1 Atmospheric evaporative demand observations, estimates and driving factors in Spain (1961-2011) Cesar Azorin-Molina 1 , Sergio M. Vicente-Serrano 1 , Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo 1 , Tim R. McVicar 2,3 , Enrique Morán-Tejeda 1 , Jesús Revuelto 1 , Ahmed El Kenawy 4,5 , Natalia Martín-Hernández 1 and Miquel Tomas-Burguera 6 Surnames (or family names) are underlined 1 Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPE-CSIC), Departamento de Procesos Geoambientales y Cambio Global, Zaragoza, Spain 2 CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, ACT, Australia 3 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science, Sydney, Australia 4 Earth System Observations and Modeling Group, WDRC, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia 5 Department of Geography, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt 6 Estación Experimental Aula Dei, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (EEAD-CSIC), Zaragoza, Spain * Corresponding author address: César Azorín-Molina, Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPE-CSIC), Departamento de Procesos Geoambientales y Cambio Global, Avda. Montañana 1005, 50059-Zaragoza, Spain. E-mail: [email protected]Journal of Hydrology
62
Embed
Evaporation observations, estimates and driving factors in Spain ...
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
Atmospheric evaporative demand observations, estimates and driving factors in Spain (1961-2011)
Cesar Azorin-Molina 1, Sergio M. Vicente-Serrano 1, Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo 1, Tim R. McVicar 2,3, Enrique Morán-Tejeda 1, Jesús Revuelto 1, Ahmed El Kenawy 4,5, Natalia Martín-Hernández 1 and
Miquel Tomas-Burguera6
Surnames (or family names) are underlined
1 Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPE-CSIC), Departamento de Procesos Geoambientales y Cambio Global, Zaragoza, Spain
2CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, ACT, Australia 3 Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Climate System Science, Sydney, Australia
4 Earth System Observations and Modeling Group, WDRC, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
5Department of Geography, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt 6 Estación Experimental Aula Dei, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (EEAD-CSIC), Zaragoza,
Spain
* Corresponding author address: César Azorín-Molina, Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPE-CSIC), Departamento de Procesos Geoambientales y
Table 1. Pearson’s r values between the Spanish regional series of Piché (1961-2011) and Pan evaporation observations (1984-2011) and the regional series of evaporation estimates obtained by the four physical methods. Significant correlations at p< 0.05 are bolded.
Table 2. Annual and seasonal trends in the regional series of Piché observations and the four evaporation estimates. Magnitude is mm year decade-1 for the annual series, and mm season decade-1 for the seasonal series. Significant trends at p< 0.05 are bolded.
Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of the stations used in this study. Cyan circles: Pan evaporation. Orange circles: Piché atmómeters. Black points: Series of meteorological variables. The grey-scale land-surface backdrop is a Digital Elevation Model and the units are m above mean sea level.
36
AnnualPearson's r = 0.73
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
mm
yea
r-1
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
WinterPearson's r = 0.43
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
mm
sea
son-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
SummerPearson's r = 0.78
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
mm
sea
son-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
SpringPearson's r = 0.87
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
mm
sea
son-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
AutumnPearson's r = 0.82
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
mm
sea
son-1
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Fig. 2. Evolution of annual and seasonal averages from the 19 stations with available series of Piché (black solid line) and Pan (grey solid line) evaporation. Pearson’s r coefficients are provided for the
common period, 1984-2011.
37
Annual Winter Spring Summer Autumn
Pear
son'
s r
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 3. Box-and-whisker plots of annual and seasonal Pearson’s r correlations between Piché and Pan observed evaporation series for the 19 stations recording both variables from 1984-2011. Dashed line
represents the threshold of significant correlations (p< 0.05). The mean (middle horizontal line) value, the 25th and 75th percentile range (boxes), and the 10th and 90th (whiskers) are represented.
