“Everything Is Done with Hope”: The Role of Hope* in the Strategic Learner Rebecca L. Oxford, Ph.D. Professor Emerita/Distinguished Scholar –Teacher University.

“Everything Is Done with Hope”: The Role of Hope*in the Strategic Learner

Rebecca L. Oxford, Ph.D.Professor Emerita/Distinguished Scholar –Teacher University of

Maryland

Situating Strategy Use: The Interplay of Language Learning Strategies and Individual Learner

Characteristics16-17 October, 2015 - Alpen-Adria Universität

Klagenfurt Austria

*(and Related Factors)

The inspirations for this presentation came from . . .

My teaching in TESOL, ESL, Learning

Strategies, and Psychology

Research and Theory on Language

Learning Strategies

. . . and positive psychology

STRAND 1:COMPLEX DYNAMIC

SYSTEMS

Complex dynamic systems

Hope and learning strategies are situated in a complex dynamic system, in which relationships among factors are nonlinear, organic, and multi-way (see Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008).

Hope and learning strategies interact with factors such as time perspective, motivation, optimism, language learning/use opportunities, and many other variables.

The image of interwoven strands conveys the meaning of a complex dynamic system.

STRAND 2: LANGUAGE LEARNING

STRATEGIES

Some trends in learning strategy research and theory

(A) For SBI and teacher education, using visual metaphors to show possible outcomes of learning strategy use

(B) Recognizing the obvious link between learning strategies and self-regulation

(C) Trying to get past idiosyncratic definitions of strategies and working together on strategy research and theory

(D) Exploring SBI in very useful ways

Trend A: Using visual metaphors to show possible outcomes of learning strategy use

Trend A: Using visual metaphors to show possible outcomes of learning strategy use

Trend A: Using visual metaphors to show possible outcomes of learning strategy use

Trend B1: Self-regulation and strategies - Vygotsky

Self-regulation concepts arose partly from Vygotsky’s 1930’s sociocultural, ‘cognitive-historical’ work

He described self-regulated, higher psychological processes (often now called ‘strategies’), e.g., analyzing, synthesizing, planning, monitoring, and evaluating. Learners internalize these processes /strategies through social mediation (interaction with more capable others) and/or mediation from books, technologies, etc.

The processes/strategies become inner speech (fully self-regulated).The learner then strategically guides himself/herself.

Trend B2: Self-regulation and strategies – Boekaerts et al.

Boekaerts, Pintrich & Zeidner (2000) examined self-regulation in learning, psychology, health, and other areas. Their book described learning/cognitive/self regulatory strategies in 14 of the 23 chapters.

The book explicitly argued that it is essential to discuss specific strategies, not just self-regulated learning or self-regulation, because strategies and other phenomena at that level offer ‘clearer psychological reference’ and situated meanings.

Consider our conference on Situated Strategy Use. Boekaerts et al. would agree with our situated, self-regulated, strategic focus.

Trend B2: Self-regulation and strategies – Boekaerts et al.

Boekaerts et al. emphasized strategies such as: setting goals, paying attention, organizing, rehearsing,

establishing a productive setting, using time and resources well, monitoring and evaluating performance, seeking help, and managing emotions.

Some chapters in Boekaerts et al. even presented strategy instruction steps.

Beyond Boekaerts et al., there are very many articles on strategic self-regulation in educational psychology and increasing numbers on strategic self-regulation in L2 learning. They will be summarized in my new book (2016).

Trend B3: Negativity has reduced about the possibility of L2 strategic self-regulation

In spite of massive evidence about the strong links between self-regulation and strategies, especially from Boekaerts et al., whom he quoted, Dörnyei (2005, 2009) declared that self-regulation and L2 strategies have nothing in common and that learning strategies might not even exist at all!

Finally in 2015 Dörnyei, collaborating with Ryan, backed away from his highly negative stance and showed more favorable interest in L2 learning strategies. This is a good step.

Trend C: Clarifying and unifying definitions and theories

Strategy experts are trying to get past idiosyncratic definitions of strategies and are working together on strategy research and theory

Arguments in favor of unified definitions and collaborative research started with Oxford and Cohen (1992) and continued with Cohen and Macaro (2007) and Griffiths (2013)

This conference will go a long way toward clarifying definitions and theories

I hope the books coming out of this conference will solidify some strategy definitions and theories

Trend C: Clarifying and unifying definitions and theories

We are getting better at defining strategies. Carol Griffiths (2013) helpfully listed the characteristics of learning strategies.

She also said simply that learning strategies are “activities consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own language learning” (Griffiths, 2013, p. 36).

Some types of learning strategies (Oxford, 2011) Cognitive Affective Sociocultural-interactive (SI) or social Metacognitive (=POEM acronym). However, what about

the strategies involve planning, organizing, evaluating, and monitoring in affective and social domains?

Trend D: Exploring SBI in very useful ways

Many models of SBI (Chamot, Grenfell & Harris, Oxford, Macaro) have virtually the same steps

A few questions: Is there a common underlying theory

behind SBI? How different is SBI from “regular” teaching?

