INTRODUCTIONWe have studed that Industra Revouton and Green
Revoutonhave great contrbutons n the modern deveopment.
Newresearches and nvestgaton n Scence and Technoogystrengthened our
ehorts for deveopment n ndustra andagrcutura
sectors.However,envronmentasts theword overdont have a better feeng
for t as most of the moderndeveopment have been adopted at the cost
of our naturaenvronment and ts resources. As such, the
moderndeveopments havebeenadoptedat thecost of our naturaenvronment
and ts resources. As such, the moderndeveopment has been decared to
be unsustanabe. Asustanabe deveopment takes care of envronment and
supportsa the sectons of the socety. It s based on equty
andpreservaton of natura resources. In the present pro|ect we
aregongtostudyaboutthempactof moderndeveopmentwth mpactof
moderndeveopmentwthspeca reference to Gobazaton and Lberazaton.
speca reference to Gobazaton and Lberazaton.IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT
ON ENVIRONMENT IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT ON ENVIRONMENTModern
deveopment has mmense mpact on dherent sectors ofnatura envronment.
It has changed the pattern of and use andvast areas of and ncudng
wet ands etc. Vast tracks of
forestshavebeencearedfortheutzatonoftheforestandfortheextenson of
agrcuture, budng of apartments andestabshment of factores. Most of
our resources especay fossfues have been depeted consderaby. Human
actvtes ofndustrazaton, mnngandquarryng, msuseandoveruseofresources
etc. have caused serous poutons n ar, water and onandtogether
wthcausnghabtat destructonandeventheextncton of severa speces of
pants and anmas. Let us dscussthese mpacts n more detas.Land
reclamationRecamng n Perth, Austraa 1964Land reclamation, usuay
known asreclamation, s theprocess tocreatenewandfromseaorrverbeds.
Theandrecamed s known as reclamation ground or landfll.HaitationThe
entre East Coast Park n Sngapore was but on recamed and wth a
man-madebeach.The creaton of new and was for the need of human
actvtes.Notabe exampes n the West ncude arge parts of
theNetherands, parts of New Oreans (whch s partay but on andthat
was once swamp); much ofSan Francsco's waterfront hasbeen recamed
from the San Francsco Bay; Mexco Cty (whch sstuated at the former
ste ofLake Texcoco);Hesnk(of whchthe ma|or part of the cty center s
but on recamed and); theCapeTownforeshore; theChcagoshorene;
theMana Bayshorene;BackBay, Boston,
Massachusetts;BatteryParkCty,Manhattan; Lberty State Park, |ersey
Cty; the port of Zeebruggen Begum; the southwestern resdenta area n
Brest, Bearus,thepodersoftheNetherands;
andtheTorontoIsands,LeseStreet Spt, and the waterfrontn Toronto. In
the Far East, HongKong, Macau, |apan, the southern Chnese ctes of
Shenzhen, thePhppnecaptaMana, and the cty-stateofSngapore, whereand
s n short suppy, are aso famous for ther ehorts on andrecamaton.
Oneof theearest andfamous pro|ect was thePraya Recamaton Scheme,
whch added 50 to 60 acres(240,000 m2) of and n 1890 durng the
second phase ofconstructon. It wasoneof themost ambtous pro|ects
evertaken durng the Coona Hong Kongera. Some 20% of and nthe Tokyo
Bayarea has been recamed.Monacoand the Brtshterrtory of Gbratar are
aso expandng due to and recamaton.The cty of Ro de |anero was argey
but on recamed and, aswas Wengton, New Zeaand.Artca sands are an
exampe of and recamaton. Creatng anartca sand s an expensve and
rsky undertakng. It s oftenconsdered n paces that are densey
popuated and at and sscarce.Kansa Internatona Arport(nOsaka)
andHongKongInternatona Arportare exampes where ths process
wasdeemed necessary. The Pam Isands, The Word and hote Bur| a-Arab
oh Duba n the Unted Arab Emrates are other exampes ofartca
sands.AgricultureAgrcuture was a drve for and recamaton
beforendustrasaton. In South Chna, farmers recamed paddy
edsbyencosnganareawthastonewa ontheseashorenearrver mouth or rver
deta. The speces of rce that grow on thesegroundsaremoresattoerant.
Another useof suchencosedand s creaton ofsh ponds. It s commony
seen on the PearRver DetaandHongKong. Theserecamaton aso
attractsspeces of mgratng brds.A reated practce s thedranngof
swampy or seasonaysubmergedwetandstoconvert themtofarmand.
Whethsdoes not create new and exacty, t aows
commercayproductveuseof andthat
woudotherwseberestrctedtowdfehabtat. It s aso an mportant method
ofmosqutocontro.!eac" re#torationBeach rebudng s the process of
reparngbeachesusngmateras such as sand or mud from nand. Ths can be
used tobud up beaches suherng from beach starvaton or eroson
fromongshoredrft. It stops themovement of theorgna beachmatera
through ongshore drft and retans a natura ook to thebeach. Athought
s not aong-astngsouton, t s cheapcompared to other types of coasta
defences.LandfllAshumanovercrowdngof deveopedareasntenseddurngthe
20th century, t has become mportant to deveop and
re-usestrategesfor competedands. Someof themost commonusages are
for parks,gof coursesand other sports eds.Increasngy, however,
omcebudngsandndustra usesaremadeonacompetedand. Intheseatter
uses,methanecapture s customary carred out to mnmze exposve
hazardwthn the budng.An exampe of a Cass A omce budng constructed
over a andstheDaknBudngatSerraPont,Brsbane, Caforna. Theunderyng
was deposted from 1965 to 1985, mostyconsstngofconstructondebrsfrom
SanFrancscoandsomemuncpa wastes.Aera photographspror
to1965showthsareatobetdeandsoftheSanFrancscoBay.
Acaycapwasconstructed over the debrs pror to budng approva. Anotabe
exampe sSydney OympcPark, the prmary venuefor the 2000 Summer Oympc
Games, whch was but atop anndustra wasteand that ncuded
ands.Another strategy for and s the ncneraton of and trash athgh
temperature va the pasma-arc gascaton process, whchs currenty used
at two factes n |apan, and w be used at apanned facty n St. Luce
County, Forda. En$ironmental im%actParts (hghghted n brown) of the
San Francsco Bay were recamed from wetands forurban use.Dranng
wetands for poughng, for exampe, s a form of habtatdestructon. In
some parts of the word, new recamaton pro|ectsare restrcted or no
onger aowed, due toenvronmentaprotecton aws.En$ironmental
legi#lationHong Kong egsators passed theProtecton of the
HarbourOrdnancen1996nanehort
tosafeguardthencreasngythreatenedVctora Harbouraganst encroachng
anddeveopment. Land amount# addedLand recamaton n HongKong: Grey
(but),red (proposed or under deveopment).Most of the urban area of
Hong Kong s on the recamed and. Net"erland#- about
1/5andfromandrecamatonorabout 7,000 km2. &out"'orea- Asof 2006,
38percent or 1,550 km2ofcoasta wetands recamed, ncudng 400
km2atSaemangeum. &inga%ore- 20%of theorgna szeor 135 km2.
Asof2003, pans for 99 km 2 more are to go ahead, despte thefactthat
dsputespersstwthMaaysaoverSngapore'sextensve and recamaton works.
Hong'ong- (Mainarticle:Landreclamation
inHongKong)PrayaRecamatonSchemebeganntheate1860sandconsstedof
twostagestotang50to60+acres.HongKong Dsneyand,Hong Kong Internatona
Arport, and tspredecessor,Ka TakArport, werea but onrecamedand.
Inaddton, muchrecamatonhas takenpacenprme ocatons on the waterfront
on both sdes of VctoraHarbour. Ths has rasedenvronmentassues of
theprotectonof theharbourwhchwasoncethesourceofprosperty of Hong
Kong, tramc congeston n the Centradstrct, as we as the couson of
the Hong KongGovernment wth the rea estate deveopers n the
terrtory.Inaddton, asthectyexpands, newtownsndherentdecades were
mosty but on recamed and, such as TuenMun, Ta Po, Shatn-Ma On Shan,
West Kowoon, Kwun Tongand Tseung Kwan O. Macau - 170% of the orgna
sze or 17 km2 Mumai To()o !a)* +a%an - 249 km2. 'oe* +a%an - 23 km2
(1995). !a"rain - 76.3% of orgna sze of 410 km2(1931-2007). Ne,
-ealand- sgncant areas of and totang severahundred hectares have
been recamed aong theharbourfront ofAuckand,WengtonandDunedn.
InDunedn - whch n ts eary days was ncknamed "Mudedn"- around2.5
km2, ncudngmuchof thenner ctyandsuburbs of Dunedn North, South
Dunedn and AndersonsBaysrecamedfromtheOtagoHarbour,
andasmarareanthesuburbsofStCarandStKdasrecamedswampand.De.ore#tation|unge
burned for agrcuture n southern Mexco.Deforestaton n the Gran
Chaco,
ParaguayDeforestatonandncreasedroad-budngntheAmazonRanforestareasgncant
concernbecauseof ncreasedhumanencroachment uponwdareas, ncreased
resource extracton and further threats to bodversty.De.ore#tation s
the remova of a forest or stand of trees wherethe and s thereafter
converted to a nonforest use. Exampes
ofdeforestatonncudeconversonof forestandtoagrcutureorurban use.The
term deforestation s often msused to descrbe any actvtywhere atrees
n an area are removed. However n temperatemesc cmates, the remova
of a trees n an area-nconformance wth sustanabe forestry practces-s
correctydescrbed as regeneration harvest. In temperate mesc
cmates,natura regeneraton of forest stands often w not occur n
theabsence of dsturbance, whether natura or
anthropogenc.Furthermore, bodversty after regeneraton harvest
oftenmmcs that found after natura dsturbance, ncudngbodversty oss
after naturay occurrng ranforest destructon. Deforestaton occurs
for many reasons: trees or derved charcoaare used as, or sod, for
fue or as umber, whe ceared and susedaspastureforvestock,
pantatonsof commodtes, andsettements. The remova of trees wthout
sumcent reforestatonhas resuted n damage to habtat, bodversty oss
and ardty. Ithas adverse mpacts on bosequestratonof atmospherc
carbondoxde. Deforested regons typcay ncur sgncant adverse soeroson
and frequenty degrade nto wasteand.Dsregard or gnorance of ntrnsc
vaue, ack of ascrbed vaue,axforest management anddecent envronmenta
aws aresome of the factors that aow deforestaton to occur on a
argescae. In many countres, deforestaton, both naturay
occurrngandhumannduced, sanongongssue. Deforestatoncausesextncton,
changestocmatccondtons,desertcaton,
anddspacementofpopuatonsasobservedbycurrentcondtonsand n the past
through the foss record. Among countres wth a per capta GDP of at
east US$4,600, netdeforestaton rates have ceased to ncrease.
Cau#e#There are many causes of contemporary deforestaton,
ncudngcorrupton of government nsttutons, the nequtabe dstrbutonof
weath and power, popuaton growth and overpopuaton, andurbanzaton.
Gobazaton s often vewed as another root causeof deforestaton,
though there are cases n whch the mpacts ofgobazaton (newows of
abor, capta, commodtes, anddeas) have promoted ocazed forest
recovery. In2000theUntedNatonsFoodandAgrcutureOrganzaton(FAO)
foundthat "theroeof popuatondynamcs naocasettng may vary from
decsve to neggbe," and thatdeforestaton can resut from"a combnaton
of popuatonpressure and stagnatng economc, soca and
technoogcacondtons." Accordng to the Unted Natons Framework
Conventon onCmateChange(UNFCCC)secretarat,theoverwhemngdrectcause
of deforestaton s agrcuture. Subsstence farmng
sresponsbefor48%ofdeforestaton; commerca agrcuturesresponsbe for
32% ofdeforestaton;oggngsresponsbefor14%of deforestatonandfue
woodremovasmakeup5%ofdeforestaton.