38
Annual
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Winter
0 100 200 300 400
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
100
200
300
400
Spring
0 200 400 600 800
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
200
400
600
800
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Autumn
Piché evaporation
0 200 400 600 800
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
200
400
600
800
r2 = 0.49MBE = -274MAE = 419
r2 = 0.47MBE = -75MAE = 85
r2 = 0.43MBE = -40MAE = 93
r2 = 0.66MBE = -51MAE = 172
r2 = 0.45MBE = -96MAE = 117
Annual
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
FAO
-Pan
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Winter
0 100 200 300 400
FAO
-Pan
0
100
200
300
400
Spring
0 200 400 600 800
FAO
-Pan
0
200
400
600
800
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
FAO
-Pan
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Autumn
Piché evaporation
0 200 400 600 800
FAO
-Pan
0
200
400
600
800
r2 = 0.46MBE = 17MAE = 347
r2 = 0.50MBE = -54MAE = 68
r2 = 0.46MBE = 39MAE = 86
r2 = 0.69MBE = 92MAE = 168
r2 = 0.48MBE = -49MAE = 83
Annual
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
PenP
an
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Winter
0 100 200 300 400
PenP
an0
100
200
300
400
Spring
0 200 400 600 800
PenP
an
0
200
400
600
800
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
PenP
an
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Autumn
Piché evaporation
0 200 400 600 800
PenP
an
0
200
400
600
800
r2 = 0.49MBE = 420MAE = 476
r2 = 0.46MBE = -10MAE = 43
r2 = 0.42MBE = 127MAE = 134
r2 = 0.66MBE = 264MAE = 276
r2 = 0.46MBE = 51MAE = 81
Annual
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Penm
an
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Winter
0 100 200 300 400
Penm
an
0
100
200
300
400
Spring
0 200 400 600 800
Penm
an
0
200
400
600
800
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Penm
an
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
1500
Autumn
Piché evaporation
0 200 400 600 800
Penm
an
0
200
400
600
800
r2 = 0.47MBE = -86MAE = 373
r2 = 0.44MBE = -56MAE = 69
r2 = 0.42MBE = 14MAE = 89
r2 = 0.65MBE = 19MAE = 174
r2 = 0.46MBE = -51MAE = 86
FAO-Penman Monteith FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Fig. 4. Relationship between the annual and season integrated Piché evaporation observations (1961-2011) and the four evaporation estimates at 30 meteorological stations across Spain. For the annual
plots the X-axis and Y-axis have units of mm/year, whereas for all seasonal plots both axes have units of mm/season.
39
Annual
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Winter
0 50 100 150 200 250
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
50
100
150
200
250
Spring
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
Autumn
Pan evaporation
0 100 200 300 400 500
FAO
-Pen
man
Mon
teith
0
100
200
300
400
500
r2 = 0.72MBE = 304MAE = 304
r2 = 0.10MBE = 17MAE = 25
r2 = 0.53MBE = 93MAE = 93
r2 = 0.87MBE = 145MAE = 145
r2 = 0.69MBE = 54MAE = 54
Annual
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
FAO
-Pan
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Winter
0 50 100 150 200 250
FAO
-Pan
0
50
100
150
200
250
Spring
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
FAO
-Pan
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
FAO
-Pan
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
Autumn
Pan evaporation
0 100 200 300 400 500
FAO
-Pan
0
100
200
300
400
500
r2 = 0.74MBE = 564MAE = 564
r2 = 0.10MBE = 37MAE = 40
r2 = 0.59MBE = 164MAE = 164
r2 = 0.88MBE = 272MAE = 272
r2 = 0.73MBE = 96MAE = 96
Annual
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
PenP
an
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Winter
0 50 100 150 200 250
PenP
an
0
50
100
150
200
250
Spring
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
PenP
an
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
PenP
an
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
Autumn
Pan evaporation
0 100 200 300 400 500
PenP
an
0
100
200
300
400
500
r2 = 0.70MBE = 937MAE = 937
r2 = 0.12MBE = 77MAE = 77
r2 = 0.54MBE = 246MAE = 246
r2 = 0.87MBE = 429MAE = 429
r2 = 0.71MBE = 189MAE = 189
Annual
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Penm
an
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Winter
0 50 100 150 200 250
Penm
an
0
50
100
150
200
250
Spring
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Penm
an
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Summer
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
Penm
an
0
250
500
750
1000
1250
Autumn
Pan evaporation
0 100 200 300 400 500
Penm
an
0
100
200
300
400
500
r2 = 0.71MBE = 486MAE = 486
r2 = 0.13MBE = 34MAE = 37
r2 = 0.58MBE = 146MAE = 146
r2 = 0.87MBE = 214MAE = 214
r2 = 0.72MBE = 96MAE = 96
FAO-Penman Monteith FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Fig. 5. Relationship between the annual and season integrated Pan evaporation observations (1984-2011) and the four evaporation estimates at 12 meteorological stations across Spain. For the annual
plots the X-axis and Y-axis have units of mm/year, whereas for all seasonal plots both axes have units of mm/season.
