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Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for the prevention
of tuberculosis ina low-incidence setting
Erkens, C.G.M.
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Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for the prevention
oftuberculosis in a low-incidence setting.
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Evaluating the effectivenessof interventions for the prevention
of tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting
connie erkens
connie erkensEvaluating the effectiveness of interventions for
the prevention of tuberculosis in a low
-incidence setting
UITNODIGINGVoor het bijwonen
van de openbare verdediging van het proefschrift
DOOR
CONNIE ERKENS
Evaluating the effectiveness
of interventions for the prevention
of tuberculosis in a low-incidence
setting
op woensdag 29 maart 2017
11.00 uur in de Aula
van de Universiteit, Oude Lutherse Kerk,
Singel 411, 1012 XM Amsterdam
Aansluitend bent u van harte welkom op de
receptie op dezelfde locatie
paranimfen:Margreet Kamphorst
06-2569 8625
Marlies [email protected]
Kees BuddinghJohannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep
Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan MankesPetronella Rijfkogel
Johanna Budde Esméevan Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna
Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van
Uylen- burgh Jetje Brouwer JohannesHugen- holtz Adriana Alewijn
Pieter Baan
Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de SchaafJohan Stekelenburg
PeterFaber Herman van Oenen
Wilma Vermaat Geertruida HubersAndries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma
Jan
Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van DantzigCatherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje
Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul
van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel
van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan Wiegers Kees
BuddinghJohannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde
Esmée
van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berk- hout Sonya
Gaskell Saskia van
Uy- lenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz
AdrianaAle-
wijn Pieter
Kees BuddinghJohannes Mol
HendrikaJungius Bep
Bak-
Kees Buddingh
Johannes Mol
Hendri-ka
Kees Bud-
dingh
Kees Buddingh
Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep BakhuysJacoba
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hen-
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendri- ka Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren JanMankes Petronella Rijfkogel
Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella
Hertzveld Anna Berkhout SonyaGaskell Saskia van
Uylenburgh Jetje BrouwerJohannes Hugenholtz
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba
van
Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella RijfkogelJohanna Budde Esmée van
Eeghen
Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya
Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren JanMa
Kees Buddingh Jo-hannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep
Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella
RijfkogelJohanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van
Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep
Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella
RijfkogelJohanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella
Hertzveld Anna
Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer
Johannes Hugenholtz AdrianaAlewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar
Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman
van
Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat
Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries vanDantzig
Catherina van Lier Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau
Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco
Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders
Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan Wiegers Kees Buddingh
Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan
Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs
van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia
van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana
AlewijnPieter Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan
Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat
Geertruida
Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis
Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus van Lier
Alexandervan Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken
Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard
BildersKarel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan Wiegers Kees
Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van
Beieren Jan
Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs
van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia
vanUylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn
Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan
Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat
Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff
Louis Cou- perus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus
van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques
vanGinne- ken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de
Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan
Wiegers Kees
Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van
Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van
Eeghen Gijs van HallEstella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell
Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana
Alewijn Pieter
Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan
Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida
Hubers AndriesKloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus
Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus van Lier Alexander
van Oranje
Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul
van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van
de WoestijneHenk Westbroek Jan Wiegers Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes
Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde
Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout
Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes
Hugenholtz AdrianaAlewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje
van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma
Vermaat Geertruida Hubers
Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus
Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus van LierAlexander
van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga
Minco Paul van
Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de
Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan Wiegers Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren
Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen
Gijs van Hall EstellaHertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia
van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes
Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar
Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van
Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma
JanSlauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter
Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan
Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van deKees
BuddinghJohannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van
Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van
Eeghen Gijs van
Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van
Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter
Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg
Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers
Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan
Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn
Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul vanOstaijen Jan Montyn P.A.
de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek
Jan Wiegers Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan WiegersKees Buddingh
Johannes Mol Hendrika
Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella
Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella
Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh
JetjeBrouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf
van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber
Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers Andries
Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van
Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje
Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga MincoPaul van
Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de
Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan
Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs
van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van
Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz AdrianaAlewijn Pieter
Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg
Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers
Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan
Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn
Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen JanMontyn P.A.
de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek
Jan WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel
Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld
Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer
Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar
Trijntjevan de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van
Oenen Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma
Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van
Lier Helperus van
Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van
Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet
Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan
WiegersKeesBuddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde
Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout
Sonya
Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz
Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de
Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter FaberHerman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat
Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff
Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van
Lier Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter
Hahn Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn
P.A.de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk
Westbroek Jan WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep
Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel
Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld
AnnaBerkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje Brouwer
Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van
der Laar Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber
Herman van Oenen Wilma Vermaat GeertruidaHubers Andries Kloos Aat
Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig
Catherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn
Jacques van Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn
P.A.de Génestet Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk
Westbroek Jan WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van
Bei- eren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée
van Eeghen Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya
Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh JetjeBrouwer Johannes Hugenholtz
Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar Trijntje van de
Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen Wilma
Vermaat
Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos Aat Breur-Hitma Jan Slauerhoff
Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier Helperus van
Lier Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert PieterHahn Jacques van
Ginneken Marga Minco Paul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet
Gerard Bilders Karel van de Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan
WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes
Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van Hall
Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylen-
burgh Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz Adriana Alewijn Pieter Baan
Adolf van der Laar Trijntje
van de Schaaf Johan Stekelen- burg Peter Faber Herman van Oenen
Wilma Vermaat Geertruida Hubers Andries Kloos AatBreur-Hitma Jan
Slauerhoff Louis Couperus Andries van Dantzig Catherina van Lier
Helperus van Lier
Alexander van Oranje Nassau Albert Pieter Hahn Jacques van
Ginneken Marga MincoPaul van Ostaijen Jan Montyn P.A. de Génestet
Gerard Bilders Karel van de
Woestijne Henk Westbroek Jan WiegersKees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan
Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs
van Hall
Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya
Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh Jetje
Brouwer Jo-
hannes Hugen-holtz Adri-
ana Alewijn Pieter Baan Adolf van der Laar
Trijntje van de Schaaf Johan Stekelenburg Peter FaberHerman van
Oenen Wilma
Vermaat GeertruidaHubers Andries
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika
Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba vanBeieren Jan Mankes Petronella
Rijfkogel Johanna Budde Esmée vanEeghen Gijs van Hall
Estella
Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya Gaskell Saskia van Uylenburgh
Jetje Brouwer Johannes Hugenholtz
Adriana
Kees Buddingh
Johannes Mol
Hendri-ka
Kees Bud-
dingh
Kees Buddingh
Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep BakhuysJacoba
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius
Bep
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hen-
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol
Hendri- ka Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella Rijfkogel
Johanna Budde Esmée vanEeghen Gijs van Hall Estella
Hertzveld Anna Berkhout SonyaGaskell Saskia van
Uylenburgh Jetje BrouwerJohannes Hugenholtz
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys Jacoba
van
Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella RijfkogelJohanna Budde Esmée van
Eeghen
Gijs van Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout Sonya
Gaskell Saskia vanUylenburgh
Kees Buddingh Johannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep Bakhuys
Jacoba van Beieren Jan Ma
Kees Buddingh Jo-hannes Mol Hendrika Jungius Bep
Bakhuys Jacoba van Beieren Jan Mankes Petronella
RijfkogelJohanna Budde Esmée van Eeghen Gijs van
Hall Estella Hertzveld Anna Berkhout
-
Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for the
prevention
of tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting
Connie Erkens
-
Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for the prevention
of tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting
Thesis, University of Amsterdam (UvA), the Netherlands ISBN:
978-94-91602-93-1 http://dare.uva.nl/dissertaties Cover: Anna
Tomson Lay-out: Anna Tomson Printed by: Print Service Ede Financial
support for printing this thesis was provided by KNCV Tuberculosis
Foundation and Vereniging voor Artsen Werkzaam in de
Tuberculosebestrijding.