Thedegradatonofforestecosystemshasasobeentracedtoeconomcncentvesthatmakeforestconversonappearmoreprotabe
than forest conservaton. Many mportant forestfunctons have no
markets, and hence, no economc vaue that sready apparent to the
forests' owners or the communtes thatrey on forests for ther
we-beng. From the perspectve of thedeveopng word, the benets of
forest as carbon snks orbodverstyreservesgoprmarytorcher
deveopednatonsand there s nsumcent compensaton for these
servces.Deveopng countres fee that some countres n the
deveopedword, suchas theUntedStates of Amerca, cut downtherforests
centures ago and beneted greaty from thsdeforestaton, and that t s
hypocrtca to deny deveopngcountres the same opportuntes: that the
poor shoudn't have tobear the cost of preservaton when the rch
created the probem. Experts do not agree on whether ndustra oggng s
anmportantcontrbutortogoba deforestaton. Somearguethatpoor peope
are more key to cear forest because they have noaternatves, others
that the poor ack the abty to pay for thematerasandabour
neededtocearforest. Onestudyfoundthat popuaton ncreases due to hgh
fertty rates were aprmary drver of tropca deforestaton n ony 8% of
cases. Some commentators have noted a shft n the drvers
ofdeforestaton over the past 30 years. Whereas deforestaton
wasprmary drven by subsstence actvtes and government-sponsored
deveopment pro|ects ke transmgratonn countreske Indonesaand
coonzatonn Latn Amerca,Inda,|avaetc.durng ate 19th century and the
earer haf of the 20th century.By the 1990s the ma|orty of
deforestaton was caused byndustra factors, ncudng extractve
ndustres, arge-scaecatte ranchng, and extensve agrcuture.
En$ironmental %rolem#Atmo#%"ericDeforestaton s ongong and s shapng
cmate and geography. Deforestatonsacontrbutor togoba warmng,
andsoftenctedasoneofthema|orcausesoftheenhanced greenhouseehect.
Tropca deforestaton s responsbe for approxmatey20%of word
greenhouse gas emssons. Accordng to theIntergovernmenta Pane on
Cmate Changedeforestaton,many n tropca areas, coud account for up
to one-thrd of totaanthropogenccarbon doxdeemssons. But recent
cacuatonssuggest that carbondoxdeemssonsfromdeforestatonandforest
degradaton (excudngpeatandemssons) contrbuteabout 12% of tota
anthropogenc carbon doxde emssons wtha range from 6 to 17%. Trees
and other pants remove carbon (ntheformofcarbondoxde)
fromtheatmospheredurngtheprocess ofphotosynthessandreeaseoxygenback
nto theatmosphere durng norma respraton. Ony when actveygrowng can
a tree or forest remove carbon overan annuaoronger tmeframe. Both
the decay and burnng of wood reeasesmuch of ths stored carbon back
to the atmosphere. In order forforests totakeupcarbon, thewoodmust
beharvestedandturnedntoong-vedproductsandtreesmust
bere-panted.Deforestaton may cause carbon stores hed n so to
bereeased. Forests are stores of carbon and can be ether snks
orsourcesdependnguponenvronmenta crcumstances.
Matureforestsaternatebetweenbengnet snksandnet sourcesofcarbon
doxde (see carbon doxde snk and carbon
cyce).Reducngemssonsfromthetropca deforestatonandforestdegradaton
(REDD) n deveopng countres has emerged as newpotenta to compement
ongong cmate poces. The deaconssts n provdng nanca compensatons for
the reducton ofgreenhouse gas
(GHG)emssonsfromdeforestatonandforestdegradaton".Ranforests are
wdey beeved by aymen to contrbute asgncant amount of word's oxygen
athough t s now acceptedby scentsts that ranforests contrbute tte
netoxygento theatmosphere and deforestaton w have no ehect on
atmosphercoxygeneves. However, thencneratonandburnngofforestpants
to cear and reeases arge amounts of CO2, whchcontrbutes to goba
warmng. Forestsareasoabetoextractcarbondoxdeandpoutantsfrom the ar,
thus contrbutng to bosphere stabty.H)drologicalThe water cyce s aso
ahected by deforestaton. Trees extractgroundwater through ther
roots and reease t nto theatmosphere. Whenpart of aforest sremoved,
thetreesnoonger evaporateawayths water, resutngnamuchdrercmate.
Deforestatonreducesthecontentofwaternthesoand groundwater as we as
atmospherc mosture. Deforestatonreducesso coheson, sothateroson,
oodngandandsdesensue. Forests enhance the recharge of aqufers n
some ocaes,however, forests are a ma|or source of aqufer depeton on
mostocaes. Shrnkng forest cover essens the andscape's capacty
tontercept, retan and transpreprecptaton. Instead of
trappngprecptaton, whchthen percoates to groundwater
systems,deforested areas become sources of surface water runoh,
whchmoves much faster than subsurface ows. That qucker transportof
surface water can transate ntoash oodngandmoreocazed oods than woud
occur wth the forest cover.Deforestaton aso contrbutes todecreased
evapotranspraton,whch essens atmospherc mosture whch n some cases
ahectsprecptaton eves downwnd from the deforested area, as
watersnot recycedtodownwndforests, but sost nrunohandreturns drecty
to the oceans. Accordng to one study, ndeforested north and
northwest Chna, the average annuaprecptaton decreased by one thrd
between the 1950s and the1980s.Trees, and pants n genera, ahect the
water cyce sgncanty: ther canopes ntercept a proporton of
precptaton, whchs then evaporated back to the atmosphere
(canopyntercepton); ther tter, stems and trunks sow down surface
runoh; ther roots create macropores- arge conduts - n the sothat
ncrease ntraton of water; theycontrbutetoterrestra
evaporatonandreducesomosture va transpraton; ther tter and other
organc resdue change so propertesthat ahect the capacty of so to
store water. ther eaves contro thehumdtyof
theatmospherebytransprng. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots
movesup to the eaves and s transpred.|44|Asaresut,
thepresenceorabsenceof treescanchangethequantty of water on the
surface, n the so or groundwater, or ntheatmosphere. Ths
nturnchanges erosonrates andtheavaabtyof water for ether
ecosystemfunctonsor humanservces.The forest may have tte mpact on
oodng n the case of argeranfaevents, whch overwhem the storage
capacty of forestso f the sos are at or cose to saturaton.Tropca
ranforestsproduce about 30%of our panet's
freshwater.|37|&oilDeforestaton for the use of cay n the Brazan
cty of Ro de |anero. The hdepcted s Morro da Covanca, n
|acarepaguUndsturbed forests have a very ow rate
ofsooss,approxmatey 2 metrc tonsper square kometer (6 short tonsper
square me). Deforestaton generay ncreases rates of soeroson,
byncreasngtheamount ofrunohandreducngtheprotecton of the so from
tree tter. Ths can be an advantage nexcessvey eached tropca ran
forest sos. Forestry
operatonsthemsevesasoncreaseerosonthroughthedeveopment ofroads and
the use of mechanzed equpment.Chna's Loess Pateauwas ceared of
forest menna ago. Sncethen t has been erodng, creatng dramatc ncsed
vaeys, andprovdngthesedment that gvestheYeowRver tsyeowcoor andthat
causes theoodngof therver ntheowerreaches (hence the rver's nckname
'Chna's sorrow').Remova of trees does not aways ncreaseerosonrates.
Incertanregonsof southwest US,
shrubsandtreeshavebeenencroachngongrassand.
Thetreesthemsevesenhancetheoss of grass between tree canopes. The
bare ntercanopy areasbecome hghy erodbe. The USForest Servce, n
BandeerNatona Monument for exampe, s studyng how to restore
theformer ecosystem, and reduce eroson, by removng the trees.Tree
roots bnd so together, and f the so s sumcenty shaowthey act to
keep the so n pace by aso bndng wth underyngbedrock. Treeremova
onsteepsopeswthshaowso thusncreases the rsk of andsdes, whch can
threaten peope vngnearby. Howevermost
deforestatononyahectsthetrunksoftrees, aowng for the roots to stay
rooted, negatng theandsde.EcologicalDeforestaton resuts n decnes n
bodversty. The removaordestructon of areas of forest cover has
resuted n a degradedenvronment wth reducedbodversty. Forests
supportbodversty, provdng habtat forwdfe; moreover,
forestsfostermedcna conservaton. Wth forest botopes bengrrepaceabe
source of new drugs (such as taxo), deforestatoncan
destroygenetcvaratons (such as crop resstance)rretrevaby. Snce the
tropca ranforests are the most dverse ecosystems onEarth and about
80% of the word's known bodversty coud befound n tropca ranforests,
remova or destructon of sgncantareasof forest
coverhasresutednadegradedenvronmentwth reduced bodversty. It has
been estmated that we are osng 137 pant, anma andnsect speces every
snge day due to ranforest deforestaton,whch equates to 50,000
speces a year. Others state thattropca ranforest
deforestatonscontrbutngtotheongongHoocene mass extncton. The known
extncton rates fromdeforestatonratesareveryow,
approxmatey1specesperyear from mammas and brds whch extrapoates
toapproxmatey 23,000 speces per year for a speces.
Predctonshavebeenmadethatmorethan40%oftheanma and pantspeces n
Southeast Asa coud be wped out n the 21st
century.Suchpredctonswerecaedntoquestonby1995datathatshow that wthn
regons of Southeast Asa much of the orgnaforest has been converted
to monospecc pantatons, but
thatpotentayendangeredspecesarefewandtreeoraremanswdespread and
stabe. Scentc understandng of the process of extncton snsumcent to
accuratey make predctonsabout the mpact ofdeforestaton on
bodversty. Most predctons of forestry reatedbodversty oss are based
on speces-area modes, wth anunderyng assumpton that as the forest
decnes specesdversty w decne smary. However, many such modes
havebeen proven to be wrong and oss of habtat does not
necessaryeadtoargescaeoss of speces. Speces-area modes areknown to
overpredct the number of speces known to bethreatened n areas where
actuadeforestaton s ongong,
andgreatyoverpredctthenumberofthreatenedspecesthatarewdespread.
Economic im%actDamage to forests and other aspects of nature coud
have vngstandardsfor the word's poorand reduce gobaGDPby
about7%by2050, ama|or report concudedat theConventononBoogca
Dversty (CBD) meetng n Bonn. Hstorcay utzatonof forest products,
ncudng tmber and fue wood, have payed akey roe n human socetes,
comparabe to the roes of water andcutvabeand. Today,
deveopedcountrescontnuetoutzetmber for budng houses, and wood pup
forpaper. Indeveopng countres amost three bon peope rey on wood
forheatng and cookng.
Theforestproductsndustrysaargepartoftheeconomynboth deveoped and
deveopng countres. Short-term economcgans made by converson of
forest to agrcuture, orover-expotaton of wood products, typcay eads
to oss of ong-termncome and ong term boogca productvty (hence
reducton nnature's servces).West Afrca,Madagascar,Southeast
Asaandmany other regons have experenced ower revenue because
ofdecnng tmber harvests. Iega oggng causes bons of doarsof osses to
natona economes annuay. The new procedures to get amounts of wood
are causng moreharmtotheeconomyandoverpowerstheamount of moneyspent
by peope empoyed n oggng. Accordng to a study, "nmost areas studed,
the varous ventures that prompteddeforestaton rarey generated more
than US$5 for every ton ofcarbon they reeased and frequenty
returned far ess thanUS$1". The prce on the European market for an
ohset ted to aone-ton reducton n carbon s 23 euro (about US$35).
