Existential Beliefs and Values

Existential Beliefs and Values

Niranjan NarasimhanKumar Bhaskar

Srinivas Prakhya

ABSTRACT. Research on values is extensive. Values

and value systems are concepts that have interested

researchers across domains such as psychology, sociology,

and anthropology. However, antecedents of values have

not received sufficient attention. In this study, we develop

and assess a personal value system from the ancient texts of

India. The texts describe a system of existential beliefs and

values or prescriptive beliefs. Existential beliefs are con-

cerned with the nature of reality. Prescriptive beliefs or

values follow from these existential beliefs, and behavior is

influenced by values. The content of existential beliefs

and the implied values or prescriptive beliefs are extracted

from the texts and a conceptual model of the belief system

is developed. Scales are constructed and administered to a

sample of subjects. Responses from the survey are ana-

lyzed using a structural equation modeling framework.

Confirmatory factor analysis is used to assess the scales and

establish their adequacy. The nomological net of exis-

tential beliefs and values is empirically assessed, and

construct validity is examined. Results support the belief

system described in the texts.

KEY WORDS: existential beliefs, nomological net,

self, reality, values

Introduction

Values and value systems have interested researchers

across disciplines such as sociology, psychology,

philosophy, and political science. For instance, val-

ues and value systems have been useful in under-

standing subjective well-being (Diener, 1984, 2000),

psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989), and individ-

ual psychology (Taylor, 1988, 1989). In manage-

ment literature, these concepts have enhanced

understanding of work values (Hofstede, 1980; Ros

et al., 1999; Schwartz, 1999), organization behav-

ior (Meglino and Ravlin, 1998) and organization

culture (Schein, 1985). In this article, our interest is

to study the notion of human values. What does

being a human essentially mean and what should a

human being strive for? What are the antecedents to

values? These questions have perennially interested

mankind and philosophers in particular. Spiritual

traditions across the world are also primarily con-

cerned with these questions. We turn to the ancient

texts of wisdom in India to look for answers. While

literature on values is extensive, antecedents to val-

ues have received less attention. Our attempt in this

study is to construct the belief system comprising

values and antecedent beliefs.

In the Indian tradition, the primary sources of

wisdom about human nature and evolution are in

two categories. The first category, which includes

the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita,

deals with the fundamental nature of the ultimate

reality that transcends time and approaches that

facilitate experiential awareness and knowledge of

this reality (Griffith, 2005; Radhakrishnan, 1973,

1994; Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1957). The sec-

ond category, which includes the epics Mahabharatha

and Ramayana (Ganguli, 1883; Griffith, 1915), rec-

ognizes the contingent nature of how beliefs about

the nature of reality translate into values and

accordingly dwells on delineation of values accord-

ing to place and circumstance. The epics, though

ancient, are well known and disseminated. These

ancient texts contain detailed descriptions of philo-

sophical systems clarifying ontological and epistemic

issues with direct implications for values and

appropriate modes of action. A study of these texts

enables a complete description of a personal belief

system.

The article is organized as follows. In the fol-

lowing section, we briefly review literature on values

Journal of Business Ethics (2010) 96:369–382 � Springer 2010DOI 10.1007/s10551-010-0472-7

and philosophical thought that is most relevant to

the worldview embedded in the ancient Indian texts.

The content of existential and prescriptive beliefs

embedded in the texts is detailed in the next section.

Linkages between these beliefs are examined to

develop the system of beliefs. An empirical assess-

ment of the constructs and the belief system using

survey responses is then presented. Finally, we dis-

cuss implications of the belief system for ethics and

directions for future research.

Overview of background literature

Kluckhohn (1951, p. 389) defined a value as ‘‘a

conception, explicit or implicit … of the desirable

which influences the selection from available modes,

means, and ends of action.’’ England (1967) views

values as being composed of a relatively permanent

perceptual framework which shapes and influences

the general nature of an individual’s behavior. For

Williams (1968, p. 16; 1979, p. 16), the core phe-

nomenon is that values serve as ‘‘criteria or standards

of preference.’’ According to Rokeach (1968, pp.

124, 160), values are global beliefs that ‘‘transcen-

dentally guide actions and judgements across specific

objects and situations.’’ Posner and Schmidt (1996,

p. 277) describe values as lying ‘‘at the core of per-

sonality, influencing the choices individuals make,

…and the way individuals and organizations alike

invest their energy.’’ Behavior is the manifestation of

one’s fundamental values (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980;

Fazio, 1986). Many researchers argue that values are

predictors or at least antecedents of actual behavior

(Connor and Becker, 1994; Homer and Kahle,

1988; Stackman et al., 2000).

A clear definition of values has been elusive and

despite the popularity of the construct, there is a lack

of consensus on the nature of values themselves

(Hitlin and Piliavin, 2004; Meglino and Ravlin,

1998). Values have been conceptualized in different

ways. Values have been considered as needs, per-

sonality types, motivations, goals, utilities, attitudes,

interests, and non-existent mental entities (Meglino

and Ravlin, 1998). This lack of agreement has cre-

ated problems in interpreting the results of various

studies (see, e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951; Williams, 1979).

