Evaluating the Career Success of Female Employees in Nigeria

7/30/2019 Evaluating the Career Success of Female Employees in Nigeria

1/58

Career Success: A Case Study of Female Employees in Nigeria

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

The status of women and how their careers have progressed in comparison with their male

counterparts especially in progressing to managerial roles in various industries has been an

interest for management practitioners and scholars over the last two decades (Davidson and

Burke, 2004; Rowley and Yukuongdi, 2009; Jogulu and Wood, 2011).

It is observed that there has been an increasing rate in the participation of professional

women in the labor market comprising over 40% of the workforce, womens share of seniormanagement positions still remains at an unacceptable low (ILO, 2004). Despite women

possessing equitable education and experience as their male counterparts and given the

growing percentage of women in middle management roles, it would be fairly expected to

find a steady increase of them moving in to top management positions; however, this is not

quite the case. Womens share of senior management positions still remains at an

unacceptable low facing a glass ceiling and significant pay gap (McGraw 2011; Lyons and

Smith 2008). In spite of the fact that both sexes appear to have opportunities of managerial

and leadership success, there seems to be an implicit boundary beyond women could not go

(Crompton, 2006; Udegbe, 1997) thus they seldom reach top level position in organizations

and they also do not appear to achieve rapid career success with regards to moving up the

hierarchy as their male counterpart (Droste, 2002).

In the Nigerian Public Sector the percentage of male employees in 2006 was 76 per cent,

while 24 per cent are female employees (CIDA Nigeria GSAA, 2006). Available statistics

from Goldstar (2005/06) reveals a high level of gender disparity at top management positions

in Nigeria. Women are appointed to lower level job positions like permanent secretaries and

administration, where they hold less than 14 per cent of the total management level position.

(Mordi, Adedoyin and Ajonbadi, 2011). In the public sector, which is the highest employer of

labor in the country, has 24% of female workforce while 76% are male, with less that 14% of

the total management level positions held by women. In the private sector the percentage of

women in the top management and directors positions as of 2005 was 13.84% and 13.87%


2/58


2

respectively, While in the following year (2006) the involvement of women as top

management and directors declined to 13.11% and 8.14% respectively.

Accordingly, researchers are of the opinion that there is a global trend reflects womens

managerial careers as less successful compared to men (Adler, 1993, 1997; Anker, 1998;

Antal and Izraeli, 1993; Arttachariya, 1997; Burke, 2006; Davidson and Burke, 2004).

Davidson and Burke (2004) and Eagly (2007) maintained that this pattern suggests that

women in management face significant challenges and barriers along their career that impede

their further progression into senior positions.

1.2 Background of the Organization

This study will investigate employees in a public organization in Nigeria. The public sector

has been the largest employer of the Nigerian labor market as such would make an

appropriate choice for this study. The case organization is a public financial institution of the

Federal Government. The chart below shows the organisational structure of the organization:

Fig 1.1:Organisational Chart

Source: Organisation Database


3/58


3

From the organisational structure above the Governor and the Board of Directors are the top

leadership and decision making positions that oversees the entire operations of the

organization. It is worth highlighting that further datas gathered from the organizations

database and archives revealed that since the establishment of the organization in 1958 the

position of the Governor has been consistently held by men till date. Furthermore, the

executive and non-executive Board of members currently has only men as members. This

indicates that male employees are more successful in terms of advancing into more senior and

decision making roles while the upward mobility or hierarchical progression of the female

employees is at an utmost minimum. Hence, it is worth exploring the experiences and

challenges of the female employees as well as examining possible factors influencing or

impeding their career success and prospects of advancing into top management and high-

ranking positions despite them (female employees) been as qualified and experienced as their

male counterparts as regard compliance to the requirements of the organization.

1.3Relevance of This Research to the OrganisationThe organization has a total staff strength of 5958, which comprises of females-1397 and

male-4561. Thus, revealing a male dominated organization. Records from the organisational

database reveal that no woman has taken up the top position of Governor and currently there

are no females in the board of directors.

The findings of this research are expected to give an insight into the individual (female and

male) perceptions of objective and subjective career success. And by so doing may provide

an insight into the question as to whether female employees in the case organization are self-

selecting in not progressing to senior roles (Governor and Board of Directors) and also help

find out what factors might be affecting female career success prospects.

1.4Academic PerspectiveThis study contributes to the debate on women careersby widening the empirical scope and

going beyond a Western cultural setting, in which majority of the existing studies is framed

(Cole, 2004; Davidson and Burke, 2004; Eagly, 2007; Lyons and Smith 2008; Rowley and

Yukuongdi, 2009; McGraw 2011; Jogulu and Wood, 2011). The differences in the social and

cultural infrastructure between the Western and developing countries make it particularly


4/58


4

important to investigate a broader view of female career development by exploring

individuals perceptions of career success with a consideration of national culture within the

Nigerian context.

1.5Research Aim and ObjectivesThis study investigates the career experiences of female employees in middle positions to

explore their perceptions career success and career success measurement using objective and

subjective career success. The study aims to examine the career experiences of female

employees in middle positions in-depth to get a rich picture of factors that influences their

careers success and examine perceived career barriers to their career progression.

The objectives to achieve the aim of the research are as follows:

To review literature on careers and career success in order to identify and gain an indepth understanding of the potential barriers that likely to impact on women career

advancement.

To explore the individual perception of the female employees in the case organizationregarding the concept of career success.

To identify perceived factors influencing the career success among female employeesin the case organization.

To identify the perceived career barriers faced by female employees in the caseorganisation.

To recommend ways by which the career advancement of female employees can beenhanced in the case organization.


5/58


5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1IntroductionThis chapter reviews relevant literature on career success with emphasis on female career

advancement. Furthermore, the influence of career choices and how career success is

measured will be elucidated from literature. The chapter continues to examine the prevalence

and influence of factors on women career progression with a focus on Nigeria. Factors to be

examined include glass ceiling phenomenon, gender stereotypes, family responsibility,

cultural values and organizational culture within the Nigerian context.

2.2CareerArthur, Khapova and Wilderom (2005); Hall (2004) in their studies, refereed to career as the

unfolding sequence of an individuals work experience over time. This definition emphasizes

on the centrality of the themes work and time and doesnt adopt any static view of work

arrangements but rather focuses on the relevance of time instead. It is regarded as one of the

widely accepted definitions of career (Baruch, 2004) and it does not constraint the

assumptions on where people work or what should determine career success. But it

accommodates a view of career success based on a persons upward mobility within an

organization, but just as a special case of extensive possibilities which can include the

horizontal and upward mobility within recognized organizational or national contexts

(Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005).

Heslin, (2005) identified two types of career namely, linear and non-linear A linear career is

one that is developed within the organization, with focus on positions, hierarchical

progression, in which an individuals advancement is subject to the needs of the organization.

A non-linear career is concerned solely with the individual, the identification of personal

values, skills and interest and in career opportunities both within and outside the work

environment or organization. This study explores the linear career of female employees

occupying middle positions in the case organization.


