Europeans and China: the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rising Why, and with what effects, did the Chinese resist European influence? Key terms Qing Dynasty Opium wars – 1839-1842 and 1856-1860 Unequal treaties (e.g.Treaty of Nanjing) Boxer Rebellion Europe's scramble for Africa did not leave South and East Asia at peace. Beginning in the seventeenth century, Great Britain formed and maintained an economic relationship with India. By the end of the eighteenth century, British rule of India was firmly planted and London came to view India as the jewel of its empire. This view guided its foreign policy. For decades, Britain used its military victories and naval superiority to ensure uninterrupted routes to India and beyond, hence its island holdings in the Mediterranean, along the west African coast, at the southern tip of Africa, and, most importantly, the Suez Canal. By the end of the eighteenth century, Indo-British economic ties were so entrenched in a neo-mercantile system that India provided a stepping stone for British trade with China. Britain traded English wool and Indian cotton for Chinese tea and textiles; however, as Chinese demand slackened, Britain sought other means of attracting trade with China. By the 1830s, Britain realized it could make up the trade deficit with China by selling Indian opium into the Chinese market, making opium Britain's most profitable and important crop in world markets. Eventually, opium poured into China faster than tea poured into British hands; soon,
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Europeans and China:
the Opium Wars and the Boxer Rising
Why, and with what effects, did the Chinese resist European influence?
Key terms
Qing Dynasty
Opium wars – 1839-1842 and 1856-1860
Unequal treaties (e.g.Treaty of Nanjing)
Boxer Rebellion
Europe's scramble for Africa did not leave South and East Asia at peace. Beginning in the
seventeenth century, Great Britain formed and maintained an economic relationship with India. By
the end of the eighteenth century, British rule of India was firmly planted and London came to view
India as the jewel of its empire. This view guided its foreign policy. For decades, Britain used its
military victories and naval superiority to ensure uninterrupted routes to India and beyond, hence
its island holdings in the Mediterranean, along the west African coast, at the southern tip of Africa,
and, most importantly, the Suez Canal. By the end of the eighteenth century, Indo-British economic
ties were so entrenched in a neo-mercantile system that India provided a stepping stone for British
trade with China. Britain traded English wool and Indian cotton for Chinese tea and textiles;
however, as Chinese demand slackened, Britain sought other means of attracting trade with China.
By the 1830s, Britain realized it could make up the trade deficit with China by selling Indian opium
into the Chinese market, making opium Britain's most profitable and important crop in world
markets. Eventually, opium poured into China faster than tea poured into British hands; soon,
Chinese merchants, already addicted themselves and buying for an addicted population, paid
British opium traders in pure silver.
Concerned with the sharp rise in opium addiction and the associated social costs and rise in criminal
acts, the Chinese government, led by the aging Manchu dynasty, took action against the British. In
1839, the Chinese destroyed British opium in the port city of Canton, sparking the Opium Wars of
1839- 1842. Easily dominating the backward Chinese forces, the British expeditionary force
blockaded Chinese ports, occupied Shanghai, and took complete control of Canton. The 1842
Treaty of Nanking granted Britain extensive trading
and commercial rights in China, marking the first in
a series of unequal treaties between China and
European imperial powers. By the end of the
century, after five wars between China and various
European powers, France, Britain, Germany, Japan,
and Russia held territorial and commercial
advantages in their respective spheres of influence.
These spheres of influence comprised territories,
ports, shipping lines, rivers, et cetera in which one
nation held exclusive rights to profits and
investment.
In addition, and most irritating to the Chinese, Europeans maintained extraterritoriality inside
thousands of Chinese port cities. Extraterritoriality meant that foreigners were exempt from
Chinese law enforcement and that, though on Chinese land, they could only be judged and tried by
officials of their own nation who generally looked the other way when profit was the goal. The
resulting lawlessness on the part of the Europeans, combined with the actuality of European
economic, political, and military domination of the Chinese, contributed to a virulent anti-imperial
sentiment.