©2017 Connie Erkens, Leiderdorp, the Netherlands
Published articles were reprinted with permission of the
publishers. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored or
transmitted without prior permission of the author or when
appropriate the publishers of the articles.
-
Evaluating the effectiveness of interventions for the prevention
of tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor
aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam
op gezag van de Rector Magnificus
prof. dr. ir. K.I.J. Maex
ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties ingestelde
commissie,
in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Aula der Universiteit
op woensdag 29 maart 2017 te 11.00 uur
door
Conrada Gerardina Maria Erkens
geboren te Bergen op Zoom
-
Promotiecommissie
Promotor: Prof. dr. F.G.J. Cobelens Universiteit van
Amsterdam
Copromotor: Dr. S. van den Hof KNCV Tuberculosefonds
Overige leden: Prof. dr. S.E. Geerlings Universiteit van
Amsterdam
Prof. dr. L.J. Gunning-Schepers Universiteit van Amsterdam
Prof. dr. P.R. Klatser Universiteit van Amsterdam
Prof. dr. M. Prins Universiteit van Amsterdam
Dr. S.M. Arend Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum
Prof. I. Abubakar University College London
Faculteit der Geneeskunde
-
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
.........................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 Coverage and yield of entry and follow-up screening
for tuberculosis among new
immigrants
...........................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 3 Added value of interferon gamma release assays for
tuberculosis infection screening in
the Netherlands
...................................................................................................................................35
Chapter 4 The epidemiology of childhood tuberculosis in the
Netherlands: still room for prevention.
.............................................................................................................................................................53
Chapter 5 Monitoring Latent Tuberculosis Infection diagnosis and
management in the Netherlands
.............................................................................................................................................................69
Chapter 6 Risk of developing tuberculosis disease among persons
diagnosed with latent tuberculosis
infection in the Netherlands
................................................................................................................85
Chapter 7 General Discussion
...........................................................................................................105
Summary
............................................................................................................................................117
Samenvatting
.....................................................................................................................................123
List of abbreviations
...........................................................................................................................129
Authors contributions
........................................................................................................................131
Dankwoord
........................................................................................................................................143
-
7
Chapter 1 Introduction
-
8
Tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused
by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It presents most
commonly as a respiratory infection, but it can also affect
other parts of the body. The classic
symptoms are cough, sometimes with blood-containing sputum,
fever, night sweats, and weight
loss. When other organs are affected a wide range of symptoms
can occur. Tuberculosis is
transmitted through the air, typically when people suffering
from pulmonary TB cough or sneeze.
When inhaled, the bacteria are engulfed by alveolar macrophages
and bronchial dendritic cells
which try to kill the bacteria. When they fail to do so,
bacteria replicate and kill the macrophage
through apoptosis and necrolysis, releasing the bacilli and
cytokines and chemokines, substances
that attract other immune-effector cells and trigger a complex
delayed type hypersensitivity
reaction. A granuloma develops and bacilli can spread to the
hilar lymph nodes and disseminate
through the body. The host immune response may clear the bacilli
or induce a low metabolic and
slowly replicative ‘dormant’ state of the bacilli(1). Currently,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is
viewed as a continuous spectrum extending from sterilizing
immunity to subclinical active disease
through to fulminant active disease(2). In the absence of
diagnostic possibilities to detect bacilli
contained in a inactive form, latent tuberculosis infection
(LTBI) is defined by immunological
evidence of sensitization against mycobacterial proteins in the
absence of clinical signs and
symptoms of active disease. Based on cohort studies(3-5) it is
postulated that the life time risk to
develop active TB after infection is 5-12%, but children younger
than 2 years and immune
incompetent individuals have a higher risk(6).
Epidemiology Tuberculosis has been a major cause of disease and
death for many ages. In the early 20th century TB
was the major cause of death among young adults in western
industrialized countries. Nowadays
worldwide TB is causing more deaths than HIV and malaria each.
The World Health Organization
(WHO) estimated 9 million people suffering from TB in 2014 and
1.5 million deaths caused by TB(7).
Fueled by the HIV epidemic, poverty and poor access to health
services and adequate diagnosis, the
occurrence of TB in sub-Saharan Africa is comparable to the
rates observed in western countries
around 1900. In the Netherlands the incidence of TB declined
steadily to 5.1/100,000 in 2015. The
steady decline observed since the start of the TB surveillance
in 1950 came to a halt in the late
eighties when there was a rise in the influx of immigrants from
countries where TB was still
endemic. Since then, the TB incidence in the native Dutch
population decreased faster than the
incidence in the immigrant population. Hence the proportion of
TB among immigrants increased. In
the 2015, the incidence of TB among the foreign born population
was 26 times higher than among
the Dutch born population and 72% of the TB patients were
foreign born (Figure 1).
-
9
Figure 1 Tuberculosis incidence in population groups by ethnic
group 1996-2015*
* Linear trend based on least squares fitting Source:
Netherlands Tuberculosis Register, www.tbc-online.nl
TB control
History
Prevention and control of tuberculosis (TB) is one of the
pillars of public health measures aimed to
improve and prolong the health of populations worldwide.
Preventive measures against TB were not undertaken until the
late 19th century when Robert Koch
identified the TB bacillus and insight was gained in the mode of
transmission. Even then, options for
prevention and control were limited to cough hygiene, sunlight
and ventilation to reduce aerogenic
transmission. Options for antibiotic treatment were limited too,
until streptomycin and isoniazid
were discovered after the Second World War. Until that time
persons suffering from TB were
admitted in dedicated sanatoria for prolonged periods and
subjected to a regime of rest, fresh air
and a protein rich diet to strengthen their immune systems. When
TB drugs became available, early
case finding became a sensible thing to do: it was recognized
that treatment of TB patients in an
early stage improved the chances of recovery and reduced risk of
the transmission of the disease to
others. In the Netherlands, annual radiologic screening of the
professional workforce and screening
of schoolchildren using the tuberculin skin test was continued
until the late 1960s, when TB
incidence had decreased to less than 20 cases per 100,000
population. Careful assessment and
screening of close (household) contacts of infectious TB
patients is still common practice and
generally regarded as the most effective measure to prevent
TB(8-10), through early case finding as
well as treatment of contacts diagnosed with LTBI.