6/58


6

2.3Career SuccessIgbaria, Kassicieh, and Silver (1999) noted that an individuals elucidation and interpretation

of career success depends on the particular career orientation of the person. Derr (1986)

described career orientation as the way people define their success at work and that

individual perceptions of career success reflect individual values, attitudes and motivation

with respect to both work and life in a broader sense. There are two types of careersuccess

orientations: protean career (non-traditional career orientation) and conventional career

(traditional career orientation). A protean career success orientation also attributes success to

intrinsic or subjective factors and reflects the extent to which such a perspective to careers is

adopted by an individual (Briscoe and Hall, 2006). The protean career is self-directed and

values drive (Hall, 2004). A conventional or traditional career success orientation is a

concept of career success based on measurable objective factors such as hierarchical

promotions, pay, status or recognition, and its care value is advancement (Gattiker and

Larwood, 1988). This study adopts a conventional career success orientation as it lays

emphasis on the barriers/problems preventing the career progression of women in the case

organisation. However, the primary research would seek to identify the career orientation of

the female employees in middle positions by examining their perception of career success.

Judge et al., (1995) (cited in Poon, 2004, p. 375) defined career success as the accumulation

of achievements (real or perceived) arising from work experiences. Some other studies

referred to career success as the positive outcome or perceived achievement of an

individuals career experiences: accomplishing perceived or desired work-related aspirations

and outcomes (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005; Okurame and Balogun, 2005; Dolan,

Bejarano and Tzafrir, 2011). Career success outcomes is described using both objective and

subjective dimensions and it is measured along these two dimensions (Groeneveld, 2002;Hall and Chandler 2005; Heslin 2005; Ng, et al.,2005; Baruch and Quick 2007; Abele and

Spurk 2009).

This current study aims to examine female employees perception of career success and how

they measure their success (objective and subjective). The next section describes the

objective and subjective career success.


7/58


7

2.3.1 Objective Career SuccessObjective career success is mostly concerned with individuals observable, directly

measurable and verifiable (Abele and Spurk, 2009) achievements in terms of income,

position, promotion or hierarchical status, upward functional mobility or progression,

occupational status and performance (Hall 2002; Groeneveld, 2002; Dette, et al., 2004;

Heslin 2005; Ng, et al.,2005; Dries, Pepermans and Carlier 2008).

Compared to subjective career success (which is perceptual and evaluative criteria), the

objective career success is neutral and not biased in empirical assessment as its most widely

used indicators such as salary, status and promotions can be both externally assessed bymeans like work records and confirmation from employees (Dette, Abele and Renner, 2004).

These indicators reflect societal norms and understandings regarding how successful a career

is, and are objective in the sense of being socially shared (Abele, Spurk and Volmer, 2010)

instead of an individual evaluation that is central to a subjective description of career success

(Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). Objective achievements like income or hierarchical

status are proxies for performance. Many studies tend to use only income as the measure for

objective success. However, it is argued that objective criteria for success such as income and

status can be a less valid indicator for career success as they can be affected by factors that

can be deficient and beyond an individuals control. For example,as a result of substantial

differences in countries such as the power structures, economic and social stratification,

taxation systems and markers of status, the objective success experienced in some

occupations are more strongly affected (Hollenbeck and McCalls (2003). However, such

potential deficiencies in objective success measurement are commonly dealt with by

evaluating or measuring the subjective career success of individuals in conjunction with their

objective attainments (Heslin, 2005).

2.3.2 Subjective Career SuccessThe subjective or intrinsic career success is generally referred to as the personal satisfaction

one achieves in his/her career or ones job related accomplishments (Orser and Leck, 2010).

It is defined as an individuals feelings (actual and anticipated) of career-related attainment

across a broader time frame that exceeds ones immediate job satisfaction as well as a wider


8/58


8

range of outcomes (not objective), such as recognition or sense of identity (Greenhaus,

Callanan, & Godshalk, 2000; Law, Meijers, & Wijers, 2002). The subjective career success is

concerned with self-career related evaluation and internal apprehensions, across any

dimensions that are relevant to a person (Arthur, Khapova and Wilderom, 2005). Subjective

career success is typically measured using self-perception of career accomplishments and

expected career prospects (Dries et al. 2008). Individuals evaluate their career success with

regard to personal criteria such as their career aspirations and ambitions. Interpretations of

career success vary amongst individuals as well as their views on career concepts in terms

of direction and frequency of movement within an organization or any workplace. Examples

of other criterias for subjective career success are job satisfaction or career satisfaction

(Arnold & Cohen, 2008). Previous studies (Gallos, 1989; Powell and Eddleston, 2008) have

showed that men and women perceive success differently and that women tend to have

different aspirations than their male counterparts. For example Henslin (2005) found that men

evaluated their career success in terms of objective achievements such as finance and

promotions; while women tend to evaluate their career success in a more internal and

subjective way, using criterias like sense of fulfillment and interpersonal relations.

Some studies have confirmed that both objective career success and subjective career success

are interrelated (Judge, Kammeyer-Mueller and Bretz 2004; Ng et al. 2005; Tu et al. 2006).

Previous studies like Gattiker and Larwood (1988), Peluchette (1993), Nabi (2003),

Maimunah and Roziah (2006) and Hennequin (2007) stressed the relevance of examining the

subjective career success together with objective career success as a result of their

implications to the quality of working life and psychological wellbeing of employees.

Reflecting on the literature about approaches to defining career success, the subjective

perceptions, intrinsic values (an individuals attitudes about his or her career) and extrinsic

values (salary and hierarchical progression) individuals ascribe to career success will be the

focus of this study. The literature above would aid the primary research of this study by

exploring the individual perception of both subjective (intrinsic) and objective (extrinsic)

career success as suggested by Heslin (2005) in order to gain an insight on the intrinsic and

extrinsic values the female employees in middle positions within the case organisation

ascribe to career success. Potential difficulties of measuring objective career highlighted in

the literature (power structures, economic and social stratification, taxation systems and

markers of status) would be eliminated as the focus of this study is on female employees


9/58


9

within a case organisation and industry as opposed to making comparisons with a different

organisation or industry. However, the actual measurement of career success achieved is

beyond the scope of this research as this research only examines individual perceptions of

career success.

2.4Factors Influencing Career SuccessFew studies have identified and examined varieties of factors impacting individual career

success outcomes (both objective and subjective career success). They include socio-

demographic factors, human capital factors, interpersonal factors and individual differences

(Gattiker and Larwood, 1988; Judge et al., 1995; Kirchmeyer, 1998; Lortie-Lussier and

Rinfret, 2005; Thomas et. al., 2005; Yu, 2012).

Socio-demographics reflect individuals demographic and social backgrounds which include

age, race, marital status, gender and family structure. These factors are known to have some

influence on both individual objective and subjective career success. For example, Judge et

al. (1995, p.501) citied in Orser and Leck, (2010) reported that gender and marital status

predicted compensation, [. . .] executives were older, male, married, and whose spouse

worked outside the home earned higher salaries than other executives. Accordingly,

demographic variable like family structure or situation if stable does have a positive effect on

subjective career success such as work satisfaction for both male and females (Kirchmeyer,

1998; Kossek and Ozeki, 1998).However, family responsibilities is considered as potential

barriers which could impede women career progression especially in cases where there is

conflict between work and family responsibility (Mordi, HAdedoyin, Ajonbadi, 2011).

The human capital is constituted by the cumulative educational, acquired personal and

professional experience that can enhance individuals career attainments or an employees

value to an employer (Judge et al., 1995; Baruch, 2009) which in all, forms the basis for

career progression (Gattiker and Larwood, 1989; Jaskolka et al., 1985; Judge et al., 1995).