In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion saw that sentiment explode into mass
social unrest and war. With secret encouragement from the Chinese
empress, the Boxers, dedicated to ending foreign exploitation in
north China, killed scores of European and seized the large foreign
legation in Beijing. Reacting immediately, an international
expeditionary force of Japanese, Russian, British, American,
German, French, Austrian, and Italian troops put down the revolt
and sacked Beijing to protect the interests of their respective
countries. Afterward, the European powers propped up a weak
central government for their own economic benefit.
Beyond China, European imperialism in Asia remained strong.
Britain moved into Hong Kong in 1842, into Burma in 1886, and
into Kowloon in 1898. France took direct control over the
provinces of Indochina--Annam, Tonkin, and Cochinchina (which
together make up modern day Vietnam), Laos, and Cambodia.
Opium Wars, two armed conflicts in China in the mid-19th century between the forces of
Western countries and of the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1911/12. The first
Opium War (1839–42) was fought between China and Britain, and the second Opium War
(1856–60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War in China, was fought by
Britain and France against China. In each case the foreign powers were victorious and gained
commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions in China. The conflicts marked the
start of the era of unequal treaties and other inroads on Qing sovereignty that helped weaken and
ultimately topple the dynasty in favor of republican China in the early 20th century.
The First Opium War vs.
The Opium Wars arose from China’s attempts to suppress the opium
trade. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting
opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that
trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread
addiction in China was causing serious social and economic
disruption there. In March 1839 the Chinese government confiscated
and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium—some 1,400 tons
of the drug—that were warehoused at Canton (Guangzhou) by
British merchants. The antagonism between the two sides increased
a few days later when some drunken British sailors killed a Chinese
villager. The British government, which did not wish its subjects to
be tried in the Chinese legal system, refused to turn the accused men over to the Chinese courts.
Hostilities broke out several months later when British warships
destroyed a Chinese blockade of the Pearl River (Zhu Jiang)
estuary at Hong Kong. The British government decided in early
1840 to send an expeditionary force to China, which arrived at
Hong Kong in June. The British fleet proceeded up the Pearl
River estuary to Canton, and, after months of negotiations there,
attacked and occupied the city in May 1841. Subsequent British
campaigns over the next year were likewise successful against
the inferior Qing forces, despite a determined counterattack by
Chinese troops in the spring of 1842. The British held against
that offensive, however, and captured Nanjing (Nanking) in late
August, which put an end to the fighting.
Peace negotiations proceeded quickly, resulting in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By
its provisions, China was required to pay Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the
British, and increase the number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one
(Canton) to five. Among the four additional designated ports was Shanghai, and the new access to
foreigners there marked the beginning of the city’s transformation into one of China’s major
commercial entrepôts. The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October
8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-
favored-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in China that might be granted to other foreign
countries). Other Western countries quickly demanded and were given similar privileges.
The Second Opium War vs.
In the mid-1850s, while the Qing government was embroiled in trying to quell the Taiping
Rebellion (1850–64), the British, seeking to extend their trading rights in China, found an excuse
to renew hostilities. In early October 1856 some Chinese officials boarded the British-registered
ship Arrow while it was docked in Canton, arrested several Chinese crew members (who were later
released), and allegedly lowered the British flag. Later that month a British warship sailed up the
Pearl River estuary and began bombarding Canton, and there were skirmishes between British and
Chinese troops. Trading ceased as a stalemate ensued. In December Chinese in Canton burned
foreign factories (trading warehouses) there, and tensions escalated.
The French decided to join the British military expedition, using as their excuse the murder of a
French missionary in the interior of China in early 1856. After delays in assembling the forces in
China (British troops that were en route were first diverted to India to help quell the Indian Mutiny),
the allies began military operations in late 1857. They quickly captured Canton, deposed the city’s
intransigent governor, and installed a more-compliant official. In April 1858 allied troops in British
warships reached Tianjin (Tientsin) and forced the Chinese into negotiations. The treaties of
Tianjin, signed in June 1858, provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of
several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the interior of China,
and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. In further negotiations in Shanghai later in
the year, the importation of opium was legalized.