-
10
The emergence of drug resistance immediately after introduction
of the first antibiotic
(streptomycin) used in TB treatment required therapy consisting
of several drugs for a fixed period
with good adherence to treatment. Styblo showed in Tanzania in
the 1980s that this could be
achieved by directly observed treatment (DOT): standardized
short course treatment administered
under daily observation of a health care worker(11). DOTS (DOT
combined with bacteriological
confirmation of the diagnosis) was recommended by the WHO as the
main strategy to fight to TB,
with objectives of detecting and treating at least 70% of the
new TB cases and of 85% of patients
completing the treatment(12).
TB control policy in the Netherlands
The pillars of Dutch TB control policy are based on the DOTS
strategy recommended by WHO:
political commitment with increased and sustained financing;
case detection through quality-
assured bacteriology; standardized treatment, with patient
supervision and support; effective drug
supply and management system, and a monitoring and evaluation
system, including impact
measurement. In addition a risk group approach is pursued, to
enhance case finding and case
holding in vulnerable and risk populations(13). This approach
was chosen in the early 1980s when, in
accordance with WHO recommendations, population-based screening
programs were abolished(14)
(15). The objective of the risk group approach is to reduce
morbidity and mortality as well as
transmission of TB through early detection of patients suffering
from TB, and to prevent TB disease
in persons with a high risk of progression to active TB when
infected. In 1995, the Committee for
Practical TB Control (CPT) and the National Health Council
defined a risk group for TB as a
(sub)population with an incidence of >50 per 100,000
population, ∼10 times the rate in the general
Dutch population(16). Interventions for high-risk groups focused
mainly on active case finding
through radiological screening among contacts of infectious TB
patients, new immigrants and
asylum seekers from TB endemic areas, prisoners and drug users
or homeless persons. Screening for
tuberculosis is mandatory for asylum seekers and for new
immigrants from non-western countries
intending to stay longer than 3 months. Until 2007 a biannual
follow-up screening for a period of 2
years was offered to all newly arriving migrants. In addition to
active case finding, population groups
at risk for exposure to TB are targeted for screening for LTBI
and preventive treatment. Target
groups include TB contacts, health workers and other
professionals working with unscreened risk
groups for TB, and long-term travelers to countries where TB is
endemic. In the clinical health sector,
patients with a high risk to develop TB when infected, such as
HIV-infected individuals and persons
receiving immunosuppressant treatment are also targeted for LTBI
screening.
Organization
The Public Municipal Health Services (PMHSs) have a pivotal role
in TB control. PMHSs have been
performing prevention and control of TB in the Netherlands since
1993 when they took over this
responsibility from the local TB consultation bureaus as defined
in the public health legislation(17)
and from 2008 onwards the Public Health Act(18). Health
providers and laboratories are required by
law to notify TB patients nominally to the local PMHSs and take
appropriate measures to prevent
further transmission. TB public health physicians and dedicated
TB nurses in the PMHSs offer
support to the TB patient while on treatment, provide health
education to the patient and the public
and offer advice on the necessary measures for infection control
and contact investigation. In
addition, PMHSs offer (primary) preventive treatment to TB
contacts with TB infection identified in
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11
contact investigation, perform active case finding through
screening of new immigrants and other
high risk groups for TB, and provide BCG-vaccination of new-born
children with a parent born in a
country with estimated TB incidence >50 per 100,000
population. PMHSs provide information,
advice and guidance to local authorities, medical professionals,
individuals and the public on a range
of TB issues related to diagnosis, screening, treatment, risk of
transmission and need for preventive
measures. They also contribute to the understanding of the
epidemiological TB situation through
maintaining the Netherlands TB register and submit anonymized
data on TB and LTBI cases to the
national TB register. Policy development is coordinated at
national level by the CPT consisting of
professionals active in TB control in the PMHSs, other public
health institutions and professional
organizations. CPT guideline development and policy development
relies on epidemiological
information derived from surveillance data, as well as
scientific evidence based on the analysis of
monitoring and evaluation data into the effectiveness of
interventions.
TB surveillance and monitoring of effectiveness of screening
In the Netherlands notification of infectious diseases to the
Health Inspectorate has been mandatory
since 1865, but notification of tuberculosis was not mandatory
until 1980, when TB became less
stigmatized(19). In the late 1980s it became apparent that the
nominal information collected by the
Health Inspectorate did not render sufficient information to
identify population groups at risk for TB,
and that it would be advisable to continue the systematic data
collection performed by the TB
consultation bureaus(20). Moreover, it was perceived necessary
to monitor the implementation of
WHO recommendations for standardized treatment regimens and DOTS
in view of the worldwide
emerging problem of drug resistance (21). In 1993, PMHSs and
KNCV Tuberculosis Foundation
started the Netherlands Tuberculosis register (NTR),
supplementary to the mandatory notification of
nominal data to the Health Inspectorate. The goals of the NTR
are: i) TB disease and LTBI
surveillance, ii) providing information for regional and
national policy development, iii) providing
information for scientific research and training, iv) support
quality control of TB preventive
interventions(22). Anonymized data on the diagnosis and
treatment outcome for new and recurrent
TB patients and persons diagnosed with latent TB infection were
initially collected through a paper
questionnaire. Data collection for TB as well as LTBI cases has
encompassed anonymized case-based
demographic information, method of case finding, treatment
regimen and treatment outcome. For
TB cases, disease location, risk factors, co-morbidity,
laboratory and DNA-fingerprint results,
occurrence of serious adverse events, treatment supervision and
adherence, and results of the
contact investigation are additionally recorded. In 2005 the
paper NTR questionnaires were
integrated in the official central web-based notification system
for infectious disease notification
and surveillance ‘Osiris’, hosted by the National Institute for
Public Health and the Environment
(RIVM). Annually RIVM publishes in cooperation with KNCV
Tuberculosis Foundation an annual
description of the TB situation and the yield of active case
finding in the surveillance report
‘Tuberculose in Nederland’.
