European travellers to the eastern Cape, 1652–1 - Springer

Notes

Introduction

1. One of the earliest and certainly the most influential of the contributions tothis field is Said 1991. See also for example Cohn 1985; Fabian 1986; Harries1988; Niranjana 1992; Rafael 1993; Mühlhäusler 1996.

2. These disciplines have been subject to reanalysis and self-scrutiny along theselines by their own practitioners. See for example Fabian 1983, 1991; Clifford1988; Godlewska and Smith 1994; Bell et al. 1995.

3. In particular Le Cordeur 1981; Peires 1981b, 1989a,b; Giliomee 1989; Crais1992; Ross 1993; Lambert 1995; Keegan 1996; Lester 1997, 2001.

4. See for example Sara Mills’ (1997) useful and accessible summary of the rela-tionship and distinctions between the different uses of the term.

5. See for example Patrick Harries’ (1993) account of the roots of Zulu culturalnationalism in nineteenth-century missionary linguistics.

6. Richard Elphick, among others, argues against the use of the term San sinceit is derived from a Khoi word, which is pejorative, and because it subsumesa wide array of cultural and linguistic difference (1989, p. 4). However, incommon with many other contemporary scholars, I have elected to retainthe term since it indicates an appropriate degree of linguistic and culturalrelatedness, and because I find the connotations of its alternative, ‘Bushman’,just as problematic.

1 Language in the land of the ‘Hottentots’ and ‘Caffres’:European travellers to the eastern Cape, 1652–1806

1. For example Augustin de Beaulieu 1620–22, cited in Raven-Hart 1967, p. 101;Jón Ólafsson 1623, cited in Raven-Hart 1967, p. 112; Abraham Bogaert 1711,cited in Raven-Hart 1971: II, p. 483; Wouter Schouten 1676, cited in Raven-Hart 1971: I, p. 52. For nineteenth-century British discussion of the etymologyof the term ‘Hottentot’, see papers in the Transactions of the Philological Society,1866, pp. 6–25.

2. Peter Kolb’s The Present State of the Cape of Good-Hope, for example, publishedin German in 1719 and translated into English in 1731, offers a detailedethnographic account of ‘Hottentot’ life and culture, alongside a brief andsecond-hand comparative description of the ‘Caffres’ of Port-Natal basedon the testimony of a ship’s captain, Gerbrantz van der Schelling, wholanded at Natal on the homeward leg of his trading missions (Kolb 1731: I,pp. 31–2, 81).

197

198 Notes

3. On contemporary European analogies between race and gender, see forexample Stepan 1990, p. 43.

4. Recent scholars, notably Sara Mills, have condemned many aspects ofBatten’s work as rather reductive and outdated. However, the fundamentalfeatures of his classifications of travel writing are, in this instance, still usefulfor my purposes.

5. See for example Lichtenstein 1812–15: I, pp. 413, 415, 419, 430–1.6. For references to one or more unnamed interpreters – one, a ‘Gonaaqua from

Bethelsdorp’ – see Lichtenstein 1812–15: I, for example pp. 383–4, 396.

2 Of translation and transformation: The beginning ofmissionary linguistics in South Africa

1. Transactions of the Missionary Society, 2nd edn, 1 (1804), p. 323. This volumeis hereafter cited as Transactions.

2. As many historians have remarked, Ngqika was mistaken by the newCape Government as the paramount chief of all the Xhosa, and treatedaccordingly.

3. On the inadequacy of Van der Kemp’s understanding of Xhosa for thepurposes of effective evangelism, see Hodgson 1984, p. 33.

4. For further discussion of the Latin grammatical model see for example Hovd-haugen 1996b, p. 18; Steadman-Jones 2000, p. 197.

5. Rules of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Cited in Canton 1904: I, p. 17.Emphasis in original.

6. See for example Moffat 1842, pp. 291–2; Merriman 1854, p. 62; Moodie1835, cited in Mesthrie 1998, p. 18. William Samarin’s discussion of the roleof interpreters in central Africa is useful in this context. He writes,

An African intermediary could be anyone, but anyone 1) who shared alanguage with the white, 2) who enjoyed a certain amount of trust, and 3)who could be presented to others as representing the white. (Samarin1989, p. 233)

7. Jean and John Comaroff make an analogous point in relation to inter-preters between Nonconformist missionaries and the Tswana (Comaroff andComaroff 1991, p. 216).

