Running Head: Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education The Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education The Rev. John C. Carr, ThM., PhD. Associate Faculty St. Stephen’s College, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Published in The Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, Vol 69:4 (December), 2015 Pages 232 – 239 at www.JPCC.SagePub.com Permission granted for posting at the website of St. Stephen’s College, Edmonton Abstract This partially autobiographical article is presented as a chapter in the narrative of the evolution of research methodology in the social sciences and the impact that evolution has had on pastoral/spiritual care research as the author has experienced and observed it during the latter part of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st century. Keywords: care, education, pastoral, pastoral theology, research paradigm, spiritual
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Running Head: Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
The Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and
Education
The Rev. John C. Carr, ThM., PhD. Associate Faculty
St. Stephen’s College, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Published in
The Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, Vol 69:4 (December), 2015 Pages 232 – 239
at www.JPCC.SagePub.com Permission granted for posting at the website of St. Stephen’s College, Edmonton
Abstract This partially autobiographical article is presented as a chapter in the narrative of the evolution of research methodology in the social sciences and the impact that evolution has had on pastoral/spiritual care research as the author has experienced and observed it during the latter part of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st century.
Keywords: care, education, pastoral, pastoral theology, research paradigm, spiritual
Inquiry, Critical Theory, Queer Theory, etc. (Patton, 2002 and 2015)
Qualitative research explores questions rather than testing hypotheses. It does
so in partnership with informants or co-researchers who have something to contribute to
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
8
the exploration. That is, qualitative research does not study “subjects.” As is the case
with quantitative research’s hypotheses, qualitative research questions arise out of
reflection on human problems and on issues in professional practice – questions that
are either not answered by the existing research and/or theoretical literature or
questions that “cry out” for more complex in-depth exploration.
At first, researchers using qualitative methods to explore issues and questions
did not have wide acceptance for their findings. However, as reports began to be
published in refereed journals and as standard methodological procedures and criteria
have been developed, qualitative research has come to be regarded in many
professional circles as an important contributor to the search for knowledge about the
human condition and about professional practice in the care of persons. Qualitative
research can no longer be regarded as “merely anecdotal.”
In a project begun a year before his death in 1996, Donald Campbell “laid out his
arguments as to why qualitative approaches belong with quantitative ones as the
assumptive background to relevant quantitative measures ….” (Campbell and Russo,
2001). In that book, quoting from an article he wrote in 1978, Campbell asserts the
following.
In academic social science there is renewed emphasis on the methods of
the humanities and increased doubts as to the appropriateness of
applying the natural science model to social science problems. There
appears to exist a qualitative versus quantitative polarity. These terms are
shorthand for a common denominator among a wide range of partially
overlapping concepts: for quantitative read also scientific, scientistic, and
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
9
naturwissenschaftlich. For qualitative read also humanistic, humanitistic,
geisteswissenschaftlich, experiential, phenomenological, clinical, case
study, fieldwork, participant observation, process evaluation, and
commonsense knowing. (Campbell, 1978)
As Campbell implies, “qualitative” research should not be understood to be of
better “quality” than “quantitative research.” The two approaches simply have different
functions in the search for knowledge. Quantitative research is interested in proving
causation, or at least demonstrating statistically significant correlation. Qualitative
research is interested in exploring questions deeply.
In the early stages of the development of qualitative research methodologies, the
work was quite labor intensive. There were no computer programs available that were
comparable to the programs that had been developed to analyze quantitative data.
Latterly, computer programs have been developed to assist the qualitative researcher
with tasks such as the coding, clustering, and comparing of data – tasks that used to
have to be done manually.
Once the data has been assembled, the mind of the researcher is able to
process it. In that connection, Michael Quinn Patton tells us about the biological
research of neurologist V.S. Ramachandran (Ramachandran and Blakeslee, 1998)
… who studies unique cases of brain damage trying to find out how a
young man can think his parents are imposters; why a woman with a
stroke laughs uncontrollably; how a man with a stroke can be oblivious to
being paralyzed on one side; why amputees have intense feeling, even
pain, in missing limbs; and why an epilepsy patient has intense religious
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
10
experiences. Beyond what can be measured in brain waves and electrical
impulses, [Ramachandran] strives to understand “qualia” – what humans
subjectively add to the scientifically measurable aspects of experience.