Thesis aim and objectives In general, good public health
practice requires systematic monitoring and evaluation the
effectiveness of screening programs in order to inform policy
development and prioritize risk groups
and to safeguard appropriate use of public resources(23). The
well-coordinated national TB control
policy development, combined with a longstanding tradition of
collecting epidemiological and
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12
operational data to monitor TB control interventions, offers a
unique opportunity to study the
effectiveness of internationally recommended TB control policies
in low incidence settings. Thus the
studies included in this thesis were aimed at determining the
effectiveness of specific TB control
interventions and screening algorithms in risk groups, and at
identifying specific target groups with a
higher risk for TB or to progress to disease when infected with
M. tuberculosis.
Specific objectives
Screening of immigrants
In the 1980s and 1990s immigrants from non-western countries and
asylum seekers were targeted
for radiographic TB screening upon entry and bi-annual follow-up
screening during the two years
after entry. TB screening of asylum seekers and other immigrants
at entry was common practice in
other low-incidence countries (24-31), but few countries
performed follow-up screening among
immigrants with a normal chest X-ray(29, 32). The effectiveness,
in broad sense, of TB screening in
immigrants and asylum seekers has been disputed(25, 33-35).
Particular concerns are cost-
effectiveness, the substantial resources required, the need for
adequate access to diagnosis and
care and the assurance of continuum of care for all migrants.
However, it has been shown that
screening contributes to reduction of severity of disease and
duration of infectiousness, as well as to
decreased transmission potential (36).
In The Netherlands immigrants and asylum seekers have been
regarded as distinct risk groups for
two reasons: i) asylum seekers undergo a different process for
TB screening: they reside in the
dedicated reception facilities and are screened shortly after
arrival. Whereas immigrants are
required individually to report to the PMHSs within 3 months
after arrival in The Netherlands for TB
screening; ii) in the literature it was reported that asylum
seekers are likely to be exposed to a
higher risk of infection after their departure from the country
of origin(37). In 1993, a study
estimated a yield of the entry screening among asylum seekers in
The Netherlands of 300-400 cases
of TB disease per 100,000 persons screened(38). This rate was
lower than the rate observed among
asylum seekers and refugees in other low incidence countries(24,
29-31, 39, 40). The rate was
highest among persons from Somalia and Yugoslavia. From this
finding the question arose if the
screening could be targeted to specific high-risk groups. Data
on the yield of the TB screening of
immigrants were not known. Stimulated through a government
research grant from ZonMW(41),
KNCV Tuberculosis Foundation and PMHSs started the Monitoring
Screening of Immigrants (MSI)
project in 1996, and set up a national system to periodically
assess the effectiveness of the Dutch
immigrant screening policy. The objective of the study using MSI
data described in Chapter 2 was to
assess the prevalence, coverage and yield of the entry and
follow-up screening and the risk to
develop TB in the first two years after entry, and to describe
associated factors and characteristics of
immigrants detected with active TB disease or with a higher risk
to develop active TB in order to
identify risk groups to which screening can be targeted.
Diagnostic algorithm for LTBI
Until 2007, the tuberculin skin test (TST) was used in the
Netherlands for the diagnosis of latent TB
infection. In daily practice the TST has many limitations: the
positive predictive value is low when
used in populations with a low likelihood of infection as well
as in BCG-vaccinated populations.
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13
Before 2007, skin tests with crude antigens of common
nontuberculous mycobacteria were often
used in addition to TST to confirm LTBI. Moreover, varying
cut-offs for the size of the TST-reaction
defining LTBI were recommended: a low cut-off of 5 mm and more
for ‘vulnerable’ populations
where a high sensitivity was required, a cut-off of 10 mm and
more for BCG-naïve populations, and a
high cut-off of 15 mm and more for BCG-vaccinated populations
and other populations in which a
high specificity was required. Since 2000, interferon-gamma
release assays (IGRA) came on the
market(42): blood tests based on ex-vivo stimulation of
T-lymphocytes by specific antigens of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. IGRAs were claimed to have an equal
sensitivity, but higher specificity
than the TST, especially in BCG-vaccinated populations(43, 44).
In addition, IGRAs had several
operational advantages over the TST: i) for the TST specific
dexterity and experience is needed to
administer the test and interpret the reaction; ii) the
TST-reaction needed to be measured within
72-96 hours. However, the cost of the two available commercial
IGRAs and laboratory handling were
considerably higher than the cost of the TST. Cost-effectiveness
studies supported the use of IGRAs
in high-income countries, with TST followed by an IGRA being the
more cost-effective strategy(45). It
was not clear if this strategy would be the most cost-effective
strategy for the Dutch setting, where
the majority of the target population for LTBI screening was not
vaccinated with BCG and the
operational costs for IGRA were considerably higher than the
cost for TST. Therefore, to guide the
choice for the optimal diagnostic algorithm for the Dutch TB
control setting, it was decided that
IGRA would be recommended as confirmatory test after TST and the
added value of IGRAs in terms
of numbers needed to treat and incremental costs would be
evaluated prospectively after the
introduction for routine use by the PMHSs. The results of this
evaluation are described in Chapter 3.
Effectiveness of TB control efforts in children
The WHO’s DOTS and StopTB strategies have focused mainly on
improving detection and treatment
of infectious cases(46, 47). Recently it was recognized that as
a consequence of this approach the
prevention and management of TB in children has been neglected
by national TB programs(48, 49).
Although children with TB disease are generally considered
non-infectious, TB infection and disease
in a child can be regarded as a sentinel event for ongoing
transmission. In addition, young children
are more susceptible than adults to progression from TB
infection to active disease and may suffer
severe TB-related morbidity and mortality. BCG vaccination,
active case-finding of children in
contact with adults with TB and isoniazid preventive therapy to
prevent progression of latent TB are
the basic elements of TB prevention in children and have been
practiced in the Netherlands since
several decades, but the effectiveness of this approach had not
been evaluated before. The
objectives of the study described in Chapter 4 were to analyze
trends and characteristics of TB and
LTBI among children, to identify risk factors for delayed case
finding of active TB in children and to
explore opportunities where TB prevention can be further
improved.
Effectiveness and impact of LTBI diagnosis and treatment
Randomized clinical trials have demonstrated the safety and
effectiveness of preventive
chemotherapy to reduce the risk of tuberculosis among persons
with latent infection(50). In these
trials various preventive treatment regimens were shown to
reduce the development of incident TB
by approximately 40-50%. However, under operational
circumstances the effectiveness of
preventive treatment programs is influenced by other factors
such as treatment acceptance and
treatment completion rates. In 2014, the World Health
Organization (WHO) launched the End TB
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14
Strategy to step up efforts for the elimination of tuberculosis
worldwide. For low-incidence
countries, screening and providing preventive treatment for LTBI
in populations at high risk for TB is
recommended as a key intervention(51-53). In its guidelines for
LTBI management WHO
recommends routine monitoring and evaluation for initiation and
completion of treatment,
occurrence of adverse events and development of active TB during
and after the completion of
treatment for latent TB. Thus far few countries have routinely
practiced LTBI treatment at scale, and
data on evaluation of LTBI management programs are sparse(34,
54). With the studies in Chapter 5
and 6 we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of LTBI screening
and preventive treatment performed
in the public health sector in the Netherlands, in terms of the
annual number of cases identified with
LTBI in different target groups for LTBI screening, to determine
factors associated with treatment
acceptance, successful outcome of preventive treatment and the
occurrence of (severe) adverse
events and to assess the impact of the intervention in the
different target groups.