8. D. Williams, ‘The Missionaries of the Eastern Frontier of the Cape Colony,1799–1853’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of the Witwatersrand,Johannesburg, 1960, cited in Mesthrie 1998, p. 9. Bennie produced theearliest Scriptural translations into Xhosa, and his manuscript grammar ofXhosa was a (unacknowledged) source for Boyce’s grammar, published in1834. See for example Godfrey 1934, pp. 123–34.

9. Recent collections in the field of history of linguistics have attempted toredress this balance. See for example Hovdhaugen 1996a; Zwartjes and Hovd-haugen 2004; Zwartjes and Altman 2005.

10. For the impact of missionaries’ educational background on their grammat-ical work, see also Nowak 1996b, pp. 157–8.

Notes 199

3 Studying language in the ‘moral wilderness’: Methodistlinguistics in the eastern Cape

1. Quote from Colonel Richard Collins, appointed as commissioner to assessthe situation in the eastern Cape in 1809, and who was the first to proposesettling the region around the Fish River in order to secure the colonialborder. Moodie 1838–42: V, pp. 17–19. See also Peires 1989b, pp. 474–5.

2. For instances of the close questioning of missionaries by Xhosa onmatters ofChristian theology, see for example Shrewsbury 1867, p. 233; Moffat 1842,pp. 307, 311.

3. Reverend William Shaw, 15 October 1838. Regulations approved by DistrictMeeting, May 1837. Methodist Missionary Archive, Box 3, Sheet 109.

4. Norman Etherington (1978, p. 29), for example, notes that none of theMeth-odist missionaries working in Natal before 1880 were university-educated,and fewer than half had pursued formal studies in theology.

5. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Dangwana River,29 November 1830, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany.

6. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Bunting Station,31 March 1832, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany.

7. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Missionary Notices,213 (1833), p. 336.

8. Boyce’s dedication is disingenuous in obscuring earlier printed, but unpub-lished, works on Xhosa by Reverend John Bennie of the Glasgow MissionarySociety. As Wilhelm Bleek pointed out some decades later, Bennie’sstudies of Xhosa from the 1820s were influential on Boyce, as well as onother Methodist grammarians. Bleek 1858, p. 45. See also Godfrey 1934,pp. 123–34.

9. Peter Burke’s examination of the etymology of the term ‘jargon’ finds anumber of meanings developing from its first use in the twelfth and thir-teenth centuries to connote ‘unintelligible speech, a sort of gargling in thethroat’; but all carry a pejorative meaning, of unintelligible, impenetrable‘not-language’ (Burke and Porter 1995, pp. 2–4, 10–13).

10. Very early in the grammar, for example, he uses comparison with the Latin‘hic’ as a means to discuss the operation of definiteness in Xhosa (Boyce1844, p. 6).

11. Such arguments can also be found articulated by missionaries who studiedand published linguistic works on Khoi-San languages (see for exampleTindall 1856, p. 11; Tindall 1857, pp. 3–4). Anthony Traill’s sociolinguisticaccount of the linguistic death of Khoi-San languages suggests a causal rela-tionship between linguistic stigmatisation and language death, arguing thatnegative European attitudes regarding Khoi-San speech prevailing from anearly date were significant factors in the languages’ erosion:

To add to the social, economic and physical onslaught on the Khoekhoe,their language itself faced two intimidating problems. The first wasextreme linguistic prejudice: from the first contacts between Europeansand Khoekhoe there had been a persistent attitude on the part of theEuropeans that the language was utterly bizarre, unpleasant, inarticulateand not human. [� � �] These prejudices fed the second problem, namely

200 Notes

the view that the language was unlearnable, and from as early as 1663this led to official government policy that the Khoekhoe should learnthe colonial language. (Traill 1995, pp. 5–6)

Traill’s arguments indicate the entrenched nature of the attitudes mani-fest in nineteenth-century language debates on Khoi-San. In indicating thematerial impact of linguistic stigmatization, they also serve to suggest thesignificance of missionary linguists’ absorption of extant colonial preju-dices as a contributory factor in the ongoing process of Khoi-San linguisticdecline.