Fore#t tran#ition t"eor)The forest transton and hstorca basenes.
The forest area change may foow a pattern suggested by theforest
transton(FT) theory, whereby at eary stages n tsdeveopment a
country s characterzed by hgh forest cover andow deforestaton rates
(HFLD countres). Thendeforestatonratesacceerate(HFHD,
hghforestcover-hgh deforestaton rate), and forest cover s reduced
(LFHD. owforest cover - hgh deforestaton rate), before the
deforestatonrate sows (LFLD, ow forest cover - ow deforestaton
rate), afterwhch forest cover stabzes and eventuay starts
recoverng. FTs not a "aw of nature," and the pattern s nuenced by
natonacontext (e.g., human popuaton densty, stage of
deveopment,structure of the economy), goba economc forces,
andgovernment poces. Acountrymayreachveryowevesofforest cover
before t stabzes, or t mght through good pocesbe abe to "brdge" the
forest transton.FT depcts a broad trend, and an extrapoaton of
hstorca
ratesthereforetendstounderestmatefutureBAUdeforestatonforcountesat
theearystagesnthetranston(HFLD), whettends
tooverestmateBAUdeforestatonfor countres at theater stages (LFHD
and LFLD).Countres wth hgh forest cover can be expected to be at
earystages of the FT. GDP per capta captures the stage n a
countryseconomc deveopment, whch s nked to the pattern of
naturaresourceuse, ncudngforests. ThechoceofforestcoverandGDP per
capta aso ts we wth the two key scenaros n the FT:() aforest
scarctypath, whereforest scarctytrggersforces(e.g., hgher prces of
forest products) that ead to forest coverstabzaton;
and()aneconomcdeveopmentpath, wherenewandbetteroh-farm empoyment
opportuntes assocated wth economc growth(=ncreasngGDP per capta)
reduce protabty of fronteragrcuture and sows deforestaton. Re#ource
de%letionRe#ource de%letions aneconomctermreferrng to theexhauston
of rawmateras wthn a regon.Resourcesarecommony dvded
betweenrenewabe resourcesandnon-renewaberesources. (SeeasoMnera
resourcecasscaton.)Useofetheroftheseformsofresourcesbeyondtherrateofrepacement
s consdered to be resource depeton.Resource depeton s most commony
used n reference to thefarmng, shng, mnng, and foss fues. Cau#e# o.
re#ource de%letion Over-consumpton/excessve or unnecessary use
ofresources Non-equtabe dstrbuton of resources Overpopuaton Sash
and burn agrcutura practces, currenty occurrng nmany deveopng
countres Technoogca and ndustra deveopment Eroson Irrgaton Mnng for
o and mneras Aquer depeton Forestry Pouton or contamnaton of
resourcesMineral# and oilMateras removed from the Earth are needed
to provde humanswth food, cothng, and housng and to contnuay
upgrade thestandard of vng. Some of the materas needed are
renewaberesources, such as agrcutura and forestry products,
wheothers are nonrenewabe, such as mneras. The USGS
reportednMaterasFowandSustanabty(1998)thatthenumberofrenewabe
resources s decreasng, meanwhe there s anncreasng demand for
nonrenewabe resources. Snce 1900
theuseofconstructonmaterassuchasstone, sand, andgrave,has soared.
The arge-scae expotaton of mneras began n theIndustra
Revoutonaround1760nEngandandhas grownrapdyeversnce.
Todayseconomysargeybasedonfossfues, mneras and o. The vaue ncreases
because of the argedemand, but the suppy s decreasng. Ths has
resuted n moreehortstodr andsearchotherterrtores.
Theenvronmentsbengabusedandths depetonof resources s
onewayofshowngthe ahects.Mnngstpoutesthe envronment,onyon a arger
scae. The US government has produced the Cean ArAct,
theCeanWaterAct, andtheResourceConservatonandRecoveryAct of
1976norder toreguatecertanaspectsofmnng but t s truy up to the
ndvdua states to reguate t.Oil in t"e ArcticO has become one of the
top resources used n Amerca. Drngfor o has become a ma|or ssue.
Amerca s more abundant ncoa
buttheehectsontheatmospherearefarworsethano.Geoogsts consder
northern Aaska to be the ast, untouched oed n North Amerca.
Envronmenta experts are worred that oand gas deveopment w serousy
harm the area. In 2002 theUSGS assessed the NPRA and found a
sgncanty greater suppyof petroeum (5,900,000 barres (938,000 m3)
to13,200,000,000 barres (2.10109m3)) than prevousyestmated. Ony up
to 5,600,000,000 barres (890,000,000 m3)
ofthspetroeumaretechncayandeconomcayrecoverabeatexstng market
prces. The USGS suspects that there may be
asmuchas83.2troncubcfeetofundscoverednatura gasnthe same area.
Transportaton of ths gas to markets woudrequreanewppene.
Theresareadyappenesystemnpace for o-the Trans-Aaska Ppene System
(TAPS), whch esbetween the NPRA and the Arctc Natona Wdfe
Refuge(ANWR). TheANWRsa19-mon-acre(77,000km2) areaofwderness aong
the Aaska-Canada border. It, too, s bengconsdered for o exporaton,
a move strongy opposed byenvronmentasts. The future of the refuge
es n the hands ofthe federa government. The admnstraton of George
H. W. Bushmadedrngthereama|orfoundatonof thenatona energypocy.
Under the Cnton admnstraton o and
mneradeveopmentwasprohbtedwthnthewdferefuge. InApr2002, foowng
heated debate; the U.S. Senate ked a proposaby the admnstraton of
George W. Bush to et o companes drn ANWR. Repubcans rased the ssue
agan n the fa of
2003,ctngtheneedforthenatontoreducetsdependenceonomported from the
Mdde East. /etland#Awetand s a termusedto descrbe areas that are
oftensaturated by enough surface or groundwater to
sustanvegetatonthatsusuayadaptedtosaturatedso
condtons,suchascattas, burushes, redmapes, wdrce,
backberres,cranberres, and peat moss. Because some varetes of
wetandsarerchnmneras andnutrents andprovdemanyof
theadvantagesofbothandandwaterenvronmentstheycontandversespeces
andpossby evenformafoodchan. Whenhuman actvtes take away resources
many speces are ahected.Manyspeces actas anecosystem. Yearsago
peope assumedwetands were useess so t was not a arge concern when
theywere beng dug up. Many peope want to use themfordeveopng homes
etc. On the other sde of the argument peopebeeve the wetands are a
vta source for other fe forms and apart of the fe cyce.Wetands
provde servces for:1) Food and habtat2) Improvng water quaty3)
Commerca shng4) Foodwater reducton5) Shorene stabzaton6)
RecreatonSomeoss of wetands resutedfromnatura causes suchaseroson,
sedmentaton (the budup of so by the settng of nepartces over a ong
perod of tme), subsdence (the snkng ofand because of dmnshng
underground water suppes), and arse n the sea eve. However, 95% of
the osses snce the 1970shavebeencausedbyhumans,
especaybytheconversonofwetands to agrcutura and. More than haf
(56%) the osses ofcoasta wetands resuted from dredgng for marnas,
canas, portdeveopment, and, to some extent, fromnatura
shoreneeroson. Theconversonofwetandscausestheossofnaturapoutant
snks. The dramatc decne n wetands gobaysuggests not ony oss of
habtat but aso dmnshedwaterquaty.Ero#ionEroson s the process n whch
the materas of the Earth's crustarewornandcarredawaybywnd, water,
andothernaturaforces. The destructon of forest (deforestaton) and
natvegrasses has aowed water and wnd greater opportunty to erodethe
so. Changes n rverow human actvty have
dramatcayshftedtherunohpatternsof waterandthesedmentoadofrvers that
depost nto akes and oceans. Eroson has become aprobem n much of the
word n areas that are over farmed orwhere topso cannot be
protected.Agrcutura ands are the man source of eroded so.
Accordngto the U.S. Department of Agrcuture (USDA), approxmatey
20percent of thenaton'sandsset asdefor cropand. Three-quarters of
ths and s actvey used to grow crops for harvestng.The remander s
used for pasture or s ded for varous reasons.Demands on the Earth
to feed growng popuatons and changesn the Earth's andscape caused
by human actvtes havespeeded up so eroson.So erosonhas ncreased to
the pontwheret far exceeds thenatura formatonof newso, andexperts
consder the probem to be of epdemc proportons.Pollution and
en$ironmental degradationthe rapd growng popuaton andeconomc
deveopmentseadng to a number of en$ironmental i##ue# n India
becauseof the uncontroed growth ofurbanzatonand
ndustrazaton,expansonandmassventenscatonofagrcuture,
andthedestructon of forests.Ma|or envronmenta ssues are Forest and
Agrcutura anddegradaton, Resourcedepeton(water, mnera, forest,
sand,rocksetc.,),Envronmenta degradaton, PubcHeath,
LossofBodversty,Loss of resence n ecosystems, Lvehood Securtyfor
the Poor.|1|It s estmatedthat thecountrys popuatonw ncreasetoabout
1.26 bonbytheyear 2016. Thepro|ectedpopuatonndcates that Inda w be
the rst most popuous country n theword and Chna w be rankng second
n the year 2050.|2|
Indahavng18%oftheword'spopuatonon2.4%ofword'stotaarea has greaty
ncreased the pressure on ts natura resources.Water shortages, so
exhauston and eroson, deforestaton, arand water pouton amcts many
areas.Inda'swatersuppyandsantatonssuesarereatedtomanyenvronmenta
ssues.Ma0or i##ue#Oneof theprmarycausesof envronmenta
degradatonnacountry coud be attrbuted to rapd growth of popuaton,
whchadverseyahectsthenatura resourcesandenvronment. Theuprsng
popuaton and the envronmenta deteroraton face thechaenge of
sustanabe deveopment. The exstence or theabsenceof favorabenatura
resourcescanfactateorretardtheprocess of soco-economc deveopment.
Thethreebascdemographcfactorsof brths(nataty),deaths(mortaty)
andhuman mgraton (mgraton) and mmgraton (popuatonmovng nto a
country produces hgher popuaton) producechangesn popuaton
sze,composton,dstrbutonand thesechangesraseanumber of mportant
questonsof causeandehect. Popuaton growth and economc deveopment
arecontrbutng to many serous envronmentacaamtes n Inda.These ncude
heavy pressure on and,and degradaton, forests,habtat destructon and
oss of bodversty.
Changngconsumptonpatternhasedtorsngdemandforenergy. Thena outcomes
of ths are ar pouton, goba warmng, cmatechange, water scarcty and
water pouton.Envronmenta ssuesnIndancudevarousnatura
hazards,partcuary cycones and annua monsoon oods, popuatongrowth,
ncreasng ndvdua consumpton, ndustrazaton,nfrastructura deveopment,
poor agrcutura practces, andresource madstrbuton have ed to
substanta humantransformaton of Indas natura envronment. An
estmated 60%of cutvatedandsuhersfromso eroson, wateroggng,
andsanty. It s aso estmated that between 4.7 and 12 bon tonsof
topso are ost annuay from so eroson. From 1947 to 2002,average
annua per capta water avaabty decned by amost70% to 1,822 cubc
meters, and overexpotaton of groundwaters probematc n the states of
Haryana, Pun|ab, and UttarPradesh.