Outline of the thesis and research questions:
In summary the overall aim of the thesis is to determine the
effectiveness of specific TB control
interventions and screening algorithms and to further identify
and prioritize target groups for the
interventions.
Specific study questions addressed this thesis are:
1. What is the yield and effectiveness of the screening of new
immigrants to the Netherlands in terms of coverage, numbers and
prevalence of cases detected, and proportion of the cases in the
target group detected through screening, and which groups should be
prioritized for screening? (Chapter 2)
2. What is the added value of interferon gamma release assays
(IGRA) used as a confirmatory
test after tuberculin skin test (TST) in terms of numbers needed
to treat in specific target
groups for LTBI screening in the Dutch setting, and what are the
(incremental) costs and
the cost-effectiveness? (Chapter 3)
3. What is the burden of TB disease among children in the
Netherlands, what proportion of
childhood TB cases is detected early through active case
finding, how many children are
successfully targeted for preventive treatment, and what are the
further opportunities for
prevention? (Chapter 4)
4. What is the performance of LTBI management in the public
health sector in the
Netherlands, in terms of numbers of cases diagnosed, treatment
acceptance, treatment
completion and the occurrence of severe adverse events? (Chapter
5)
5. What is the observed incidence of TB in different target
groups for LTBI screening and in
groups receiving different treatment regimens and for which
groups should LTBI screening
be prioritized? (Chapter 6)
The general discussion in Chapter 7 discusses the main
conclusions, lessons learned and policy
implications of the studies for TB control in the Netherlands,
the overall strengths and limitations of
these studies utilizing TB surveillance data and recommendations
for future research.
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15
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I. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection: a network
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Chapter 2 Coverage and yield of entry and follow-up
screening for tuberculosis among new immigrants Connie Erkens,
Erika Slump, Margreet Kamphorst, Sytze Keizer, Paul van Gerven,
Robert Bwire,
Marcel Berkel, Martien Borgdorff and Suzanne. Verver
Published in European Respiratory Journal 2008; 32(1): 153–161
https://dx.doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00137907 Copyright © European
Respiratory Journal.
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Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the effectiveness
of entry screening for tuberculosis
and biannual follow-up screening among new immigrants in the
Netherlands. To achieve this, the
present authors analyzed screening, prevalence and incidence
data of 68,122 immigrants, who were
followed for 29 months. Patients diagnosed within 5 months and
6–29 months after entry screening
were considered to be detected at entry and during the follow-up
period, respectively. Coverage of
the second to fifth screening rounds was 59, 46, 36 and 34%,
respectively. Yield of entry screening
was 119 per 100,000 individuals, and prevalence at entry was 131
per 100,000. Average yield of
follow-up screening was highest among immigrants with
abnormalities on chest radiography (CXR)
at entry (902 per 100,000 individuals). When excluding these,
yield of follow-up screening was 9, 37
and 97 per 100,000 screenings for immigrants from countries with
tuberculosis incidences of 200 per 100,000, respectively. The
incidence during follow-up in individuals with a
normal CXR was 11, 58 and 145 per 100,000 person-years follow-up
in these groups. The proportion
of cases detected through screening declined per screening round
from 91 to 31%. Yield of entry
screening was high. Overall coverage and yield of follow-up
screening was low. Follow-up screening
of immigrants with a normal chest radiograph from countries with
an incidence of
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21
Introduction
In Western Europe, approximately half of the tuberculosis (TB)
patients are of foreign origin [1]. In
the Netherlands, approximately 1,000–1,400 patients with active
TB are diagnosed yearly, of whom
68% are foreign-born individuals [2]. In 2004, the incidence of
all forms of TB among foreign-born
individuals was 52.4 per 100,000, 17 times the incidence in
Dutch-born individuals (3.1 per 100,000
population). Active case finding in risk groups is an important
strategy for TB control in low-
prevalence countries in the elimination phase [3]. In 1995, a
risk group policy was formulated in the
Netherlands. The Committee for Practical TB Control and the
National Health Council defined a risk
group for TB as a (sub)population with an incidence of 50 or
more per 100,000 population,
approximately 10 times the rate in the general Dutch population
[4].
Screening for active TB is mandatory for all immigrants from
non-Western countries intending to
stay longer than 3 months in the Netherlands [5]; at the time of
the study this included all countries
except the European Union, Australia, Canada, Iceland, Israel,
Japan, Monaco, New Zealand,
Norway, Surinam, Switzerland and the USA. Immigrants applying
for a residence permit in the
Netherlands are referred by the Immigration Department to the
Municipal Health Services (MHSs)
for TB screening. Screening is performed by chest radiograph
(CXR) in individuals aged >12 years.
Asymptomatic children aged
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22
standardized and checked for inconsistencies. To validate data
on TB patients in the MSI system,
data were compared with the Netherlands Tuberculosis Register
(NTR) [2] using year of diagnosis,
year of birth, sex and nationality to match cases. If patients
were registered in the MSI system and
not in the NTR or vice versa, the MHS was asked for
clarification to improve completeness of the
database.
Definitions
The cohort was defined by date of entry screening. Coverage was
defined as the number of
individuals screened divided by the number of individuals in the
target population per screening
round. The yield was defined as the number of patients detected
per 100,000 individuals screened
(for entry screening) and per 100,000 screenings (for follow-up
screening). Prevalence was defined
as the total number of patients diagnosed (either through
screening or passive case finding) per
100,000 individuals screened on entry. The incidence rate was
defined as the total number of
patients diagnosed (either through screening or passive case
finding) per 100,000 person-years
follow-up in the target population. Patients detected at entry
screening or passively 704 days (23 months) between the first
(entry) and the
last screening (regardless of attendance at previous
screenings).
The result of the initial CXR was classified into five
categories as follows: suspected active TB;
abnormality, possibly old TB; abnormality, no TB; no
abnormalities; and unknown. For the purpose
of the analysis, the CXR result was aggregated in three groups:
any abnormalities, no abnormalities,
and unknown. Active TB cases were classified by site of disease
according to the revised
international definitions in TB control [21]. Patients were
defined as detected passively when the
reason for medical examination leading to the diagnosis of
active TB was not immigrant screening.
The majority of these patients were diagnosed through the
healthcare system, due to presentation
of symptoms suggestive of TB.