12. Boyce to Secretaries of Wesleyan Missionary Committee, Bunting Station,21 April 1831, WMMS incoming correspondence, Box 3: Albany.

13. Note that Appleyard favours the term ‘Indo-Germanic’, which prevailedamong German far more than British philologists in this period. SeeMorpurgo Davies 1992, p. 147.

14. For discussion of contemporary theories which cast Khoi-San people as thedescendants of Ham, see Chidester 1996a, pp. 38, 41.

15. Peter Mühlhäusler, for example, notes the prevalence of analogous attitudesamong missionaries in the Pacific in the nineteenth century (1996, p. 141).

16. See for example Appleyard 1850, p. 6, where he cites Prichard.17. Ntsikana’s hymn, which is still sung in churches in South Africa, was often

cited in missionary literature from the 1820s onward. It first appeared inThompson 1827: I, pp. 455–7. See also for example Peires 1981b, pp. 72–4;Hodgson 1980.

18. The best history of the Cattle-Killing movement, told from the perspectiveof the Xhosa, is Peires 1989b.

4 Language, culture, and ‘the native mind’: Missionarylanguage study in Natal

1. Fynn 1969, p. 60; Aldin Grout to Anderson, Bethelsdorp, 12 February 1836,printed in Missionary Herald, 1836, pp. 339–42.

2. Wilson and Thompson also point to the significance of language in consol-idating Zulu power (1969–71: I, p. 345). For contemporary evidence see forexample the testimony of Madikane ka Mlomowetole, in Webb and Wright1976: II, pp. 54–5.

3. For a discussion of these controversies as they were manifest in NorthAmerica in this period, see Thuesen 1999, pp. 46–7.

4. For a useful discussion of the concept of ‘genius’ in language, seeSchlaps 2004.

5. Lindley’s family angrily denied that these conversations had ever takenplace, but this appears to me to be implausible. Given that Shepstone wasalso supposedly present, and more importantly that Colenso, having justbeen made Bishop, was particularly unlikely to want to court a reputation asa slanderer and a liar, it seems likely that, at most, he exaggerated the Amer-icans’ attitudes. E. D. Smith, The Life and Times of Daniel Lindley (1801–80)(London: Epworth Press, 1949), pp. 290–1, cited in Dinnerstein 1983, p. 88.

Notes 201

6. Diana Jeater (2001, pp. 460–1) gives an excellent account of the anxietiesengendered by such bilingualism among poor whites in early-twentieth-century Rhodesia. These speakers were considered by the colonial admin-istration to be inappropriate as interpreters, partly because they ‘possiblyunderstood Africans a little too well’. Ann Laura Stoler (2002, pp. 121–30)also discusses anxieties around bilingualism among European children in theDutch Indies, and the supposedly concomitant threat to European culturesand identities.

7. For further discussion of the missionary controversy over the Zulu name forGod, and Colenso’s place within it, see also Worger 2001, pp. 428–45.

8. For further discussion of Colenso’s relationship to colonial rule see Guy1983, p. 81.

9. Döhne’s approach to language development, and his treatment of Zulu asan agglutinating language, draws on the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt.See for example Humboldt 1836, pp. 264–71.

10. Hamilton and Wright (1990) discuss power relations in the Zulu state andthe ideological implications of the Zulu/Amalala distinction.

11. Thanks are due to Javed Majeed for pointing out this fascinating contradic-tion in Döhne’s argument.

5 From languages to language: The comparative philologistin South Africa

1. See Chidester 1996a, pp. 142–4, for a discussion of this question as it relatesto Bleek’s work on Zulu religion.

2. See also Chidester 1996a, pp. 149–50. Bleek (1862, p. ix) points to the signi-ficance of Müller’s work on comparative mythology for his own ideas.

3. For further discussion of Bleek’s involvement in Huxley’s photographicproject, see Godby 1996, pp. 115–27. Godby clearly indicates the prob-lematic nature of Bleek’s involvement in this dehumanising project ofanthropometric photography, but still concludes by returning to Bleek’s‘extraordinary humanity’ (p. 126). His views in this regard are criticized byAndrew Bank (2000, pp. 174–7).