40
Annual
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Winter (DJF)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Summer (JJA)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Spring (MAM)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Autumn (SON)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 6. Box-and-whisker plots with the annual and seasonal Pearson’s r correlations between Piché evaporation observations and evaporation estimates using the four different methods at 30
meteorological stations (1961-2011). Dashed line represents the threshold of significant correlations (p< 0.05). The mean (middle horizontal line) value, the 25th and 75th percentile range (boxes), and
the 10th and 90th (whiskers) are represented.
41
Annual
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Winter (DJF)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Summer (JJA)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Spring (MAM)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Autumn (SON)
FAO-Pen-Mont. FAO-Pan PenPan Penman
Pear
son'
s r
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 7. Box-and-whisker plots with the annual and seasonal Pearson’s r correlations between Pan evaporation observations and evaporation estimates using the four different methods at 12
meteorological stations (1984-2011). Dashed line represents the threshold of significant correlations (p< 0.05). The mean (middle horizontal line) value, the 25th and 75th percentile range (boxes), and
Fig. 8. Temporal evolution of the Spanish annually and seasonally integrated Piché evaporation observations and evaporation estimates by the four methods. The annual and seasonal trends for each
evaporation time series are reported in Table 2.
43
Annual
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Winter (DJF)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Summer (JJA)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Spring (MAM)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Autumn (SON)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Fig. 9. Evolution of the SNHT statistic, T0, for the annual and seasonal regional series of observed Piché evaporation considering the FAO-Pan estimate of regional series as reference. Dashed line
indicates the signification threshold (p < 0.05).
44
Annual
130013501400145015001550160016501700
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
130013501400145015001550160016501700
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
130013501400145015001550160016501700
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Piché evaporation
130013501400145015001550160016501700
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
170172174176178180182184186188190
Winter
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
Piché evaporation
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
Spring
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
11
12
13
14
15
16
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160W
ind
spee
d (m
/s)
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
Piché evaporation
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
Summer
140 160 180 200 220 240
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
140 160 180 200 220 240
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
140 160 180 200 220 240
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Piché evaporation
140 160 180 200 220 240
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
250
260
270
280
290
300
Autumn
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
13
14
15
16
17
18
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Piché evaporation
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
r = -0.53p < 0.05
r = -0.25p > 0.05
r = -0.76p < 0.05
r = -0.78p < 0.05
r = -0.76p < 0.05
r = 0.34p < 0.05
r = -0.1p > 0.05
r = 0.51p < 0.05
r = 0.71p < 0.05
r = 0.41p < 0.05
r = -0.01p > 0.05
r = 0.43p < 0.05
r = -0.09p > 0.05
r = 0.29p < 0.05
r = -0.19p > 0.05
r = 0.81p < 0.05
r = 0.31p < 0.05
r = 0.84p < 0.05
r = 0.75p < 0.05
r = 0.81p < 0.05
Fig. 10. Relationship between temporal variability of annual and seasonal regional Piché evaporation observations and regional series of relative humidity, mean air temperature, wind speed and solar radiation at the 56 stations for 1961-2011.
45
Annual
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
170
175
180
185
190
Spring
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
7090
110130150170
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
180190200210220230240
Summer
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
150170190210230250
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
250260270280290300
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
70
90
110
130
150
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
120
130
140
150
160
Annual
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
606264666870
Spring
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
7090
110130150170
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
5658606264666870
Summer
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
150170190210230250
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
50525456586062
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
70
90
110
130
150
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
6264666870727476
Annual
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
13
14
15
16
17
Spring
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n7090
110130150170
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
111213141516
SummerPi
ché
evap
orat
ion
150170190210230250
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
19202122232425
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
70
90
110
130
150
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
131415161718
Annual
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.12.22.32.42.52.6
Spring
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
7090
110130150170
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.22.42.62.83.0
Summer
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
150170190210230250
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.22.42.62.83.0
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Pich
é ev
apor
atio
n
70
90
110
130
150
Win
d sp
eed
1.61.82.02.22.42.62.83.0
Fig. 11. Temporal evolution of annual and seasonal (winter is not shown) regional Piché evaporation (in mm, black line) and regional relative humidity (in %), mean air temperature (in ºC), wind speed (in m s-1) and solar radiation (in W m-2) for 1961-2011.
