Evolution Final

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NAME : HARIHARAN . TROLL NO : UCS 11209.SUBJECT : COMPUTER SCIENCE.SEMESTER : I

TOPIC Evolution of computer

&Components of computer

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Abacus

The abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarilyin parts of Asia for performing arithmetic processes. Today, abaci are often

constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they

were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone,

or metal. The abacus was in use centuries before the adoption of the written

modern numeral system and is still widely used by merchants, traders and

clerks in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere. The user of an abacus is called an

abacist.

Indian abacusFirst century sources, such as the Abhidharmakosa describe the knowledge

and use of abacus in India. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already

finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus. Hindu texts used

the term shunya(zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.

Mesopotamian abacusThe period 27002300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a

table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of

magnitude of their sexagesimal number system.Some scholars point to a

character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a

representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Carruccio (and other Old

Babylonian scholars) thatOld Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the

operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved

difficult to use for more complex calculations".

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Napier's bones

Napier's bones is an abacus created by John Napier for calculation of

products and quotients of numbers that was based on Arab

mathematics and lattice multiplication used by Matrakci Nasuh in the Umdet-ul

Hisab and Fibonacci writing in the Liber Abaci. Also called Rabdology (from

Greek o [r(h)abdos], "rod" and - [logia], "study"). Napier published

his version of rods in a work printed in Edinburgh,Scotland, at the end of 1617

entitled Rabdologi. Using the multiplication tables embedded in the rods,

multiplication can be reduced to addition operations and division to

subtractions. More advanced use of the rods can even extract square roots.

Note that Napier's bones are not the same as logarithms, with which Napier's

name is also associated.

The abacus consists of a board with a rim; the user places Napier's rods in the

rim to conduct multiplication or division. The board's left edge is divided into 9

squares, holding the numbers 1 to 9. TheNapier's rodsconsist of strips of

wood, metal or heavy cardboard.Napier's bonesare three dimensional, square

in cross section, with four differentrodsengraved on each one. A set of

suchbonesmight be enclosed in a convenient carrying case.

A rod's surface comprises 9 squares, and each square, except for the top one,

comprises two halves divided by a diagonal line. The first square of each rod

holds a single digit, and the other squares hold this number's double, triple,

quadruple, quintuple, and so on until the last square contains nine times the

number in the top square. The digits of each product are written one to each

side of the diagonal; numbers less than 10 occupy the lower triangle, with a

zero in the top half.A set consists of 10 rods corresponding to digits 0 to 9.

The rod 0, although it may look unnecessary, is obviously still needed for

multipliers or multiplicands having 0 in them.

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Slide rule

The slide rule, also known colloquially as a slipstick, is a mechanical analogcomputer. The slide rule is used primarily for multiplication and division,

and also for functions such as roots,logarithms and trigonometry, but is not

normally used for addition or subtraction.

Slide rules come in a diverse range of styles and generally appear in a

linear or circular form with a standardized set of markings (scales)

essential to performing mathematical computations. Slide rules

manufactured for specialized fields such as aviation or finance typically

feature additional scales that aid in calculations common to that field.

William Oughtred and others developed the slide rule in the 17th century

based on the emerging work on logarithms by John Napier. Before the

advent of the pocket calculator, it was the most commonly used calculation

tool in science and engineering. The use of slide rules continued to grow

through the 1950s and 1960s even as digital computing devices were beinggradually introduced; but around 1974 the electronic scientific

calculator made it largely obsolete and most suppliers left the business.

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Pascal's calculator

Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator in 1642.He conceived it while

trying to help his father who had been assigned the task of reorganizing the

tax revenues of the French province of Haute-Normandie; first calledArithmetic

Machine,Pascal's Calculatorand laterPascaline, it could add and subtract

directly and multiply and divide by repetition.

Pascal went through 50 prototypes before presenting his first machine to the

public in 1645. He dedicated it to Pierre Sguier, the chancellor of France at the

time.He built around twenty more machines during the next decade, often

improving on his original design. Nine machines have survived the

centuries,most of them being on display in European museums. In 1649

a royal privilege, signed by Louis XIV of France,gave him the exclusivity of the

design and manufacturing of calculating machines in France.

Its introduction launched the development of mechanical calculators in Europe

first and then all over the world, development which culminated, three

centuries later, by the invention of themicroprocessor developed for

a Busicom calculator in 1971.