Human capital theory (Becker, 1965) is predicated on the assumption that the labour market

rewards investments that an individual makes in him or herself and such investments might

be advantageous towards increasing opportunities for success (Becker et al., 1990; Judge et

al., 1995).


10/58


10

Interpersonal factors involve supportive relationships between employees in the workplace

that facilitates performance and career success. They include mentoring, supervisor support,

personal contacts and professional network support, training and skill development

opportunities(Kirchmeyer, 1998; Baruch et al. 2005; Thomas et. al., 2005). Some previous

studies have associated these factors with both objective and subjective success. For example,

a study by Allen et al. (2004) on the career benefits of individuals made comparisons with

those who were mentored and non-mentored found out individuals who had been mentored

earned greater objective and subjective career success than those who had no mentors. The

studies further indicated that career and/or organisational-related mentoring is positively

related career success such as salary growth, career and job satisfaction, promotions and

satisfaction with the mentor.

Individual differences represent personality traits. Many studies have identified traits inspired

by previous research such as the model of career of career success proposed by Judge et al.

(1995) they include, attitudes toward work, motivation, ambition, aspiration, attitudes toward

organizational norms, and the importance placed on work compared with family (Lortie-

Lussier and Rinfret, 2005). Most research on career success factors found that these

personality traits among others like locus of control, self-monitoring, self-esteem, and

motivation for achievement have been found in previous research to have all been related to

career success and satisfaction as well as having direct or indirect effect on organizational

outcomes (Judge et al., 1995; Lyness and Thompson, 2000; Judge and Bono, 2001; Bradley

and Roberts, 2004; Olsson and Pringle, 2004).

The current study aims to explore the perceptions of female employees in regards to factors

influencing their career success in the case organization. The literature would aid the

analysis of responses in the primary research by creating core themes using the factors

mentioned in the literature above to examine the perceived career success factors of the

female employees in the case organisation. The next section examines the potential barriers

womens career progression in Nigeria.


11/58


11

2.5Barriers To Womens Career ProgressionBarriers are referred to as events, factors or phenomenon that prevents, impedes, or tends to

control access to individuals from advancing or making progress (Ismail and Ibrahim, 2007).

They can be tangible or intangible, actual or perceived by the receiving individual (Maskell-

Pretz and Hopkins, 1997). Glass Ceiling is a phenomenon mainly used in signifying and

explaining invisible impenetrable barriers preventing the upward or vertical movement of

individuals in the society or organisation. The glass ceiling helps to explaining the reasons

for the lack of or poor representation in leadership, top management and decision-making

status and it is mainly used describing the difficulties women experience in both reaching

these positions (Abidin et.al, 2008). Characteristics of organizations with glass ceiling as

identified by Fagenson-eland and Parker (1998) as follows: non-supportive working for

female employees, draw attention to gender differences, low female participation in group or

team activities as a result of gender differences, little or no career advancement support for

female employee to prepare them for decision making positions or management positions.

The purpose of the next few sections is to provide an in-depth understanding of the barriers

and challenges that have hindered women from progressing into more senior roles in their

careers.

2.5.1 Gender StereotypesStereotypes are cognitive schema and clusters of perceived personality traits applied to social

groupings (DeLamater and Myers, 2007). Stereotypes is the notion that certain members of a

group will possess the traits and behavioral characteristics that are attributes and expected of

individual members of that group (Cleveland et al., 2000; Bono and Duehr, 2006). Gender is

strongly linked to the concern of stereotyping and refers to the socially constituted inter-

relationships between both sexes. Gender stereotypes reflect shared social beliefs, values and

norms that dictate the characteristics and behaviors (roles) which are ascribed to individuals

(men and women) based on their gender or sex (Eagly and Carli, 2003). Danziger and Eden

(2007) argued that the gender differences between male and females does have a significant

influential impact on the eventual career accomplishment, despite both sexes possessing thesame academic and education level. Accordingly, studies have reported that in comparison to


12/58


12

men, women have reported not being given equal challenging management opportunities and

choices (de Pater et al., 2009) and as such most qualified women tend to opt out of

development opportunities as they perceive limited opportunities for progression and career

success (Brady and McLean, 2002).

Research in social psychology (Desert & Leyens, 2006; Smith & Bond, 1999; Williams &

Best, 1986) has shown that stereotypical beliefs are widely shared and present in all cultures

that have been studied. The cultural background of individuals often determines their

experiences at early socialisation and later influences their attitudes and behaviors, which is

also reflected in their occupational roles (Fagenson, 1986; Harragan, 1977; Horner, 1972;

Riger and Galligan, 1980; Schein, 1973, 1975). Through this process of socialization, male

and female gender acquire their prescribed role-relate skills and engage in activities that are

likely to be required of them so as to be afforded opportunities and to achieve positive

outcomes as deemed necessary (Eagly, Wood and Diekman, 2000b; Ismail and Ibrahim,

2007).

2.5.2 Occupational Gender StereotypeResearch studies have confirmed the prevalence of gender stereotypical views and gender

prejudice which are in favor of the male gender in the higher echelons of organisational

power and are capable of exerting significant influence on the career progression of females

in the work place (Schein 1973; 1975). For example, Mordi, Adedoyin and Ajonbadi (2011)

in their study of Nigerian women working in a number of industries found that management

roles were gender stereotyped thereby influencing attitudes toward the appropriateness of

females in management and leadership roles. As a result of the gender prejudice faced in the

workplace (especially male dominated societies and organizations) womens aspiration

appeared to be constrained by a need to restrict their career hopes to gender/sex-appropriate

activities and by the strength of occupational segregation. Women were found to express

greater interest in jobs that were thought suitable and in line with social perception of roles

attributed to female gender group. Further, the study revealed that women expressed more

interest in jobs that had high proportion of women who have been successful.


13/58


13

The findings from the literature on gender role stereotyping and the challenges it poses to the

career progression opportunities of women especially female employees in a male dominated

work environment would be further researched upon in the primary research by exploring the

pervasiveness of gender role stereotyping in the case organization. This study aims to

examine the perceptions of women in middle management positions, who might aspire to

attain senior leadership and management positions.

2.6Culture And Careers: Nigerian PerspectiveThe Nigerian society is predominantly male-dominated as such inherently places males in

positions of power and authority across the country. This is also being reflected in

organisational authority and status often held by men rather than women. A fundamental

characteristic of the Nigerian traditional ethos is patriarchy (Aina, 1998; Nwagbara, 2009).

The societal landscape of the nation is primarily structured on the axis of social stratification

couched in male supremacy; this culture specific tradition is often tolerated and seen as

acceptable. It is common in Nigeria to impose different expectations of the role of men and

women based on the higher social status been ascribed to men. Consequently, there is

preponderance of male employees, managers and leaders in most organizations operating in

Nigeria (Otite, 2005). The widespread assumption that the primary responsibility of a woman

is to be committed to the home and family whereas the primary responsibility of the man is to

be the provider of the family is widely accepted in the Nigerian society as a result of the

country patriarchal systems of socialization and cultural practices. Accordingly, researchers

were of the view that the gender roles of men and women had negative impact on the career

of Nigerian women in the workplace as their access to leadership is been consrtrained

(Olojede, 2004; Olowe, 2001; Author, 1996).

Organizations exist within cultural contexts and as such their organisational structures,

employee behavior and management are most likely to be influenced by the national culture

of the country or environment where their operations are carried out (Neelankavil et al.,

2000). Key factors in Nigeria that are likely to shape an individuals career decision and

career mobility within the organisation include specific economic conditions and social-

cultural factors.