However, there seems to be considerable agreement

among researchers on the importance of values in

influencing behavior. Values are believed to have a

substantial influence on the affective and behavioral

responses of individuals (Locke, 1976; Rokeach,

1973). Values directly affect behavior in that, they

encourage individuals to act in accordance with their

values (e.g., see Rokeach, 1973; Williams, 1979).

Because values specify modes of conduct that are

socially desirable, the threat of social sanctions (e.g.,

shame, punishment) will induce individuals to con-

form to dominant social values in their public actions

(Kluckhohn, 1951). This inducement would be

present whether or not an individual’s internalized

values conform to dominant social values. The

mechanics that operate in the case of private

behavior is a form of self-sanction. An individual’s

internalized values function as personal standards of

conduct. Thus, any actions that are inconsistent with

these values are likely to result in feelings of guilt,

shame, and self-depreciation (Kluckhohn, 1951).

The enduring scholarly interest in values is probably

due to the strong linkage between values and action.

However, the link may not be direct as personal

value systems along with related constructs such as

worldview and ideology give meaning to action

(Rohan, 2000).

Research in values gained an impetus with the

study of Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) who

examined the question of motives underlying values.

Summarizing earlier research, they reiterate that

values are enduring beliefs or concepts about desir-

able goals and modes of action; they are trans-situ-

ational and influence behavior; and they provide

relative ordering of competing beliefs and modes of

action and behavior (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987,

1990). Further, unlike the early studies of Allport

et al. (1960) and Rokeach (1973) which provide a

listing of values and elicit relative importance to

arrive at a value system, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987,

1990) provided a theoretical basis for the structure of

value system by examining the motivation under-

lying each value. Here, ten value types (power,

achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,

universalism, benevolence, conformity, tradition,

and security) are arranged in a two-dimensional

structure. The two dimensions are bipolar and rep-

resent the tension between the motivations of (1)

openness to change and conservation, and (2) self-

enhancement and self-transcendence.

370 Niranjan Narasimhan et al.

While there has been considerable interest among

researchers on value typologies and implications for

behavior, literature on antecedents to values is rela-

tively sparse. A recent stream of literature in social

psychology focuses on the beliefs that are antecedent

to values (Bernard et al., 2003; Maio and Olson,

1998). Maio and Olson (1998) suggest that values,

though widely shared, lack cognitive support and

hence function like truisms. The concept of truisms

is traced to McGuire (1964) who proposed wide

agreement and lack of cognitive support as the two

defining characteristics of truisms. Bernard et al.

(2003) provide further evidence for values as truisms

by considering a larger set of values. The approach in

these studies is to experimentally examine the effect

of introspection on values; a change in values implies

lack of cognitive support. Leung et al. (2007) con-

duct a cross-cultural examination of the relationships

between social axioms and values. Social axioms are

general beliefs about the social world. Bain et al.

(2006) unravel further the role of beliefs in the

determination of value importance, value trade-offs,

and responses to value-laden rhetorical statements.

They provide evidence for the centrality of the role

of human nature beliefs in the psychology of values.

This body of literature underscores the importance

of beliefs of different kinds when tracing the ante-

cedents of value systems. The self has provided

another important direction in understanding why

values arise. Hitlin (2003) argues that values form the

core of personal identity which leads to the forma-

tion of role and other social identities. Relevant

frameworks include identity theory (Stryker, 1980)

and social identity theory (Tajfel, 1981) which

develop the linkages between the individual and the

social world.

Philosophical discussion on human values has

focused on the fundamental question of whether

there is an essence to human nature. A related issue is

whether the question of what is good for the human

being can be objectively defined or addressed at all

through rational contemplation. There is a sharp

focus on this issue in the body of philosophical

thought known as existentialism where the personal

concrete experience of the individual is given

importance. An implication is that a person has no

predetermined nature and hence there is no such

thing as a value to start with. The individual creates

his own values and through his actions constructs

meaning in life. This is one of the implicit themes in

the studies of both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche who

are considered posthumously as the founding fathers

of existentialism. However, the two also differed in

many ways, most notably in that Kierkegaard was a

devout believer in God while Nietzche was atheistic.

Nietzche advocated affirming life here and now in the

material world and was dismissive of all notions of

hereafter. Kierkegaard’s works too reflect a focus on

individual and personal choices to be made in exist-

ing. He described the evolution of a human being as

sequentially progressing through aesthetic, ethical,

and religious stages. The term existentialism was not

explicitly used either by Kierkegaard or Nietzche.