The mechanical calculator industry owes a lot of its key machines and

inventions to the pascaline. First Gottfried Leibniz invented his Leibnizwheels after 1671 while trying to add an automatic multiplication and division

feature to the pascaline,then Thomas de Colmar drew his inspiration from

Pascal and Leibniz when he designed his arithmometer in 1820, and finally Dorr

E. Feltsubstituted the input wheels of the pascaline by columns of keys to

invent his comptometer around 1887. The pascaline was also constantly

improved upon, especially with the machines of Dr. Roth around 1840, and

then with some portable machines until the creation of the first electronic

calculators.

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Gottfried Leibniz

Specifications

Can multiply, devide, add and substract. Mechanical device made of

copper and steel. Carriage is performed with a stepped wheel, which

mechanism is still in use today.

Chronology

Contrary to Pascal,Leibniz(1646-1716) successfully introduced a

calculator onto the market. It is designed in 1673 but it takes until 1694 to

complete. The calculator can add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Wheels

are placed at right angles which could be displaced by a special stepping

mechanism.

The speed of calculation for multiplication or division was acceptable. But

like the Pascaline, this calculator required that the operator using the

device had to understand how to turn the wheels and know the way of

performing calculations with the calculator.

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Punched card

A punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of stiff

paper that contains digital information represented by the presence or

absence of holes in predefined positions. Now an obsolete recording medium,

punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for

controlling textile looms and in the late 19th and early 20th century for

operating fairground organs and related instruments. They were used through

the 20th century in unit record machines for input, processing, and data

storage. Early digital computers used punched cards, often prepared

using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for input of both computer

programs and data. Some voting machines use punched cards.

The early applications of punched cards all used specifically designed card

layouts. It wasn't until around 1928 that punched cards and machines were

made "general purpose". The rectangular, round, or oval bits of paper

punched out are called chad (recently,chads) orchips(in IBM usage). Multi-

character data, such as words or large numbers, were stored in adjacent card

columns known as fields. A group of cards is called a deck. One upper corner

of each card was usually cut so that cards not oriented correctly, or cards with

different corner cuts, could be easily identified. Cards were commonly printed

so that the row and column position of a punch could be identified. For some

applications printing might have included fields, named and marked by vertical

lines, logos, and more.

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Analytical Engine

Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device, the difference engine, was aspecial-purpose calculator designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometricfunctions by evaluating finite differences to create approximating polynomials.Construction of this machine was never completed; Babbage had conflicts with his chief

engineer, Joseph Clement, and ultimately the British government withdrew its fundingfor the project.

During this project he realized that a much more general design, the Analytical Engine,was possible. The input (programs and data) was to be provided to the machinevia punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such asthe Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and abell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. Itemployed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic.

There was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50decimal digits each (ca. 20.7 kB). An arithmetical unit (the "mill") would be able to

perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots.Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generallycircular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side.Like the central processingunit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely upon its own internalprocedures, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called"barrels", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program mightspecify.

The programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assemblylanguages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language asconceived would have been Turing-complete long before Alan Turing's concept. Three

different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one fornumerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers fromthe store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for thethree types of cards.

In 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea, whom Babbage had met whiletravelling in Italy, wrote a description of the engine in French. In 1843, the descriptionwas translated into English and extensively annotated byAda Byron, Countess ofLovelace, who had become interested in the engine ten years earlier. In recognition ofher additions to Menabrea's paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoullinumbers using the machine, she has been described as the first computer programmer.

The modern computer programming language Ada is named in her honour.

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Herman Hollerith

1888 Competition

Following the 1880 census, the Census Bureau was collecting more data than it couldtabulate. As a result, the agency held a competition in 1888 to find a more efficient

method to process and tabulate data. Contestants were asked to process 1880 censusdata from four areas in St Louis, MO. Whoever captured and processed the data fastestwould win a contract for the 1890 census.Three contestants accepted the CensusBureau's challenge. The first two contestants captured the data in 144.5 hours and 100.5hours. The third contestant, a former Census Bureau employee named HermanHollerith, completed the data capture process in 72.5 hours.Next, the contestants had toprove that their designs could prepare data for tabulation (i.e., by age category, race,gender, etc.). Two contestants required 44.5 hours and 55.5 hours. Hollerith astoundedCensus Bureau officials by completing the task in just 5.5 hours!Herman Hollerith'simpressive results earned him the contract to process and tabulate 1890 census data.Modified versions of his technology would continue to be used at the Census Bureau

until replaced by computers in the 1950s.

