shall [n]ot covet silver and gold, le[st you be ensnared by

it; for it is an abomination]9. [to me.] You shall [not] take of it, and you shall not bri[ng an abominable

thing into your house]10. [and become] accursed like it; you shall utterly dete[st and abhor it;]11. [for] it is an accursed thing.

In line 11 the composer of the scroll picks up v. 14:

]אנקהוהייכרחאל[אלהוחתשתאולוAnd you shall worship no [other] go[d, for the Lord (whose name is)

jealous]34:14

Lines 12–15 continue through v. 16, where the columnbreaks off. Thus the open-ing of the Temple Scroll emphasizes the authority of the scroll as direct revela-tion by God toMoses onMount Sinai, particularly underlining the importanceof avoiding the worship of other gods, which led to the Israelites’ downfall inthe golden calf incident. This is a major theme in Jewish literature of the Hel-lenistic period.

Columns 3–12 and 30–44 contain the instructions for thebuilding of the tem-ple and its courts. The composer relied on descriptions of Solomon’s temple(1Kgs 6; 2Chron 3–4) and Ezekiel’s temple (Ezek 40–48), as well as the descrip-tion of the tabernacle in the wilderness found in Exod 25–30. Column 3 beginswith the description of the furnishings of the Debir, the Holy of Holies. Phrasesfrom Exod 25, the instructions for the furnishings of the tabernacle, are foundthroughout:

2. ] blue and purple[ (Exod 25:9)3. a]ll your enemies [4. hou]se to put my name on it, a[ll5. ] in it silver and gold of all [6. ]and you shall not pollute it; nay! but from the [7. bro]nze and iron and dressed stones to [8. ] And they shall make all its vessels of pure go[ld (Exod 25:29)9. the ]mercy seat which is on its top, of pure gold[ (Exod 25:17)


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10. the altar] of the fragrant incense and the tabl[e (Exod 25:23)11. ] shall not depart from the temple, [its pl]ates [12. ]and its bowls shall be of pure gold, and the censer[s (Exod 25:29)13. to b]ring with them fire inwards. And the lampstand and a[ll (Exod 25:31)

Column 7, lines 10–12, use Exod 25:18–20 to describe the cherubim:

10. ] its width. And two cherubim [11. ] the end—the second, spreading their wings[12. ] above the ark, and their faces [

Exodus 25:31–40 is the base text for col. 9, the instructions for the lampstand:

2. [ ] and [ ] flowers3. [ ] from its two sides,4. [ ] Three (?)5. [ ] and flower …8. [ ] three9. [ ] the branch10. [ ] three11. [ ] and its snuffers, all (shall weigh) two talents12. [ ] all its lamps [shall] give light [ ] And you shall put13. [ ] And the priests, the sons of [ ] shall set

Thus the composer/redactor of the Temple Scroll has reused and reworkedthe text of Exodus in a similar manner to the scribe of 4q158, for exegeticalpurposes. However, here the result is a new composition, entirely distinct fromExodus.

3 Parabiblical Texts

3.1 Testament of Qahat and Visions of AmramThe Testament of Qahat and the Visions of Amram are both parabiblical com-positions built around figures mentioned in Exodus. Together with the Ara-maic Levi Document28 they form a priestly trilogy of Aramaic compositions

28 For a discussion of the Aramaic Levi Document, see Crawford, “Genesis in the Dead SeaScrolls,” 370–371.



concerned with the rightful lineage of the high priesthood (from Levi throughQahat and Amram to Aaron) and its purity and holiness.

3.1.1 Testament of QahatQahat or Kohath appears in Exod 6:16, 18 as the second son of Levi and thefather of Amram, Izhar, Hebron and Uzziel. The Testament of Qahat (4q542)was found in one copy in Cave 4, Qumran. Written in Aramaic, it is datedpaleographically to the second century bce, and was probably composed inthe late third or early second century bce.29

Although originally dubbed a “Testament” by J.T. Milik,30 the beginning andendof 4q542 aremissing and it lacks the formal features of a Testament, such asa deathbed setting. Rather, it is an exhortation or admonition from a didacticpriestly milieu.31 The speaker mentions “my father Levi” (frg. 1, col. ii, line 11)and “Amram my son,” (frg. 1, col. ii, line 9), making his identification as Qahatcertain.