Widespread use of this term possibly originated

with Satre’s famous statement in Existentialism is a

Humanism that ‘‘existence precedes essence’’ sug-

gesting that choices rather than a predetermined

nature constitute the person. Satre referred to

Heidegger’s position in Being and Time as exemplified

in the statement ‘‘The essence of human-being lies in

its existence.’’ The debate on whether primacy is to

be accorded to essence or to existence goes back at

least to Aristotle, Socrates, and other philosophers of

ancient Greece. The discussion on values and the

purpose of human existence has proceeded with

renewed vigor after Kierkegaard and Nietzche. Joas

(2000) adopts a hermeneutic approach to assess the

views of modern philosophers such as William James,

Max Scheler, John Dewey, Georg Simmel, and

Charles Taylor to understand the nature of values and

how value commitments arise. He finds the question

of the genesis of values more interesting than devel-

oping a typology of values and suggests that values

arise in the context of self formation and self tran-

scendence.

The literature on values is vast, and we have

briefly reviewed in this section works that are rele-

vant when examining the view embedded in the

Indian tradition. In the ancient texts of India, the

primary purpose of human existence is defined as

immediate experience of the ultimate reality and

values and value commitments arise in the context of

this quest. Further, we find that beliefs about the

ultimate reality and the self are central to the expe-

rience or lack of experience of the ultimate reality.

The basic thrust in these texts is on examination of

the nature of the self across the waking, dream, and

deep sleep states. Such an examination leads to the

371Existential Beliefs and Values

source from which the self arises. Once the self is

transcended there is direct experience of the ultimate

reality. The question then is not whether existence

precedes essence or vice versa but what is the source

from which the everyday experience of existence

arise and into which it subsides. In the next section,

we extract the content of existential beliefs and

values from these texts, examine the linkages, and

describe the belief system.

Existential beliefs

The primary theme that pervades the ancient Indian

texts is that of non-duality or oneness in existence of

the individual Self and the ultimate reality. This view

is concisely expressed in four statements in the

ancient texts (1) Consciousness is Brahman, (2) This

Self is Brahman, (3) Thou art That, and (4) I am

Brahman (Aitreya Upanishad 3.3; Mandukya Upani-

shad 1.2; Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7; Brhadaran-

yaka Upanishad 1.4.10). Here, Brahman is a

designation of the ultimate reality from which

everything springs forth. The root meaning of this

word is ‘‘to expand.’’ The texts describe Brahman as

existence, consciousness, and bliss and postulate that

it is the basis for time, space, being, and the entire

changing universe. In this view, diverse names and

forms are part of a fullness that retains its fullness and

characteristics of existence, consciousness and bliss

even as it separates into many (Ishavasya Upanishad).

The seemingly separate existence of the individual is

due to a veiling of reality which creates and sustains

the experience of a being in time. These statements

sharply focus on the identity of the individual, his

fundamental nature as consciousness, and the ulti-

mate reality. The primary goal of human existence is

to experientially realize the truth of these statements.

One fundamental characteristic of this transcendental

ultimate reality is described as Sathya which translates

as truth, and is elucidated as ‘‘truest,’’ ‘‘unchange-

able,’’ ‘‘that which has no distortion,’’ ‘‘that which is

beyond distinctions of time, space, and person,’’ and

‘‘that which pervades the universe in all its con-

stancy’’ etc. Non-duality means that Sathya is also

the ‘‘truth of being’’ and is the individual in his real

nature as supreme consciousness in contrast to the

limited self in waking and dream states that are

rooted in duality. In these states of duality, the one

ultimate reality appears to have manifested as the

knower, known, and knowing.

The ultimate reality is transcendental or a priori to

the body and mind and yet the individual inhabiting

the body and equipped with a mind is the ultimate

reality itself. It always exists as the true Self, though

shrouded by the individual’s mistaken identification

with the mental and physical layers. The most direct

way then for assessing the truth of this claim of

oneness is to look within and examine the current

notion of self where existence and essence seem to

arise together. What really is the self that experiences

existence and whence does it arise? The texts aver

that the individual who enquires thus is able to

recognize the transient nature of the physical and

mental layers of identity and experience the source

from which these arise – the transcendental Self

which is the ultimate reality in its all pervasive nat-

ure. The individual then transcends duality and gains

knowledge of oneness as an experiential reality. A

knower of this truth abides in this state of oneness.

This path of knowledge through self enquiry is

adopted by very few. In most cases, the starting point

is an individual who firmly believes in his own

separate existence, is outward looking, and finds

himself in the midst of a collective. The ancient texts

suggest that such an outward looking individual too

can progress toward experience of ultimate reality by

aligning with the order underlying the transient

world. When the idea of non-duality or oneness is

examined not from an individual identity perspec-

tive but from that of the world in all its diversity, the

notion of rta takes center stage. Rta refers to the

underlying order or natural law and is described as

the ‘‘truth of things’’ (Rig Veda II 6.10; IV 5.5).