Components of the Hollerith Tabulator

Herman Hollerith's tabulator consisted of electrically-operated components thatcaptured and processed census data by "reading" holes on paper punch cards.

Pantograph

To begin tabulating data, census information had to be transferred from the censusschedules to paper punch cards using a pantograph. The punch cards measured 3.25 by

7.375 inches and contained 12 rows of 20 columns. (Cards used in later censuses hadadditional columns to collect more data.) Each position in a row and columncorresponded to a specific data entry on the census schedule.Census Bureau clerksusing pantographs could prepare approximately 500 cards per day. To operate themechanism, the operator positioned the punching stylus over the desired hole in apunch card template. Each hole in the template corresponded to a specific demographiccategory. Pressing the stylus into the template created a punched hole in the paper cardthat was read by the Hollerith tabulator's card reader.

Card Reader

Each Hollerith tabulator was equiped with a card reading station. The manually-operated card reader consisted of two hinged plates operated by a lever (similar to a

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waffle iron). Clerks opened the reader and positioned a punched card between theplates. Upon closing the plates, spring-loaded metal pins in the upper plate passedthrough the punched data holes in the cards, through the bottom plate, and into wells ofmercury beneath. Pins that passed through the punch card completed an electricalcircuit when contacting the mercury below. The completed circuit energized the

magnetic dials on the Hollerith tabulator and advanced the counting hands. Uponcompletion of the electrical cicuit (signaled by the ringing of a bell), the clerk transcibedthe data indicated by the dial hands.

Hollerith Tabulator DialsThe 1890 Hollerith tabulators consisted of 40 data-recording dials. Each dialrepresented a different data item collected during the census. The electrical impulsesreceived as the reader's pins passed through the card into the mercury advanced thehands on the dials corresponding to the data contained on the punch card (i.e.,responses to inquiries about race, gender, citizenship, age, etc). When the bell signalledthe card had been read, the operator recorded the data on the dials, opened the cardreader, removed the punch cards, and reset the dials.

Sorting Table

A sorting table was positioned next to each tabulator. After registering the punch carddata on the dials, the sorter specified which drawer the operator should place the card.The clerk opened the reader, placed the punch card in the designated sorter drawer,reset the dials, and positioned a new card to repeat the process.

An experienced tabulator clerk could process 80 punch cards per minute.

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Harvard Mark I

The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), called the Mark

I by Harvard University, was an electro-mechanical computer. The electromechanical

ASCC was devised by Howard H. Aiken, built at IBM and shipped to Harvard in

February 1944. It began computations for the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships in May and

was officially presented to the university on August 7, 1944. It was very reliable, much

more so than early electronic computers. It has been described as "the beginning of the

era of the modern computer" and "the real dawn of the computer age".

The ASCC was built from switches, relays, rotating shafts, and clutches. It used

765,000 components and hundreds of miles of wire, comprising a volume of 51 feet (16

m) in length, eight feet (2.4 m) in height, and two feet (~61 cm) deep. It had a weight of

about 10,000 pounds (4500 kg). The basic calculating units had to be synchronized

mechanically, so they were run by a 50-foot (~15.5 m) shaft driven by a five-horsepower

(4 kW) electric motor. From the IBM Archives:The Automatic Sequence Controlled

Calculator (Harvard Mark I) was the first operating machine that could execute long

computations automatically. A project conceived by Harvard University's Dr. Howard

Aiken, the Mark I was built by IBM engineers in Endicott, N.Y. A steel frame 51 feet

(16 m) long and eight feet high held the calculator, which consisted of an interlocking

panel of small gears, counters, switches and control circuits, all only a few inches in

depth. The ASCC used 500 miles (800 km) of wire with three million connections, 3,500

multipole relays with 35,000 contacts, 2,225 counters, 1,464 tenpole switches and tiers of

72 adding machines, each with 23 significant numbers. It was the industry's largest

electromechanical calculator. The enclosure for the Mark I was designed by futuristic

American industrial designer Norman Bel Geddes. Aiken considered the elaborate case

to be a waste of resources, since computing power was in high demand during the war

and the funds ($50,000 or more according to Grace Hopper) could have been used to

build additional computer equipment.

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AtanasoffBerry Computer( ABC )

The AtanasoffBerry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic digital computing device.Conceived in 1937, the machine was not programmable, being designed only to solvesystems of linear equations. It was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediateresult storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was unreliable, and wheninventor John Vincent Atanasoff left Iowa State College for World War II assignments,work on the machine was discontinued. The ABC pioneered important elements ofmodern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, butits special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it frommodern computers. The computer was designated an IEEE Milestone in 1990.