Analysis
Stratified risk analysis was performed for age, sex, nationality
grouped in countries or continents,
incidence groups according to World Health Organization (WHO)
estimated incidence in the country
of origin in 2002, and abnormalities on the initial CXR. For the
sake of brevity, countries of origin
with an incidence of 200 per 100,000 individuals were classified
as low-,
medium- and high-incidence countries. Patient data are presented
for all TB and pulmonary TB (PTB)
cases, since CXR is performed to detect PTB, but also frequently
detects other forms of TB. Follow-
up screening and incidence is only presented for individuals
aged >12 years (n=561,237), since no
follow-up screening was offered to children aged ≤12 years.
-
23
Figure 1. Flow chart of results of entry and follow-up screening
(6–29 months).
Immigrants entry screening N=70 173
Complete recordsN= 68 122
Incomplete recordsN= 2 051
Tested with TST only (no CXR) and no TBN=1 654
CXR result unknown but no TBN=342
CXR abnormalN=1 620
CXR normalN-64 506
PTB n=76ETB n=5
PTB n=3
Age
-
24
Results
Table 1 Number of bacteriologically confirmed cases and
percentage of total 0-5 months# 6-29 months# Total
Confirmed cases##
Total cases
% Confirmed cases##
Total cases
% Confirmed cases##
Total cases
%
PTB
Detected through screening
61 76 80 28 41 68 89 117 76
Passively detected 2 3 67 13 20 65 15 23 65
Total PTB cases 63 79 80 41 61 67 104 140 74
ETB
Detected through screening
0 5 0 1 6 17 1 11 9
Passively detected 2 5 40 10 30 33 12 35 34
Total ETB cases 2 10 20 11 36 31 13 46 28
PTB: pulmonary tuberculosis; ETB: extrapulmonary TB. #: after
entering the Netherlands. ## bacteriolocally confirmed.
Study groups
Data were available from 27 MHSs on 70,173 new immigrants
entering the Netherlands (fig. 1). A
total of 68,122 (97%) records were complete. The number of
immigrants per MHS varied from 105
to 4,456 per cohort-year. In total, 187 TB patients were
identified in the study group, of whom 74%
were bacteriologically confirmed (smear and/or culture positive)
among PTB cases and 28% among
extrapulmonary TB cases (table 1). There were 89 prevalent cases
and 98 incident cases 6–29
months after entering the country, of which one case was aged
≤12 years.
Coverage
The coverage of the second to fifth screenings was 59, 46, 36
and 34%, respectively (fig. 2). The
coverage in the four screening rounds varied considerably
between MHSs, ranging from as low as
31, 23, 6 and 17% in one MHS to as high as 87, 77, 67 and 75% in
another. The coverage among
individuals from Turkey and Morocco was 8–18% higher than in
individuals from other countries. No
relevant differences were found between males and females or
between other groups of
nationalities.
Entry yield and prevalence In total, 1,620 individuals were
recorded with an abnormal CXR at entry requiring further
examination. Active TB was detected in 81 patients. The yield of
screening at entry was 119 per
100,000 individuals screened for all forms of TB and 112 per
100,000 for PTB. A further eight
patients were detected passively within 5 months of entering the
country. Including both passively
and actively detected patients, the prevalence of TB at entry
was 131 per 100,000 (table 2). The
yield of entry screening was highest in age groups 25–34 and
>45 years, and hardly differed between
males and females. The yield of the entry screening for all
subgroups varied from 56 to 271 TB cases
per 100,000 individuals screened.
-
25
Table 2 Yield of screening and prevalence on entry# in the
period 1998–2002 Screened
individuals
n
TB patients n
Yield" (95% CI)
Prevalence+
(95% CI)
Detected by screening
Found passively
Age in years
≤12 6885 8 1 116 (50–229) 131 (60–248)
13–24 25163 20 3 79 (49–123) 91 (58–137)
25–34 25009 41 3 164 (114–214) 176 (124–228)
35–44 8176 6 0 73 (27–160) 73 (27–160)
≥45 2883 6 1 208 (76–453) 243 (98–500)
Unknown 6 0 0
Sex
Male 28566 33 2 116 (76–155) 123 (82–163)
Female 39415 48 6 122 (87–156) 137 (101–174)
Unknown 141 0 0
Nationality
Morocco 11154 17 2 152 (89–244) 170 (103–266)
Turkey 9910 9 1 91 (42–172) 101 (48–186)
Africa (except Morocco)
7603 11 0 144 (72–258) 144 (72–258)
Asia (except Turkey) 19354 31 4 160 (104–217) 181 (121–241)
Central and Eastern Europe
12554 7 1 56 (22–115) 64 (28–125)
Other 5425 6 0 111 (41–241) 111 (41–241)
Unknown 2122 0 0
Incidence in country of origin1
200 11435 31 1 271 (176–366) 280 (183–377)
Unknown 2125 0 0
Entry cohort
1998 5608 9 0 160 (73–305) 160 (73–305)
1999 9417 11 2 117 (58–209) 138 (74–236)
2000 12055 10 4 83 (40–153) 116 (63–195)
2001 17930 24 1 134 (80–187) 139 (85–194)
2002 23112 27 1 117 (73–161) 121 (76–166)
Result chest radiography
Normal 66502 0 5 0 8 (2–18)
Any abnormalities 1620 81 3 4883 (3911–6089) 5185
(4076–6294)
Total 68122 81 8 119 (93–145) 131 (104–158)
TB: tuberculosis; CI: confidence interval. #: 0–5 months after
entering the Netherlands; ": per 100,000 individuals screened; +:
defined as number of cases detected through screening plus number
of cases detected passively, divided by number of individuals
screened; 1: estimated incidence of total TB per 100,000
individuals in 2002 according to the World Health Organization.
-
26
Figure 2. Coverage per screening round in 68,122 immigrants
screened at entry, as a percentage of the target group
screened.
Data are presented as averages: 59, 46, 36 and 34 for screening
rounds 2–5, respectively. The error bars indicate the minimum and
maximum coverage values observed in the Municipal Health
Services.
Follow-up yield and incidence A total of 47 patients aged >12
years were detected during follow-up screening and 50 patients
were detected passively 6–29 months after entering the country.
Of the 47 patients detected
through follow-up screening, 30 had a normal initial CXR. Among
the 20 PTB patients detected
passively, two had abnormalities in the initial CXR (fig. 1). In
19 of the 50 TB patients detected
passively, the interval between the last screening and diagnosis
was >7 months. The yield of follow-
up screening was highest among individuals with an abnormality
in the initial CXR and who were not
diagnosed with TB in the first semester (tables 3 and 4). In
1,412 immigrants with abnormalities in
the CXR on entry, follow-up screening detected 17 cases (902 per
100,000 screenings; table 4). Even
in the low-incidence nationalities group a high number of cases
was detected (411 per 100,000
screenings). The yield of follow-up screening among individuals
with a normal CXR was 36 per
100,000 screenings and the incidence 6–29 months after entry was
53 per 100,000 person-years
follow- up (table 3). Among subgroups of immigrants from low-,
medium- and high-incidence
countries, the yield was 9, 37 and 98 per 100,000 screenings,
respectively (9, 28 and 89 per 100,000
for PTB cases), and the incidence was 11, 58 and 145 per 100,000
person-years follow-up,
respectively (7, 35 and 77 per 100,000 person-years for PTB
cases).