This order, while changeless, is the basis of all

changes in nature and life. Rta is considered to be a

fundamental characteristic of the ultimate reality; it is

the manifestation of sathya in the objective universe

which is rooted in duality. A more specific version

of this idea is dharma. The meaning of the root of this

word is to support, sustain. This concept is expli-

cated in many ways, as it is applicable to individuals

and collectives. The word refers to the innate nature

or characteristic of any entity in the universe. For

instance, the dharma of fire is to burn. Rta, which can

also be translated as ‘‘the course of things’’ (Rig Veda

I, 1.8, 23.5), is a concept that is very similar to


dharma but cosmic in scope. This principle refers to

the unchanging harmony underlying and sustaining

all change in the universe (Rig Veda IV, 23.9). This

is considered to be the natural and equitable law that

regulates all phenomena in the universe. This law

keeps all things and beings in their course.

The entire sweep of Indian philosophical thought

can be seen as we move across the Vedas, Brahma-

nas, and the Upanishads and is summarized in the

Bhagavad Gita. These studies concur in that they

recognize the ephemeral nature of the world and

provide ways to transcend the same. However, as we

move from the Vedas to the Upanishads, there is a

shift in relative focus from the extrinsic to the

intrinsic. The Vedas recognize sathya and rta but

dwell on forces of nature and prescribe modes of

action. The Brahmanas develop this theme further

and detail the duties of the human being toward

creation. The idea in these texts is that appropriate

action in the world makes one ready to embark on

the path of self enquiry. Action prescribed in the

Vedas is considered to enable transition to a mind

that is more probing and able to turn upon itself.

The Upanishads relentlessly adopt an inward looking

approach and explore in depth the inner recesses of

the self within. The transition from objective

external reality to the subjective one is striking.

‘‘The source of the entire universe is indeed the

deepest self in each man’’ (Chandogya Upanishad III

13.7, 4.4) and ‘‘the wise man striving for immortality

turns his eyes inward and peeps into the self within’’

(Katha Upanishad II 1.1). Clearly, this sweep

accommodates different initial conditions and pro-

vides approaches for both outward looking and

inward looking individuals enabling a gentle transi-

tion for the former to the latter. Thus, in these texts,

there is an explicit recognition of the diversity in

initial existential beliefs of mankind along the bipolar

spectrum of duality and non-duality; an external

God and the Self. It should be noted that these

notions of the truth of being (sathya), natural order

(rta), and the moral ideal (dharma) are not limited to

the scope of sensory experience and reasoning.

Indeed, if the ultimate reality is transcendental or

a priori to the body and mind, then sensory expe-

rience and reasoning are unlikely to be sufficient for

experiencing it. This school of non-duality admits

perception, inference, verbal testimony, comparison,

postulation, and non-apprehension as means of valid

knowledge (Satprakashananda, 1974). The view that

the intrinsic characteristic of perceptual knowledge is

the immediacy of cognition to consciousness has

also been supported by other scholars of ontology

(Hobhouse, 1905). Montague (1925) and Royce

(1964) admit intuitionism as one valid approach to

understanding reality. Every individual has some

degree of grasp on the ultimate reality since it is the

very core of his being. However, the ineffable nature

of the ultimate reality and the limited sense of being of

the individual often only enable characterization of

the ultimate reality as something beyond such as God

or spirit or a supernatural power. Also, recognition of a

basic order in the structure of existence raises the

possibility of a purpose and meaning in life. Hence, we

attempt to capture the strength of the two aspects of

existential beliefs using the respondents’ degree of

agreement with the following statements. The first

statement accommodates heterogeneous beliefs about

the ultimate reality, and the second focuses on the

fundamental law governing action and consequences.

I believe in a Supernatural Power/God/Spirit/

Self (EB1 – Reality)

I believe in the law of action and reaction (EB2

– Order)

Values

The two beliefs about reality and order together

provide the basis for values which are modes of affect

and behavior that facilitate experience of the ulti-

mate reality. Sathya or the truth of being is often

elaborated in the context of an individual rooted in

duality as: ‘‘All that takes you closer to the ultimate

reality is sathya.’’ The ancient texts define values as

the very essence of an individual and hold that the

enduring worth of a human being lies in his value

commitments (Bhagavad Gita 17.03). These values

are derived with the final truth of oneness as the

basis. This is more beneficial to the individual than

what is desirable in his current state of existential

maturity. Implicit in this understanding is a principle

of equity that governs human life and interactions

with others.

Integrity, appropriate action, and inner peace

(Bhagavad Gita, 17.17; Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,

4.14) are considered as the bases of value based


existence. ‘‘Speak the truth and practice virtue’’

(Taittiriya Upanishad, I: 11.1) is the key parting

instruction given by the teacher to a student on

completion of studies. Integrity and appropriate

action lead to the all important quality of inner

peace. Integrity includes speaking the truth, i.e.,

being honest in the sense of articulating views, facts,

etc. as one believes them to be. It includes com-

munication that is consistent with one’s knowledge

and undertaken in a fair manner. Further, an inner

consistency is another important element of integrity

– the individual must act as he speaks. Harmony in

thought, word, and deed is oneness at the level of an

individual person. Values are to be uncompromis-

ingly adhered to regardless of the situation and the

adherence is not for the purpose of any immediate

outcome. The degree to which the individual is able

to regulate himself and practice these two qualities

constitutes his integrity. The practice of integrity

requires self regulation in the face of immediate pulls

of the body and mind that would enhance the cur-

rent idea of self. Hence, integrity is an expression of

existential beliefs in the person’s life. Thus, we assess

integrity with the following three statements.