Atanasoff and Clifford Berry's computer work was not widely known until it wasrediscovered in the 1960s, amidst conflicting claims about the first instance of anelectronic computer. At that time, the ENIACwas considered to be the first computer inthe modern sense, but in 1973 a U.S. District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent andconcluded that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the electronic

digital computer from Atanasoff (see Patent dispute).

The machine was, however, the first to implement three critical ideas that are still part

of every modern computer:

1. Using binary digits to represent all numbers and data

2. Performing all calculations using electronics rather than wheels, ratchets, or

mechanical switches

3. Organizing a system in which computation and memory are separated.

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ENIAC( electronic numerical integrator and calculator )

ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was the first general-purpose electronic computer. It was a Turing-complete digital computer capableof being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems.

ENIAC was designed to calculate artillery firing tables for the United StatesArmy's Ballistic Research Laboratory. When ENIAC was announced in 1946 itwas heralded in the press as a "Giant Brain". It boasted speeds one thousandtimes faster than electro-mechanical machines, a leap in computing power thatno single machine has since matched. This mathematical power, coupled with

general-purpose programmability, excited scientists and industrialists. Theinventors promoted the spread of these new ideas by teaching a series oflectures on computer architecture.

The ENIAC's design and construction was financed by the United States Armyduring World War II. The construction contract was signed on June 5, 1943, andwork on the computer began in secret by theUniversity of Pennsylvania's MooreSchool of Electrical Engineering starting the following month under the codename "Project PX". The completed machine was announced to the public theevening of February 14, 1946 and formally dedicated the next day at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, having cost almost $500,000 (nearly $6 million in2010, adjusted for inflation). It was formally accepted by the U.S. ArmyOrdnance Corps in July 1946. ENIAC was shut down on November 9, 1946 for arefurbishment and a memory upgrade, and was transferred to Aberdeen ProvingGround, Maryland in 1947. There, on July 29, 1947, it was turned on and was incontinuous operation until 11:45 p.m. on October 2, 1955.

ENIAC was conceived and designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert ofthe University of Pennsylvania. The team of design engineers assisting thedevelopment included Robert F. Shaw (function tables), Chuan Chu(divider/square-rooter), Thomas Kite Sharpless (master programmer), Arthur

Burks (multiplier), Harry Huskey (reader/printer) and Jack Davis(accumulators). ENIAC was named an IEEE Milestone in 1987.

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EDVAC( electronic discrete variable autom atic computer )

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the

earliest electronic computers. Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it

was binary rather than decimal, and was a stored programmachine.

Project origin and plan

ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert proposed the EDVAC's

construction in August 1944, and design work for the EDVAC commenced

before the ENIAC was fully operational. The design would implement a number

of important architectural and logical improvements conceived during the

ENIAC's construction and would incorporate a high speed serial access

memory. Like the ENIAC, the EDVAC was built for the U.S. Army's Ballistics

Research Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground by the University of

Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. Eckert and Mauchly and

the other ENIAC designers were joined by John von Neumann in a consulting

role; von Neumann summarized and elaborated upon logical design

developments in his 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC.

A contract to build the new computer was signed in April 1946 with an initial

budget ofUS$100,000. The contract named the device the Electronic Discrete

Variable Automatic Calculator. The final cost of EDVAC, however, was similar

to the ENIAC's, at just under $500,000.

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EDSAC ( Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator )

Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was an

early British computer. The machine, having been inspired by John von

Neumann's seminal First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, was constructed

by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical

Laboratory in England. EDSAC was the first practical stored-program electronic computer.

Later the project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd., a British firm, who wererewarded with the first commercially applied computer, LEO I, based on theEDSAC design. EDSAC ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculateda table of squares and a list ofprime numbers.

Physical components

As soon as EDSAC was completed, it began serving the University's researchneeds. None of its components were experimental. It used mercury delay lines for

memory, and derated vacuum tubes for logic. Input was via 5-hole punched

tape and output was via a teleprinter.

Initially registers were limited to an accumulator and a multiplier register. In

1953, David Wheeler, returning from a stay at the University of Illinois, designed

an index register as an extension to the original EDSAChardware.