The yield and incidence during the follow-up period were
associated with the incidence in the
country of origin. Among individuals with a normal CXR, yield
and incidence were higher in females
than in males. Yield and incidence were highest in the group
aged 25–44 years. When the nationality
was unknown, yield and incidence were high, but the absolute
number of patients of unknown
nationality was very low and, therefore, the confidence
intervals were wide.
The yield of screening for all forms of TB for the second,
third, fourth and fifth screening rounds was
48, 67, 66 and 30 per 100,000 individuals screened,
respectively, and 45, 67, 40 and 23 PTB cases
per 100,000 individuals screened. In all incidence groups, the
yield of screening declined in the last
two rounds, even in the high-incidence group, despite a
continued high incidence (fig. 3).
5946
36 34
8777
67 75
31 23
6
170
25
50
75
100
2 3 4 5
round
% o
f ta
rget
gro
up
Maximum observed coverage in MHSs
Minimum observed coverage in MHSs
average
-
27
Table 3 Yield of screening and incidence of all tuberculosis
(TB) cases during follow-up
period (6–29 months) for individuals with normal chest
radiography at entry# Follow-up
person years
Screenings in rounds 2-
5
n
TB patients n Yield" (95% CI)
Incidence+ (95% CI)
Detected by screening
Found passively
Age years
13–24 57059 33237 7 16 21 (8–43) 40 (26–60)
25–34 57500 34693 14 21 40 (22–68) 61 (41–81)
35–44 18296 11910 8 5 67 (29–132) 71 (38–122)
0.45 6160 3811 1 2 26 (1–146) 49 (10–142)
Unknown 10
Sex
Male 56549 33232 10 19 30 (14–55) 51 (34–74)
Female 82194 50340 20 25 40 (24–61) 55 (39–71)
Unknown 283 79 0 0
Nationality
Morocco 23355 17365 5 10 29 (9–67) 64 (36–106)
Turkey 21575 15808 1 0 6 (0–35) 5 (0–26)
Africa (except Morocco)
15187 7998 5 8 63 (20–146) 86 (46–146)
Asia (except Turkey) 38097 21854 15 20 69 (38–113) 92
(61–122)
Central and Eastern Europe
25973 12821 2 4 16 (2–56) 23 (8–50)
Other 10603 5810 0 1 9 (0–53)
Unknown 4236 1995 2 1 100 (12–362) 71 (15–207)
Incidence in country of origin1
200 22003 12300 12 20 98 (50–170) 145 (95–196)
Unknown 4242 2004 2 1 100 (12–360) 71 (15–207)
Entry cohort
1998 11369 7340 3 4 41 (8–119) 62 (25–127)
1999 18455 12156 6 6 49 (18–107) 65 (34–114)
2000 24732 15663 6 8 38 (14–83) 57 (31–95)
2001 36664 21886 5 11 23 (7–53) 44 (25–71)
2002 47806 26606 10 15 38 (18–69) 52 (34–77)
Total 139026 83651 30 44 36 (23–49) 53 (41–65)
CI: confidence interval. #: n=558 529; ": per 100,000 screenings
in rounds 2–5; +: defined as number of cases detected through
screening plus number of cases detected passively, per 100,000
person-years follow-up; 1: estimated incidence of total TB per
100,000 individuals in 2002 according to the World Health
Organization.
-
28
Table 4 Yield of screening and incidence of all tuberculosis
(TB) cases during follow-up
period (6–29 months) for individuals with abnormal chest
radiography at entry# Follow-up
person years Screenings in
rounds 2-5
n
TB patients n
Yield"
(95% CI)
Incidence+ (95% CI)
Detected by
screening
Found passively
Incidence in country of origin1
200 677 363 5 2 1377 (447–3215) 1034 (416–2130)
Total 3241 1884 17 6 902 (526–1445) 710 (450–1064)
CI: confidence interval. #: n=558 529; ": per 100,000 screenings
in rounds 2–5; +: defined as number of cases detected through
screening plus number of cases detected passively, per 100,000
person-years follow-up; 1: estimated incidence of total TB per
100,000 individuals in 2002 according to the World Health
Organization.
The proportion of patients detected through screening declined
with consecutive screening rounds
(fig. 4). There were no significant differences in age, sex or
estimated incidence in country of origin
between patients found through screening or otherwise detected
(data not shown).
Discussion
The present authors found that the yield of entry screening was
56–271 per 100,000 individuals
screened, depending on the subgroup analysed. Furthermore, it
was shown that in individuals from
low-, medium- and high-incidence countries and with a normal CXR
at entry, the yield of follow-up
screening during follow-up was 9, 37 and 98 per 100,000
screenings, respectively. Of the prevalent
cases, 91% were detected through screening. Of the incident
cases during follow-up, 48% were
found through screening (67% of PTB cases). The proportion
detected through screening was low in
the last two rounds. Abnormalities in CXR at entry were the most
important predictor for
development of TB, irrespective of the incidence in the country
of origin. Among those with any
abnormalities in CXR, 1.6% were diagnosed with active TB during
follow-up.
Abnormalities in CXR are often fibrotic lesions due to healed TB
and are a known risk factor for TB
activation [22, 23]. Immigrants with abnormalities in CXR at
entry are usually either targeted for
more frequent follow-up screening and additional diagnostics or
offered preventive therapy.
The present results suggest that, when accepting a cut-off value
for the yield of 50 per 100,000
individuals screened, entry screening is useful to detect TB in
all immigrants who are currently
targeted. Entry screening is also useful to identify an
important risk group for intervention, this
being individuals with abnormalities in CXR. Follow-up screening
can be targeted towards individuals
from high-incidence countries. However, the choice in the
Netherlands of a cut-off value of 50 per
100,000 for the definition of a target group for screening is
arbitrary. It may not be cost-effective to
screen all immigrants belonging to groups with a relatively low
risk [14, 24]. The study of cost-
effectiveness was not the objective of the present study, but
consideration of cost-effectiveness
may lead to a more effective use of resources. Limiting
follow-up screening to individuals from high-
-
29
Figure 3. Yield (a and c) and incidence (b and d) of all cases
of tuberculosis (TB; a and b)
and pulmonary TB (PTB; c and d) by screening round in
individuals from countries with
an estimated TB incidence >200 per 100,000 and normal chest
radiography at entry.