INT1 I am truthful, honest, and straightforward

in my dealings with others.

INT2 My actions are consistent with my words.

INT3 I will not compromise my personal values

irrespective of any crisis situation.

Integrity enables appropriate action in a collec-

tive. Action is natural to everyone (Bhagavad Gita,

3.04, 3.05, 3.08) but appropriate action is that which

is efficacious for evolution (Bhagavad Gita, 3.09; Isa

Upanishad 2; 18). Action by itself is not conducive

to evolution; action that arises out of attachment to

knowledge and happiness is beneficial (Bhagavad

Gita, 14.06). Selfless action undertaken for the

benefit of the aggregate is valued (Bhagavad Gita,

3.25). Any action has to be evaluated on the basis

of its consequences to oneself as well as others

(Bhagavad Gita, 4.18). The means used to achieve an

end is also important in the spiritual journey. One

facet of the natural order rta is its manifestation in

human life as the law of karma. The literal meaning

of karma is action, and this law holds that the indi-

vidual is the architect of his own destiny in that

actions have consequences that fructify in the future.

The individual who identifies with the body-mind

complex faces the consequences of his actions over

lifetimes. The good and bad circumstances faced by

an individual are simply the consequences of earlier

actions. This follows from the principle of oneness.

Action is done in a collective of entities that are one

and hence implicitly connected. One’s actions have

consequences not only for others but also for oneself.

All entities involved in the context of an action are as

important as the actor and cannot be viewed simply

as means to an end. Accordingly, the ideal of dharma

or appropriate action contains explicit recognition of

the consequences of action to oneself and to others

and does not view ends separately from means.

Hence, we use the following two items to measure

appropriate action:

ACT1 I do actions keeping in mind the conse-

quences of those actions.

ACT2 I give as much importance to the means

as to the ends.

It should be noted that integrity and appropriate

action are guiding ideals rather than specific do’s and

don’ts. The texts recognize the contingent nature of

values and ask the individual to arrive at specific

courses of action in each situation and circumstance

after due consideration of these ideals.

Integrity as a personal sense of oneness allows

appropriate action which explicitly recognizes the

oneness in a collective. Such action facilitates

experience of the ultimate reality by building inner

peace which in turn fosters integrity and appropriate

action. Inner peace is considered to be the pre-

requisite for experiential knowledge of reality. This

is so since the ultimate goal is the transcendental Self

and this to be gained only by looking within. This

end-state is characterized by a pure mind that finds

satisfaction in the Self alone (Bhagavad Gita, 2.55,

3.17). The texts suggest that an outward looking

mind will become turbulent due to the very nature

of involvement with the world. As the mind dwells

on objects of the world, it becomes attached to

them. Attachment breeds desire, and denial of de-

sired objects leads to anger. Anger leads to a deluded

mind and loss of memory and capacity to reason, and

inappropriate action follows (Bhagavad Gita, 2.62,

2.63). The texts accord so much importance to this

state that individuals who achieve inner peace are


deemed to be firmly on the path to knowledge of

reality (Bhagavad Gita, 5.19). Analogies such as ‘‘the

depth of a water body can be seen only when the

surface is still’’ are used to underscore the impor-

tance of inner peace. A mind which is able to absorb

desires without internal disturbances, just as rivers

enter the ocean without creating disturbances, is

desirable (Bhagavad Gita, 2.70).

Inner peace comprises of tranquility and equa-

nimity which are the appropriate affect states prior to

action and post outcome. Tranquility is a state of

mind which is not perturbed by sorrow, cravings,

fear, anger, and attachments (Bhagavad Gita 2.56,

2.57). The individual has only the right to appro-

priate action and not to any outcome (Bhagavad

Gita, 3.25). Indeed, any expectations of outcomes

serve only to dilute the wholeness of the action.

Tranquility makes such appropriate action possible.

A corollary to this is that the individual has to be

unruffled by outcomes. Equanimity in the face of

outcomes is hence an important value. Further, the

individual with inner peace is unaffected by praise or

blame (Bhagavad Gita, 4.20–4.22). Accordingly, the

following statements capture equanimity, tranquility,

and self-sufficiency as aspects of inner peace.

INP1 I am not carried away or affected by the

results of my actions.

INP2 I am always at peace irrespective of my

work pressure or any situation.

INP3 I am self-motivated and do not depend on

external factors for sustaining my motivation.