46
Relative humidity
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Man
n-K
enda
ll
-8-6-4-202468
Mean air temperature
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010-8-6-4-202468
Solar radiation
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010-8-6-4-202468
Wind speed
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010-4-202468
Man
n-K
enda
ll
Fig. 12. Sequential version of Mann–Kendall test (C1 solid line; C2 dotted line). Horizontal solid lines represent the 5% significance level. The vertical solid line indicates the most probable break in the series according to the Bai & Perron test. Dashed vertical lines indicate the confidence intervals
for the break points.
47
AnnualMod
el re
sidu
als
-100
0
100
200
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
60626466687072
AnnualMod
el re
sidu
als
-100
0
100
200
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
160
170
180
190
200
AnnualMod
el re
sidu
als
-100
0
100
200
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
14
16
WinterMod
el re
sidu
als
-10-505
101520
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
68
72
76
80
84
WinterMod
el re
sidu
als
-10-505
101520
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
708090100110120
WinterMod
el re
sidu
als
-10-505
101520
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
4
6
8
10
SpringMod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
56
60
64
68
72
SpringMod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
170180190200210220230240250
SpringMod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
10
12
14
16
SummerMod
el re
sidu
als
-20
-10
0
10
20R
elat
ive
hum
idity
48
52
56
60
64
SummerMod
el re
sidu
als
-20
-10
0
10
20
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
240250260270280290300310
SummerMod
el re
sidu
als
-20
-10
0
10
20
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
18
20
22
24
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Mod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Rel
ativ
e hu
mid
ity
60
64
68
72
76
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Mod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Sola
r rad
iatio
n
250260270280290300
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Mod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re
12
14
16
18
AnnualMod
el re
sidu
als
-100
0
100
200
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.12.22.32.42.52.62.7
WinterMod
el re
sidu
als
-10-505
101520
Win
d sp
eed
1.82.02.22.42.62.83.0
SpringMod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.22.42.62.83.0
SummerMod
el re
sidu
als
-20
-10
0
10
20
Win
d sp
eed
2.02.22.42.62.83.0
Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Mod
el re
sidu
als
-10
0
10
20
Win
d sp
eed
1.61.82.02.22.42.6
Relative humidity Mean air temperature Wind speed Solar radiation
Fig. 13. Evolution of annual and seasonal residuals of the PenPan-Piché evaporation regression model and the evolution of relative humidity, solar radiation and mean air temperature across Spain during 1961-2011
48
Supplementary Figures and Table:
Atmospheric evaporative demand observations, estimates and driving factors in Spain (1961-2011)
Supplementary Table 1. Pearson’s r values between the Spanish regional series of Piché (1961-2011) and the regional series of relative humidity, mean air temperature, wind speed and solar
radiation. Bold types represent significance level of p<0.05.
49
Bilbao
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350La Coruña
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350Logroño
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Madrid
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
50
100
150
200
250
300
350San Sebastián
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350Santander
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
W m
-2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Supplementary Fig. 1. Mean monthly values of observed incoming solar radiation (Rs, solid line) and those estimated by equation 35 (dashed line) in Allen et al. (1998) at 6 meteorological stations in
Spain (1984-2011).
50
Bilbao
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300
Obs
erve
d (W
m-2
)
0
100
200
300La Coruña
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300
Obs
erve
d (W
m-2
)0
100
200
300Logroño
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300
Obs
erve
d (W
m-2
)
0
100
200
300
Madrid
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300 400
Obs
erve
d (W
m-2
)
0
100
200
300
400San Sebastián
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300
Obs
erve
d (W
m-2
)
0
100
200
300Santander
Estimated (W m-2)
0 100 200 300O
bser
ved
(W m
-2)
0
100
200
300
Pearson's r = 0.98 Pearson's r = 0.99 Pearson's r = 0.99
Pearson's r = 0.99 Pearson's r = 0.98 Pearson's r = 0.99
Supplementary Fig. 2. Relationship between monthly incoming Rs observations and Rs estimates at 6 meteorological stations in Spain (1984-2011).
51
Supplementary Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of annual and seasonal correlation between observed Pan and observed Piché series (1984-2011)
52
Supplementary Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of annually integrated observed Piché (1961-2011), Pan (1984-2011) and evaporation estimates (1961-2011) using the four physical models.
53
Supplementary Fig. 5. A) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché evaporation and evaporation estimates at 32 meteorological stations for 1961-2011. B) Relationship between the
monthly observations of Pan evaporation and evaporation estimates at 12 meteorological stations for 1984-2011. C) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché and Pan evaporation at 19 meteorological stations for 1984-2011. D) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché evaporation and evaporation estimates by FAO-Pan at 32 meteorological stations for 1984-2011.