Screening rounds were performed 6–11, 12–17, 18–23 and 24–29
months after entry. Yield is expressed as n per 100,000 individuals
screened and incidence as n per 100,000 person-years follow-up.
Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals.
endemic countries will reduce by 40–45% the number of CXRs
performed for screening of
immigrants and asylum seekers, an estimated total of 35,000 CXRs
in 2007. It can be argued that
entry screening could also be restricted to individuals from
high-incidence countries, but the present
results suggest that migrants are not representative of the
total population in the country of origin.
For two nationalities, the present results could be compared
with the WHO estimates. It was found
that among Moroccan and Turkish nationals the prevalence at
entry (170 and 101 per 100,000,
respectively) was higher than expected from the WHO-estimated
prevalence of TB in the country of
origin (86 and 44 per 100,000, respectively) [25]. However,
incidence during follow-up in these
groups (68 and 13 per 100,000, respectively) was lower than the
estimated incidence in the
countries of origin. This suggests that immigrants from these
countries are a selected group with a
higher risk for active TB at entry, as are young adult age and
lower socioeconomic status groups. In
the present study population, 38% of the population was aged
25–34 years, the group with the
highest prevalence of active TB. The lower incidence during
follow-up can be explained by a lower
Yield all TB cases
96
147
5850
0
100
200
300
400
500
6-11 12-17 18-23 24-29
months
per
100,0
00 s
creend
Incidence all TB cases
229 241 220198
0
100
200
300
400
500
6-11 12-17 18-23 24-29
months
per
100,0
00 p
yrs
follo
w-u
p
Yield PTB
96
147
580
0
100
200
300
400
500
6-11 12-17 18-23 24-29
months
per
100,0
00 s
creend
Incidence PTB
137 14411099
0
100
200
300
400
500
6-11 12-17 18-23 24-29
months
per
100,0
00 p
yrs
follo
w-u
p
-
30
Figure 4. Pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) cases per screening
semester according to type
of case detection.
Screening rounds were performed 0–5, 6–11, 12–17, 18–23 and
24–29 months after entry. The percentage of total cases detected by
screening at each round was 96, 71, 85, 46 and 43% for screening
rounds 1–5, respectively.
risk of infection in the Netherlands. Early case finding through
screening on entry in these groups is
likely to contribute to a lower risk of infection among
immigrants in the Netherlands.
Other studies in low-incidence countries have reported a
persistent high incidence of TB in
immigrants, although some found a decline over time [10, 13,
26–28]. The incidences found in the
present study were similar to those in another study in the
Netherlands [29], where both regular
immigrants and asylum seekers were included. In the study by Vos
et al. [29], it was found that
incidence remained high many years after immigration. In the
present study, it was found that,
despite a high incidence throughout the follow-up period in the
high- incidence group, the
proportion of patients detected through screening per
consecutive screening round declined, and
the yield in the last two rounds was low. The duration of
follow- up screening of 2 years is therefore
debatable for two reasons: the prolonged higher incidence after
entry into the country and the
reduced effectiveness of the follow-up screening in the second
year. Approximately half of the
patients with PTB detected passively could have been detected
earlier, since the last screening was
>7 months before diagnosis; therefore, the yield of follow-up
screening could be improved with a
better coverage.
The present yield of screening may have been affected by a
selection bias, since individuals with
symptoms may be more likely to report for screening. Conversely,
it is also likely that patients
detected passively belong to risk groups that are less likely to
report for screening. Not all eligible
immigrants undergo entry screening [30]. It was estimated from
routine surveillance and population
data that, in 2002, approximately 70% of the target immigrant
population was screened on entry to
the Netherlands [31]. Furthermore, 35 patients from the NTR who
were eligible for screening in the
study period, but never screened, were detected in the
participating MHSs 6–29 months after entry
and, therefore, could not be included in the present study.
These patients may represent an
-
31
immigrant population group with a different risk profile.
Therefore, when the coverage of follow-up
screening improves, the absolute number of cases detected
through screening will increase, but the
yield per 100,000 individuals screened may decrease. Therefore,
interventions to increase the
coverage should address specific subgroups with the highest risk
within the target population, such
as the younger age groups, and will need to be low cost to
maintain the effectiveness of the
screening. It may also be more effective to ensure passive case
finding among high-incidence
groups. The duration of the follow-up period could then be
limited to a maximum of one year.
Alternatively, if it were possible to reduce the pool of latent
infected individuals among immigrants,
the incidence caused by reactivation would be reduced and
follow-up screening could be abolished
for all groups.
There are some other limitations concerning the coverage of
screening and the representativeness
of the data in the present study. The low coverage of the
follow-up screening rounds was
comparable to earlier studies [6, 24, 32]. The present authors
underestimated coverage and,
therefore, incidence, since it was assumed that all immigrants
were still in the Netherlands during
the follow-up period, while some may have left. The number of
individuals who left the country
amounted to ≥15% in the 20 MHSs that registered intended length
of stay in the present study and
to 26% in the first 2 years in a pilot study at one MHS in 1996
[6]. Marriage and labor are the most
important immigration motives for migrants coming to the
Netherlands. During the period 1995–
2003, more than one third of the migrants came for marriage, 31%
for labor, 13% for study and 9%
for family unification. Other reasons for migration, for 14% of
migrants, were: being a family
member of a migrant; being an au pair; having an internship; and
medical treatment [33]. Although
the data did not cover all MHSs in the country, the present
authors believe the data are
representative for immigrants, other than asylum seekers,
screened by MHSs in the Netherlands.
The participating MHSs are distributed uniformly over the
country, giving a fairly even geographic
coverage and urban and rural distribution. In 2001 and 2002 the
data covered 55–66% of the total
immigrants screened in the Netherlands. Furthermore, trends in
coverage and yield are largely
comparable between cohorts (tables 2–4). However, the results
may not be generalizable to asylum
seekers. First, the prevalence among immigrants at entry was
lower than had been found for asylum
seekers in earlier studies [23, 34]. This can be explained by
the differences in incidence in the
countries of origin between immigrants and asylum seekers.
Secondly, asylum seekers may have
social circumstances that involve a higher risk of infection or
breakdown. This may be related to the
process of asylum seeking [35]. The present study is also not
generalizable to undocumented
immigrants, since, by definition, they are not a target group
for screening.
Conclusions and recommendations
The yield of entry screening was high. Entry screening should be
continued for all immigrant groups
that are currently screened. Follow-up screening for individuals
from countries with a low or
medium incidence and with no abnormalities on their chest
radiographs at entry has been abolished
as a result of the present study. The proportion of cases
detected through screening declined per
screening round, and the coverage and yield of follow-up
screening were low after the third round,
even in groups from high-incidence countries. This suggests that
follow-up screening may be limited
to a period of one year. Coverage of follow-up screening needs
to be increased, especially in
subgroups with the highest risk.
-
32
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