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Manchester Mark 1

The Manchester Mark 1 was one of the earliest stored-program computers,developed at the Victoria University of Manchester from the Small-ScaleExperimental Machine (SSEM) or "Baby" (operational in June 1948). It wasalso called the Manchester Automatic Digital Machine, or MADM. Workbegan in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949; aprogram written to search forMersenne primes ran error-free for nine hourson the night of 16/17 June 1949.The machine's successful operation waswidely reported in the British press, which used the phrase "electronic brain"

in describing it to their readers. That description provoked a reaction fromthe head of the University of Manchester's Department of Neurosurgery, thestart of a long-running debate as to whether an electronic computer couldever be truly creative.The Mark 1 was initially developed to provide acomputing resource within the university, to allow researchers to gainexperience in the practical use of computers, but it very quickly also became aprototype on which the design ofFerranti's commercial version could bebased. Development ceased at the end of 1949, and the machine was scrappedtowards the end of 1950, replaced in February 1951 by a Ferranti Mark 1, the

world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.The computer is especially historically significant because of its pioneeringinclusion ofindex registers, an innovation which made it easier for a programto read sequentially through an array ofwords in memory. Thirty-fourpatents resulted from the machine's development, and many of the ideasbehind its design were incorporated in subsequent commercial products suchas the IBM 701 and 702 as well as the Ferranti Mark 1. The chiefdesigners, Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn, concluded from theirexperiences with the Mark 1 that computers would be used more in scientificroles than in pure mathematics. In 1951 they started development work on

Meg, the Mark 1's successor, which would include a floating point unit.

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UNIVAC I( universal automatic computer )

TheUNIVAC I(UNIVersalAutomaticComputerI) was the first commercial computer

produced in the United States. It was designed principally by J. Presper Eckert and John

Mauchly, the inventors of the ENIAC. Design work was begun by their company, Eckert-

Mauchly Computer Corporation, and was completed after the company had been

acquired by Remington Rand. (In the years before successor models of the UNIVAC I

appeared, the machine was simply known as "theUNIVAC".)The first UNIVAC was

delivered to the United States Census Bureau on March 31, 1951, and was dedicated on

June 14 that year.[1] The fifth machine (built for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission) was

used byCBS to predict the result of the 1952 presidential election. With a sample of just

1% of the voting population it correctly predicted that Dwight Eisenhower would win.

The UNIVAC I computers were built by Remington Rand's UNIVAC division (successor

of the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, bought by Rand in 1950 which later

became part ofSperry, now Unisys).As well as being the first American commercial

computer, the UNIVAC I was the first American computer designed at the outset for

business and administrative use (i.e., for the fast execution of large numbers of

relatively simple arithmetic and data transport operations, as opposed to the complex

numerical calculations required by scientific computers). As such the UNIVAC

competed directly against punch-card machines (mainly made by IBM), but oddly

enough the UNIVAC originally had no means of either reading or punching cards(which initially hindered sales to some companies with large quantities of data on cards,

due to potential manual conversion costs). This was corrected by adding offline card

processing equipment, the UNIVAC Card to Tape converterand the UNIVAC Tape to Card

converter, to transfer data between cards and UNIVAC magnetic tapes. However, the

early market share of the UNIVAC I was lower than the Remington Rand Company

wished. In an effort to increase market share, the company joined with CBS to have

UNIVAC I predict the result of the 1952 Presidential election. UNIVAC I predicted Ike

Eisenhower would have a landslide victory over Adlai Stevenson who the pollsters

favored. The result for UNIVAC I was a greater public awareness in computingtechnology.

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Microprocessor

A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processingunit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit , or at most a few integrated circuits. Itis a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input,processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides resultsas output. It is an example ofsequential digital logic, as it has internal memory.Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binarynumeral system. The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits hastransformed modern society. General-purpose microprocessors inpersonalcomputers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, andcommunication over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part

ofembedded systems, providing digital control of a myriad of objects fromappliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.

During the 1960s, computer processors were constructed out of small andmedium-scale ICs each containing from tens to a few hundred transistors. Foreach computer built, all of these had to be placed and soldered onto printedcircuit boards, and often multiple boards would have to be interconnected in achassis. The large number of discrete logic gates used more electrical powerand therefore, produced more heatthan a more integrated design with fewerICs. The distance that signals had to travel between ICs on the boards limited the

speed at which a computer could operate.The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatlyreduced the cost of processing power. The integrated circuit processor wasproduced in large numbers by highly automated processes, so unit cost was low.Single-chip processors increase reliability as there were many fewer electricalconnections to fail. As microprocessor designs get faster, the cost ofmanufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chipthe same size) generally stays the same.