The teaching contained in the Testament of Qahat stresses themaintenanceof priestly qualities such as holiness and purity. Special disdain is expressedfor “intermingling,” (frg. 1, col. i, line 9), that is, exogamous marriages, a themealso found in the Aramaic Levi Document and Visions of Amram.32 Particularemphasis is placed on the transmission of this teaching through the chosenpriestly line, from Abraham, through Isaac and Jacob, to Levi, and now fromQahat toAmram(frg. 1, col. i, lines 8, 11–12; col. ii, lines 9–12).Mention ismadeofQahat’s “writings” ( יבתכ ; frg. 1, col. ii, line 12), a theme also found in the AramaicLevi Document. Finally there is reference to eschatology, including mention ofpunishment (frg. 1, col. ii, lines 6–8), and possibly resurrection (frg. 1, col. ii,lines 3–5).

3.1.2 Visions of AmramAmram appears in Exod 6:18, 20 as the son of Qahat and the father of Moses,Aaron and Miriam. Exodus 6:20 also records that Amram’s wife was Jochebed,

29 Émile Puech, “Testament de Qahat,” in Qumrân Grotte 4, xxii, Textes Araméens, PremièrePartie, 4q529–549 (djd 31; Oxford: Clarendon, 2001), 257–282.

30 J.T. Milik, “4QVisions de ‘Amram et une citation d’Origène,”rb 79 (1972): 77–92.31 HenrykDrawnel, “TheLiterary FormandDidacticContent of the Admonitions (Testament)

of Qahat,” in From 4qmmt to Resurrection: Mélanges qumraniens en hommage à ÉmilePuech (ed. Florentino García Martínez, Annette Steudel, and Eibert Tigchelaar; stdj 61;Leiden: Brill, 2006), 55–74 (here 72).

32 Drawnel, “The Literary Form,” 70.


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his father’s sister.33 The composition knownas theVisions ofAmramwas foundin seven copies from Cave 4, Qumran (4q543–549), although the identity of4q548–549 as copies of the same composition has been questioned. Its lan-guage is Aramaic. The oldest copies, 4q543, 544, and 547, date paleographicallyto the second half of the second century bce, and it was composed some timebefore that.34

Unusually for a Qumran text, the title of the work, “A Copy of the Bookof the Words of the Visions of Amram,” is preserved on two manuscripts,4q543 (frg. 1, line 1) and 545 (frg. 1, col. i, line 1). The work has the settingof a Testament, taking place at Amram’s deathbed: “It contains everythi[ng]that[ he told his ]son[s and everything that he commanded] them on the day[he] died, in the 136th year, that is the year of his death …” (4q545, frg. 1,col. i, lines 2–3 // 4q543, frg. 1, lines 2–3). However, the teaching preserved ismainly eschatological rather than didactic; Amram recounts a vision in whichheencounters twoangelic beingsquarrelingoverhim.Oneof thebeings is dark:“And behold,] I lifted my eyes and saw one of [them whose appearance wasmolting (?) like a serpent and] all [his] clo[thing was multi-]colored and verydark …” (4q543, frgs. 5–9, lines 4–5 // 4q544, frg. 1, lines 12–13 // 4q547, frgs.1–2, col. iii, lines 12–13). This angel is named Melki-Resha ( עשריכלמ ; “ruler ofwickedness”; 4q544, frg. 2, line 13). The second being is light: “and I saw anotherand he was pleasant] in his appearance, and his face was laughing [and he wascovered with a garment] …” (4q543, frgs. 5–9, lines 6–8 // 4q544, frg. 1, line 14).Milik posited that this angel was Melki-Tsedeq, “ruler of righteousness.” Theseangelic beings, who rule over the human race, give Amram the choice of whichone will rule over him (4q543, frgs. 5–9, lines 2–3 // 4q547, frg. 1–2, col. iii,lines 11–12). Amram’s choice is not preserved, but must have been the angelof light.