This involves inquiry into the greatest shared challenge for neuroscience,
social sciences, and philosophy [one might add “Pastoral Theology”]:
understanding consciousness. Ramachandran postulates that
consciousness may involve the capacity to process qualia and that that
capacity resides in a specific brain location. (Patton, 2002, p. 11)
Patton observes that, “if Ramachandran is right, qualitative inquirers may need
that part of the brain to be especially active, accessible, and responsive.” (Patton,
2002)
Patton is asserting that it is the qualia that enable the mind of the qualitative
researcher to make sense of the data. I like to illustrate how that happens by using the
example of the TV screen or the computer monitor. The inputs (data) which cause the
screen to function are a series of impulses, present or absent in complex patterns.
However, what the viewer sees is an image in living colour. There is some subjectivity in
what the viewer sees – but there are also universal characteristics. Both the individual
subjectivity and the universality of the picture being seen become more apparent as we
reflect on and talk about what we experience. That is what qualitative exploration is like.
There is another paradigm that is different from the still evolving qualitative
research methodologies, although it has common features with some qualitative
approaches. Indigenous Research is a research paradigm with its origins in Canada,
Australia, and Botswana. (Wilson, 2008, and Kovach, 2009; Bagele, 2011) Wilson, a
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
11
Canadian who teaches in Australia, writes as follows.
Relationships don’t just shape Indigenous reality, they are our reality.
Indigenous researchers develop relationships with ideas in order to
achieve enlightenment in the ceremony that is Indigenous research.
Indigenous research is the ceremony of maintaining accountability to
these relationships. For researchers to be accountable to all our relations,
we must make careful choices in our selection of topics, methods of data
collection, forms of analysis and finally the way we present information.
One of the features of Indigenous research is that the researcher, in the
gathering of data and in the introduction of that data in the research report, locates
her/himself for the co-researcher and the report reader. Wilson writes as follows.
I am an Opaskwayak from Northern Manitoba currently living in the
Northern Rivers area of New South Wales, Australia. I’m also a father of
three boys, a researcher, son, uncle, world traveller, knowledge keeper
and knowledge seeker. As an educated Cree, I’ve spent much of my life
straddling the Indigenous and academic worlds. Most of my time these
days is spent teaching other Indigenous knowledge seekers (and my kids)
how to accomplish this balancing act while still keeping both feet on the
ground. (Wilson, 2008)
I (John Carr) am not an Indigenous person. However, even during the late 1970s
when I was writing my doctoral dissertation (a longitudinal correlational study of
seminary graduates, i.e. a quantitative research study, Carr, 1980), I knew that it was
important to “locate myself” for the reader. The reader will have noticed that I followed
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
12
that tradition in introducing this essay.
Given the relational and spiritual groundedness of Indigenous peoples, it seems
to me that pastoral/spiritual care researchers working in most cultural contexts might
very well find the emerging Indigenous Research paradigm to be compatible with their
worldview and useful in many situations.
Pastoral/Spiritual Care Research
Please note that I have been using the term “pastoral/spiritual care” in generic
way that is inclusive of pastoral/spiritual care, counseling, psychotherapy, and
education.
The first North American publication of a text specifically about research in the
pastoral/spiritual care disciplines was Larry VandeCreek’s Research Primer for Pastoral
Care & Counseling (1988). That book emerged out of the work of the Research
Committee of the American Association of Pastoral Counselors, of which I was a
member. The Research Primer was incorporated into Research in Pastoral Care and
Counseling: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in 1994, with Hilary Bender and
Merle Jordan writing the second part on the qualitative paradigm. VandeCreek’s
Spiritual Needs & Pastoral Services: Readings in Research followed in 1995.