Forestareacovers18.34%ofIndasgeographcarea(637000 km). Neary haf of
the countrys forest cover s foundn the state of Madhya Pradesh
(20.7%) and the seven states ofthe northeast (25.7%); the atter s
experencng net forest oss.Forest cover s decnng because of
harvestng for fue wood andthe expanson of agrcutura and. These
trends, combned wthncreasng ndustra and motor vehce pouton output,
have edto atmospherc temperature ncreases, shftng
precptatonpatterns, and decnng ntervas of drought recurrence n
manyareas.The Indan Agrcutura Research Insttute of Parvat
hasestmated that a 3 C rse n temperature w resut n a 15 to20% oss n
annua wheat yeds. These are substanta probemsfor
anatonwthsuchaargepopuatondependngontheproductvtyof
prmaryresourcesandwhoseeconomcgrowthrees heavy on ndustra growth.
Cv concts nvovng naturaresources-most notaby forests and arabe
and-have occurredn eastern and northeastern states.Pollution/ater
%ollutionOut of Inda's 3,119towns andctes, |ust
209havepartatreatmentfactes, andony 8 have fu
wastewatertreatmentfactes(WHO1992).
114ctesdumpuntreatedsewageandpartay cremated bodes drecty nto
theGanges Rver.Downstream, the untreated water s used for drnkng,
bathng,and washng. Ths stuaton s typca of many rvers n Inda aswe as
other deveopng countres.Opendefecatons wdespreadevennurbanareas of
Inda.Water resources have not therefore been nked to etherdomestc
or nternatona voent conct as was prevousyantcpated by some
observers. Possbe exceptons ncude somecommuna
voencereatedtodstrbuton of water fromtheKaver Rverand potca tensons
surroundng actua andpotenta popuaton dspacements by dam pro|ects,
partcuaryon theNarmada Rver.Pun|abs today another hotbed ofpouton,
for exampe,Buddha Nuah, a rvuet whch runthrough Mawa regon of
Pun|ab, Inda, and after passng throughhghypopuatedLudhanadstrct,
beforedranngntoSute|Rver, a trbutary of the Indus rver, s today an
mportant casepont n the recent studes, whch suggest ths as another
Bhopan makng. A |ont study by PGIMER and Pun|ab Pouton ControBoard
n 2008, reveaed that n vages aong the Nuah,cacum, magnesum, uorde,
mercury,
beta-endosuphanandheptachorpestcdeweremorethanpermssbemt(MPL)nground
and tap waters. Pus the water had hgh concentraton ofCODand
BOD(chemca and bochemca oxygen demand),ammona, phosphate, chorde,
chromum, arsenc andchorpyrfos pestcde. The ground water aso contans
ncke andseenum, whethetapwaterhashghconcentratonof ead,ncke and
cadmum. TheMth Rver, whchows throughthecty ofMumba, sheavy
pouted.The GangesMons depend on the pouted Ganges rver.Man artce:
Pouton of the GangesToknowwhy1,000Indanchdrendeof darrhoea
scknessevery day, take a wary stro aong the Ganges n Varanas. As
tentersthecty, Hndusmssacredrvercontans60,000faecacoformbacteraper
100mtres, 120tmes morethansconsdered safe for bathng. Four mes
downstream, wth nputsfrom 24 gushng sewers and 60,000 pgrm-bathers,
theconcentraton s 3,000 tmes over the safety mt. In paces,
theGangesbecomesbackandseptc. Corpses, of sem-crematedaduts or
enshrouded babes, drft sowy by.- The Economist on December 11,
2008Morethan400 monpeopeveaongtheGangesRver.
Anestmated2,000,000personsrtuaybathedayntherver,whch s consdered
hoy by Hndus. In the Hndu regon t s sadto ow from the otus feet
ofVshnu(forVasnavadevotees) orthe har ofShva(forSavtes). The sprtua
and regoussgncance coud be compared to what the Ne rver meant
totheancent Egyptans. WhetheGanges maybeconsderedhoy, there are
some probems assocated wth the ecoogy. It sedwthchemca wastes,
sewageandeventheremansofhumanandanma corpseswhchcarryma|or
heathrsksbyether drect bathng n the water (e.g.: Bharzass nfecton),
orby drnkng (the Feca-ora route).The
YamunaNewsWeekdescrbesDeh'ssacredYamunaRveras"aputrdrbbon of back
sudge" where feca bactera s 10,000 over safetymts despte a 15-year
program to address the probem. Choeraepdemcs are not unknown. Air
%ollutionAr pouton s hgh n Indan ctes.See aso: Goba warmng n
IndaIndanctes arepoutedbyvehces andndustryemssons.Roaddust
duetovehcesasocontrbutngupto33%ofarpoutonIn ctes ke Bangaore,
around 50% of chdren suherfromasthma. Indahasemssonstandardof
Bharat StageII(Euro II) for vehces snce 2005.
OneofthebggestcausesofarpoutonnIndasfromthetransport system.
Hundreds of mons of oddese engnescontnuousyburnngawaydese
whchhasanythngbetween150 to 190 tmes the amount of suphur out
European dese has.Of course the bggest probems are n the bg ctes
where thereare huge concentratons of these vehces. On the postve
sde,the government appears to have notced ths massve probemand the
assocated heath rsks for ts peope and s sowy butsurey takng steps.
The rst of whch was n 2001 when t ruedthat ts entre pubc transport
system, excudng the trans, beconverted from dese to compressed gas
(CPG). Eectrcrckshaws arebengdesgnedandw besubsdsedby thegovernment
but the supposed ban on the cyce rkshaws n Dehw requre a huge
ncrease on the reance of other methods oftransport, many those wth
engnes.It asoappearedthat theexcessvepoutonwas havnganadverse ehect
on the Ta| Maha. After a court rung a transportn the area was shut
down shorty foowed by the cosure of andustra factores n the area.
The ar pouton n the bg ctes srsng to such an extent that t s now
2.3 hgher than the
amountrecommendedbyWHO(wordheathorganzaton).!oll"tionthro"gh
#remation b$ %avita %ethi &"blished b$ !ar$avaran%anra'shan
($as 200))Noi#e %ollutionThe Supreme Court of Indagave a sgncant
verdct on nosepoutonn 2005. Unnecessary honkngof vehces makes for
ahgh decbeeve of nose n ctes. The use ofoudspeakersforpotca
purposes and by tempes and mosquesmake for nosepouton n resdenta
areas.RecentyGovernment ofIndahassetupnorms ofpermssbenose eves n
urban and rura areas. How they w be montoredand mpemented s st not
sure.Land %ollutionLand pouton n Inda s due to pestcdes and
fertzers as weascorrosonInMarch2009, thessueofUranumposonngnPun|ab
came nto ght, caused by y ash ponds of therma powerstatons, whch
reportedy ead to severe brth defects n chdrenn the Fardkot and
Bhatnda dstrcts of Pun|ab. ECONOMIC REFORM&1 LI!ERALI-ATION
AND2LO!ALI-ATIONLI!ERALI-ATIONIn
genera,lierali3ation(orlierali#ation) refers to areaxaton of
prevous government restrctons, usuay n areas ofsoca or economc
pocy. In some contexts ths process orconcept soften, but not aways,
referredtoasdereguaton.Lberazaton of autocratc regmes may
precededemocratzaton (or not, as n the case of the Prague Sprng).In
the arena of soca pocy t may refer to a reaxaton of awsrestrctng
for exampedvorce,aborton,homosexuatyordrugs.Most often, the term s
used to refer to economc berazaton,especay trade berazaton or capta
market berazaton.Athough economc berazaton s often assocated
wthprvatzaton, the two can be qute separate processes. Forexampe,
the European Unonhas berazed gasand eectrctymarkets,
nsttutngasystemofcompetton; but someof theeadng European energy
companes (such as EDF and Vattenfa)reman partay or competey n
government ownershp.Lberazed and prvatzed pubc servcesmay be
domnated by|ust a few bg companes partcuary n sectors wth hgh
captacosts, or hgh such as water, gas and eectrcty. In some
casesthey may remanegamonopoyat east for some part of themarket
(e.g. sma consumers).Lberazaton s one of three foca ponts (the
others bengprvatzatonandstabzaton) of theWashngtonConsensus'strnty
strategy for economes n transton. An exampe ofLberazaton s the
"Washngton Consensus" whch was a set ofpoces created and used by
ArgentnaThere s aso a concept of hybrd berasaton as, for nstance,
nGhanawhere cocoa crop can be sod to a varety of competngprvate
companes, but there s a mnmum prce for whch t canbe sod and a
exports are controed by the state.Economic
lierali3ationEconomcberazatoni#a$er)roadtermt"at u#uall)re.er#to
.e,ergo$ernmentregulation#andre#triction#in t"e econom) in e4c"ange
.or greater %artici%ation o.%ri$ate entitie#5 t"e doctrine i#
a##ociated ,it"neolierali#m6 T"e argument# .or economic
lierali3ationincludegreater e7cienc)ande8ecti$ene##t"at
,ouldtran#late to a 9igger %ie9 .or e$er)od)6Most rst word
countres, n order to reman gobaycompettve,
havepursuedthepathofeconomcberazaton:parta or fu prvatsaton of
government nsttutons and assets,greater abour-market exbty, ower
tax rates for busnesses,ess restrcton on both domestc and foregn
capta, openmarkets, etc. BrtshPrme MnsterTony Barwrote
that:"Successw gotothosecompanesandcountreswhchareswft to adapt,
sow to compan, open and wng to change. Thetask of modern
governments s to ensure that our countres canrse to ths chaenge."
Indeveopngcountres, economcberazatonrefersmoretoberazaton or
further "openng up" of ther respectveeconomes to foregn capta and
nvestments. Three of
thefastestgrowngdeveopngeconomestoday;Braz,ChnaandInda, have
acheved rapd economc growth n the past severayears or decades after
they have "berazed" ther economes toforegn capta. Many countres
nowadays, partcuary those n the thrd word,arguaby have no choce but
to aso "beraze" ther economesn order toreman compettve n attractng
and retanng bothther domestcandforegnnvestments.
InthePhppnesforexampe, the contentous proposas forCharter
Changencudeamendngtheeconomcayrestrctveprovsonsof
ther1987consttuton. The tota opposteof a berazedeconomy
woudbeNorthKorea's economy wth ther cosed and "sef sumcent"
economcsystem.NorthKoreareceves hundreds of mons of doarsworthof
adfromother countresnexchangefor peaceandrestrctons n ther nucear
programme. Another exampe woudbe o rch countres such asSaud
ArabaandUnted ArabEmrates, whch see no need to further open up ther
economesto foregn capta and nvestments snce ther o reserves
areadyprovde them wth huge export earnngs.Lierali#ation o. #er$ice#
in t"e de$elo%ing ,orldPotential eneft# o. trade lierali#ationThe
servce sector s probaby the most berased of the
sectors.Lberasatonoherstheopportuntyforthesectortocompetenternatonay,
contrbutng to GDP growth and generatngforegn exchange. As such,
servce exports are an mportant partof many deveopng countres'
growth strateges. Inda's ITservces have become gobay compettve as
many companeshaveoutsourcedcertanadmnstratvefunctons
tocountreswhere costs are ower. Furthermore, f servce provders n
somedeveopng economes are not compettve enough to succeed onword
markets,overseascompaneswbeattracted to nvest,brngng wth them
nternatona best practces and better sksandtechnooges.