The Visions of Amram preserve information concerning Amram’s family,especially the women, Jochebed and Miriam, through whom the theme of theimportance of endogamy is emphasized.35 Amram and Jochebed are monoga-mous, in spite of a forty-one year separation (4q544, frg. 1, lines 6–8 // 4q547,frgs. 1–2, col. iii, lines 5–8). Amrammarries his daughter Miriam to his brotherUzziel (4q543, frg. 1, lines 5–6 // 4q545, frg. 1, col. i, lines 5–6 // 4q546, frg. 1,

33 This marriage violates the prohibition against aunt-nephew marriage found in Lev 18:12–13, 20:19. The Visions of Amram appears to pass over this difficulty in silence.

34 Émile Puech, “Visions de ‘Amram,” in Qumrân Grotte 4, xxii, Textes Araméens, PremièrePartie, 4q529–549 (djd 31; Oxford: Clarendon, 2001), 283–406.

35 Tervanotko, Denying Her Voice, 118–139.



lines 3–4).36 Both Moses and Aaron, Amram’s sons, are mentioned by name.Aaron’s role as high priest is highlighted, in keeping with the theme of the holi-ness of the priesthood found in the trilogy:

And also concerning A[aron and the (high) priesthood I] will tell youthe secret of his work: he is a holy priest [to God Most High, for] hisdescendantswill beholy tohim for all generations of e[ternity. AndFriendof God,] seventh among the men of [his] favor [he will] be called and itwill be said [‘chosen of God who] will be chosen as a priest forever’ [.

4q545, frg. 4, lines 15–19

Thus the themes of eschatology, endogamy, and the holiness of the priesthoodwhich were introduced in the Aramaic Levi Document and the Testament ofQahat are also present in the Visions of Amram.

4 Miscellaneous Texts Using Exodus

TheQumran caves contained several extremely fragmentary compositions thatconcern, in oneway or another, the figure ofMoses. Some of thesemanuscriptscontainwords or phrases that echo or allude to passages fromExodus. All of themanuscripts date paleographically to the first century bce.37 Their setting andpurpose are not clear, owing to their fragmentary nature. Those manuscriptsmost clearly related to the book of Exodus will be discussed first.

4.1 4QParaphrase of Genesis and Exodus (4q422)38This manuscript, consisting of ten identifiable fragments, deals with the open-ing chapters of Genesis (frgs. 1–9) and the opening chapters of Exodus (frg. 10).The translation of frg. 10 is as follows:

1. ]and not [2. the [t]wo mid[wives and they threw]

36 This is a case of uncle-niece marriage, which is not prohibited by the Torah, but isprohibited in Temple Scroll 66:15–17, 4QHalakhah a, and the Damascus Document (cd 5,7b–11a). See Tervanotko, Denying Her Voice, 124–125.

37 Webster, “Chronological Index,” 351–446.38 Torleif Elgvin and Emanuel Tov, “Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus,” in Qumran Cave 4,

viii, Parabiblical Texts, Part i (ed. Harold Attridge et al.; djd 13; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995),417–442.


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3. their so[ns] to the Nil[e t]hem4. [and]He sent themMo[ses andHeappeared] in the visionof[ theburning

bush?]5. with signs and wonders[ ]? [6. and He sent them to Pharaoh[ ]plagues [ ] wo[n]ders for the Egyptians[

]and they reported His word7. to Pharaoh to let [their people] go. [And] he hardened [his] heart [so that

he would] sin in order that the pe[ople of Isra]el would know <it> foreternal gene[rations.] He turned their [water] to blood.

8. The frogs <were> in all [their] land and lice throughout [their] terri-tory, gnats (?) [in] their [hou]ses and [they afflic]ted all their … and Heinflicted with pestilen[ce all]

9. their livestock and their animals He delivered to [deat]h. He plac[eddark]ness in their land and gloom in their [houses] in order that no onewould be able to se[e] the other.[ And He struck]

10. their land with hail and [their] land [with] frost to des[troy al]l the fruitwhich they ea[t]. And He brought locusts to cover the face of the ear[th],heavy locust in all their territory,

11. to eat every plant in [their] land,] and God har[dened] the heart of[Pharao]h so as not to let [them] go and in order to multiply wonders.