The Carroll Wise festschrift edited by Ashbrook and Hinkle which, as previously
noted, contains a chapter by Emily Haight on the Carroll Wise Research legacy and
includes brief reports of several studies that were part of that research legacy, This
book was published in the same year as was the VandeCreek Research Primer (1988).
The appendix to Haight’s article lists the dissertations in the Carroll Wise legacy. That
list is replicated in the appendix to this article. There are a few which use Case Study
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
13
Method and one Ethnographic Study in that list.
I note, also, that the very first pastoral psychology doctoral dissertation during the
years in which Carroll Wise taught at Garrett was an empirically grounded study of “The
Idea of God and Personality Integration with Special Emphasis upon Self-Evaluation as
a deciding Integrating Factor – An Historical-Clinical-Experimental Approach.” (Nilsen,
1952)
North American practitioners of pastoral/spiritual care are not easily persuaded
concerning the value of empirical research. The long-serving Managing Editor of The
Journal of Pastoral Care (& Counseling), Orlo C. Strunk, Jr., frequently commented
(personal communication, 2001 - 2008) that whenever he published a report on
empirical research in The Journal, he would inevitably receive several complaints from
frontline practitioners – especially about reports of quantitative research.
Some of that resistance to acknowledging the importance of research derives
from the basic formation processes of pastoral/spiritual care practitioners. Those basic
formation processes usually affirmed knowledge and wisdom as derived from sacred
texts and traditions – not from exploration of the data of spiritual experience and
pastoral/spiritual care practice.
Further, there have not been many pastoral/spiritual care programs in North
American institutions that fund positions for pastoral/spiritual care researchers. As a
result, training programs have not had a resident expert on pastoral/spiritual care
research to introduce trainees to the ways in which their practice is inextricably linked to
research. Trainees eventually become practitioners and some trainees become trainers
who have no models for teaching the persons they are training about the importance of
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
14
research for their practice.
An extensive research project by George Fitchett and colleagues (Fitchett,
Tartaglia, Dodd-McCue, and Murphy, 2012) indicates that while there is “growing
evidence that leaders in professional health care chaplaincy recognize the important
role of research….” very few training programs actually teach chaplains how to do
research.
[The researchers] interviewed CPE supervisors from 26 randomly-
selected CPE residency programs. We found 12% of the programs had
intentional and substantive research-related curricula, 27% of the
programs offered some limited exposure to research, and 62% of the
programs provided no education about research. We found also that
supervisors often defined “research education” in terms of actually
conducting research projects. CPE residency programs potentially play a
central role in educating research-literate chaplains. Future research
should examine the incentives and barriers that influence the inclusion of
research education in CPE residency programs.
Fitchett, like VandeCreek, is one of the “research leaders” in North America’s
pastoral/spiritual care, counseling, and education profession. He was involved in
another research project which explored chaplain research literacy.
The Association of Professional Chaplains (APC) developed Standards of
Practice for Acute and Long-term settings. Standard 12 promotes
research-literate chaplains as important for the profession. Since many
chaplains receive training in clinical pastoral education (CPE) residency
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
15
programs, the aim of this study was to identify model practices for the
teaching of research in such programs. Using a purposeful sample, this
study identified 11 programs that offered “consistent and substantive”
education in research. Common features included the existence of a
research champion, a culture supportive of research, and the availability of
institutional resources. The study identified models and methodologies
that CPE programs can adopt. (Tartaglia, Fitchett, Dodd-McCue, Murphy,
and Derrickson, 2013)
Unless pastoral counselors have done their training in an academic program that
requires them to engage in research and to learn how research informs practice, they
are unlikely to know how to read research and integrate the principles of research in
their clinical practice.
In contrast to the complaint of readers of The Journal of Pastoral Care &
Counseling described above, here is what one of my students wrote in an integrative
paper for her first course on research in a Master of Psychotherapy and Spirituality
program. The statements are shared with the student’s permission.