Theentryofforegnservceprovderssnotnecessary a negatve deveopment
and can ead to betterservces for domestc consumers, mprove the
performance andcompettveness of domestc servce provders, as we as
smpyattract FDI/foregn capta nto the country. In fact, some
researchsuggest a 50% cut n servce trade barrers over a ve- to
10-year perodwoudcreategoba gansneconomcwefareofaround $250 bon per
annum.Potential ri#(# o. trade lierali#ationYet, trade berasaton
aso carres substanta rsks thatnecesstatecarefu
economcmanagementthrough appropratereguaton by governments. Some
argue foregn provders crowdout domestc provders and nstead of eadng
to nvestment andthe transfer of sks, t aow foregn provders and
sharehoderstocapture theprots for themseves, takng themoneyoutofthe
country. Thus, t s often argued that protecton s needed toaow
domestc companes the chance to deveop before they areexposed to
nternatona competton. Other potenta rsksresutng from berasaton,
ncude: Rsks of nanca sector nstabtyresutngfromgobacontagon Rsk of
bran dran Rsk of envronmenta degradatonHowever, researchers at
thnks tanks such as theOverseasDeveopment
Insttutearguethersksareoutweghedbythebenets andthat what s neededs
carefu reguaton|4|. Fornstance, there s a rsk that prvate provders
w skm oh
themostprotabecentsandceasetoservecertanunprotabegroupsofconsumersorgeographca
areas. Yetsuchconcernscoud be addressed through reguaton and by a
unversa servceobgatonsncontracts, ornthecensng,
topreventsuchastuaton from occurrng. Of course, ths bears the rsk
that thsbarrer to entry w dssuade nternatona compettors
fromenterngthemarket (seeDereguaton). Exampesof suchanapproach
ncude South Afrca's Fnanca Sector Charter or Indannurses who
promoted the nursng professon wthn Inda tsef,whchhas
resutednarapdgrowthndemandfor nursngeducaton and a reated suppy
response.2LO!ALI-ATION2loali#ation(orgloali3ation) descrbes the
process bywhch regona economes, socetes, and cutures have
becomentegratedthroughagoba networkof potca deasthroughcommuncaton,
transportaton, and trade. The terms mostcosey assocatedwth the
termeconomc gobazaton: thentegraton of natona economes nto the
nternatona economythrough trade, foregn drect nvestment, capta ows,
mgraton,the spread oftechnoogy, andmtarypresence. However,gobazaton
s usuay recognzed as beng drven by acombnatonof economc,
technoogca, sococutura, potca,and boogca factors. The term can aso
refer to thetransnatona crcuaton of deas, anguages, orpopuar
cuturethroughaccuturaton. Anaspectof thewordwhchhasgonethrough the
process can be sad to be gloali#ed.Defnition#Accordng to theOxford
Engsh Dctonary, the word'gobazaton' was rst empoyed n a pubcaton
enttedTo*ards(e*Ed"cationn1952, todenoteahostcvewofhuman experence
n educaton. An eary descrpton ofgobazaton was penned by the Amercan
entrepreneur-turned-mnsterCharesTazeRussewhoconedtheterm'corporategants'
n 1897, athough t was not unt the 1960s that the termbegan to be
wdey used by economsts and other socascentsts. The term has snce
then acheved wdespread use
nthemanstreampressbytheaterhafofthe1980s. Sncetsncepton, theconcept
of gobazatonhasnsprednumerouscompetng dentons and nterpretatons,
wth antecedentsdatng back to the great movements of trade and empre
acrossAsa and the Indan Ocean from the 15th century onwards.The
Unted NatonsESCWAsaysgobazaton "sa wdey-usedterm that can be dened
n a number of dherent ways. Whenusednaneconomc context, t refers
tothereductonandremova of barrers between natona borders n order to
factatethe ow of goods, capta, servces and abor...
athoughconsderabe barrers reman to the ow of abor... Gobazatons not
anewphenomenon. It begantowards theendof thenneteenth century,but
tsowed down durngthe perod fromthestart of theFrst WordWar unt
thethrdquarter of thetwenteth century. Ths sowdown can be attrbuted
to thenward-ookngpoces pursuedby a number of countres norder to
protect ther respectve ndustres... however, the paceof gobazaton
pcked up rapdy durng the fourth quarter of thetwenteth century..."
HSBC, the word's argest bank, operates across the gobe. Shown here
s the HSBCGoba Technoogy Centre n Pune, Inda whch deveops software
for the entre HSBCgroup. Tom |. Pamer of the Cato Insttutedenes
gobazaton as "thedmnuton or emnaton of state-enforced restrctons
onexchangesacrossbordersandthencreasngyntegratedandcompexgoba
systemof productonandexchangethat hasemerged as a resut." Thomas L.
Fredman has examned the mpact of the "attenng"of the word,
andargues thatgobazed trade,outsourcng,suppy-channg, andpotca
forces havechangedthewordpermanenty, for both better and worse. He
aso argues that thepace ofgobazatonsquckenngandw contnue
tohaveagrowng mpact on busness organzaton and practce.Herman E.
Dayargues that sometmes the
termsnternatonazatonandgobazatonareusednterchangeabybut there s a
sgncant forma dherence. The term"nternatonazaton" (or
nternatonasaton) refers to themportance of nternatona trade,
reatons, treates etc. owng tothe(hypothetca) mmobtyof abor andcapta
betweenoramong natons.Fnay, Taks Fotopouos argues that gobazaton s
the resut
ofsystemctrendsmanfestngthemarketeconomy'sgrow-or-dedynamc, foowng
the rapd expanson of transnatonacorporatons. Because these trends
have not been ohsetehectvey by counter-tendences that coud have
emanated fromtrade-unon acton and other forms of potca actvty,
theoutcome has been gobazaton. Ths s a mut-facetedandrreversbe
phenomenon wthn the systemof the marketeconomy and t s expressed
as: economc gobazaton, namey,the openng and dereguaton of commodty,
capta and abourmarkets whch ed to the present form of neobera
gobazaton;potca gobazaton, .e., the emergence of a transnatona
eteand the phasng out of the a powerfu naton-state of the
statstperod; cutura gobazaton, .e., the wordwde homogensatonof
cuture; deoogca gobazaton; technoogca gobazaton;soca gobazaton.
IMPACT OF LI!ERALI-ATION AND 2LO!ALI-ATIONLI!ERALI-ATIONIm%act on
agricultureThe Word Trade Organzaton (WTO) (1995) s the successor
ofthe Genera Agreement on Tarhs and Trade (GATT) and the mangoas of
the WTO are to create free trade and to avodprotectonsm. The man
probems wthn the WTO arse on theareas of nteectua property rghts,
servces and agrcuture.1 Regardngagrcuture, theprobems arsemany
duetothema|or dherencesnagrcuturepocesof thedeveopedanddeveopng
countres. Whe deveoped countres tend tosubsdze ther farmers heavy
(whch depress word prces andnduce producton), ow-ncome countres
tend to mposereatvey hgh taxes on farmers n the export sector as
anmportant source of sca revenue. Hgh taxaton of agrcuture
sassocated wth ower growth n agrcuture, many because thetaxes are
hgh and the tax revenues n agrcuture are ow andnemcent. But
nmanydeveopngcountres agrcutures aarge share n the gross domestc
product (GDP) and the taxes onagrcuture are necessary for broader
deveopmentaprograms.Ths s one of the reasons that most attenton has
been gven toreduce the negatve ehects of deveoped countres on
deveopngcountres, through openng the markets and remove
deveopedcountres subsdy poces. 2 The European Unon (EU) has one of
the hghest eves ofprotectonsm (many n sugar) and wth the expanson
of the EUmorecountresncreasether protectonsm. TheWTOtrestodecrease
the amount of protectonsm, but reforms are not easyand often requre
barganed compromses andcompensatonschemes for the osers to get
agreement on further reducng hgheves of agrcuture protecton. 2,3
Accordng to the 2006 Word bank study, fu trade
berazatonwoudgveaganof 9%ngoba agrcutureexport for thedeveopng
countres.Fu berazatonwoudhowevercauseadecreasensubsdes nother
countres. Ths
woudgveanncreasenprceswhchwoudhaveanegatveehectonpoormportngdeveopngcountres.
Evenwthncountresthswgve dherences; net-seng farmers w benet whe
net-buyerhousehodsmayoseduetohgherfoodprcesftheyarenotcompensated
for the ncrease. 2 Ths ndcates that not everybody w gan from
agrcuture tradeberazaton but ngenera when
deveopedanddeveopngcountryagrcuturepocesarecombned(theattermanynncreasng
ther agrcuture emcency and tax reforms) theproporton of popuaton
experencng poverty w dmnsh. 2 There are however aso dsadvantages of
fu trade berazatonof agrcuture. Agrcuture s dherent fromother
economcsectors as agrcuture s sub|ect to unstabe weather and
marketcondtons whch can cause hgh prces durng a harvest faureand ow
prces due to oversuppy n the next season as farmersw ncreasether
producton. Secondyagrcuturesdherentbecause t has mportant mpcatons
on pubc heath, as foodhas to be safe and secure. Exampes are doxns
n poutry, madcow dsease (BSE) and genetcay moded organsms. 2,4
Indeveopngcountrestshardertoad|usttothehghfoodstandards of the
deveoped countres, as both the materas asthemethods(e.g.
knowngwhchchemcascanbeusedandwhch not.) are mssng. Ony openng the
market w thereforenot be enough. Besdes ths, the fu trade
andnon-safefoodswhchw
haveanehectonpubcheath.Moreeducatonandopportuntytorasetheamount of
safeagrcuture n deveopng countres s necessary to ncrease theword
pubc heath. Fu trade berazaton aone wthereforeaone be not beneca;
other measurements have to be taken atthe same tme. 1) R. Gpn,The
challenge of global ca&italism, the *orldeconom$ in the 21th
cent"r$+ Prnceton unversty press 2000 2) Worddeveopment
report2008chapter 4reformngtrade,prce and subsdy poces - Low-ncome
countres tend to mpose reatvey hgh taxes onfarmersntheexport sector
asanmportant sourceof scarevenue whe deveopedcountres tendto heavy
subsdzefarmers (whch depresses word prces) - The economc andsoca
costs of todays trade, prce andsubsdy poces n word agrcuture are
arge and suppressagrcuture output growth n deveopngcountres.