4. The first to treat Bleek in this way was J. David Lewis-Williams (1981);several contributors to the 1996 collection Miscast, edited by Pippa Skotnes,took a similar approach. Andrew Bank (2000) has problematized these viewsof Bleek.

Bibliography

Archives

Methodist Archive, John Rylands Library, Deansgate, ManchesterMissionary Archive, SOAS, LondonYale Divinity College

Serials and periodicals

The Anthropological ReviewThe Cape Monthly MagazineJournal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and IrelandJournal of the Ethnological Society of LondonMemoirs Read Before the Anthropological Society of LondonThe Missionary HeraldMissionary NoticesProceedings and Transactions of the Philological SocietyReports of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary SocietyThe South African Christian WatchmanTransactions of the Missionary Society

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Wolffe, John, ed. (1997) Religion in Victorian Britain. V: Culture and Empire.Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Wonderly, William L. and Eugene A. Nida (1963) ‘Linguistics and ChristianMissions’, Anthropological Linguistics, 5, 104–44.

Woodard, Helena (1999) African-British Writings in the Eighteenth Century: ThePolitics of Race and Reason. Westport, Connecticut and London: Green-wood Press.

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Worger, William H. (2001) ‘Parsing God: Conversations about the Meaningof Words and Metaphors in Nineteenth-Century Southern Africa’, Journal ofAfrican History, 42, 417–47.

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Index

Afrikaans, origins of, 11see also Cape Dutch

agglutination, 106–7, 158see also grammar; Xhosa language;

Zulu languagealliteration, see ‘euphonic concord’;

euphonyAmerican Board of Commissioners for

Foreign Missions, 118–22,129–30, 138–43, 154

ancestor worship, as product oflanguage structure, 184

anthropology, 15–16, 185–9, 193–4Appleyard, John Whittle, 61, 94–112,

116–17, 148, 168Arabic, 85Archbell, James, 77Arnold, Matthew, 151Ayliff, John, 71

Babel, 139Bakhtin, Mikhail, 3–4Bank, Andrew, 12, 191, 201Bantu, 9–10, 169, 186–8

see also Nguni; Xhosa language;Xhosa people; Zulu language;Zulu people

Barrell, John, 89–90Barrow, John, 30–43Bennie, John, 60, 198, 199Berlin Missionary Society, 154bilingualism

among Khoikhoi and Xhosa, 10among whites, 22, 37, 142–3, 201

Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel,148, 167–96

Boers, 17–18, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 44,47, 52, 53, 67, 68, 127

Bopp, Franz, 157

border, colonial, see frontier zone,eastern Cape

Boyce,William Binnington, 73–94, 95,98, 99, 105, 108, 111–13, 116–17

British and Foreign Bible Society, 58Bryant, James, 124, 130Burton, James, 74–5‘Bushman’, 13, 17

for further references, see Sanlanguages and peoples

Callaway, Henry, 162–5Calvinism, 158Cape Dutch, 11, 18, 58, 74cartography, 33–4Cattle Killing, Xhosa, 115Chidester, David, 101, 123, 164, 191chronology, Biblical, 101–4, 156–7,

173, 177classification, of languages and

peoples, 1–2, 12, 16–17, 80,87–90, 179–89, 192–5

comparative classification of Bantuand Khoi-San, 26–8, 35–40,87–90, 99–104, 170, 180–5

clicks, see implosive consonants (clicks)Coetzee, J. M., 15–16Colenso, John William, 125–6,