I could immediately relate this … to my future work as a therapist where I am
likely to be engaged in ongoing research in some form or other as a way to
further my development as a practitioner. Seeking to discover ‘what works best’
from a therapeutic standpoint in my work with various clients and/or groups
would require an informed, and thus ethical, approach to the process of research.
Thus, it was clear that knowing what made for ‘good’ research would be
invaluable in my career not only from the perspective of engaging with my own
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
16
questions, but also from the perspective of relying upon the research of others for
professional guidance.
Having connected with the essential nature of research, my commitment to
exploring this subject [the chosen research topic] with curiosity and openness
was revitalized. I was following in the footsteps of all of humanity before me who
had directed this very same curiosity to an infinite number of questions seeking
to understand and better their existence. It is this innate desire to ‘make meaning’
that I was tapping into, the capacity to ‘do research’ that has propelled evolution
over the eons. (Klappstein, 2015)
It seems to me that modern-day practitioners of pastoral/spiritual care who object
to having to do research and read research articles and know nothing about research
paradigms are forgetting (or just do not know) that their profession had its origins in a
“research-oriented” teaching-learning context as indicated above in the discussion of
the work of Anton Boisen.
Some work on Pastoral Research Methodology has been done in the academy.
Practical Theology and Qualitative Research by Aberdeen University’s John Swinton
and Harriet Mowat (2006) is typical of that work. Swinton and Mowat argue that
“qualitative research is one way in which we [i.e. Practical/Pastoral Theologians] can
begin to look behind the veil of ‘normality’ and see what is actually going on within
situations.” (Swinton and Mowat, 2006, p. vi)
I agree with Swinton and Mowat that the role of pastoral research is (at least in
the Christian tradition) the ongoing development and integration of theology grounded in
practice. I expect that that might be so for other religious traditions. It does seem to me
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
17
that pastoral/spiritual care research is not, at least in the first instance, just about
proving the efficacy of pastoral/spiritual interventions in the lives of individuals and of
systems (although it is that secondarily). Rather, I think that pastoral research is
primarily about understanding and illuminating the reality of the human-Divine
relationship and about understanding how that relationship (“spirituality” on the human
side of it) impacts on human health and healing.
For me, Pastoral Research, using the research paradigms of Quantitative,
Grounded Theory, Qualitative, and Indigenous Research, holds the promise both of
deepening theology and broadening professional understanding of how
pastoral/spiritual care, counseling, and education serves the “healing” and
personal/professional growth and formation needs of persons. As chaplains,
pastoral/spiritually integrated counselors/psychotherapists, pastoral educators, and
pastoral theologians are increasingly able to ground what they do in the reality of human
experience, these professions will be far more credible - in religious organizations and
in the wider professional community.
In addition to the acknowledgments already noted, I am indebted to Leslie
Gardner, and the other Associate and Core faculty of St. Stephen’s College with whom I
have worked for many years, for stimulating some of the ideas that I have presented in
this article – and to the students with whom I have tested out these ideas. There are
undoubtedly other “chapters” on this subject that are “yearning” to be written and I invite
those who have lived the journey to give voice to those yearnings. One of those
chapters might involve a discussion of how worldview and belief systems impact on
research questions and the selection of research paradigm and methodology.
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
18
Appendix
Chronological List of Doctoral Dissertations in Pastoral Psychology and Counseling, 1952-1987
Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary and Northwestern University, Evanston, IL Reproduced (with some corrections) with the permission of Rowman & Littlefield, from Ashbrook James B, and Hinkle, John E. Jr. (1988) At the Point of Need: Living Human Experience (Essays in Honor of Carroll A. Wise). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Rowman & Littlefield own the copyright on publications with the University Press of America imprint. 1952 Nilsen, Einar A. The Idea of God and Personality Integration with Special
Emphasis Upon Self-Evaluation as a deciding Integrating Factor – An
Historical-Clinical-Experimental Approach.