Correctngthose pocy and nvestment faures can acceerate growth
andreduce poverty 3) M. Cn, E"ro&ean "nion &olitics, oxford
unversty press 2007 4) Daugb|erg, Swnbank, #"rbing agric"lt"ral
e,ce&tionalism: theE- res&onse to e,ternal challenge. The
word economy 2008 Im%act on toacco con#um%tionThe recent trend
towards the ncreased berazaton of trade nmost goods andservces has
sgncanty reduced hgh-tarh and non-tarhbarrers to trade n tobacco
and tobacco products andcontrbutedtothesharpncreasentobaccouse
nmanyow-ncome and mdde-ncome countres. Over the past twodecades,
thevarousbatera, regona, andmutatera tradeagreements that many
natons have adopted have ed tosgncantygreater
compettonndomestctobaccomarkets.Ths ncreased competton has amost
certany beenaccompaned by reduced prces for tobacco products
anddramatcncreasesntheadvertsngandpromotonof theseproducts. There
are severa basc reasons why nternatona traden tobacco and tobacco
products has arsen. There are severa basc reasons why nternatona
trade ntobacco and tobacco products has arsen Grse (1990)
andChaoupka and Corbett (1998), for exampe, suggest thefoowng:(1)
acountrys nabtytodomestcayproducetobaccoandtobacco products n
sumcent quantty to satsfy domestcdemand for these products;(2)
acountrys nabtytodomestcayproducetobaccoandtobacco products of
sumcenty hgh quaty to satsfy domestcdemand;(3) dherences n prces
among countres for dherent types andquates of tobacco and tobacco
products; and(4) the mportng of unmanufactured tobacco for use
nproducng tobacco productsfor exports. In addton, n some countres,
tobacco and/or tobacco productsare an mportant source of foregn
currency. In recent years, forexampe, Zmbabwe exported neary a of
ts tobacco crop, wththese exports accountng for neary one-quarter
of ts totaexport earnngs (Maravanyka 1998).Goba trade n tobacco and
tobacco products, whe notnsgncant, woud have been much hgher n the
past had therenot been a varety of restrctve trade poces and other
pocesprotectng domestc tobacco growers andproducers of
tobaccoproductsfromforegncompetton(Grse1990). Thesebarrersncude hgh
tarhs on mported tobacco and/or tobacco products,quotas or compete
bans on mports, domestc prce-supportprograms, marketng restrctons,
censng requrements,restrcted product sts, exchange contros, domestc
contentrequrements, andsubsdesoncutvaton
orproducton(Grse1990).There are few ratonaes for trade barrers that
are economcay|ustabe, ncudng the temporary protecton of an
nfantndustry and the use of protectonstc nterventons as
atemporarystrategy for promotngeconomc deveopment. Asevdence on the
heath consequences of smokng hasaccumuated,
somehavearguedforrestrctngtobacco-reatedtrade as a way to reduce
the death and dsease resutng fromtobaccouse. (WhetheWordBankdoesnot
seektorestrcttrade,tdoesrestrct theuseof Bank
funds(seeBox).Smarargumentshavebeenusedtodefendtraderestrctonsnthecase
of other goods wth negatve externates. These argumentsaremostwe
deveopedntheareaof envronmenta poces(see,forexampe,Anderson
andBackhurst1992),wth recentresearchadaptngthesearguments toconsder
thenegatveexternates assocated wth tobacco use (Sh and Hseh
1998).In practce, however, trade restrctons have often been used
toprotect state-owned monopoes on tobacco producton anddstrbuton
that generate a sgncant share of tota governmentrevenues n these
countres.Moreover, the arguments that heathconcerns are a |ustcaton
for mtng trade have typcay notbeen accompaned bystrong ehorts to
reduce the consumptonof domestcay produced cgarettes and other
tobacco products.!o41 The Word Banks pocy on tobaccoThe Word Banks
actvtes n the heath sector-ncudng sectorwork, pocydaogue, and
endng-dscourage the use of tobacco products.The Word Bank does not
end drecty for, nvest n, or guaranteenvestmentsor oans for, tobacco
producton, processng, or marketng.Exceptons, whchmust be approved,
may be aowed for countres that are heavydependent ontobacco as a
source of ncome (especay for poor farmers andfarm workers)and
foregn exchange earnngs (.e. those where tobaccoaccounts for more
than10% of exports). The Word Bank seeks to hep these
countresdversfy awayfrom tobacco.To the extent practcabe, the Word
Bank does not end ndrectyfor tobaccoproducton actvtes, athough some
ndrect support of thetobacco economymay occur as an nseparabe part
of a pro|ect that has a broaderset of ob|ectvesand outcomes (e.g.
rura roads).Unmanufactured and manufactured tobacco, tobacco
processngmachneryand equpment, and reated servces are ncuded n the
negatvest of mportsn Word Bank Loan Agreements.Tobacco and
tobacco-reated producer or consumer mports maybe
exemptfromborrowers agreementswththeWordBanktoberazetrade and
reducetarh eves.Source: the Word Bank (1991).Ingenera,
economctheorypredctsthat barrerstotradentobaccoandtobaccoproductsw
reducethetota suppyofthese products whe rasng thequantty supped by
domestcgrowers and producers. Consequenty, the prces for
rawtobacco, cgarettes, and other tobacco products are key to
behgher under ths scenaro than they woud n the absence of thetrade
barrers. Gven the we-documented evdence on theehects of prce on
tobacco use, hgher prces w ead to reducedcgarette smokng andower
use of other tobacco products.Gventhecearnksbetweentobaccouse and
adverseheathoutcomes ,the reduced consumpton w ead n the ong-term
tomproved heath. Domestc suppers w generay benet fromther hgher
eves of growng and producton and from the hgherprcestheyreceve.
Foregnsuppers, however, w usuaybeworse oh as a resut of ther
reduced access to protectedmarkets. In contrast, ncreasng trade
berazaton, as a resut of batera,regona, and mutatera trade
agreements, s key to have theopposteehect. Reductons nthebarrers
totobacco-reatedtradew
keyeadtogreatercompettonnthemarketsfortobacco and tobacco products,
reductons n the prces fortobaccoproducts,
andncreasedadvertsngandpromotonofthese products. The ncreases n
advertsng and promoton wnot ony resut from the ehorts of entrants
to gan a foothod nthe newy opened markets, but are aso key to reect
ncreasedactvtybyexstngrmsattemptngtomantanther
marketsharesnthemorecompettveenvronment.Gventhenversereatonshp
between prce and consumpton, as we as thepostve reatonshp between
advertsng/promoton and demandcgarette smokngandother tobacco use w
key ncreaseunder ths scenaro as tobacco markets become more open.
As aresut, the death and dsease resutng from tobacco use w
asoncrease. However, the berazaton of trade n other goods and
servces sexpected to have substanta economc benets, ncudngncreased
ncomes, greater empoyment, more stabe prces,greater nnovaton, and
more rapd economc growth (WordTrade Organzaton 1998a;Yeen 1998),
wth perhaps the greatestmpact n deveopng countres(Edwards 1992).
Edwards, forexampe, n a sampe of 30 deveopng countres, found
strongevdence that growth was hgher n countres wth more
beratradepoces. Theres strongevdenceonthenkbetweenncome and heath,
partcuary at ower ncome eves,suggestng that overa trade berazaton
can ead to mprovedheathoutcomes(Preston1976;
ChaoupkaandCorbett1998).However, the ncreased tobacco use n
deveopng countres thatresuts fromncreasedncomes s keyto, at east
partay,ohset the heath benets of berazed trade n other goods
andservces.Economic and #ocial im%act#Economic and #ocial im%act#
o. trade lierali3ationBefore provdng a revewof thedherent
countrystudes,t susefu topresent thetheoretca arguments
underpnnngthempact of trade on economc growth and ts
broaderdeveopment outcomes.Trade and gro,t"Most of the economc
terature consders that trade berazatoneads to an ncrease n wefare
derved froman mprovedaocaton of domestc resources. Import
restrctons of any kndcreateanant-export bas byrasngtheprceof
mportabegoods reatvetoexportabegoods. Theremova of ths
basthroughtradeberazatonw encourageashftof
resourcesfromtheproductonof
mportsubsttutestotheproductonofexport-orented goods. Ths, n turn, w
generate growth n theshort to medum term as the country ad|usts to
a new aocatonof
resourcesmorenkeepngwthtscomparatveadvantage(McCuoch,
WntersandCrera, 2001). Thsprocesssnethersmooth nor automatc. On the
contrary, t s expected to createad|ustment costs,
encompassngawdevaretyof potentaydsadvantageous short-termoutcomes.
These outcomes mayncude a reducton n empoyment and output, the oss
ofndustry- andrm-specchumancapta, andmacroeconomcnstabty arsng from
baance-of-payments dmcutes orreductons n government revenue (Matusz
and Tarr, 1999). Thesze of the ad|ustment costs depends on the
speed wth whchresources make thetranston from one sector to
another.However, tradeberazatonnandof tsef
hasnotyetbeenunambguousyandunversaynkedtosubsequent economcgrowth.
Despte the vast terature ookng at ths nk, numerousemprca studes
have not found the evdence concusve.Rodrguez and Rodrk (1999) argue
that the terature s argeyunnformatve,
andthattheresasgncantgapbetweentheconcusons derved from theory and
the "facts". Accordng to theauthors, a number of factors expan ths
gap. In many cases, thendcators of "openness" used by researchers
are probematc, asmeasures of trade barrers are hghy correated wth
othersources of poor economc performance. In other cases, theemprca
strategesusedtoascertanthenkbetweentradepocy andgrowth has serous
shortcomngs, theremova ofwhch resuts n sgncanty weaker ndngs.
Moreover, thesmutaneous mpementaton of other far-reachng
reformsmakes t dmcut to dsentange the mpact of the tradeberazaton
process. Ths beng sad, t s aso mportant to notethat athough trade
openness has not been unequvocay nkedto hgher growth, t has certany
not been dented as ahndrance. Overa, t may be far to say that
openness, by eadng to owerprces, better nformaton and newer
technooges, has a usefuroe to pay n promotng growth. But t must be
accompaned byappropratecompementarypoces (most notaby,
educaton,nfrastructure, nanca andmacroeconomc poces) to yedstrong
growth resuts. The precse mx of trade and other pocesthat s needed
w strongy depend on the specc crcumstancesof each country. It s
therefore mportant to focus on the detaedpathways through whch
trade berazaton n each country hasan mpact on poverty (McCuoch,
Wnters and Crera, 2001). See box beow!o4 1 Trade and %o$ert)
reductionTrade berazaton heps the poor n the same way t heps
otherconsumers, byowerngprcesofmportedgoodsandkeepngprces of mport
substtutes ow, thus ncreasng rea ncomes.Price
tran#mi##ionThempactof tradeberazatondependsonhowchangesnborder
prces are transated ntochanges n the prces actuay charged to
househods. Prcetransmsson depends on: the compettve structure of
the dstrbuton
sector;thewaynwhchgovernmentnsttutonssuchasmarketngorganzatons
operate; and the extent products traded.Enter%ri#e#The shft n
resources between ndustres that often accompanestrade berazaton can
have a sgncant mpact on wages andempoyment. Thus
tradeberazatonasoahectshousehodsthrough ts mpact on prots, and,
thereby, on empoyment andwages.There are two opposte ways n whch
ths may occur: If wages are exbe and abour s fuy empoyed, then
prcechanges caused by trade berazaton w be reected n *agechanges,
wth empoyment remanng the same. Aternatvey, f there s a arge poo of
workers who move nand out of |obs when crcumstances change, then
tradeberazaton w cause changes n empoyment. In reaty, bothehects
occur smutaneousy. The baance between themdepends on the reatve
exbty of wages and empoyment, aswe asonthecapactyof
thedynamcsectorstoabsorbtheunempoyed and those beng ad oh from
decnng sectors.Ta4e# and #%endingThere s a genera concern that
trade berazaton may ead to aoss of government revenues as
tradetaxes arereducedoremnated, andthat nanehort
tomantanmacroeconomcstabty, governmentsmaycut soca expendturesor
mposenew taxes whch coud dsproportonatey ahect the poor.The key
essons here are
that:Lberazatonoftendoesnothavetoeadtorevenuecutsftarh peaks and
exemptons are aso tacked.It smportant toookat thepovertyehectsof
aternatveforms of taxaton, ntroduced to cover any shortfa,
partcuaryconsumpton taxes.It s generay possbe to protect soca and
ant-povertyexpendtures, even f expendtures do decne. Sound
macroeconomc management s far more mportant thanmantanng soca
expendture. Therefore, t shoud be noted thattrade berazaton can
have a postve, negatve or neutra ehectongovernmentrevenue,
dependngonthereformsntroducedand the partcuar crcumstances of a
country.Em%irical e$idenceBecause of the compexty of the nkages
between trade reformandpoverty, theemprca evdences mtedtostudes
ongenera market reforms, on the one hand, and case studes onthe
other.2LO!ALI-ATIONGobazaton has varous aspects whch ahect the word
nsevera dherent ways .nd"strial- emergenceof
wordwdeproductonmarketsandbroader access toarangeof foregnproducts
forconsumers and companes. Partcuary movement ofmatera and goods
between and wthn natonaboundares.Internatona traden manufactured
goodsncreasedmorethan100tmes(from$95bonto$12tron) nthe50years
snce1955. Chna's tradewthAfrca rose sevenfod durng 2000-07 aone.