14/58


14

In terms of the social-cultural context, Nigeria is a country with a rich cultural heritage that

attaches significance to the extended family system and personal ties where close and distant

relatives form a social network of relationships that serves as a social insurance and is

commonly built on ethnic lines. In the society, there is an emphasis on sharing, independence

and reciprocal obligation. The Nigeria society is deeply organized along ethnic lines and as

such individuals are generally committed to maintain the sovereignty of their ethnic

affiliation in the work environment. Most employers tend to be more favorably disposed

towards individuals who are of similar ethnic background or relatives in some cases. An

empirical study by Ituma and Simpson (2009) on the career boundaries of ICT employees in

Nigeria, found that individual employment prospects and career advancement are largely

dependent on ethnic identity and state of origin. Individuals in the workplace who had ethnic

affiliations were given preferential treatment in promotions and privileges than their other

colleagues, by so doing limiting the career advancement of qualified professional and

exploring different career opportunities.

This study will follow up the literature in the primary research by the examining the

perceived career barriers of female employees in the case organisation in order to find out if

their career progression prospects are limited as a result of national cultural values.

2.6.1 Organisational Culture In NigeriaThe concept of organizational culture is significant to understanding the barriers faced by

career women. An explanation for the glass ceiling concept is considered to be organisational

culture and leadership positions being heavily occupied by men (Cullen and Christopher,

2012). Harvey and Brown (1996) cited in Ismail and Ibrahim, (2007, p.5) defined

organisational culture as a system of shared meanings, values, beliefs, practices, gro up

norms of the members to produce behavioural norms with regard to the working conditions of

the organization.

In patriarchal societies like Nigeria, top management activity and senior roles has been seen

as the prerogative of men (Hannagan, 2005). There are structures regulating the roles of

women and a number of these structures tend to aid the collective programming the societal


15/58


15

mind and socio-cultural practices, making the underrepresentation of women in senior

management roles acceptable (Tai et al, 2005). In this sense women in employment would be

left to contend with the fact that their malecounterparts portray and see themselves as the best fit

or rightful occupants of leadership or decision making positions coupled with the fact that the society

or environment tend to support this.

Okafor, Fagbemi and Hassan (2011) in their study of female employees in male dominated

occupations such as manufacturing found that women had experienced irregularities in terms

of promotions and in some cases some experienced blocked promotions in comparison to

their male counterparts. The study further revealed that women in the workplace were being

excluded from networks and especially women employed in male dominated occupations,

whom were often considered as aliens. These attitudes pose as a challenge to the career

advancement of Nigerian women, and were found in this study to be attributed to influencing

factors such as ethnicity, religion, family background and social status.

Other empirical research revealed the occurrence of discriminatory management practices

and policies in most organizations in Nigeria that were regarded by respondents as

detrimental to female employees. For example, access to organizationally sponsored

educational, training and developmental opportunities was found to be often unequal between

male and female employees as management often recommended men as the first choice for

relevant training and other professional development programmes before a thought of female

employees irrespective of the female holding the same position or experience as their male

counterparts (Okafor, Fagbemi and Hassan; 2011; Mordi, Adedoyin and Ajonbadi, 2011;

Bevan and Thompson, 1992; Wernick, 1994; Hall, 1995; Burton and Ryall, 1995).

Reflecting on the aforementioned the primary research would contribute to the literature byexamining the experiences and challenges faced by the female employees in the case

organization to ascertain if they still faced discrimination as a result of organisational culture

and practices preventing them from progressing into more senior roles in comparison with

their male counterparts.


16/58


16

2.6.2 Family Responsibilities In NigeriaResearchers (Lirio et al., 2007; Burke and Vinnicombe, 2005; Greenhaus and Parasuraman,

1999; Parasuraman and Greenhaus, 1994; Powell and Mainiero, 1992) have considered

family responsibilities in the context of women career progression especially in relation to

their marital status and child care (Powell and Maineri, 1992; Anker, 1997; Powell and

Butterfield, 2003; Davidson and Burke, 2004). Some studies have indicated that joggling

career and family can have a detrimental or negative effect on womens career advancement.

Studies carried out in the West have shown that female managers have had to make difficult

and in some cases compromising choices, such as not being married or giving up child

bearing in comparison to their male colleagues, who in most cases are had families (Powell

and Graves, 2003; Greenhaus and Parasuraman, 1999). However, some studies (such as Lirio

et al., 2007; Aycan, 2004; Cooke, 2006; Bank and Vinnicombe, 1995) indicated that in other

cultures outside the Western sphere, which lays significant importance of the family network,

motherhood does not act as a barrier to womens careers.

Women within the Nigerian society are beginning to reach the pinnacles of their careers

(Madichie 2009), but this is coming at the detriment of their families and health. The ability

to joggle the roles of mothers, wives, homemakers and their various roles at work is rather

challenging. The ability of female employees to maintain/balance their work and family

responsibilities does have an impact on their career progression as they sometimes struggle to

meet their various commttments, which at some instance get them frustrated and they feel

trapped as a result of role conflict (Hassan,2007; Fayemi, 2005; Author, 1996). Although the

same effect of having to balance the responsibilities of work and family is recognized to be

affecting both men and women; however, it more likely to be problematic for women as they

have the primary responsibility child bearing and other house domestic responsibility

(Parasuraman et al. 1997; Collins 1993; Reed and Kratchman 1990; Gaetner et al.1987).

The role conflict theory suggests that there are limited amount of time and energy an

individual possesses and any additional roles creates tension between competing demands

resulting in role conflict or a sense of overload (Fu and Shaffer, 2001). Okafor and Amayo

(2006) in their study work-family conflict in Nigeria stressed that that the conflict between

work and family responsibilities was a source of concern for both organisations and


17/58


17

individuals. The multiple roles performed by individuals both men and women especially

those who are parents in the Nigerian society today can become overwhelming and result in

work-family conflict.

Women in Nigeria are in most occasions confronted with the challenge of having to manage

their responsibilities at work and that of their family at home. Accordingly, most women tend

to be distracted at some point with the burden of balancing both responsibilities thereby

hindering progress along their career paths (Chovwen, 2006; Okafor1, Fagbemi and Hassan,

2011).

This research would follow up on the findings from the literature onwork-family conflict by

exploring the subjective view of women in the case organization in regards to the influence

on family responsibility on their career progression prospects and overall career success.

2.7SummaryCareers unfold over time and career success is measured using either subjective (intrinsic) or

objective (extrinsic) career components. Although, each of the components are

interdependent, previous research studies confirms that the duality of both career success

measures (subjective and objective) make each relevant to the other and influence each other

over time. Thus, most career researchers have argued the importance of considering and

assessing both perspectives of career as the depth of the career success construct can be better

seen from looking through both lenses at the same time.

The criteria mainly used by research studies for objective career success includes income,

promotions and occupational status. While the most common criteria of subjective success is

ones interpretation or assessment of career achievement and experience, for instance, career

or job satisfaction and comparative judgments (Arnold & Cohen, 2008). As suggested by

career researchers (e.g., Arthur,Khapova, & Wilderom, 2005; Heslin, 2005). This study takes

an objective approach by examining the career progression of female employees and a

subjective approach by exploring the individual perception of careers success and career

experiences.