It is perhaps the importance of inner peace that

Kierkegaard is stressing when he states ‘‘It is quite true

what Philosophy says: that Life must be understood

backward. However, that makes one forget the other

saying: that it must be lived—forward. The more one

ponders this, the more it comes to mean that life in the

temporal existence never becomes quite intelligible,

precisely because at no moment can I find complete

quiet to take the backward-looking position’’ (The

Diary of Soren Kierkegaard; Kierkegaard, pt. 5, sct. 4,

no. 136). There are nuances of the philosophy of

existentialism in the view embedded in the texts. The

texts emphasize that the individual defines himself by

the choices he makes and advocate personal integrity

as in the existentialist view. There is also a strong

emphasis on the individual finding meaning for

himself in his state of existence. However, the pre-

eminent focus in the texts is on the origin of the

experience of existence. The individual is urged to

find out for himself who he is and how he and the

world in which he finds himself in the waking and

dream states come about. The texts point out that

those who undertake this inner journey find the

transcendental Self as the origin. The truth of non-

duality is then experienced, and the Self is seen in all.

Until then, it is choices that are based on the belief of

non duality that are beneficial. In summary, existential

beliefs regarding the self and the nature of the universe

primarily foster internal oneness or integrity. Integrity

makes appropriate action possible which in turn leads

to inner peace (Bhagavad Gita, 2.64, 4.33, 4.38, 6.10).

Accordingly, we depict the system of beliefs and

values with these linkages between constructs in

Figure 1.

Data and analysis

A questionnaire was administered to employees of

20 high-performing business organizations in India.

Existential Beliefs

Integrity

Action

Inner Peace

Figure 1. Belief system.


The questionnaire elicited responses on personal

values, work values, organization culture, and per-

ceptions of leader values. A total of 1000 question-

naires were administered, from which 698 usable

questionnaires were received. Respondents were

asked to indicate their level of agreement with

statements on a five point scale ranging from 1

(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We use these

responses to conduct an exploratory analysis to

empirically assess the belief system developed in the

earlier section. The data were randomly split into an

estimation sample with 340 respondents and a vali-

dation sample with 358 respondents. Descriptive

statistics for existential beliefs and personal value

system items in the estimation sample are presented

in Table I. The inner peace items of tranquility and

equanimity, and the integrity aspect of not com-

promising values were lower on an average relative

to the other items. The pattern in the holdout

sample was similar. The values inventory with eight

items has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.725 (0.735 for the

holdout sample). The belief system inventory with

10 items had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.743 (0.759 for

the holdout sample).

We assume that the indicators are reflective of the

underlying constructs and use structural equation

modeling to assess value structure and the entire

belief system proposed in Figure 1. We adopt a

model generating strategy (Joreskog, 1993) wherein

a tentative covariance structure is specified and tested

and thereafter undertake theory and data driven

refinements to arrive at a final model. Since we are

interested in the structure of the value system, we

specify a hybrid structural equation model incorpo-

rating measurement and structural components and

adopt a two-step modeling approach (Anderson and

Gerbing, 1988). First, the model is specified as a

CFA measurement model with independent mea-

surement errors (Anderson and Gerbing, 1984) and

subsequently refined by allowing correlated errors

that are substantively supported. Correlated mea-

surement errors are not uncommon in social psy-

chological research and significant error covariances

represent systematic relationships in measurement

errors due to respondent or item characteristics or

both (Aish and Joreskog, 1990). Once an acceptable

measurement model is obtained, a hybrid model

with structural paths is specified and estimated.

The two models can be compared using goodness of

fit statistics. Further, if the factor loadings do not

significantly vary, measurement invariance is sup-

ported.

We first assess the values scale comprising eight

items measuring the three dimensions of integrity,

action, and inner peace. The CFA with uncorrelated

measurement errors produced a modest fit (v2 =

87.53, df = 17, p = 0.00; CFI = 0.90, AGFI = 0.79;

RMSR = 0.075). Model diagnostics suggested that

the model could be improved by allowing correlated

measurement errors for the pairs INT1–INT3,

INT2–INT3, INT1–ACT1, INT1–ACT1, and

INP2–INP3. Examination of the item characteristics

and expected parameter changes suggested that

relaxing the assumption of independent errors for

these pairs would be meaningful. Accordingly, we

specify these error correlations as free parameters

and estimate the augmented specification. This

model produced a good fit (v2 = 19.41, df = 12, p =

0.07902; CFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.92; RMSR = 0.028)

and meaningful and significant parameter estimates

suggesting that the scale items identify with the

appropriate dimensions. Before proceeding further,

this re-specified three factor model was estimated

using the validation sample resulting in an adequate fit

(v2 = 30.49, df = 12, p = 0.00236; CFI = 0.97,

AGFI = 0.88; RMSR = 0.049). A model with a

single factor represented by all eight indicators was

estimated (v2 = 23.08, df = 15, p = 0.082; CFI =

0.99, AGFI = 0.92; RMSR = 0.033) to assess dis-

criminant validity (Bentler, 1990). The three factor

model has a better fit suggesting discrimination

between the dimensions of integrity, action and inner

TABLE I

Descriptive statistics

Item N Mean Std dev

INT1 337 4.51 0.56

INT2 332 4.30 0.59

INT3 332 3.89 1.00

ACT1 329 4.13 0.66

ACT2 329 4.15 0.66

INP1 329 3.74 0.86

INP2 335 3.58 0.92

INP3 333 4.28 0.71

EB1 336 4.27 0.81

EB2 334 4.25 0.65


peace. These results provide support for convergent

and discriminant validity of three dimensions of

personal values – integrity, action and inner peace.