142–53, 155, 170, 171colonialism

British, 29, 33–4, 67–9, 96–7,115–16, 126–8

Dutch, 14, 17–18Comaroffs, Jean and John, 195communication, 2–4, 22–6, 40–3, 48,

49–50, 53, 54, 57–8, 71, 93–4,111, 142–5, 149–53, 164–5,190–1, 195, 196

dialogue as central to Christianmission, 149–53, 164–5

226

Index 227

comparative philology, 95–6, 100,105, 113, 154, 156, 167, 169–91

comparativism, 129, 163, 167–8, 194see also classification, of languages

and peoplescomparison, as strategy in linguistic

representation, 26–8, 35–40,113–14

see also classification, of languagesand peoples; comparativism

contact languages, 11, 17copiousness, as characteristic of

language, 83, 99Cust, Robert Needham, 59–61

Darwin, Charles, 171, 174, 187Davis, William Jafferd, 77, 93–4,

112–16Davys, John, 16Deacon, Janette, 190dictionaries, 62, 111–13, 149, 154–62Dingane, 118, 119–20Dinnerstein, Myra, 129–30, 138discourse, definitions of, 6–7

colonial, 5–6disease, as metaphor for

communication, 153Döhne, Jacob Ludwig, 121–2, 154–62Dubow, Saul, 12, 195Dugmore, H. H., 71Dutch East India Company, see VOC

(Verenigde OostindischeCompagnie)

economics, as metaphor for language,140–1

Ellis, Alexander, 168Elphick, Richard, 197 n.6ethnography, 19–20, 26, 34–5, 53, 163

see also anthropologyetymology, 157, 159–61‘euphonic concord’, 74–6, 84, 99,

130–1euphony, 75, 83, 84, 131, 147evolution, as model for language

development, 174–8, 184–5, 189,190–1

Fabian, Johannes, 3–4, 141,193–4, 195

Fanakalo, 11Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 155, 169Frazer, James, 163Fritsch, Gustav, 186–7frontier zone, eastern Cape, 17–20,

22–9, 32–43, 44–50, 52–7, 67–73,76–7, 78–9, 80–2, 89–90, 93–4,95–100

language and communication in,18, 20, 22–9, 35–43, 47–50,53–7, 71–3, 78–9, 80–2, 89–90,93–4, 95, 98–100

gender, grammatical, see grammar,gender in

Genette, Gérard, 63Giliomee, Hermann, 18, 67glossaries, see vocabulariesGod

difficulty in discussing concept of,42–3

terms for, 41, 55, 91, 144–5, 159,163

Godby, Michael, 201 n.3grammar

categories of, 56, 62–3, 85, 105,133–4, 147–8

comparison as strategy inrepresentation, 85–6, 105–6,134–5

gender in, 170, 179–85see also dictionaries; vocabularies

Greek, 134–5Grey, George, 154, 170–1, 190Grimm, Jacob, 100Grout, Aldin, 120Grout, Lewis, 124–5,

129–43, 148Guy, Jeff, 195–6

Haeckel, Ernst, 171, 176, 187Harries, Patrick, 12, 121, 195Hebrew, 85–6, 87Herbert, Thomas, 16Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 155higher criticism, 153, 169, 173Horne Tooke, John, 107

228 Index

‘Hottentot’, 13, 16–17, 197for further references, see Khoi

languagesHumboldt, Wilhelm von, 107, 155,

175, 181Hunt, James, 187Huxley, Thomas, 171, 174, 185, 187

implosive consonants (clicks), 10in Khoi-San languages, 36–7, 40,

102in Xhosa, 74in Zulu, 145, 158

Indo-European languages, 99–100,105–6, 170, 172, 179–80, 184–5,192, 193, 194

interpreters, 22–4, 42–3, 53, 58–60,71–2, 74–5, 78, 119–20, 133,150–3, 164, 165, 198 n.6

Jane Eyre, 62jargon, 83, 89, 102–3, 199 n.9

‘Kaffir’, 13, 16–17for further references, see Bantu;

Nguni; Xhosa; ZuluKew gardens, 31–2Khoi languages, 10, 13, 36–7

as absence, 15as animalistic, 16as lacking in scientific and abstract

terms, 41–2difficulty in learning, 16, 22onomatopoeic origins of, 39–40

Khoikhoi people, 10, 13early European contact with, 14men, as effeminate, 38–9

Khoi-San languages, 10, 11decline of, 88–9early European contact with, 15–16Hamitic origins of, 103incompatibility with Christianity,