It was also found that individuals had different perception of the conception of career and

career success. Further finding also supported the idea of gendered careers. Female


18/58


18

employees were more motivated by subjective (intrinsic) aspects of the job while their male

counterparts were motive by the extrinsic (objective) aspects of the job (Groeneveld, 2009).

The literature further identified factors that influence an individualscareer success outcomes

(both objective and subjective career success) based on orgainsational and individual

determinants. The literature identified factors that have been widely accepted as determinants

for career success; they include socio-demographic factors, human capital factors,

interpersonal factors and individuality.

The literature indicated that women in some societies and industries still face a variety of

challenges that may well impede them in their desire to progress into more senior and

decision making roles. The phenomenon referred to as glass ceiling is mainly used to

describe the difficulties and challenges women experience preventing both reaching

executive position in any organization and climbing to higher societal positions. These

challenges can be work-family responsibility, stereotypes, societal norms and values,

organisational structure and practices. The next chapter focuses on the research methodology,

explaining how the study intends to systematically gather the data needed to achieve the

research objectives.


19/58


19

CHAPTER 3:METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The chapter will give a detailed description the research methodology utilised to achieve the

research objectives and highlights the theoretical justification for it. It includes a description

of the strategy necessary to conduct the kind of research that will meet the objectives of this

study such as sampling, data collection and approaches to analysing the collected data. The

semi-structured interview research method is used in collecting the primary data for this

research study.

3.2 Qualitative Method

The qualitative research method is subjective and non-numeric in nature. It focus on

exploring as much detail as possible and rather concerned with gathering and analysing

primary datas in as many forms without the use of numbers. Unlike the quantitative method,

the qualitative approach includes methods of collecting datas which are more or less

concerned about describing meaning, rather than drawing statistical inferences (Izedonmi,

2005). The use of semi structured interviews is the common qualitative method practiced in

organisational research studies (Lee, 1999) and case studies fall into this category and they

provide a more in-depth rather that breadth and richer description of the investigation.

3.2.1 Justification of Method

This research study is mainly non-numeric in nature but rather explorative and has to do

mainly with getting a clear and precise statement of the individual perception of the

recognized problem; as such a qualitative research method was very appropriate. Also, the

need to gather primary data rather than revisiting or re-evaluating existing research made the

qualitative methodology very appropriate for an exploratory study of this kind, and to

develop an understanding of an under-researched subject matter (career success in the

Nigerian context) rather than hypothesis testing or making direct comparisons with

quantitative cohort studies conducted in Western countries and other regions.


20/58


20

The semi-structured interviews was adopted for collecting the primary data for this research

as it enables the researcher gather unquantifiable in-depth knowledge and information (Dany

and Torch 1994; p 321) on this research area. Using the semi-structured interview as the most

appropriate method of investigation for this research allows for more detailed and rich data

on the career perception and career experiences of female employees to be gathered through

responses, probing and clarification of meaning where required during the interviews

(Merriam, 1998). The qualitative research has been adopted by similar studies on careers

management and barriers (e.g McElwee & Al-Riyami, 2003; Schinnar, 2007; Tlaiss and

Kauser 2011; Simpson et al, 2010).

3.2.2 Advantages Of Semi Structured Interviews

I. The semi structured interview is a purposeful conversation (Saunders 2009) and assuch fits perfectly with this research study as the participants were purposively

sampled for this research in order to get first hand data on individual perception of

career success. The participants have the opportunity of responding freely to the

questions (Saunders 2009).

II. The interview with the respondents gives me (the researcher) the opportunity to beflexible in the order of questions and time spent on each question whilst carrying out

the interview. The researcher would be able to go into much detail and lay more

emphasis on specific areas that the respondent is more comfortable with and willing

to share as the interview progresses. Also if the respondent possesses relevant

information to share as a result of her position (HR manager or a female board

member etc) or experience in the work environment, the researcher has theopportunity to emphasize on some particular questions and where necessary formulate

additional relevant questions during the course of the interview and by so doing the

researcher/interviewer gain control of the conversation and is also able to pick up

non-verbal messages such as behaviour, attitude.

III. The interview allows for individual expression of ideas and leads to the discovery ofin-depth and detailed narratives of participants individual career experiences

(Fassinger, 2001: 279), which are unobtainable using other types of research


21/58


21

(Featherston, 2008). By so doing, the researcher is able to have a glimpse into the

world of the participants which includes their personal feelings and stories.

IV. If required the researcher would be able to provide clarity on the research area, aimsand objectives, and rectify any form misunderstanding that arises either prior to

commencing the interview or as the interview progresses.

V. This research aims at gaining a novel understanding and perceptions of career successof women in the Nigerian context where little research has been carried out; thus a

qualitative research method would be best suited as the method allows for the

emergence of in-depth responses (Merrigan & Huston, 2009), and is commonly

known to be used in situations where there has not been a lot of prior research and the

where key issues and concepts may not be very well understood using other methods

like the questionnaire.

3.2.3 Possible/Anticipated Disadvantages of Semi-Structured Interviews to

This Research and Ways the Researcher Intends to Overcome Them

I. During interviews the interviewer might sometimes unwittingly give out cues orsignals. This was averted in this research by carrying out pilot interviews, and being

very conscious of my expressions (facial, eyes and body) while having conversations

with respondents.

II. Semi-structured interviews could be expensive, especially in research cases like thiswhere the research requires going out of any present geographical location to a

different continent or country. This was averted by carrying out the interview during

my visit to Nigeria while on a short visit. Also in cases where a face-to-face interview

was not possible as a result of the participant been unavailable, a telephone interview

was used instead.

III.

Respondents might be unwilling to share extensive details of their career experiencessuch as female discrimination at their work as a result of either confidentiality issues


22/58


22

or the suitability of the place of interview (office or work environment). Such

problems would be minimised by guaranteeing their personal and employer

confidentiality in the consent form and allow for option of holding the interview at a

different or public location that the respondent is comfortable with.

IV. The process of carrying out a semi-structured interview is time consuming. It requireslots of early planning such as trying to make contacts and keeping appointments with

respondents and working within their tight schedules. In order to manage time

effectively I (the researcher) made contact with friends and former colleagues who are

employees of the company of interest as it would reduce the amount of time spent on

trying to get an appointment. Also I (researcher) was professional and precise as

possible during the interview so as to cover all the interview questions.

V. The relatively small sample of participants in the interviews makes it a lessrepresentative of the perceptions of female employees in Nigeria and thus less

generalizable (Merrigan & Huston, 2009).

3.3Access To The OrganisationInformal consent was obtained from former colleagues and few contacts working in different

roles and levels in the organization that this research is focused on. I also follow up on new

leads before sending formal letter headed and obtaining signed formal informed consent on

commencing my dissertation.

3.4SamplingThe interviews were carried out with ten (10) female employees holding varying positions in

the organisation. The participants were drawn using both purposive sampling technique and

snowballing process. Purposive is a non probability sampling technique where the sample is

selected based on personal judgement about appropriate characteristics of the sample

members (Zikmund et al., 2011). Purposive technique was adopted because the study

targeted strictly at female employees in middle management positions who are aspiring to


23/58


23

progress into more senior roles within the case organisation. The purposive sampling

technique is advantageous to this study as it is useful for carrying out informative studies and

it is also cost and time effective for the researcher since the participants and study

organizations will be chosen specifically to suit this research as opposed to randomly.