Next, we consider the structure of the three

dimensions of values as hypothesized in the nomo-

logical net of beliefs and values in Figure 1. Integrity

is expected to lead to action and action leads to inner

peace. We specify a hybrid model which combines

path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis

(Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Kline, 1998). From a

measurement perspective, the focus is on the speci-

fied pattern of loadings of indicators on factors and

the structural aspect considers direct effects among

the latent variables. If all possible paths; integrity to

action and inner peace and action to inner peace; are

specified, then the resulting model is identical to

the CFA model (v2 = 19.41, df = 12, p = 0.07902;

CFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.92; RMSR = 0.028).

However, the path from integrity to inner peace was

not significant in both estimation and validation

samples. A restricted model as described in the values

segment in Figure 1 specifies structural effects

between the integrity, action and action, inner peace

pairs. This model did not show a significant deteri-

oration (v2 = 19.61, df = 13, p = 0.10534; CFI =

0.99, AGFI = 0.93; RMSR = 0.029). The results

for the two models are summarized in Table II;

Model 2 is the CFA model which serves as a baseline

model in which Model 3 (the hybrid path and

measurement model) is nested. Model 3 has one

extra degree of freedom since the path from integrity

to inner peace is fixed at zero. The path coefficients

from integrity to action and action to inner peace

were both significant at 1.15 and 0.99, respectively

in Model 3. The increase in the v2 statistic is 0.20

while the degrees of freedom increase by one.

When the restricted model was estimated with the

validation sample data (v2 = 30.49, df = 13, p =

0.004; CFI = 0.97, AGFI = 0.89; RMSR = 0.05),

the v2 statistic showed no increase while the AGFI

and RMSR improved. Factor loadings for the two

models are similar supporting measurement invari-

ance. Thus, the conceptualization and measurement

of dimensions of values and the structure of the value

system described in the texts are supported by the

data.

We next add existential beliefs to this structure of

prescriptive beliefs or values and conduct a CFA

(Model 3) of the belief system. The model fit (v2 =

76.77, df = 24, p = 0.00000; CFI = 0.93, AGFI =

0.82; RMSR = 0.111) is marginal although it is

better for the validation sample (v2 = 66.98, df = 22,

p = 0.0001; CFI = 0.96, AGFI = 0.86; RMSR =

0.058). Finally, we consider the prescriptive belief

network estimated earlier augmented with existen-

tial beliefs (Figure 2) as the antecedent to the core

value of integrity. The model fit (v2 = 59.27, df =

27, p = 0.00033; CFI = 0.97, AGFI = 0.87; RMSR =

0.082) is encouraging and the influence of existential

beliefs on integrity is positive and significant. Similar

results were obtained with the validation sample.

The conceptual model of existential beliefs and

values is supported by the data.

Discussion

In this study, we have extracted the content of

existential and prescriptive beliefs embedded in the

ancient Indian texts and described the system of

beliefs. We have then used survey responses to assess

the nomological network of beliefs. Results suggest

that there are significant relationships between

existential beliefs and prescriptive beliefs. Specifi-

cally, the paths from existential beliefs to integrity,

integrity to action, and action to inner peace are

significant. The central feature of this system is its

focus on the nature of the self and consequently the

TABLE II

CFA and hybrid models

v2 df v2/df v2 difference df difference GFI CFI AGFI RMSR

1. CFA initial – 3 factor 87.53 17 5.15 0.9 0.9 0.79 0.075

2. CFA final – 3 factor 19.41 12 1.62 0.97 0.99 0.92 0.028

3. Hybrid model 19.61 13 1.51 0.2 1 0.97 0.99 0.93 0.029


implied desirability of integrity. A focus on the self is

also central in Schwartz’s (1992) representation of

values; the two higher dimensions are openness to

change versus conservation and self enhancement

versus self transcendence. However, in our repre-

sentation, though the interplay between the indi-

vidual and the outer world is the context, the focus is

on inner peace which is reflective of self control and

affective self-sufficiency. Such inner peace enables

self transcendence and achievement of the supra

terminal goal of experiential awareness of oneness.

Our earlier depiction of the value system was a

static version and the texts suggest that as individuals

evolve the ability to practice these values increases.

In the limiting case, the values themselves become

one, and integrity, action, and inner peace are

spontaneous expressions of the individual who is

established in oneness. A preliminary representation

of the dynamic structure of the belief system is

depicted in Figure 3. The core values of integrity,

action, and inner peace are represented as expanding

concentric circles. Action is contained within

integrity, and the gap between the two captures

the difficulty associated with translating intent into

action. The gap between intent and action results in

a realization of inner peace below potential. As the

gap between action and integrity is closed, the inner

peace circle also expands, and when there is com-

plete consistency of thought, word, and deed the

three circles become one.