What makes some SBI successful and other SBI not so successful, and under what conditions (content, length, intensity, location)?

Trend D: Exploring SBI in very useful ways

A few more questions: How can we used differentiation in SBI, just as

it is used in many other forms of education? How should SBI change for the various skills

(LRSW, pragmatics, etc.)? The SBI sessions at this conference will

produce new information There is also an abundance of published

research on SBI in and outside of the L2 learning field, especially in very recent years

We must pay attention to what successful SBI looks like in other fields and our own

STRAND 3:HOPE

Perspectives on hope

German religious leader Martin Luther famously declared, “Everything that is done in the world is done with hope.”

George Vaillant, writing about psychologist Erik Erikson, said that for Erikson “[h]ope became the very foundation block of all human development. . . .”

Perspectives on hope

Poet Emily Dickinson colorfully wrote, 'Hope' is the thing with feathers—

That perches in the soul—And sings the tune without the words—And never stops—at all—

Despite the pervasive importance of hope in life, psychology, and spirituality, it has won little or no attention from the language learning field. That’s why I am here today.

Hope defined and applied

A goal-oriented, future-referenced desire accompanied by (reasonable) expectation (Clarke, 2003)

Higher levels of hope are linked with academic success, energy, inspiration, goal-orientation, confidence, and self-worth, as well as less depression (Snyder, 1994, 2000, 2002)

Hope theory (Snyder, 2002)

Hope . . . Involves a cognitive set (not an emotion,

he says) Includes beliefs in one’s agency (the power

to act volitionally to influence outcomes) Includes beliefs about one’s own capacity

to produce NEW, GOAL-DIRECTED PATHWAYS, also known as “ROUTES” or “STRATEGIES”, in the face of roadblocks

It is possible to increase hope

“Hope interventions” (somewhat similar to SBI) help students to do the following: identify hopeful versus unhopeful language, devise goals and goal-oriented strategies .

form “hope partnerships” to share future goals, and write stories of hope (Brown Kirschman et al., 2011;

Pedrotti, Lopez, & Krieshok, 2008; Oxford, 2015). These are just a few out of hundreds of ways to

increase hope. I will show others later.

Hope is related to optimism but is usually viewed as broader/deeper

Optimists . . .

View defeat as only temporary and not their fault (Oxford, in press)

Perform better academically, better physical and mental health, persevere longer, and might even live longer (Seligman, 2011)

Use approach-type coping strategies, such as problem-solving, acceptance, reframing, and humor, while pessimists use avoidance strategies (Carver et al., 2011)

STRAND 4:TIME

It’s time to talk about time! Is time really linear (past-present-future)?

Time present and time pastAre both perhaps present in time future,And time future contained in time past.If all time is eternally presentAll time is unredeemable. . . .What might have been and what has beenPoint to one end, which is always present.

T.S. Eliot

Future self-guides and possible selves

The ideal L2 self is a motivational “future self-guide” that is built on largely on images from the past (Dörnyei, 2009b) and that helps shape our present and future behavior.

Another future self-guide is the ought-to self (Dörnyei, 2009b) .

Possible selves exist not only in the future but also in the past and present. Ryan and Irie (2014) explained that our interpretations of past

events, and therefore our possible past selves, continue to change.

These interpretations help us form theories about our present selves, which then help shape our future selves

“Temporal appraisal”

Boehm and Lyubomirsky (2011) argued that happy and unhappy people look differently on past life experiences. Happy people savor past positive life

experiences and think how much better off they are today

Unhappy people ruminate about past negative experiences and think how much worse off they are today

Negative rumination on the past relates to depression, low self-esteem, unhappiness, and aggression (Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995), but positive rumination on the past reflects an ability to enjoy life (Bryant, Smart, & King, 2005).

Time perspective definition

Time perspective is defined as a preferential trajectory or direction of an individual’s thought toward the past, present, or future, which exerts a dynamic influence on his or her experience, motivation, thinking, and behavior (Boniwell, 2011).

Time perspective has cognitive and affective aspects

Types of time perspectives

Positive psychologists generally view time perspectives as follows: past-positive (focusing on happy memories) past-negative, present-hedonistic (pleasure- and excitement-

oriented, living for the moment) – Isn’t there any other kind of present time perspective?

present-fatalistic (tending to be hopeless and attributing control to outside forces rather than the self)

future (not yet broken down into positive and negative aspects, though Boniwell correctly called for future-positive and future-anxious dimensions)

Benefits/detriments of future time perspective (FTP)

FTP is associated with positive outcomes (Boniwell, 2011) Self-efficacy, high motivation, strong responsibility,

organizational and planning ability, academic performance, delayed gratification, and even eating healthful foods and flossing teeth

General well-being, some say

FTP is negatively correlated with depression and hopelessness (Breier-Williford & Bramlett, 1995).