The snowballing process yields a study sample through referrals made among people who

share or know others who possess the characteristic that are of research interest (Biernacki

& Waldofl, 1981, p.141). This study adopted the snowballing process because it is acceptable

for exploratory studies of this genre (Green et al., 1995), and was particularly useful for

accessing hard to participants (Cornelius & Skinner, 2008; Myers & Pringle, 2005) who were

in middle positions by asking identified participants to recommend other female colleagues

were in middle positions within the organization to participate in the study.

The only cause for concern in using the purposive sampling technique is that the small

sample size might not be a true representation of perceptions of female in regards to career

success in other organizations as such; the results cannot be generalized for the country

Nigeria.

3.5Interview QuestionsThe semi-structured interview questions were drawn from the research objectives. Probing

and open-ended questions were used in developing the questions. Probing questions was used

to gain access to the non-verbal messages in an exploratory and encouraging manner

(signaling participants the expected level of depth). The questions was used to clarify and

enquire further about key issues and particular areas of interest in-depth such as

understanding the root of a respondents beliefs and thoughts around careers and careerprogression of female employees in the Nigerian cultural context.

The open-ended questions along with prompts were used to allow participants to use their

own language to articulate their experiences, expand discussion and to further elicit their

opinions (Cresswell, 2003). The questions were designed to establish career profiles, obtain

information on their career experiences (which include career development aspiration, career

choices and career success) in the case organisation. Participants were also encouraged to


24/58


24

report critical incidents' (Flanagan, 1954) which have influenced their career success and

career advancement in the organization.

The first stage of the questions gauged the participants career experience and perception of

career success and factors influencing their career success, which was designed to achieve

research objective two and three. The questions were in-depth focusing on exploring the

interviewees criteria for objective and subjective career success to gain an insight into how

they evaluated the two perspectives of career success. Also, the participants perception of

factors influencing their career success was explored.

The second stage examined the participants perception on career barriers and challenges

highlighted from the review of the literature (such as gender stereotyping, organisational

culture, family related issues) that may have influence on their career development and

success in the organisation; the questions also explored the perception of participants on any

other inhibiting factors they thought had a negative impact on their career progression

prospects into senior managerial leadership roles. These were designed to answer research

question four.

Prior to the carrying out the actual interviews, the researcher carried out mock interviews

with course mates, flat mates and colleagues at work. This was done to ensure that suitablequestions are asked and potential errors and problems with the interviews such as sending

wrong body signals, time spent on each question, clarity of speech etc; are highlighted prior

to commencing the actual interview.

3.6Conducting the InterviewsThe majority of interviews were conducted in person, two interviews were conducted via

video conferencing and one interview was conducted over-the-phone. The interviews were

conducted via the medium most convenient for the participants. Interviewees were allowed to

make their choices on locations that were comfortable and well suited for the interview. Thus,

most interviews were conducted in the participants offices, staff canteens and cafes. In order

to insure anonymity, participants were assigned pseudonyms and the interviews session

ranged from 45minutes to an hour. The duration of the interview provided sufficient time for

drawing accurate assessment of participants perceptions; giving more time could result in


25/58


25

participant exhaustion and lesser time would have proven to be insufficient (Lindlof &

Taylor, 2002).

Before commencing the interview sessions the purpose and objectives of the study was

explained to the participants and the establishment of confidentiality was carried out. This

ensured the anonymity of the participants and awareness of their rights.

The interviews were tape-recorded with the consent of the interviewee using a pre-

determined but flexible interview protocol and notes were also taken. The tape-recording

allowed for more accuracy of responses for the interviews and provided a holistic view for

the entire process. The interviews were steered by an interview guide that was developed to

firstly to obtain the demographic profiles of participants and afterwards obtaining detailed

informations geared towards gaining in-depth understanding of the interviewees perceptions

of career success, career experiences and challenges. After the completion of each interview,

the main themes, issues or question that emerged were summarised using a contact form. The

interviews carried out were of an informal nature which immediately put participants at ease

and allowed for trust to be established.

3.7Data AnalysisData was analyzed using multi-step content analysis methodology. This analysis method was

very useful in identifying patterns of thoughts, recurring themes, and persistent ideas. The

content analysis approach was very useful and effective as it made the identification of the

most commonly reported experiences and perceptions possible (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002).

The interviews were transcribed verbatim, analysed and coded and major themes were

identified. Coding is the process of segmenting data gathered from respondents with symbols,

descriptive words or category names. During the interview precaution was taken not to

impose coding categories a priori, rather categories were allowed to emerge from the data

through my analysis of quotes from participants and observing their emotions so as not to

miss any relevant theme.

The first stage involved the verbatim transcription of data from interview. The interview

transcripts were coded and indexed using a coding dictionary developed using the interview


26/58


26

schedule/questions as a framework to organise and segment the interview data. Secondly,

codes that had or shared similar features were identified and amalgamated where appropriate

to form categories. Examples of categories developed include: ethnicity, socio-demographics,

educational qualification, networking, sexual prejudice, experience, and mentor. Thirdly, the

categories were further refined with the aim of integrating and developing core categories by

investigating for interconnections between them. In this process a selective coding was

performed such that codes with similar features were collapsed /combined together and

subsequently, new categories were created when two or more similar codes did not fit with an

existing category. Through the third process of selective coding on the existing the categories

dominant categories emerged which were then treated as core categories around which other

categories were draped. For instance, the following categories educational qualification and

experience were linked together to form a core category referred to as human capital, while

perceived sexual prejudice was categorized under gender discrimination. During the

concluding aspect of the coding process, a constant comparison method was carried out

where I compared each interview to the other interviews, this allowed me to decide how they

could be categorized (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002).Thus allowing the emergence of themes from

data until there were no new emerging codes. Discrepancies in the interpretation of the

meanings of the statements were discussed and resolved by third-party mediation involving

another researching student and dissertation supervisor.

3.8Ethical IssuesThis research study was undertaken with proper consideration given to ethical issues.

Participants received a covering letter inviting them for the interview and confidentiality

statement that protected individual responses. Each interview commenced with an

introduction of the purpose and objectives of the research and establishing issues of

confidentiality. For ethical reasons the name of the case organization was withheld thus it is

referred to as Public sector institution.

The following principles were followed in this study in order to ensure the compliance of

ethical issues:

I. All information gathered during the interviews were confidentialII.

Ensured that the interview data were collected with the informed consent ofrespondents.


27/58


27

III. Privacy of respondents and the organisation were not invaded and anonymity adheredto.

IV. Maintained objectivity when analysing data and avoid/do not interpret data collectedfrom respondents.

V. There was no form of deception of any sort both prior and during the interviews andwhen carrying out analysis.

VI. No harm, pressure or influence on respondents during the interviews. The respondentshad the right to quit the process or not to answer any question during the interviews.

3.9 Reliability

Reliability deals with stability, it is the degree to which a measure is stable (Bryman and

Bell, 2003). That is, if the same results will be produced where the instrument is applied

to the same individual on more than one different occasion (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008).

Thus, the reliability of a research has to do with the precision, accuracy and acceptability

of the results achieved in the research study (Cohen et al. 2007). In ensuring the reliability

of this study, the researcher carried out the following:

I. Applying research methods that were used previously by similar researcher studyII. Carrying out pilot interviews prior to the actual interview

III. Making use of multiple sources of gathering informations such as available closelyrelated research papers, organisational websites and data base.