Microprocessors integrated into one or a few large-scale ICs the architectures

that had previously been implemented using many medium- and small-scaleintegrated circuits. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have

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rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see history ofcomputing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everythingfrom the smallest embedded systems and handheld devices to thelargest mainframes and supercomputers.

The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used forelectronic calculators, using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, suchas terminals, printers, various kinds ofautomation etc., followed soon after.Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the firstgeneral-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

Since the early 1970s, the increase in capacity of microprocessors hasfollowed Moore's law, which suggests that the number of transistors that can befitted onto a chip doubles every two years. Although originally calculated as adoubling every year, Moore later refined the period to two years.[4] It is often

incorrectly quoted as a doubling oftransistors every 18 months.

Three projects delivered a microprocessor at about the sametime: Intel's 4004, Texas Instruments (TI) TMS 1000, and Garrett

AiResearch's Central Air Data Computer (CADC).

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Personal computer

A personal computer (PC) is any general-purpose computer whose size,capabilities, and original sales price make it useful for individuals, and which isintended to be operated directly by an end-user with no intervening computeroperator. In contrast, the batch processing or time-sharing models allowed largeexpensive mainframe systems to be used by many people, usually at the sametime. Large data processing systems require a full-time staff to operateefficiently.

Software applications for personal computers include, but are not limited

to, word processing, spreadsheets, databases, Web browsers and e-mail clients, digital media playback, games, and myriad personal productivityand special-purpose software applications. Modern personal computers oftenhave connections to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web and awide range of other resources. Personal computers may be connected to a localarea network (LAN), either by a cable or a wireless connection. A personalcomputer may be a desktop computer or a laptop, tablet PC, or a handheld PC.

While early PC owners usually had to write their own programs to do anythinguseful with the machines, today's users have access to a wide rangeofcommercial software and free software, which is provided in ready-to-run or

ready-to-compile form. Since the 1980s, Microsoft and Intel have dominatedmuch of the personal computer market, first with MS-DOS and then withthe Wintel platform. Alternatives to Windows include Apple's Mac OS X and theopen-source Linux OSes. AMD is the major alternative to Intel. Applications andgames for PCs are typically developed and distributed independently from thehardware or OS manufacturers, whereas software for many mobile phones andother portable systems is approved and distributed through a centralized onlinestore.

In July & August 2011, marketing businesses and journalists started to talk

about the 'Post-PC Era', an era where the desktop form factor was being replacewith more portable computing such as netbooks, and Tablet PC's.

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PowerPC 600

The PowerPC 600 family was the first family ofPowerPC processors built. Theywere designed at the Somerset facility in Austin, Texas, jointly funded and

staffed by engineers from IBM and Motorola as a part of the AIM alliance.Somerset was opened in 1992 and its goal was to make the first PowerPCprocessor and then keep designing general purpose PowerPC processorsfor personal computers. The first incarnation became the PowerPC 601 in 1993,and the second generation soon followed with the PowerPC 603, PowerPC 604and the 64-bit PowerPC 620. The chip was designed to suit a wide varietyapplications and had support for external L2 cache and symmetricmultiprocessing. It had four functional units, including a floating point unit,an integer unit, a branch unit and a sequencer unit. The processor also includeda memory management unit. The integer pipeline was four stages long, the

branch pipeline two stages long, the memory pipeline five stages long, and thefloating-point pipeline six stages long. First launched in IBM systems in the fallof 1993, it was marketed by IBM as the PPC601 and by Motorola as theMPC601. It operated at speeds ranging from 50 to 80 MHz. It was fabricatedusing a 0.6 m CMOSprocess with four levels of aluminum interconnect. The diewas 121 mm large and contained 2.8 million transistors. The 601 has a 32 kBunified L1 cache, a capacity that was considered large at the time for an on-chipcache. Thanks partly to the large cache it was considered a high performanceprocessor in its segment, outperforming the competing Intel Pentium. ThePowerPC 601 was used in the first Power Macintosh computers from Apple, and

in a variety ofRS/6000 workstations and SMP servers from IBM and GroupeBull. IBM was the sole manufacturer of the 601 and 601+ microprocessors inits Burlington, Vermont and East Fishkill, New York production facilities. The601 used the IBM CMOS-4s process and the 601+ used the IBM CMOS-5xprocess. An extremely small number of these 601 and 601+ processors wererelabeled with Motorola logos and part numbers and distributed throughMotorola. These facts are somewhat obscured given there are various pictures ofthe "Motorola MPC601", particularly one specific case of masterful Motorolamarketing where the 601 was named one ofTime Magazine's 1994 "Products ofthe Year" with a Motorola marking.