1959 Jernigan, Homer. A Summary of the Meaning of Faith: A Theological and
Psychological Study.
1962 Taggart, Morris. A study of Attitude Change in a Group of Theological
Students.
1965 Lee, Ronald R. Theological Belief as a Dimension of Personality.
1966 Foster, Leila M. Theological Implications of Ego-Identity.
1966 McHolland, James D. A Summary of the Influence of Pastoral Care on the
Attitude of Patients in the Rehabilitation Unit of a General Hospital.
1966 Williamson, Donald S. Selective Inhibition of Aggression by Church Members
in a Local Church Setting.
1967 Gilmore, Allen R. Some Theological and Personality Correlates of a Mode of
Conflict Resolution.
1967 Bruehl, Richard G. Perceptions of the Pastoral Role by Staff and Patients in a
General Hospital and Pastors’ Stereotypes of Medical Personnel’s Attitudes
Towards the Pastoral Role.
1968 Phillips, Gary L. The Contribution of Erik Erikson and Anna Freud to the
Pastor’s Work with the Adolescent.
1969 Blake, Robert. Attitudes toward Death as a Function of Developmental
Stages
1969 Boyer, Richard. Sudden Human Change.
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
19
1970 Cole, Theodore F. An Investigation of Alienation as Expressed in Three
Revolutionary Theologies: Black, Secular and Indian.
1970 Hinkle, John E. Jr. A Study of Attitudes toward Anger and the Expression and
Inhibition of Anger in a Religious and a Non-Religious Population.
1970 Houts, Donald C. The Use of Ego Identity Measures in Evaluating a
Seminary Curriculum.
1970 Pestrue, George E. The Effect of N Achievement, Self-Esteem and
Instructions on the Performance of a Simple Addition Task by Hospitalized
Physically-Ill Patients.
1971 Florell, John L. Crisis Intervention in Orthopedic Surgery.
1971 Hartung, Buce M. Requests of Hospitalized Patients for a Religious Ministry.
1971 Mase, Bruce F. Changes in Self-Actualization as a Result of Two Types of
Residential Group Experiences.
1972 Dahlquist, Douglas A. Sexual Attitudes in the Baptist General Conference.
1972 Greer, Philip C. Field Dependence and the Practice of Ministry.
1972 Smith, Robert L. The Relative Proneness to Shame or Guilt as an Indicator of
Defensive Style.
1972 Trueblood, Roy W. Attititude Changes Amonf First Year Theological
Students.
1972 Zullo, James R. T-group Laboratory Learning and Adolescent Ego-
Development.
1973 Davis, Henry S. The Role of a Crisis Intervention Treatment in the Patient’s
Recovery From Elective Surgery.
1973 Landes, Herbert R. Treatment of Anxiety in the Families of Children
Undergoing Tonsillectomy.
1974 Moss, David M. III. A Clinical Application of Giovaccini’s Model of Marital
Interaction.
1976 Donnovan, Paul A. Birth Order and Catholic Priests.
1976 Stoneberg, Theodore A. Pastoral Therapy Intervention With the Family of a
Lingering Patient.
1977 Augspurger, Richard E. Grief Resolution Among Recent Spouse Bereaved
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
20
Individuals.
1977 Bach, James F. Hospital Nurse Morale.
1977 Duke, Ellery H. Meaning in Life and Acceptance of Death in Terminally Ill
Patients.
1977 Ortmeyer, John A. Anxiety and Repression Coping Styles and Treatment
Approaches in the Integration of Elective Orthopedic Surgical Stress.
1978 Ashby, Homer U. An MMPI Scale for Narcissistic Personality Disorder.
1978 DeSobe, Gerald J. Marital Communication Labs: Perceptual Change and
Marital Satisfaction.
1978 Gonsalvez, Heliodora. The Theology and Psychology of Glossalalia.
1978 McNair, Clinton D. The Effects of Pastoral Counseling on the Patient’s
Adjustment to Hemodialysis
1979 Alcorn, Charles E. Self/Partner Perception of Couples: At the Engaged and
Six Month Married Period.