IV. Asking questions using different formats so as to check for any changes andirregularities in the responses given.

V. Providing detailed and accurate description of research methods and steps taken whilecollecting data and carrying out analysis.

3.10ValidityValidity refers to the extent to which the research study achieved the objectives it set out

to achieve at the start of the study (Greveter & Forzano, 2011). Put differently it has to

the credibility of the research work based on sufficient facts and findings (Bryman and

Bell, 2003). In overall, the validity of the research reflects the quality of the study


28/58


28

(Zikmund et al., 2011). In order to ensure the validity of this study the researcher carried

out the following:

I. The sample of questions was presented to the dissertation supervisor for correctnesswhere appropriate.

II. Making comprehensive notes and register of data about relevant events that haveimpact on the gathering of data and interpretation.

III. Ensured consistency in research outcomes and interpretations by analysing gathereddata in association with an academic peer.

IV. Preparing and sending copies of interview transcription and summary to three of theparticipants who confirmed the accuracy of the transcribed and interpreted data. Thus,

ensuring that the data gathered from this study could be considered to be reliable and

valid.

3.11GeneralisabilityThe generalisability of the research has to do with the transferability of its contents

including the achieved results and also the extent to which the study isand can be

applicable to similar settings (Denscombe, 2002; Saunders et al., 2007).

The sample size in this study was strictly restricted to a small sample size of female

employees in middle positions in one organisation, which means to some extent their

views could be a representative of other women working in the same organisation.

However, this might not give a broader perception of other female employees in different

organisations operating in the same industry or female employees in general working in

various industries in Nigeria.


29/58


29

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1IntroductionThis chapter sets out to explain the result of the primary research of this study in detail. The

chapter presents an analysis of the data collected with the aim of collected from field research

with the aim of achieving the research objectives two, three and four which were:

To explore the individual perception of the female employees in the case organizationregarding the concept of career success.

To identify perceived factors influencing the career success among female employeesin the case organization.

To identify the perceived career barriers faced by female employees in the caseorganisation.

It summarises the prominent themes revealed in the interviews conducted with the 10 female

employees in middle level positions in the case study organisation. Each theme presented is

supported by justification that includes quotations and excerpts from the semi-structured

interviews. The purpose of this chapter is to provide insight on the perceptions of mid-level

female employees based on their experiences with regards to career success and barriers

preventing their career progression. Also, factors which influence the career success of

female employees in the case organisation are explored in this chapter. Appendix A provides

the interview protocols used for the female employees that participated in the interviews.

4.2Demographic ProfilesTable 1 outlines the demographic profiles of the sample. A problem with obtaining

respondents actual ages was due to their scepticism in providing this data; however, they

were willing to provide their age range.The study participants range in age from 25 to 45

years and nine of them were married with children. All the female respondents were in

middle positions and they all had undergraduate Bachelors honours degree with four having


30/58


30

postgraduate education. Their experience in the chosen organisation ranged from nine years

to fifteen years.

Table 4.1: Demographic Profiles of Sampled Participants

Respondent

No.

Job Position Age

Range

Years with

Organisation Marital Status

Highest

Level of

Education

1 HR officer 25-34 10 Single Bachelors

2

Market

Research lead 25-34 9 Married Postgraduate

3

Senior

analyst 35-45 15 Married Bachelors

4 HR team lead 35-45 13 Married Bachelors

5

Financial

controller 25-34 9 Married Postgraduate

6

HR

officer 35-45 9 Married Bachelors

7

Senior

Information and

technology

officer

35-45 12 Married Bachelors

8

Senior

document

controller

25-34 12 Married Postgraduate

9 Senior recruiter 35-45 14 Married Postgraduate

10

Corporate

affairs officer 35-45 11 Married Bachelors


31/58


31

4.3Defining Career SuccessThis section addresses the first research question which intends to explore the participants

perception of career success and career success measurement in order to get a detailed

understanding of their career success orientation. The in-depth interview was analysed

specifically to look for evidence of objective and subjective variable of career success and

determine if they perceived career success more related to objective variables or subjective

variables.

The participants were asked an open question to give their definition of career success and

how career success is and can be measured while making reference to their career. Prompt

questions highlighting variables of objective and subjective career success were asked togather more in-depth response. They were also asked to mention the most important

achievement in their career and highlight on what variable(s) that is/are more significant in

achieving career success.

The findings from the responses given by the participants reveal a more subjective

perspective rather that the objective career success. The opinions gathered from participants

in this sense revealed more of intrinsic and non quantifiable measures of success. Seven out

of ten of the participants defined career success based on subjective success. They believed

that professional (job and career) satisfaction and personal satisfaction is success.Out of the

seven participants three ascribed professional satisfaction (e.g. passion for their job and

career) to achieving success While, four out of the seven participants perceived themselves as

successful when they are able to achieve a balance of professional and family issues. The

following quotes show the subjective definitions of career success include:

been able to support my family throughmy career gives me a great deal of satisfaction

and for that alone I feel successful(interviewee No. 9),

I consider my current career status as successful because I am passionate about everything

I do at my job (interviewee No. 4).

being able to establish a balance in my job and family is most important for me in

achieving success in my career (interview No. 3).


32/58


32

achieving my career goals and ambitions is career success (interviewee No.1).

I consider my career as being successful so far because I am able to fulfill my role as a

wife and mother and a career woman (interviewee No.10).

one of the indicators of my accomplishments in my career is having a very stable family

despite the high demands of my work (intervieweeNo. 6).

I think success is based on individual preferences, for me having formed a highly

qualified professional team is a huge achievement in my career (interviewee No.4).

Out of the interviewees, four described career success based on objective measureable

variables which includes promotions and salary; they were of the opinion that promotions

were an indication of achieving career success. According to interviewee No. 5 ....I evaluate

my career success based on my career ambitions which includes getting promoted into more

senior positions. Similar view indicating objective and measurable variables of success was

also gathered from one of the interviewees. She explained careers success based on achieving

a number of promotions along with increase in earnings: .....in the civil service progression

to a senior rank comes with increased salary and respect which clearly indicates that the

employee is achieving success on the job, in that sense yes I can say I have been successful

thus far in my career having achieved a number promotions before getting to my current

position (interviewee No. 2).

The perceptions of career success from the participants was more subjective which achieving

job and personal satisfaction was more important that financial rewards or promotions. Hence

the result could did not completely reflect any inter-relation between subjective and objective

career success as proposed by previous studies highlighted in the literature review they

include, Judge, Kammeyer-Mueller and Bretz (2004); Ng et al., (2005); Tu et al., (2006).

Overall, the results are consistent with other studies highlighted in the literature such as the

study of Heslin (2005), in which he proposes that womens career success is presented more

from the subjective (intrinsic) point of view rather than the objective one. The results also

confirms the findings of Simpson et al. (2004), which found women to value more intrinsic

success outcomes such as job satisfaction and interpersonal achievement.


33/58


33

4.4Factors Influencing Career SuccessThe study participants were asked to identify factors that have influenced their career

achievements since commencing their career in the organization. This study will examine

responses using the categories of factors adopted in the literature (Gattiker and Larwood,

1988; Judge et al., 1995; Kirchmeyer, 1998; Lortie-Lussier and Rinfret, 2005; Thomas et. al.,

2005; Yu, 2012) that influence individual career success. The responses gathered from the

interviews revealed that factors perceived to influence the career success of the female

employees in the case organsation were human capital factors (ten participants) and

individual differences (eight participants).