87–90, 99–100as product of deterioration, 102–3stigma as contributory factor in

decline of, 199–200 n.11compared with Xhosa/Bantu, 26–8,

35–40, 87–90, 99–104, 170,180–5

see also jargon; Khoi languages; Sanlanguages and peoples

Kitchen Kaffir, see FanakaloKolb, Peter, 16, 197 n.2

Lang, Andrew, 163language

families of, 100, 132, 180–1, 184–5and historical reconstruction,

99–104, 179and nation, 38–9, 155, 158, 159–62origin and development of, 39–40,

49, 100, 131–2, 157, 172–6, 177relationship to culture, 42–5, 48–50,

92–3, 101–2, 107–10, 134–8,142–3, 175–6, 183–4

relationship to mind, 106–7, 154,159–61, 163–5, 181–4

see also linguistic relatednesslanguage-learning, 4, 49–50, 55, 60,

62, 75–6, 77, 95, 104–7, 132–4,142–3, 163

and colonial power, 78–80, 81–2,96–9, 171

among colonists, 22, 37, 97, 155among white children, 22, 37, 76,

142–3and contamination, 142–3

languages, Indo-European, 38, 85–6,100

see also Greek; LatinLatham, Robert Gordon, 167Latin, 85, 87, 199 n.10Lepsius, Karl Richard, 139, 169–70,

180Le Vaillant, Francois, 19Lichtenstein, Heinrich, 1–2, 43–50,

51, 56Lindley, Daniel, 200 n.5lingua francas, see contact languageslinguistic hierarchy, 37–40, 120–1,

159, 175–6, 182–5see also classification, of languages

and peoples; language,relationship to culture

linguistic relatedness, 80see also language, families of

Index 229

linguistic representation, asrepresentation of social reality,27–8, 54–5, 93–4, 137

linguisticscolonial, 2–4, 11–13, 78–80,

81–2, 96–9, 126, 128, 141,146–7

missionary, 56–7, 61–4, 80, 97, 126,128, 130, 155–6, 162, 167,193–4, 195–6

Linnaeus, Carl, 19–20, 21, 32see also natural science

Lloyd, Lucy, 178, 189London Missionary Society, 51, 52Lorimer, Douglas, 187Lubbock, John, 163Lund, Thomas, 153Lyell, Charles, 171

Maurice, F. D., 144, 170Mbande, Mpengula, 164, 165Meinhof, Carl, 195Methodists, 69–73

attitudes to Xhosa, 69–70, 71, 73educational background, 72language study, 72–3, 112–13relationship to British settlers in

eastern Cape, 69–71mfecane, 118–19, 120, 123migration, and theories of language

development, 131–2millenarianism, 130, 139–41Milward, John, 15missionaries, 51, 127–8

educational background, 63,73–4, 94, 130, 149, 154,199 n.4

and language study, 57–64see also entries for individuals,

denominationsMoffat, Robert, 59monogenesis, 103, 156–7, 175–6monotheism, as product of language

structure, 184Mpande, 149Mpondo, 13, 74–5, 91, 92, 127Mühlhäusler, Peter, 62Müller, Friedrich Max, 117, 163, 171,

174, 181

multilingualismand development of European

colonialism in South Africa,10–11

and problems of communication,18, 22, 35–6, 53

as productive of linguisticdeterioration, 158

native speakers, 3–4, 60–1, 64,110–12, 133–4, 135–8, 149–53,166, 191, 196

natural science, 18–50as model for linguistic description,

19–20, 26–7, 28–9, 35–6, 47–9as model for travel writing, 21–2,

31–2, 45–6‘Negro’, see ‘race’Ngidi, William, 149, 150–3Ngqika, 42–3, 52, 53, 55, 67, 198Nguni, 9–10, 12–13

see also Bantu; Xhosa language;Xhosa people; Zulu language;Zulu people

Unkulunkulu, as term for God, 145,159, 163, 191

Nongqawuse, 115Ntsikana, 108–10

onomatopoeic, 39–40orthography, 138–41

Pentecost, 139Perrin, James, 155philology, comparative, see

comparative philologyphilosophy, as characteristic of

language, 83, 99phonology, 27, 36–7

see also implosive consonants(clicks)