/inancial- emergence of wordwde nanca markets
andbetteraccesstoexterna nancngforborrowers. Bytheearypart of
the21stcenturymorethan$1.5tronnnatona currences were traded day to
support theexpanded eves of trade and nvestment. As thesewordwde
structures grew more qucky than anytransnatona reguatory regme, the
nstabty of thegoba nanca nfrastructuredramatcay ncreased,
asevdenced by the Fnanca crss of 2007-2010. As of 2005-2007, the
Port of Shangha hods the tte as the Word's busest port. Economic-
reazaton of a goba common market, basedonthefreedomof exchangeof
goods andcapta. Thenterconnectedness of these markets, however,
meant thatan economc coapse n one area coud mpact other areas.Wth
gobazaton, companes can produce goods andservces n the owest cost
ocaton. Ths may cause |obs tobe moved toocatons that have the
owestwages, eastworker protecton and owest heath benets. For
Industraactvtes ths may cause producton to move to areas wththe
east pouton reguatons or worker safety reguatons.Amost a notabe
wordwde IT companes have a presence n Inda. Four Indans
wereamongtheword'stop 10rchest n 2008,wortha combned $160 bon.In
2007,Chna had 415,000 monares and Inda 123,000. 0ob Mar'et-
competton n a goba |ob market. In the past,the economc fate of
workers was ted to the fate ofnatona economes. Wth the advent of
the nformaton ageand mprovements n communcaton, ths s no onger
thecase. Because workers compete n a goba market, wagesare ess
dependent on the success or faure of ndvduaeconomes. Ths has
hadama|or ehect onwages andncome dstrbuton. Health!olic$- Onthegoba
scae, heathbecomes acommodty.
IndeveopngnatonsunderthedemandsofStructura Ad|ustment Programs,
heath systems arefragmentedandprvatzed. Goba heathpocymakershave
shfted durng the 1990s from Unted Natons payersto nanca nsttutons.
The resut of ths power
transtonsanncreasenprvatzatonntheheathsector.
Thsprvatzatonfragmentsheathpocybycrowdngt wthmany payers wth many
prvate nterests. Thesefragmented pocy payers emphasze partnershps
andspecc nterventons to combat specc probems
(asopposedtocomprehensveheathstrateges). Inuencedby goba trade and
goba economy, heath pocy sdrected by technoogca advances and
nnovatve medcatrade. Goba prortes, n ths stuaton, are sometmes
atodds wth natona prortes where ncreased heathnfrastructure and
basc prmary care are of more vaue tothe pubc than prvatzed care for
the weathy. !olitical - some use "gobazaton" to mean the creaton
ofa word government whch reguates the reatonshpsamong governments
and guarantees the rghts arsngfromsoca and economc gobazaton.
Potcay, theUnted States has en|oyed a poston of power among
thewordpowers, npart becauseof tsstrongandweathyeconomy. Wth the
nuence of gobazaton and wth thehep of the Unted States own economy,
the Peope'sRepubc of Chna has experenced some tremendousgrowth wthn
the past decade. If Chna contnues to
growattheratepro|ectedbythetrends,thentsverykeythat n the next
twenty years, there w be a ma|orreaocaton of power among the word
eaders. Chna whave enough weath, ndustry, and technoogy to rva
theUnted States for the poston of eadng word power. Among the potca
ehects some schoars aso name thetransformaton of soveregnty. In
ther opnon, 'gobazatoncontrbutestothechangeandreductonof
nomencatureandscopeof statesoveregnpowers, andbesdest
sabateraprocess: ontheonehand, thefactorsarestrengthenngthatfary
undermne the countres' soveregnty, on the other - moststates
vountary and deberatey mt the scope of thersoveregnty'.
.nformational- ncrease n nformaton ows betweengeographcay remote
ocatons. Arguaby ths s atechnoogca change wth the advent of bre
optccommuncatons, satetes, andncreasedavaabty ofteephone and
Internet. Lang"age- themost popuar rst
anguagesMandarn(845monspeakers) foowedbySpansh(329monspeakers) and
Engsh (328 mon speakers). However themost popuar second anguage s
undoubtedy Engsh, the"ngua franca" of gobazaton: o
About35%oftheword'sma, teexes, andcabesare n Engsh.o Approxmatey
40% of the word's rado programs aren Engsh.o Engsh s the domnant
anguage on the Internet. #om&etition- Survva n the new goba
busness marketcas for mproved productvty and ncreased competton.Due
to the market becomng wordwde, companes nvarous ndustres have to
upgrade ther products and usetechnoogy skfuy n order to face
ncreased competton. Ecological - the advent of goba envronmenta
chaengesthat mght be soved wth nternatonacooperaton, suchas cmate
change, cross-boundary water and ar pouton,over-shng of the ocean,
and the spread of nvasvespeces. Snce many factores are but n
deveopngcountres wth ess envronmenta reguaton, gobasm andfree trade
may ncrease pouton and mpact on precousfresh water
resources(Hoekstra and Chapagan 2008). Onthe other hand, economc
deveopment hstorcayrequreda"drty"ndustra stage, andt
sarguedthatdeveopng countres shoud not, va reguaton, beprohbted
from ncreasng ther standard of vng.London s a cty of consderabe
dversty. As of 2008, estmates were pubshed thatstatedthat
approxmatey 30%ofLondon's tota popuatonwas fromanethncmnorty group.
The atest omca gures show that n 2008, 590,000 peope arrved tove n
the UK whst 427,000 eft, meanng that net nward mgraton was 163,000.
#"lt"ral- growth of cross-cutura contacts; advent of newcategores
of conscousness and denttes whch embodescutura dhuson, the desre to
ncrease one's standard ofvnganden|oyforegnproductsanddeas, adopt
newtechnoogy and practces, and partcpate n a "wordcuture". Some
bemoan the resutng consumersm and ossof anguages. Aso see
Transformaton of cuture. o Spreadngofmutcuturasm,
andbetterndvduaaccess to cuturadversty(e.g. through the
exportofHoywood). Some consder such "mported"cutureadanger, sncet
maysuppant theocacuture, causng reducton n dversty or evenassmaton.
Others consder mutcuturasm topromotepeace and
understandngbetweenpeope.A thrd poston that ganed popuarty s the
notonthat mutcuturasm to a new form of monocuture
nwhchnodstnctonsexst andeveryone|ust
shftbetweenvarousfestyesntermsof musc, cothandother
aspectsoncemorermyattachedtoasnge cuture. Thus not mere cutura
assmaton asmentonedabovebut theobteratonof cutureaswe know t today.
In reaty, as t happens n countresketheUntedKngdom, Canada,
AustraaorNewZeaand, peope who aways ved n ther natvecountres mantan
ther cutures wthout feengforced by any reason to accept another
andareproud of t even when they're acceptve ofmmgrants, whe peope
who are newy arrvedsmpykeeptherowncutureorpart of tdesptesome
mnmumamount of assmaton, athoughaspects of ther cuture often become
a curosty anda day aspect of the ves of the peope of thewecomng
countres.o Greater nternatonatraveandtoursm. WHOestmates that up to
500,000 peope are on panes atany one tme. In 2008, there were over
922 monnternatona tourstarrvas, wthagrowthof1.9%as compared to
2007. o Greatermmgraton, ncudngega mmgraton.The IOMestmates there
are more than 200 monmgrants aroundthewordtoday. Newyavaabedata
show thatremttanceows to deveopngcountres reached $328 bon n 2008.
o Spreadof oca consumer products (e.g., food) toother countres
(often adapted to ther cuture).o
WordwdefadsandpopcuturesuchasPokmon,Sudoku,Numa Numa,Orgam,Ido
seres,YouTube,Orkut,Facebook, andMySpace; accessbeonytothose who
have Internet or Teevson, eavng out asubstanta porton of the
Earth's popuaton.The constructon of contnenta hotes s a ma|or
consequence of gobazaton processn amaton wth toursm and trave
ndustry, Darush Grand Hote, Ksh, Irano
WordwdesportngeventssuchasFIFAWordCupand the Oympc Games.o
Incorporaton of mutnatona corporatons nto newmeda. As the sponsors
of the A-Backs rugby team,Addas had created a parae webste wth
adownoadabe nteractve rugby game for ts fans topay and compete.
%ocial-deveopmentofthesystemofnon-governmentaorgansatonsas man
agents of goba pubc pocy,ncudng humantaran ad and deveopmenta
ehorts. Technical o Deveopment of a Goba Informaton
System,gobateecommuncatons nfrastructureand greatertransborder data
ow, usng such technooges as
theInternet,communcatonsatetes,submarneberoptc cabe, and wreess
teephoneso Increase n the number of standards apped
gobay;e.g.,copyrght aws,patentsand word tradeagreements.
Legal1Ethical o Thecreatonofthenternatonacrmnacourtandnternatona
|ustce movements.o Crmemportatonandrasngawarenessof gobacrme-ghtng
ehorts and cooperaton.o The emergence of Goba admnstratve aw.
2eligio"s o Thespreadandncreasednterreatonsof varousregous groups,
deas, and practces and ther deasof the meanngs and vaues of
partcuar spaces. Cultural e8ect#Gobazaton has nuencedthe use of
anguage across theword. Ths street n Hong Kong, a former Brtsh
coony, showsvarous sgns, a fewof whch ncorporateboth Chnese
andBrtsh Engsh.|apaneseMcDonad'sfast foodas evdence of corporate
gobazaton and thentegraton of the same nto dherent cutures."Cuture"
s dened as patterns of human actvty and
thesymbosthatgvetheseactvtessgncance. Cutureswhatpeope eat, howthey
dress, the beefs they hod, and theactvtes they practce. Gobazaton
has |oned dherent cuturesand made t nto somethng dherent. Cunary
cuture has become extensvey gobazed. For exampe,|apanese noodes,
Itaan meatbas, Indan curry, French
cheese,andAmercanburgersandfreshavebecomepopuaroutsdethercountresof
orgn. TwoAmercancompanes,McDonad'sand Starbucks, are often cted as
exampes of gobazaton, wthover 31,000 and 18,000 ocatons operatng
wordwde,respectvey.Another common practce brought about by
gobazaton s theusage of Chnese characters n tattoos. These tattoos
are popuarwth today's youth despte the ack of soca acceptance
oftattoosnChna. Aso, theresaackofcomprehensonnthemeanng ofChnese
charactersthat peope get, makng ths anexampe of cutura
appropraton.The nternet breaks down cutura boundares across the
word byenabng easy, near-nstantaneous communcaton
betweenpeopeanywherenavaretyof dgta formsandmeda.
TheInternetsassocatedwththeprocessofcutura gobazatonbecause t aows
nteracton and communcaton between peopewthverydherent
festyesandfromverydherent
cutures.Photosharngwebstesaownteractonevenwhereanguagewoud otherwse
be a barrer.Po#iti$e e8ect#T"e de$elo%ment o. T"ird /orld
nation#Accordng to |agdsh Bhagwat, a former advser to the U.N.
ongobazaton, athough there are obvousprobems wthovery-rapd
deveopment, gobazaton s a very postve force that ftscountres out of
poverty. Accordng to hm, t causes a vrtuouseconomc cyce assocated
wth faster economc growth. . T"e democrati3ing e8ect o.
communication# :e#%6 t"einternet;Exchange of nformaton va the
nternet s payng a ma|or roe nthe democratzaton of many countres.