1979 Guest, Richard E. Resource-Limited Intervention in a Macro-System.
1979 Nahrwold, Steven C. A Comparative Case Study of Four Different
Organizational Models of Pastoral Counseling Centers.
1980 Carr, John C. The MMPI, Ministerial Personality, and the Practice of Ministry.
1980 Carr, John C., Hinkle, John E. Jr., and Moss, David M. III. The Organization
and Administration of Pastoral Counseling Centres. Nashville, TN: Abingdon
Press.
1980 Demme Haight. Emily S. Psychological Criteria for the Selection of Ministerial
Candidates.
1980 Means, John J. An Investigation of an Assessment Model for the Evaluation
of the Capacity of Seminary Students to Utilize Clinical Pastoral Education as
a Professional Learning Experience.
1981 Best, John K. Reducing Length of Hospital Stay and Facilitating the Recovery
Process of Orthopedic Surgical Patients Through Crisis Intervention and
Pastoral Care.
1981 Dayton, Lucille S. The Relationship between Ego Development of Mothers
and Their Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Support of Their Children.
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
21
1981 Fite, Robert C. A psychological Study of Persons Reporting Mystical
Experiences.
1981 Martin, John C. Dimensions of the Grief Experience in Recently Bereaved
Spouses
1982 Conroy, Michael F. Dimensions of Moral Character.
1983 Comer, Michael P. Psychological Characteristics of a Ministerial Assessment
Battery.
1983 Graham McNair, Alice M. Exploratory Study of Pastoral Care Intervention
with Hysterectomy Patients.
1984 Lattimore, Vergel L. Pastoral Care Strategies of Black Pastors.
1984 Myers, Robert K. The Relationship between Dreams and Dreamers in
Modern Psychological Literature.
1985 Hogue, David A. The Measurement of Job Satisfaction for Clergy.
1985 Holliman, Pamela. A Study of Psychological Assessment Procedures as
Adjunctive to Personnel Selection Processes in Religious Organizations.
1985 Scanlon, Joan. Life Themes in the Wives of Roman Catholic Deacons.
1985 Silva-Netto, Benoni R. Culture, Personality, and Mental Health: An
Ethnographic Study of Five Filipino Immigrant Families.
1986 Pressley, Arthur L. A Study in the Use of Consumer Marketing Theory to
Develop Entry Systems for Pastoral Counseling Centers.
1987 Hennessey, Ruth W. Personal Bereavement and its Effects on the Choice of
Religious Vocation.
1987 Pierce, James David. A Multidimensional Scaling of the Cognitive
Dimensions Used by Seminary Students in Their Perception of Biblical
Material.
Evolution of Research Paradigms in Pastoral/Spiritual Care, Counseling, and Education
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References
Ashbrook, James and Hinkle, John E. (1988) At the point of need: Living Human
Experiences (Essays in Honor of Carroll A. Wise). Lanham, NY: University Press
of America.
Asquith, Glenn H. Jr., editor. (1992) Vision from a Little Known Country: A Boisen
Reader. Decatur, IL, USA: Journal of Pastoral Care Publications Inc.
Bagele, Chilisa. (2011) Indigenous Research Methodologies. Los Angeles, CA: Sage
Publications.
Campbell, Donald T. and Stanley, Julian C. (1966) Experimental and Quasi-
Experimental Designs for Research. Skokie, IL: Rand McNally (originally
published in 1963 in Gage, N. L. Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago:
Rand McNally).
Campbell, D. T. (1978). Qualitative knowing in action research. In M. Brenner and P.
Marsh (editors). The social contexts of method (pp. 184–209). London, UK:
Croom Helm.
Campbell, Donald T. and M. Jean Russo. (2001) Qualitative Research Methods in
Program Evaluation. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications.
Carr, John C. (1980) The MMPI, Ministerial Personality, and the Practice of Ministry.