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GlossaryThe first counting device was the abacus, originally from Asia. It workedon a place-value notion meaning that the place of a bead or rock on theapparatus determined how much it was worth.

1600s : John Napier discovers logarithms. Robert Bissaker invents theslide rule which will remain in popular use until 19??.

1642 : Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher, inventsthe first mechanical digital calculator using gears, called the Pascaline.

Although this machine could perform addition and subtraction on wholenumbers, it was too expensive and only Pascal himself could repare it.

1804 : Joseph Marie Jacquard used punch cards to automate a weavingloom.

1812 : Charles P. Babbage, the "father of the computer", discovered thatmany long calculations involved many similar, repeated operations.Therefore, he designed a machine, the difference engine which would be

steam-powered, fully automatic and commanded by a fixed instructionprogram. In 1833, Babbage quit working on this machine to concentrate onthe analytical engine.

1840s: Augusta Ada. "The first programmer" suggested that a binarysystem shouled be used for staorage rather than a decimal system.

1850s : George Boole developed Boolean logic which would later be usedin the design of computer circuitry.

1890: Dr. Herman Hollerith introduced the first electromechanical,punched-card data-processing machine which was used to compileinformation for the 1890 U.S. census. Hollerith's tabulator became sosuccessful that he started his own business to market it. His companywould eventually become International Business Machines (IBM).

1906 : The vacuum tube is invented by American physicist Lee De Forest.

1939 : Dr. John V. Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry build thefirst electronic digital computer. Their machine, the Atanasoff-Berry-

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Computer (ABC) provided the foundation for the advances in electronicdigital computers.

1941 : Konrad Zuse (recently deceased in January of 1996), from

Germany, introduced the first programmable computer designed to solvecomplex engineering equations. This machine, called the Z3, was also thefirst to work on the binary system instead of the decimal system.

1943 : British mathematician Alan Turing developped a hypotheticaldevice, the Turing machine which would be designed to perform logicaloperation and could read and write. It would presage programmablecomputers. He also used vacuum technology to build British Colossus, amachine used to counteract the German code scrambling device, Enigma.

1944 : Howard Aiken, in collaboration with engineers from IBM,constructed a large automatic digital sequence-controlled computer calledthe Harvard Mark I. This computer could handle all four arithmeticopreations, and had special built-in programs for logarithms andtrigonometric functions.

1945: Dr. John von Neumann presented a paper outlining the stored-program concept.

1947 : The giant ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator andCalculator) machine was developped by John W. Mauchly and J. PresperEckert, Jr. at the University of Pennsylvania. It used 18, 000 vacuums,punch-card input, weighed thirty tons and occupied a thirty-by-fifty-footspace. It wasn't programmable but was productive from 1946 to 1955 andwas used to compute artillery firing tables. That same year, the transistorwas invented by William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain ofBell Labs. It would rid computers of vacuum tubes and radios.

1949 : Maurice V. Wilkes built the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage

Automatic Computer), the first stored-program computer. EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), the second stored-program computer was built by Mauchly, Eckert, and von Neumann. AnWang developped magnetic-core memory which Jay Forrester wouldreorganize to be more efficient.

1950 : Turing built the ACE, considered by some to be the firstprogrammable digital computer.

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GENERATION OF COMPUTERFIRST-GENERATION: Machines

Even before the ENIAC was finished, Eckert and Mauchly recognized its limitations andstarted the design of a stored-program computer, EDVAC. John von Neumann was creditedwith a widely circulated reportdescribing the EDVAC design in which both the programs and

working data were stored in a single, unified store. This basic design, denoted the von Neumannarchitecture, would serve as the foundation for the worldwide development of ENIAC'ssuccessors. In this generation of equipment, temporary or working storage was providedby acoustic delay lines, which used the propagation time of sound through a medium such asliquid mercury (or through a wire) to briefly store data. A series ofacoustic pulses is sent alonga tube; after a time, as the pulse reached the end of the tube, the circuitry detected whether thepulse represented a 1 or 0 and caused the oscillator to re-send the pulse. Others used Williamstubes, which use the ability of a small cathode-ray tube (CRT) to store and retrieve data ascharged areas on the phosphor screen. By 1954, magnetic core memory was rapidly displacingmost other forms of temporary storage, and dominated the field through the mid-1970s.EDVACwas the first stored-program computer designed; however it was not the first to run. Eckert andMauchly left the project and its construction floundered. The first working von Neumann