The British withdrew from Tianjin in the summer of 1858, but they returned to the area in June
1859 (en route to Beijing to sign the treaties) and were shelled by the Chinese from shore batteries
at Dagu at the mouth of the Hai River and driven back with heavy casualties. The Chinese
subsequently refused to ratify the treaties, and the allies resumed hostilities. In August 1860 a
considerably larger force of warships and British and French troops destroyed the Dagu batteries,
proceeded upriver to Tianjin, and, in September, captured Beijing and plundered and then burned
the Yuanming Garden, the emperor’s summer palace. Later that year the Chinese signed the Beijing
Convention, in which they agreed to observe the treaties of Tianjin and also ceded to the British
the southern portion of the Kowloon Peninsula adjacent to Hong Kong.
Unequal treaties
Treaty of Nanjing, signed on August 29. By its provisions, China was required to pay
Britain a large indemnity, cede Hong Kong Island to the British, and increase the
number of treaty ports where the British could trade and reside from one (Canton) to
five.
British citizens eventually received extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British
courts) and most-favored-nation status
Treaties of Tianjin: provided residence in Beijing for foreign envoys, the opening of
several new ports to Western trade and residence, the right of foreign travel in the
interior of China, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries.
Beijing Convention – Chinese agree to observe Treaties of Tianjin
Describe the Chinese opium trade of the early nineteenth century.
It was organized by members of the East India Company
British ships took the opium from India to the Chinese coast
Native merchants then smuggled the opium into China
Successive emperors declared the trade illegal
British merchants wanted Chinese tea but it had to be paid for in silver
The ‘illegal’ opium trade was a way of financing the tea purchases
By the 1830s, there were an estimated 12 million addicts in China
The rampant demand and porous border encouraged the Americans to join the trade,
importing an inferior Turkish brand of opium
What were the ‘unequal treaties’ forced on China?
The unequal treaties were signed between Western powers and the Qing dynasty of
China.
The treaties were imposed on China.
China was threatened with military action if they were not accepted.
China got very little in return.
The Treaty of Nanking, 1842, was one of the first treaties.
It opened up five trading ports to Britain including Canton and Shanghai.
It allowed Christian missionaries into China.
It allowed foreign offenders to be tried by their own consular authorities.
The Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 forced China to open more ports.
It also legalized the importation of opium. The main beneficiaries of the treaties were Britain, France, USA, and Russia.
Describe the impact of the opium trade on China in the 1830s.
British ships took opium from India to the Chinese coast.
It was organized by members of the East India Company.
Native merchants smuggled the opium into China.
Successive emperors declared the trade illegal.
British merchants wanted Chinese tea but it had to be paid for in silver.
The illegal opium trade was a way of financing the tea purchases.
By the 1830s, there were an estimated 12 million addicts in China.
Many Chinese were unemployable because of their addiction.
There was increasing crime as the Chinese tried to fund their addiction.
The huge demand and porous border encouraged the Americans to join the trade.
The emperor refused to legalize and tax the opium trade.
It led to ill-feeling between the Chinese government and Western merchants.
The opium trade partly led to the first Opium War.
China lost silver.
Why did the Chinese resist European influence?
The Qing dynasty did not want to change Chinese culture. Attitudes of the ruling elite
had not changed since Ming times.
It was not to question the cultural superiority of Chinese civilization and the position of
the empire as the hub of the perceived world. To promote the adoption of foreign ideas
was viewed as tantamount to heresy.
China wanted to remain isolated
China did not want any trade
The Emperor believed China had all it needed
He did not want to corrupt Chinese culture
The Chinese thought their culture was superior to the West.
Imperialism in China 1820-1900
China was a major target of European Imperialism.