12. [And He afflicted their firstborn, ]the prime of al[l their strength

The fragment is rich in allusions to the first ten chapters of Exodus. Line 2mentions the twomidwives of Exod 1:15–21. The casting of themale babies intothe Nile occurs in Exod 1:22. Line 4 probably mentioned the burning bush ofExod 3:2–4. Lines 6–7, whichmention Pharaoh, the plagues, and the hardening( קזחי]ו ) of Pharaoh’s heart, paraphrasematerial found in Exod 7–11. The plaguesthemselves are listed in lines 7–12. The first five, blood, frogs, lice, gnats, and thecattle pestilence, occur in the same order in Exod 7–9. The sixth plague, boils,is absent in 4q422. Plagues 7–10, darkness, hail, locusts, and the death of thefirstborn, have a slightly different order from Exodus.

4.2 pap4QParaExodus gr (4q127)39This manuscript, written in Greek on papyrus, consists of seventy-eight smallfragments, most of which are unidentified. Fragment 1 mentions Moses, Pha-

39 Patrick W. Skehan, Eugene Ulrich, and Judith E. Sanderson, “pap4QParaExodus gr,” inQumran Cave 4, iv, Palaeo-Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts (djd 9; Oxford: Claren-don, 1992), 223–242.



raoh, and Egypt, as well as possibly Aaron, Miriam and the Red Sea, clearlyparaphrasing in some way the events narrated in Exod 7–15.

4.3 Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition (4q374)40This small manuscript, as its name implies, contains narrative concerning theexodus from Egypt and the conquest of Canaan. Only frg. 2 preserves sufficientremains to make sense of the text. Column i, line 7 conserves the word “Sinai.”Column ii, line 6, paraphrases Exod 7:1a:

Exod 7:1a: הערפלםיהלאךיתתנהארהשמלאהוהירמאיו

And the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I will make you as god to Pharaoh …’

4q374: םירידאלעםיהולאל (י) וננתי]ו[[And] he made him (or: me) as god over the mighty ones …

4.4 4QApocryphal Pentateuch a and 4QApocryphal Pentateuch b(4q368, 377)41

These two fragmentary manuscripts rework passages from Exodus and Num-bers. 4q368, frgs. 1 and 2, reworks Exod 33:11–13 and 34:11–24. Fragment 3 mayrefer to Moses’ “shining face” in Exod 34:29–35. 4q377 deals with Moses’ andthe Israelites’ experiences at Sinai. Fragment 1, col. i contains expressions thatoccur in Exod 24:10 and 34:11, while frg. 2, col. ii, reuses language found in Exod19, the narrative of the Sinai theophany.

4.5 Apocryphon ofMoses (1q22, 1q29, 4q375, 4q376, 4q408)42These five manuscripts have been identified by Strugnell and Steudel as copiesof the samework, with textual overlaps among four out of the fivemanuscripts

40 Carol A. Newsom, “Discourse on the Exodus/Conquest Tradition,” in Qumran Cave 4, xiv,Parabiblical Texts, Part 2 (ed. Magen Broshi et al.; djd 19; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 99–110.This manuscript was originally titled “Apocryphon of Moses A.”

41 J. VanderKam and M. Brady, “4QApocryphal Pentateuch a,” and “4QApocryphal Penta-teuch b,” in Wadi Daliyeh ii, The Samaria Papyri from Wadi Daliyeh and Qumran Cave 4,xxviii, Miscellanea, Part 2 (ed. Douglas M. Gropp et al.; djd 28; Oxford: Clarendon, 2001),131–149 and 205–218.

42 For 1q22 and 1q29, see M. Baillet, “Dires de Moise,” and “Liturgie des ‘trois langues defeu’,” in Qumran Cave 1 (ed. D. Barthélemy, O.P. and J.T. Milik; djd 1; Oxford: Clarendon,1955), 91–97 and 130–132; For 4q375 and 4q376, see: J. Strugnell, “4QApocryphon ofMosesa”and “4QApocryphon of Mosesb?,” in Qumran Cave 4, xiv, Parabiblical Texts, Part 2 (ed.Magen Broshi et al.; djd 19; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 111–136; for 4q408, see: A. Steudel,“4QApocryphon of Mosesc?,” in Qumran Cave 4, xxvi, Cryptic Texts andMiscellanea, Part 1(ed. Stephen J. Pfann et al.; djd 36; Oxford: Clarendon, 2000), 298–315.