We have adopted a parsimonious approach in

specifying a value system that is consistent with

existential beliefs. This prescription of a values sys-

tem with its relentless inward looking approach is

admittedly difficult to practice. The pull of the body

and the mind is also natural, and an approach is

required, which accepts these limitations and yet

facilitates transcending them. The texts have also

supported prosperity and material desires as legiti-

mate as long as they are obtained without violating

the principles of action as detailed earlier. When

duality of the individual and the world is explicitly

recognized, dharma, artha, kama, and moksha are

defined as the values of life. Moksha is liberation and

characterizes the self transcending itself and abiding

in the eternal state of ultimate reality of satya. As

detailed earlier, dharma is right action in that it allows

for enjoyment of objects in dual existence but at the

same time enables transcendence of duality and

realization of oneness. Artha (relating to a thing or

Figure 2. Existential beliefs and values.


object; material, significant; resulting from or based

on the possession of a thing) refers to external objects

such as wealth and focuses on possession as a value.

Kama (wish, desire, longing) is desire which is part of

the human psyche. In this system of four legitimate

values, it is important to note that each is not to be

looked at in isolation. Desire for worldly objects is

acceptable, and their acquisition is allowed for as

long as dharma is not violated. Further, such action

even facilitates evolution and self-transcendence. It

should be noted that dharma is common to both the

inward and outward looking approaches. Prema

(universal and unconditional love) and ahimsa (non-

violence) are part of dharma but merit explicit and

separate recognition as values. This system of values

that would be applicable in an outward looking

approach that is rooted in dual existence is also

depicted in Figure 3. The values in this approach

that are distinct are possession (artha and kama), non-

violence (ahimsa), and unconditional love (prema);

dharma or right action is common to both. This

depiction indicates that possession of desired objects

is legitimate as long as the principles of right action

and non-violence are not violated in the acquisition

process. Prema or unconditional love is the charac-

teristic of one who while retaining a functional

identity is experientially aware of the ultimate reality

and hence is one with everything. The arrows at the

two boundaries of the love sector indicate its ever

expanding nature when possession is pursued with

right action and non-violence. Eventually, there is

experiential awareness only of ultimate reality and

such awareness is characterized by unconditional

love. The belief in oneness lead to simple behavioral

prescriptions which are breathtaking in scope such as

extending love and service to all and always seeking

to help and never to hurt others.

Our focus has been on the ancient texts of India,

but our findings may not be limited to this world-

view. There is support in the literature for consid-

erable similarities in the inner meaning embedded in

worldviews of major spiritual traditions (Kriger and

Seng, 2005). Further research is required to establish

the specific similarities with respect to existential

beliefs. Even within the Indian tradition, there are

schools of thought that interpret the texts as

affirming the all pervasive and time transcending

nature of the ultimate reality but with nuanced dif-

ferences. Among the many paths available toward

experience of the ultimate reality, we have consid-

ered in some detail the paths of knowledge and

action. The path of devotion is another option and

considered as a relatively easy approach for those in

who affect dominates rather than cognition.

However, as mentioned earlier, all paths lead to the

same goal and eventually subsume each other. The

Figure 3. Evolution of personal values.


ultimate reality is essentially ineffable, and the texts

often stress that although the truth is one, the wise

describe it in many ways.

Further research is required to examine the extent

to which the proposed personal value system is

applicable in current times. Also, heterogeneity in

values within cultural contexts cannot be ruled out

and merits study. Testing the dynamic nature of the

belief system as conceptualized in Figure 3 would

require longitudinal data. Further study is required

to examine if there are more facets to the personal

value system and detail the typology of values. This

would allow us to expand the network to examine

contextual manifestations of personal values such as

family values, work values and well-being. As we

look at such contexts, other values could arise and

situations could demand a competing values frame-

work (Tetlock, 1986; Tetlock et al., 1996). The

texts emphasize the importance of uncompromising

adherence to even one value and suggest that this is

better than weak adherence to many values. This

raises the importance of examining the process of

valuing (Feather, 1995). In this cultural context,

lexicographic ordering of values would appear to be

more appropriate than compensatory rules. How-

ever, business ethics and work values such as coop-

eration, teamwork, and well being of all stakeholders

are immediate implications of this personal value

system which follows from some recognition of

oneness and where integrity is of primary impor-

tance. Further, the implications of value-congruence

with other entities in the context can also be

examined. A natural extension would be to con-

struct work value structures and establish the rela-

tionships of personal values with work values and

subjective well-being.

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Niranjan Narasimhan and Kumar Bhaskar

Sri Sathya Sai University,

Prashanthi Nilayam, India

E-mail: [email protected];

[email protected]

Srinivas Prakhya

Indian Institute of Management Bangalore,

Bengaluru, India

E-mail: [email protected]


Existential Beliefs and Values

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