54
Supplementary Fig. 6. A) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché evaporation and evaporation estimates by the four methods in the regional series for 1961-2011. B) Relationship
between the monthly observations of Pan evaporation and evaporation estimates by the four methods in the regional series for 1984-2011. C) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché and
Pan evaporation in the regional series for 1984-2011. D) Relationship between the monthly observations of Piché evaporation and evaporation estimates by FAO-Pan in the regional series for
1984-2011.
55
Supplementary Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of Pearson’s r correlations between observed Piché evaporation series and the evaporation estimates using four different physical models (1961-2011).
56
Supplementary Fig. 8. Spatial distribution of Pearson’s r correlations between observed Pan evaporation series and the evaporation estimates using four physical models (1984-2011).
Supplementary Fig. 9. Evolution of the Spanish annual and seasonal average of Pan evaporation (1984-2011) and the evolution of evaporation estimates (1961-2011) by four physical models.
58
Annual
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.81.0
Winter
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Spring
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Summer
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Autumn
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Annual
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Winter
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Spring
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Summer
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Autumn
RH Tmean Wind S.S. Rad.
Pear
son'
s r
-0.8-0.6-0.4-0.20.00.20.40.60.8
Piché
Pan
Supplementary Fig. 10. Top row: Box-and-whisker plots of correlations between annual and seasonal Piché evaporation and the four key meteorological variables across 30 stations across Spain for 1961-2011. Bottom row: Box-and-whisker plots of correlations between annual and seasonal Pan evaporation and different climate variables in each one of the 21 stations across Spain for 1984-2011. The mean (middle horizontal
line) value, the 25th and 75th percentile range (boxes), and the 10th and 90th (whiskers) are represented.
59
Supplementary Fig. 11. Spatial distribution of annual and seasonal Pearson’s r correlation between observed Piché evaporation and four key climate variables (1961-2011).
60
Supplementary Fig. 12. Spatial distribution of annual and seasonal Pearson’s r correlation between observed Pan evaporation and four key climate variables (1984-2011).
61
Annual
110011501200125013001350140014501500
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
110011501200125013001350140014501500
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
110011501200125013001350140014501500
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Pan evaporation
110011501200125013001350140014501500
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
Winter
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
70
72
74
76
78
80
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
5
6
7
8
9
10
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
Pan evaporation
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
7880828486889092949698
100
Spring
280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
10
11
12
13
14
15
280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
Pan evaporation
280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
180
190
200
210
220
230
Summer
450 500 550 600 650 700
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
450 500 550 600 650 700
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
450 500 550 600 650 700
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Pan evaporation
110011501200125013001350140014501500
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
Autumn
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Rel
ativ
e H
umid
ity (%
)
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Mea
n te
mpe
ratu
re (º
C)
12
13
14
15
16
17
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Win
d sp
eed
(m/s
)
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Pan evaporation
180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Sola
r rad
iatio
n (W
m-2)
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
r = -0.71p < 0.05
r = -0.48p < 0.05
r = -0.79p < 0.05
r = -0.86p < 0.05
r = -0.76p < 0.05
r = 0.14p > 0.05
r = -0.55p < 0.05
r = 0.34p > 0.05
r = 0.63p < 0.05
r = 0.56p < 0.05
r = 0.33p > 0.05
r = 0.28p > 0.05
r = 0.02p > 0.05
r = 0.34p > 0.05
r = -0.07p > 0.05
r = 0.24p > 0.05
r = 0.20p > 0.05
r = 0.57p < 0.05
r = 0.23p < 0.05
r = 0.49p < 0.05
Supplementary Fig. 13. Relationship between temporal variability of annual and seasonal regional Pan evaporation and series of four key climate variables (1984-2011).
62
Annual
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40Winter
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Spring
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Summer
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40
Annual
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Winter
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Spring
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Summer
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40
Annual
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Winter
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Spring
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Summer
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40
Rela
tive
hum
idity
Sola
r rad
iatio
nM
ean
tem
pera
ture
Annual
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
T 0
0
10
20
30
40
Winter
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Spring
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Summer
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40Autumn
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 20100
10
20
30
40
Win
d sp
eed
Supplementary Fig. 14. Evolution of the SNHT statistic, T0, for the annual and seasonal series of Piché evaporation considering, in turn, the relative humidity, mean temperature, wind speed and solar radiation series as reference for 1961-2011. Dashed line indicates the signification