machine was the Manchester "Baby" or Small-Scale Experimental Machine, developedby Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn at the University of Manchester in 1948 as a test bedfor the Williams tube; it was followed in 1949 by the Manchester Mark 1 computer, a completesystem, using Williams tube andmagnetic drum memory, and introducing index registers. Theother contender for the title "first digital stored-program computer" had been EDSAC,designed and constructed at the University of Cambridge. Operational less than one year afterthe Manchester "Baby", it was also capable of tackling real problems. EDSAC was actuallyinspired by plans for EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), thesuccessor to ENIAC; these plans were already in place by the time ENIAC was successfullyoperational. Unlike ENIAC, which used parallel processing, EDVAC used a single processingunit. This design was simpler and was the first to be implemented in each succeeding wave ofminiaturization, and increased reliability. Some view Manchester Mark 1 / EDSAC / EDVAC as

the "Eves" from which nearly all current computers derive their architecture. ManchesterUniversity's machine became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1. The first Ferranti Mark 1machine was delivered to the University in February, 1951 and at least nine others were soldbetween 1951 and 1957.The first universal programmable computer in the Soviet Union wascreated by a team of scientists under direction ofSergei Alekseyevich Lebedev from KievInstitute of Electrotechnology, Soviet Union (nowUkraine). Thecomputer MESM (, Small Electronic Calculating Machine) became operational in 1950.It had about 6,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 25 kW of power. It could performapproximately 3,000 operations per second. Another early machine was CSIRAC, an Australiandesign that ran its first test program in 1949. CSIRAC is the oldest computer still in existenceand the first to have been used to play digital music.

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SECOND GENERATION: Transistors

The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuumtubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Initially theonly devices available were germanium point-contact transistors, which although less reliablethan the vacuum tubes they replaced had the advantage of consuming far less power. Thefirst transistorised computer was built at theUniversity of Manchester and was operational by1953; a second version was completed there in April 1955. The later machine used

200 transistors and 1,300 solid-state diodes and had a power consumption of 150 watts.However, it still required valves to generate the clock waveforms at 125 kHz and to read andwrite on the magnetic drum memory, whereas the Harwell CADET operated without any valvesby using a lower clock frequency, of 58 kHz when it became operational in February1955. Problems with the reliability of early batches of point contact and alloyed junctiontransistors meant that the machine's mean time between failures was about 90 minutes, but thisimproved once the more reliable bipolar junction transistors became available. Compared tovacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power thanvacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable thanvacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could containtens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. Transistors greatlyreduced computers' size, initial cost, and operating cost. Typically, second-generation

computers were composed of large numbers ofprinted circuit boards such as the IBM StandardModular System each carrying one to four logic gates or flip-flops.A second generationcomputer, the IBM 1401, captured about one third of the world market. IBM installed morethan ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964.Transistorized electronics improved not onlythe CPU (Central Processing Unit), but also the peripheral devices. The IBM 350 RAMAC wasintroduced in 1956 and was the world's first disk drive. The second generation disk data storageunits were able to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to the fixed disk storage units,connected to the CPU via high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data storage units.A removable disk stack can be easily exchanged with another stack in a few seconds. Even if theremovable disks' capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their interchangeability guarantees anearly unlimited quantity of data close at hand. Magnetic tape provided archival capability forthis data, at a lower cost than disk.

Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral device communications to a secondaryprocessor. For example, while the communication processor controlled card reading andpunching, the main CPU executed calculations and binary branch instructions.One databus would bear data between the main CPU and core memory at the CPU's fetch-execute cycle rate, and other databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices. Onthe PDP-1, the core memory's cycle time was 5 microseconds; consequently most arithmeticinstructions took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second) because most operations tookat least two memory cycles; one for the instruction, one for the operand data fetch.During thesecond generation remote terminal units (often in the form ofteletype machines like a FridenFlexowriter) saw greatly increased use. Telephone connections provided sufficient speed forearly remote terminals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation between remote-

terminals and the computing center. Eventually these stand-alone computer networks would begeneralized into an interconnected network of networksthe Internet.