4.4.1 Human CapitalTwo key findings directly related to human capital were: work experience (eight participants)

and educational level (five participants).

Work experience:Eight of the participants shared the view that work experience influences

their career advancement and success. They conceptualized full-time work experience in

terms of kind of projects worked on and organizational tenure where the number of years of

spent in the organization does determine their hierarchical movement up the corporate ladder

as a result of the bureaucratic process of promotions to higher rankings within the

organisational structure.

The opinion gathered among the participants which highlight the impact of their work

experiences in their careers include:

my work experience has enhanced my career advancement and success since working in

this organization (interviewee No. 8), as a result of my experience working on

significant developmental projects for most of my ten years duration spent in thisorganization, I have had a lot of career achievements and progression opportunities

(interviewee No.5),

possessing significant management and leadership skills and experience has had a huge

impact in my career achievements (interviewee, No.3),

...experience gained through my tenure in this organization has contributed to my

professional success (interviewee No. 2),


34/58


34

mywide scope of expertise and experience within information technology meant I could

take up roles in strategic levels and this aided my recent promotion to the position of a senior

IT officer (interviewee No.7).

The findings of this study indicate that work experience enhances career advancement and

success and opportunities confirm results from previous research studies (e.g. Cawsey et al.,

1985; Hambrick & Mason, 1984; Vardi, 1991; Ituma and Simpson, 2009).

Educational Level:The positive role of education for career advancement and progression is

widely acknowledged (e.g. Baruch, 2003; Tharenou, 2001). As shown in the literature,

previous research studies into the career paths of women in management carried out in

countries like Australia (Tharenou and Conroy, 1994); USA (Wentling and Thomas, 2007);

United Kingdom (Vinnicombe and Singh, 2003) and Nigeria (Ituma and Simpson, 2009)

highlights the significant impact of level of education on career success. This current study

also indicated similar results.

The interviews revealed that the level of education attained by the interview participants

appeared to be a major asset towards increasing women upward mobility within the hierarchy

of organizations. Five of the participants were of the view that educational level influences

career advancement and success. According to Interviewee No. 10 (Corporate affairs officer)

...I started my career at one hierarchical level above my colleagues because I had a masters

degree, hence ideally my upward movement within the corporate ladder is meant to be a

faster pace compared to someone entering into the organization with just a bachelors

degree. A similar view was given by interviewee No. 6 .having a bachelors honors

degree gave me an edge over other candidates with a HND certificate during recruitment. I

also get to start at a higher hierarchical level as well as receive a higher paycheck.

Interviewee No. 5 pointed out that having a postgraduate degree did increase my chances

of selection during recruitment over other candidates with only undergraduate qualifications.

Similar view was also given by interviewee No.9, obtaining a doctoral degree has been

very significant in my career development and in achieving promotions.

The data gathered also indicate that possessing a relevant educational background, one of the

participants mentioned that having a relevant degree was influential in increasing ones career


35/58


35

progression with the organization. She mentioned that having a business and finance

related degree has been of immerse value to my career achievement and promotion to my

current role as a senior analyst (interviewee No.3, senior analyst).

Overall, the data gathered from the interviews confirms the findings of previous research

(Judge et al., 1995; Swinyard et al., 1980) that the possession of high level of education does

influence women career success and is seen as appropriate enabler for achieving hierarchical

progression and promotion and increase in salary and competitive advantage in the workforce

(Tharenou, 1996; Lortie-Lussier and Rinfret, 2005; Ituma and Simpson, 2009).

4.4.2 Individual Differences (Personality)Out of ten participants eight revealed that possessing certain personal traits /qualities were

significant in their career development and career achievements. The prominent individual

qualities revealed in the interviews include competency on the job (eight participants), being

ambitious (six participants), motivated (six participants), being consistent (six participants)

and confident (eight participants) were mentioned during the interview as prerequisites for

career advancement and success in the workplace. The eight interviewees opined that these

personality traits to a large extent had assisted them in advancing from previous lower level

job positions to their current mid-level position. They believed that possessing these and

other key personality traits are vital towards achieving their aspirations of progressing into

senior management and leadership positions. The opinion gathered among the participants

includes:

as a result of my enthusiastic and self driven personality, I put in extra effort and time inmy job in order to achieve results and succeed in my current position (interviewee No. 9).

having a high motivation,sense of responsibility, desire to learn and being competent in

my job has afforded me a better shot at advancement in my career (interviewee No. 3).

for me to be successful my level of motivation to achieve success must be high

(interviewee No. 2).


36/58


36

my career development and ascension to my current role are strongly attributed to my

personal qualities such as being energetic, friendly, sensitive, secure, confident and

consistency in my job (interviewee No. 5).

The interviewees also revealed that women with low self-confidence might have the ability of

facing and surviving the challenges in a male-oriented and male-dominated society and work

environment like most organizations in Nigeria. According to interviewee No. 10 ...my

personality has helped me a great deal in pulling through obstacles. I have a high self-

confidence and this has helped me in moving on despite the challenges at work

One of the participants believed that for women to be competitive and have a say so in a male

dominated society and work environment they have display certain vital qualities.

Interviewee No. 7 mentioned that in order to stand out and succeed in a male dominated

organisaton like this, we women have to be prepared to take on new demanding assignments,

be focused, determined, competent and be firm.

Overall the data gathered revealed that personality plays an important role in women career

advancement and success. The results of this study are in support of similar findings from

previous studies on career success has been conducted on other regions e.g. USA (Thomas et.

al., 2005) and Canada (Lortie-Lussier and Rinfret, 2005). Also the personality traits shown in

the findings of this study possess similar component as that of The Big Five framework of

personalitytraits by (Costa & McCrae, 1992) which is widely used in previous studies

(Kirchmeyer, 1998; Baruch et al. 2005; Thomas et. al., 2005) highlighted in the literature, for

understanding the relationship between personality and behaviours.

4.5Barriers to Career SuccessRespondents were asked about the barriers they faced and what lies ahead as they plan for

their career. This research study uncovered five major themes from the analysis of the

interview data: gender discrimination (10 participants), inadequate mentoring (8

participants), lack of networking (8 participants), balancing work/family responsibilities (7

participants) and ethnic allegiance (6 participants). This study also confirms the identified

barriers as some of the prominent constituents of the glass ceiling inhibiting womens
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait_theory


37/58


37

upward mobility in the workplace. Each of the factors uncovered is discussed in the sections

below.

4.5.1 Gender DiscriminationPrevious studies of career development in Nigeria indicated that female employees

experience severe discrimination in terms of career advancement and attainments mainly as a

result of societal sex role stereotypes (e.g. Ituma and Simpson, 2009; Chovwen, 2006;

Udegbe, 2003). The findings of this study further confirm these earlier works with eight out

of ten of the participants pointing out the difficulties faced in recruitment and employment as

a result of their gender. Interviewee No.3 mentioned that ... it is not uncommon for

recruitment, promotion and increased job responsibility decisions to be based on marital and

family circumstances- on the grounds that being married with child care obligations are seen

to indicating a lack of dedication and less commitment to the job.

All the participants concurred that there are discriminatory practices embedded in the

management policies and practices as a result of the organization being very male-oriented.

The interviews furthered revealed that female employees who are aspiring to move into the

next level of their and progress into senior roles sometimes feel frustrated and discou

Evaluating the Career Success of Female Employees in Nigeria

Documents