T"e eneft# o. gloali3ation and fnancial di$er#ifcationSnce the
md-1970s, t has been argued that
geographcdverscatonwoudeventuaygeneratesuperorrsk-ad|ustedreturns
forong-termgoba nvestors by reducng overaportfoo rsk whe capturng
some of the hgher rates of returnsohered by the emergng marketsof
Asa and Latn Amerca. Bydongso, thesensttutona
nvestorshavecontrbutedtothenanca and economc deveopment of key
natons nAsa,Eastern Europe and Latn Amerca. Typcay, for goba
nvestors,Inda and Chna consttute both arge-scae producton
patformsandreservors of newconsumers, whereas Russa s
vewedessentayasanexporter of o andcommodtes- Braz andLatn Amerca
beng somehow "n the mdde".Ha#tening t"e end o. Euro%ean < U&
economic "egemon)A report ssued n 2007 byPercewaterhouseCoopers
LLPpredcted that by 2050 the economes of
theE=emergngeconomes(the!RICcontres,Chna, Inda, Braz,
andRussa,pusIndonesaand Turkey) wbearound50%argerthan thecurrent
2=(US, |apan, Germany, UK, France, Itay and
Canada).ChnasexpectedtoovertaketheUSastheargesteconomyaround 2025,
whe Inda wovertake the US n 2050. A morerecent report sued by
Godman Sachsthat was comped afterChna reeased ther GDP growth gures
for 2009 predcted thatChna s aboutto overtake|apan and may become
the word'sargest economyby2020. (SeetheentryonBRICfor
moredetas)Increa#ed o%%ortunit) in t"e T"ird
/orldWorkersndeveopngcountresnowhavemoreoccupatonachoces then ever
before. Educated workers n deveopngcountres are abe to compete on
the goba |ob market for hghpayng |obs. Producton workers n deveopng
countres are notony abe to compete, they have a strong advantage
over thercounterparts n the ndustrazed word. Ths transates
ntoncreasedopportunty. Workershavethechoceof emgratngand takng |obs
n ndustra countres or stayng at home to workn outsourced ndustres.
In addton, the goba economyprovdes a market for the products of
cottage ndustry, provdngmore opportuntes. Negati$e
e8ect#Gobazatonhasgeneratedsgncantnternatona oppostonover concerns
that t has ncreased nequaty and envronmentadegradaton. In the
Mdwestern Unted States, gobazaton haseaten away at ts compettve
edgen ndustryand agrcuture,owerng the quaty of fe. Some aso vew the
ehect of gobazaton on cuture as a rsngconcern. Aong wth gobazaton
of economes and trade, cutures beng mported and exported as we. The
concern s that thestronger, bgger countres such as theUnted States,
mayoverrun theother, smaercountres'cutures,eadngtothosecustoms and
vaues fadng away. Ths process s aso sometmesreferred to as
Amercanzaton or McDonadzaton. &,eat#"o%#A maqua n
MexcoInmanypoorer natons, gobazatons theresut of foregnbusnesses
utzng workers n a country to take advantage of theower wage
rates.One exampe used by ant-gobazaton protestors s the use
ofsweatshopsby manufacturers. AccordngtoGoba Exchangethese "Sweat
Shops" are wdey used by sports
shoemanufacturersandmentonsonecompanynpartcuar -Nke.There are
factores set up n the poor countres where empoyeesagree to work for
ow wages. Then f abour aws ater n thosecountresandstrcter
ruesgovernthemanufacturngprocessthe factores are cosed down and
reocated to other natons wthmore busness favorabe poces, such
asCambodaorBangadesh.Therearesevera agencesthat havebeenset
upwordwdespeccay desgned to focus on ant-sweatshop campagns
andeducaton of such. In the USA, the Natona Labor Commttee
hasproposed a number of bs as part ofThe Decent WorkngCondtons and
Far Competton Act, whch have thus far faed nCongress. Theegsaton
woudegay requre companes torespect human and worker rghts by
prohbtng the mport, sae,or export of sweatshop goods. Speccay,
these core standards ncude nochd abor, noforced abor,freedomof
assocaton, rght to organze andbargan coectvey, as we as the rght to
decent workngcondtons. Thereareasoconcerns about theemergenceof
"eectroncsweatshops." ShehzadNadeemwrtesthat theoutsourcngofservce
work, such ascustomer servceandInformatonTechnoogy work, to Inda
has resuted n "onger work hours, anntenseworkpace, andtempora
dspacement manfestednheath probems and aenaton from famy and
frends." Negati$e e8ect# o. economic
lierali3ationThewordtodayssonterconnectedthat thecoapseof
thesubprme mortgagemarket n the U.S. has ed to agobananca crss and
recesson on a scae not seen snce the GreatDepresson. Accordng to
eft-wng deoogsts, governmentdereguatonandfaedreguatonofWa
Street'snvestmentbanksweremportant
contrbutorstothesubprmemortgagecrss. A ood of consumer goods such
as teevsons,rados,bcyces,and textes nto the Unted States, Europe,
and |apan has hepedfue the economc expanson ofAsan tgereconomes n
recentdecades. However, Chnesetexteandcothngexports
haverecentyencounteredcrtcsmfromEurope, theUntedStatesand some
Afrcan countres. In South Afrca, some 300,000 texteworkers have ost
ther |obs due to the nux of Chnese goods.The ncreasng U.S. trade
dectwth Chna has cost 2.4 monAmercan |obs between 2001 and 2008,
accordng to a study bythe Economc Pocy Insttute (EPI). A tota of
3.2 mon - one nsx U.S. factory |obs - have dsappeared between 2000
and 2007.!rain drainOpportuntes nrchcountresdrves taent away
frompoorcountres, eadng to bran drans. Bran dran has cost the
Afrcancontnent over $4.1 bon n the empoyment of
150,000expatrateprofessonasannuay.Indanstudentsgongabroadfor ther
hgher studes costs Inda a foregn exchange outow of$10 bon annuay.
Income Ine>ualit)The gobazaton of the |ob market has had
negatveconsequences n deveoped countres. "Mnd workers"(engneers,
attorneys, scentsts, professors, executves,|ournasts, consutants)
are abe to compete successfuy n theword market and command hgh
wages. Conversey, productonworkers and servce workers n ndustrazed
natons are unabeto compete wth workers n thrd word countres and
ether osether |obs through outsourcng or are forced to accept wage
cuts. Ths has resuted n a growng gap between the ncomes of therch
and poor. Ths trend seems to be greater n the Unted Statesthan
other ndustra countres.Income nequaty n the
UntedStatesstartedtorsentheate1970,s, howevertherateofncrease rose
sharpy n the 21st century; t has now reached aeve comparabe wth
that found n devoopng countres.|(Cf. En$ironmental
degradationBurnng forest n Braz. The remova of forest to make way
for catte ranchng was theeadng cause of deforestaton n the Brazan
Amazon from the md 1960s. Recenty,soybeans have become one of the
most mportant contrbutors to deforestaton n theBrazan Amazon.| The
Word watch Insttutesad the boomng economes of ChnaandIndaare
panetary powers that are shapngthe gobabosphere. In2007,
ChnaovertooktheUntedStates as theword's bggest producer of CO2. Ony
1 percent of the countrys560 mon cty nhabtants (2007) breathe ar
deemed safe bytheEuropean Unon. At present rates, tropca ranforests
nIndonesa woud be ogged out n 10 years, Papua New Gunea
n13to16years. Ama|orsourceofdeforestatonstheoggngndustry,
drvenspectacuarybyChnaand|apan. ChnaandInda are qucky becomng arge
o consumers. Chna has seeno consumptongrowby8%yearysnce2002,
doubngfrom1996-2006.%tate of the 3orld2006 report sad the
twocountres' hgh economc growth hd a reaty of severe pouton.The
report states:The*orld4s ecological ca&acit$is
sim&l$ins"5cient tosatisf$ the ambitions of #hina, .ndia,
0a&an, E"ro&e and the-nited %tates as *ell as the
as&irations of the rest of the*orld in a s"stainable *a$Wthout
morerecycng,znccoudbeusedupby2037, bothndum and hafnum coud run out
by 2017, and terbum coud begonebefore2012. It s sadthat f
ChnaandIndaweretoconsume as much resources per capta as Unted
States or |apann 2030 together they woud requre a fu panet Earth to
meetther needs. In the ong term these ehects can ead to
ncreasedconct over dwndng resourcesand n the worst case aMathusan
catastrophe.Food #ecurit)Theheadof theInternatona
FoodPocyResearchInsttute,statedn2008that thegradua changendet
amongnewyprosperous popuatons s the most mportant factorunderpnnng
the rse n goba food prces. From 1950 to 1984,as theGreen
Revoutontransformedagrcuturearound theword, gran producton ncreased
by over 250%. Thewordpopuatonhas grown by about 4 bon snce the
begnnng ofthe Green Revouton and most beeve that, wthout
theRevouton, there woud be greater famne and manutrton thanthe UN
presenty documents (approxmatey 850 mon peopesuherng from chronc
manutrton n 2005). It s becomng ncreasngy dmcut to mantan food
securty n aword beset by a conuence of "peak" phenomena, namey
peako,peakwater,peakphosphorus,peakgranandpeaksh.Growng popuatons,
fang energy sources and food shortagesw createthe"perfect storm"
by2030, accordngtotheUKgovernmentchefscentst.
Hesadfoodreservesareata50-year owbut thewordrequres50%moreenergy,
foodandwater by 2030. The word w have to produce 70% more food
by2050 to feed a pro|ected extra 2.3 bon peope and as ncomesrse,
the Unted Natons' Food and Agrcuture Organsaton (FAO)warned. Soca
scentsts havewarnedof thepossbty thatgoba cvzaton s due for a perod
of contracton and economcre-ocazaton, duetothedecnenfoss
fuesandresutngcrss ntransportatonandfoodproducton. Onepaper
evensuggested that the future mght even brng about a restoraton
ofsustanabe oca economc actvtes based on huntng andgatherng, shftng
hortcuture, and pastorasm. The|ourna%ciencepubshedafour-year
studynNovember2006, whch predcted that, at prevang trends, the word
woudrun out of wd-caught seafood n 2048.
Di#ea#eGobazatonhasasohepedtospreadsomeof thedeadestnfectous
dseases known to humans. Startng n Asa, the BackDeath ked at east
one-thrd of Europe's popuaton n the
14thcentury.EvenworsedevastatonwasnctedontheAmercansupercontnent by
European arrvas. 90% of the popuatons ofthe cvzatons of the "New
Word" such as the Aztec, Maya, andIncawere ked by sma poxbrought by
European coonzaton.Modern modes of transportaton aow more peope and
productsto trave around the word at a faster pace, but they aso
openthe arways to the transcontnenta movement of nfectousdsease
vectors. One exampe of ths occurrng s AIDS/HIV. Dueto mmgraton,
approxmatey 500,000 peope n the UntedStates are beeved to be
nfected wth Chagas dsease. In 2006,thetubercuoss(TB)
rateamongforegn-bornpersons ntheUnted States was 9.5 tmes that of
U.S.-born persons. Drug and illicit good# tradeThe Unted Natons
Omce on Drugs and Crme (UNODC) ssued areport that thegoba
drugtradegenerates morethan$320bon a year n revenues. Wordwde, the
UN estmates there aremore than 50 mon reguar users of heron, cocane
andsynthetc drugs. The nternatona trade of endangered speces
ssecondony to drugtramckng.Tradtona Chnesemedcneoften ncorporates
ngredents from a parts of pants, the eaf,stem, ower, root, and aso
ngredents fromanmas andmneras. The use of parts of endangered
speces (such asseahorses,rhnoceroshorns,saga anteopehorns,
andtgerbones and caws) has created controversy and resuted n a
backmarket of poachers who hunt restrcted anmas. In 2003, 29%
ofopen sea sheres were n a state of coapse.