BUT extreme FTP might lead to being a workaholic, ignoring friendships and cultural/community traditions (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004)

Balanced time perspective

Although academic success is often burnished by having a future time perspective and though a past-positive time perspective makes us feel happy, a “balanced time perspective might be useful” (Boniwell, 2011).

As Zimbardo (2002) stated, “In an optimally balanced time perspective, the past, present and future components blend and flexibly engage, depending on a situation’s demands and our needs and values” (p. 62).

STRAND 5:QUESTIONS ABOUT THE

LINK BETWEEN STRATEGIES AND

HOPE IN THE CONTEXT

OF TIME PERSPECTIVEAND SELF-REGULATION

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Would the balanced time perspective be most likely to fit a self-regulated, strategic learner, who (as we have seen in Boekearts et al.) tries to manage emotions, seeks help, plans, organizes, and monitors and evaluates performance, as well as using a host of cognitive strategies?

I think so. A balanced time perspective allows learners to savor the good from the past and in the present while imagining the future positively. It is a great basis for hope and strategic self-regulation.

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Would a future time perspective foster greater strategic self-regulation than a balanced time perspective?

I do not think so. A strictly future time perspective would ignore the value of the present and the past and drive the learner to workaholism or loss of friends.

With a balanced time perspective, learners can reflect on their past strategies, learn and apply new ones in the present, gain language proficiency benefits now and in the future, positively re-imagine their past selves, and so on. Valuing all the phases is crucial.

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Are hopeful learners oriented toward the future, or are they more likely to have a balanced time perspective?

I think hopeful learners often have a balanced time perspective, savoring the past and present while imagining the future positively (believing they can approach their ideal L2 selves).

This is a very good basis for being self-regulated, strategic learner.

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Are hopeful learners likely to be strategic and self-regulated, and if they are not, do they want to learn how to be through SBI?

I think so. Even if hopeful learners have not developed strategic self-regulation, they are likely to see its merit if it is pointed out. SBI and the new strategies it teaches will validate these learners’ positive feelings about themselves, increase their self-efficacy, and enhance their proficiency.

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Are learners who feel hopeless likely to want SBI?

I do not think so. Learners who feel little hope for success in L2 learning will not see the point of self-regulated strategies and will therefore not want to invest in SBI.

SBI that does not pay any direct attention to a learner’s hopelessness (and learned helplessness) will probably not be effective.

One of the reasons that education frequently fails is that it does not pay attention to such cognitive-affective factors.

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

Should SBI include some hope-enhancing elements? Should we find some hope interventions that would be adapted for SBI?

I think so. There are many hope interventions adaptable for inclusion in SBI.

Differentiation of SBI seems essential to meet the needs of learners regarding levels of hope, favored time perspective, and attitudes toward self-regulated strategies!

Strategies, hope, time perspective, and self-regulation

What will happen to learners who feel hopeless and do not receive SBI?

Such learners, as the early strategy research showed (see Oxford, 1990), will reach out for strategies in a desperate, unsystematic, unconvinced way that will achieve nothing.

Their teachers should start introducing SBI, but this SBI should be differentiated to deal with their problems of hopelessness/helplessness.

Let’s look toward the new books from this conference to address differentiated SBI.

An increase in positivity and reduction of anxiety can occur when students practice. . . Controlling intrusive thoughts and images

Sharing their feelings through constructive self-disclosure in a safe environment.

Why not teach these anxiety-reduction strategies to increase hope and open the way to further SBI?

In the “thieves” technique, students visualize locking up the “thieves” of happiness, such as anxiety, depression, shyness, anger, and resentment (Lykken, 2000).

The “Three-Good-Things Exercise” can increase optimism. It involves . . . “writing down daily three good things that happened each

day for a week” and writing beside each one the answer to one of the

following: “Why did this good thing happen?” “What does this mean to you?” “How can you have more of this good thing in the future?” (Seligman, 2011, p. 84).

Why not teach these negativity-reduction strategies to increase hope and open the way to further SBI?

Hyper-reflection = gloomily anxious attention to one’s hopelessness, failures, or difficulties (Frankl, 1984)

Instead of hyper-reflection, students can visualize something interesting in the class activity or text. Visualization is a powerful tool for guiding emotions.

Why not teach this visualization strategy to increase hope and open the way to further SBI?

Positive psychology’s ABCDE macro-strategy (Seligman, 2006, 2011, adapted by Oxford, 2015) contains strategies to help individuals overcome negativity. ABC = Adversity-related beliefs (“I must/should . . .,”

“It’s terrible!,” “I am a worthless/useless/bad person) cause negative feelings (e.g., anxiety, depression)

DE = Dodging these beliefs by giving myself counter-evidence (e.g., “I can relax now. It’s not as bad as I thought. I am worthwhile and a good person”) enhances my state of mind and ability to act.

Variant: An additional step in dodging negative beliefs is to consider the worst case, the best case, and the most likely case.

ABCDE!

Why not teach this positivity-enhancing strategy to increase hope and open the way to further SBI?

Hope springs eternalfor the strategic learner

Ideas? Arguments? Questions? Need the

references?

Contact me at: [email protected]