A number of significant events that occurred during this period:
Opium Trade
First and Second Opium Wars
Treaty of Nanking, 1842
Tientsin Treaty, 1858
Beijing Conventions, 1860
The Chinese culture attempted to deal with the European culture by attempting to
isolate themselves from any contact with the Europeans whom they considered
barbarians.
China in the 1800’s
Even in the past China was the most populated nation in the world
Although it was not industrialized China was able to meet the needs of the people and
was virtually self sufficient
China had little interest in trading with European nations as they felt that the goods
were inferior to Chinese goods
In fact the European nations were only allowed to trade at one port – Canton
This made the imperial powers desperate to access the huge Chinese market
To do this they had to find a product the Chinese would trade for
The Opium Wars - War on Drugs
The British East India company soon found the product – opium
The drug was highly controlled in both England and India but was manufactured and
smuggled into China to extend British control
Many of the Chinese became addicted to the drug and were then dominated by the
British
The Chinese government was so weakened by the smuggling that they were powerless
to stop it
Even pleas to Queen Victoria fell on deaf ears and the opium trade continued
The drug trade in south-east Asia eventually led to open war between the British and
the Chinese
The Chinese were overmatched and the British easily defeated them forcing an unfair
treaty on the Chinese
The Treaty of Nanking
The Treaty of Nanking opened four more ports to British goods and allowed the
British East India Company to extend their power into China
With China weakened the other countries of Europe soon carved out spheres of
influence
The USA was envious and implemented the Open Door Policy allowing equal trade
with China
Even Japan took part in dividing up China
The Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion targeted both the Manchu dynasty in China and the influence of European
powers within China. Though the Boxer Rebellion failed it did enough to stir up national pride
within China itself.
In 1895, China had been defeated by Japan. This was a humiliation for the Chinese as Japan had
always been considered as a lesser nation to China. China lost control of Korea and Formosa to
Japan. Within the elite of Chinese society, it was believed that this defeat was entirely the blame
of the Europeans who were dominant in China and that they alone were responsible for China’s
defeat.
Many Chinese began to feel the same. It was believed that the Europeans were driving China’s
domestic and foreign policy and that the situation was getting out of control. By the end of the
Nineteenth Century, a strong sense of nationalism swept over China and many wanted to reclaim
China for the Chinese. In 1898, these feelings boiled over into rebellion composed largely of
unemployed peasants and farmers, anti-foreign in belief and violent in action. They were called the
Boxers by foreigners because of the martial arts many of the rebels practiced. The rebellion began
in north China in the Shantung Province. This province was a German sphere of influence and
Germany dominated the rail lines, factories and coal mines that existed in Shantung. The Germans
made considerable profits while the Chinese there were paid very poor wages and lived very poor
lifestyles.
The beginning of the Boxer Rebellion can be traced to the 1899 killing of
two priests by two Boxer members visiting a German missionary in Juye
County, China. In response, Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German leader at the
time, dispatched German troops to the scene of the crime, which further
angered the rebels. The ongoing presence of foreign military to intimidate
and attempt to control the local population ignited a spark of rebellion. By
late October they occupied a Catholic church that had once been a temple
to the Jade emperor and continued on their path of violence. “Support the
Qing, destroy the foreigners” became their slogan as they continued to
resist foreign military control.
In Shantung, gangs of Chinese people roamed the streets chanting “Kill the Christians” and “Drive
out the foreign devils”. Germans who lived in Shantung were murdered as were other European
missionaries. Those Chinese who had converted to Christianity were also murdered.
Those behind the Shantung rebellion belonged to a secret society called Yi Ho Tuan – which meant
“Righteous Harmony Fists” when translated into English. This was shortened to Boxers and the
rebellion has gone done in history as the Boxer Rebellion. By 1900, the rebellion had started to
spread across northern China and included the capital Peking.
One of the targets of the Boxers was the Manchu government. They were seen as being little more
as unpatriotic stooges of the European ‘masters’ who did nothing for national pride.