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(the exception is 1q22). The text is a “pastiche from various parts and levelsof the Pentateuch,”43 including portions of Exodus. 4q376, 1q29 and 4q408make reference to the stones of the ephod described in Exod 28:9–12. In theApocryphon these stones have an oracular power: “The left-hand stone whichis on his left hand side shall shine forth to the eyes of all the assembly until thepriest finishes speaking” (4q376, frg. 1, col. ii, lines 1–2). 1q29 also mentions a“right-hand stone” (frg. 2, line 2). Josephus knows of this supernatural powercontained in the ephod stones as well:

Well, of those stones which, as I said before, the high priest wore uponhis shoulders—they were sardonyx, and I deem it superfluous to indicatethe nature of jewels familiar to all—it came about,wheneverGod assistedat the sacred ceremonies, that the one that was buckled on the rightshoulder began to shine, a light glancing from it, visible to the mostdistant, of which the stone had before betrayed no trace.

Ant. 3.214–215

4.6 Un apocryphe deMoïse (?) (2q21)44An extremely fragmentary manuscript, 2q21 mentions the four sons of Aaronlisted in Exod 28:1, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar (frg. 1, line 1). Line 4mentions thatMoses went outside the camp to pray, possibly referencing Exod33:7.

5 Conclusions

Exodus’ importance in the Qumran collection lies first in its scriptural status.The preservation of eighteen manuscripts indicates that it was copied andstudied extensively. Further, the recovery of 4QExod-Levf and 4QpaleoExodmfrom Qumran Cave 4 has shed enormous light on the history of the text ofExodus in the Second Temple period.

Exodus also served as a key exegetical text in the documents of the Qumrancollection. Thenarrative portions of Exodus inparticularwereused extensively,with special emphasis on the figure of Moses, the events leading up to theexodus fromEgypt, the exodus itself, and the revelation and covenant atMount

43 Strugnell, “4QApocryphon of Mosesa,” 118.44 M. Baillet, “Un apocryphe de Moïse (?),”in Les ‘Petites Grottes’ de Qumran (ed. M. Baillet,

J.T. Milik, and R. de Vaux; djd 3; Oxford: Clarendon, 1962), 79–81.



Sinai (Exod 1–20, 34). These chapters contain the paradigm narratives for theidentity of the Jewish people, and thus it is not surprising that they appear overand over in works using Exodus from the Qumran collection.

Select Bibliography

Brooke, George J. “4q158: Reworked Pentateucha or Reworked Pentateuch a?”Dead SeaDiscoveries 8 (2001): 219–241.

. “Power to the Powerless: A Long-Lost Song of Miriam.” Biblical ArchaeologyReview 20 (1994): 62–65.

Crawford, SidnieWhite.RewritingScripture inSecondTempleTimes. Studies in theDeadSea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008.

. The Temple Scroll and Related Texts. Companion to the Qumran Scrolls 2.Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.

Drawnel, Henryk. “The Literary Form and Didactic Content of the Admonitions (Testa-ment) of Qahat.” Pages 55–74 in From 4qmmt to Resurrection: Mélanges qumraniensen hommage à Émile Puech. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 61. Edited byFlorentino García Martínez, Annette Steudel, and Eibert Tigchelaar. Leiden: Brill,2006.

Sanderson, Judith E., An Exodus Scroll fromQumran: 4QpaleoExodm and the SamaritanTradition.Harvard Semitic Studies 30. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.

Schiffman, Lawrence H. The Courtyards of the House of the Lord: Studies on the TempleScroll. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 75. Leiden: Brill, 2008.

Segal, Michael H. “4QReworked Pentateuch or 4QPentateuch?” Pages 391–399 in TheDead Sea Scrolls Fifty Years After Their Discovery. Edited by Lawrence H. Schiffman,Emanuel Tov, and James C. VanderKam. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 2000.

. “Biblical Exegesis in 4q158: Techniques and Genre.” Textus 19 (1998): 45–62.Tervanotko,Hanna.DenyingHerVoice: TheFigure ofMiriam inAncient JewishLiterature.

Finland: Bookwell Oy, 2013.Wise, Michael O. A Critical Study of the Temple Scroll from Qumran Cave 11. Studies

in Ancient Oriental Civilization 49. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University ofChicago, 1990.

Zahn, Molly M. Rethinking Rewritten Scripture: Composition and Exegesis in the 4QRe-worked Pentateuch Manuscripts. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 95. Lei-den: Brill, 2011.


Exodus in the Dead Sea Scrolls

Documents