pidgins, see contact languagespolygenism, 187

see also monogenesispotentiality, as characteristic of

language, 63–4, 82–90, 99–104,107–8, 112, 126

Pratt, Mary Louise, 18, 39

230 Index

‘prefix-pronominal’ languages, seegrammar, gender in

Prichard, James Cowles, 103, 167printing press, 58progress, 161

‘race’, 185–9climatological theories of, 188‘Negro’ as racial category, 186–8

Reformation, 83–4regularity, as characteristic of

language, 83representation, 3, 4–5romanticism, 154–5roots, 157, 160

Said, Edward, 4Samarin, William, 198San languages and peoples, 10,

37, 177–8, 186, 188,189–90

San as problematic term, 197see also Khoi-San languages

Sanneh, Lamin, 195Schlegel, Friedrich von, 107Semitic, 85–6, 100–4settlers, British, 68–9

attitudes to Xhosa people, 70–1,81–2, 97

‘sex-denoting’ languages, seegrammar, gender in

Shaka, 119, 158–9see also Zulu language, and policies

of the Zulu stateShaw, William, 69–70, 72, 74, 76, 77,

101, 112–13Shepstone, Theophilus, 74–5, 127–8,

144, 146Shrewsbury, William, 71Skeper, Jan, 23–4Skotnes, Pippa, 189Smith, Thornley, 95Soga, Tiyo, 60Sparrman, Anders, 20–9spatiality, in colonial linguistic

discourse, 140–1Spencer, Herbert, 163standardization, of language, 12–13,

79, 138–41

Standish, Ralph, 15–16Steadman-Jones, Richard, 6,

62–3, 86

Theal, George McCall, 195Thonga/Tsonga, 12Thornton, Robert, 169, 171time

anthropological time versusevangelical time, 193–4

Khoikhoi concepts of, 41–2temporal distancing, 190, 193–4see also chronology, Biblical;

language, and historicalreconstruction

uTixo, as term for God, 55, 91, 145Traill, Anthony, 199–200 n.11translation, 58, 60–1, 108–10, 111,

122, 134–6, 150–3, 162see also interpreters; missionaries,

and language studyTshatshu, Dyani, 72Tylor, Edward Burnett, 163

Van der Kemp, Johannes, 51–7verbs, 85–6, 105–6, 134–5, 147–8VOC (Verenigde Oostindische

Compagnie), 14vocabularies, 19–20, 26–8, 35–6,

47–50, 53–6see also dictionaries; grammar

Wesleyans, see Methodistsword lists, see vocabularieswriting, see orthography

Xhosa language, 1, 9–10, 12–13contrasted with Khoi-San, 26–8,

35–40, 87–90, 99–104, 170,180–5

elevated origins of, 40manliness as characteristic of, 27,

38–9as marker of potentiality, 82–90,

99–104, 107–8, 112as product of deterioration, 100as Semitic, 85–6, 101–4see also Bantu; ‘euphonic concord’;

Nguni; Zulu language

Index 231

Xhosa people, 9–10absence of culture, 90–3, 107–8as Arabs, 101–4colonial policy of assimilation,

115–16culture, as object of study, 116early European encounters with,

22–5religious thought, 55, 91resistance to British colonialism, 65,

68, 93–4, 96–7, 111–12responses to missionaries, 52, 54,

71, 108–10as warlike, 79, 81–2, 97see also Bantu; Nguni; settlers,

British, attitudes to Xhosapeople; Zulu people

Zulu language, 9–10, 92, 178, 191as corrupting, 142–3as degraded, 159–62

as elevated linguistic form, 121–2,123–6, 127, 131–2, 158–9

and policies of the Zulu state,120–2, 124–6, 158–9

as repository of culture, 134–8as standard language in Natal,

124–6, 127and Zulu ‘mind’, 128, 154, 159–61,

163–5, 191and Zulu national identity, 155,

158, 159–62see also Bantu; ‘euphonic concord’;

Nguni; Xhosa languageZulu people, 9–10

as degraded, 138, 142, 158–63as high-status group, 122–3inhabitants of Natal as, 124, 126relationship to colonial power in

Natal, 127–8religious thought, 144–5, 164–5responses to missionaries, 128see also Bantu; Nguni; Xhosa people