Europe and the World 1870-1914. The Politics of Mapmaking 1885 only 11% of world’s surface surveyed Great leap forward 1890-1900 but no uniform map of.

Europe and the World

1870-1914

The Politics of Mapmaking1885 only 11% of world’s surface surveyedGreat leap forward 1890-1900 but no uniform map of the worldIssues of debate

Units of measurementLocation of the prime meridian

Advantages of uniformity standardized timekeeping in an age of railroads

Appropriate that Great Britain the geopolitical power the starting point for the measure of time and space

Britain’s Geopolitical Domination1914

European Balance of Power1870-1914

THE BIG FIVE

Balance of Power: Bismarck’s Plan to Keep the Peace

Three Emperor’s League (1873, renewed 1881)GermanyAustria HungaryRussia

Dual Alliance (1879)GermanyAustria Hungary

Triple Alliance (1882)GermanyAustria HungaryItaly

Reinsurance Treaty with Russia (1887)

Problems:Three Emperor’s League (1883)

Three most conservative powers in EuropePurpose: neutrality and consultationGeographic imperative for German Empire: avoidance of a two front warGeographic weaknesses

• Germany – North Sea ports and encirclement• Austria Hungary – size and diversity; agricultural

backwardness• Russia – still Catherine's Greek project-access to the

Mediterranean and warm water ports

Eastern Question and the Problem with Russia’s Answer

Russo Turkish Wars of the 19th Century1828-1829 Alexander Ypsilanti’s Greek Revolt

• Russian ambitions provoke England to support Greek independence movement – Romantic poets

• Treaty of Edirne (Adrianople)

1853-1856 Crimean War• Russia destroys Ottoman fleet and western Europe, leery of

Russian expansion plans, intervenes to prop up sick man of Europe

• Importance of western technology highlighted

1877-1878 Russo Turkish War• Treaty of San Stefano

• Congress of Berlin

Additional Approaches

Great BritainAcquires Sudan, Egypt, Cyprus, AdenProtects the entrance to the Suez Canal completed in 1869 and UK majority stockholder 1875) and route to India

GermanyBerlin to Baghdad Railroad (the Orient Express)

BalkansVarious bids for independence by host of ethnic groups

Catherine’s Greek ProjectControl the Bosporous to prevent blockadeCreate dependent Slavic states in the Balkan PeninsulaRusso-Turkish War 1876 a pretext for intervention

Serb revolt in Bosnia Herzegovina 1874 forces internal Turkish reformSerbia declares war on Turkey 1876Britain supports Ottomans for geopolitical reasons despite atrocities in Bulgaria (Tsveti’s connection to these)Russia supports Romania; captures Armenia Abdul Hamid II sues for peace 1878

Treaty of San Stefano March 1878

Gave Russia territory in the Caucasus, control of Kars

Control of the mouth of the Danube

Declared the straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean neutral and open to shipping in time of war

Treaty of Berlin Summer 1878Revised Treaty of San Stefano more in line with western demands

Bismarck afraid that Germany was losing status as a Great Power hosted the Conference as “honest broker”

UK, France, Austria Hungary, Italy, Germany, Russia, Ottoman Empire the signatories

Recognized independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria under Ottomans

Bosnia Herzegovina placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation

ConsequencesEstrangement among Great PowersRussia leaves Three Emperor’s League but renews agreement several years later after an agreement is reached regarding spoils of Ottoman EmpireAlliance system revampedBismarck signs series of treaties with Italy and Russia as wellFurther problems in the Balkans (1885) contribute to increased tension between Austria Hungary and Russia

French Geopolitical RealityTension with Germany as a result of loss of Franco-Prussian WarLoss of status on the continentHumiliating loss of Alsace LorraineIndustrially, militarily, demographically Germany provides threatIsolated by Bismarck’s diplomacy until 1894 when Germany’s Reinsurance Treaty lapses with Russia and French investment in Russia begins

Alliance System prior to War

1907

A series of independent diplomatic agreements

UK

1902

France

1894

Russia

Triple EntenteTriple Alliance

Germany

Austria Hungary

Italy

A military alliance

New ImperialismAcquisition of territories on an intense and unprecedented scaleIndustrialization

TransportationCommunicationAdvantages of industrial nation-states in marshalling resources

New level of domination New level of inequalityDestabilizing impact of rivalry

Motivation: Technology’s Impact

Steamships replace sailing ships• Carry more people and goods, more reliably and with predictability of

railroad timetables• Navigation of rivers like the Congo now possible

Engineering feats• Suez Canal - de Lesseps 1869; Britain has controlling interest 1875• Panama Canal

New types of firearms• Breech-loading rifles, repeating rifles, machine guns• Accurate aim, rapid fire from distances reaching ½ mile

Communication• 2 years to 2 months to hours thanks to telegraph lines and cables

Medical advances

Motivation: EconomicProfit for industry often predicated on risk

Can’t simply assess balance sheet

World wide network for investment and marketsKrupp armaments thrivesInvestment opportunities in diamonds in South Africa and railroads in China equally attractiveSearch for “sheltered markets” at the heart of Britain’s system of imperial preference

Pursuit of individual fortunesProtection of the standard of living of the working class

Joseph Chamberlain, mayor of Birmingham and foreign secretary 1895-1903

Need for new raw materialsCotton from Egypt and AsiaJute from India for twine, burlap, millions of jute bagsRubber and petroleum newly important

Motivation: GeopoliticsCertain geographical areas valuable for political reasonsStrategic imperative

Sahara occupied by France to protect Algeria

Proximity to sea routesSuez controlled financially by British shareholders 1875Egypt occupied 1882Mediterranean islands, Indian Ocean islands

Fueling bases and protection of coloniesDjibouti by France in Red SeaSingapore and Hong Kong by UK

Increase in naval budgets increase in military budgetsMilitary/industrial complexInfluence of military in political decision making increases

Motivation: NationalismPrestige for large and small nationsImpact of newspapers

Expansion as entertainment for otherwise dull and dreary livesImperial adventurers – teams to root forDaily report of square miles gained and peoples captured

Public opinionShaping policy - Public outcry in France to offset British advances in Egypt results in Brazza planting flags in the Congo basinManipulated by government – bread and circuses deflect attention from social problems in Germany

Jingoism – willingness to risk war for national glory

Motivation: OtherMissionariesScience – National Geographic Society, scientific expeditions to take meteorological, astronomical readings, collect specimensWealthy persons – the beginnings of eco tourism – hunting tigers, see sights need and expect their government’s protection when they travel abroadOutthrust of white man’s civilization

“White Man’s Burden” - UKCivilizing mission – FranceDiffusion of Kultur – GermanyButtressed by Social Darminism

The varieties of controlDirect

Military conquest and direct imperial controlTake over of the economic/productive life of the country, transforming large sectins of the population into wage earnersInequity heightened by racial differences

IndirectLend money to native rulers khedive of Egypt, shah of Persia to prop up thrones or live betterEuropean advisors to protect the financial stake

Extra-territorial rights and privileges

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for AfricaFrench military men seeking to carve out military careers in French West AfricaValuable minerals in Zimbabwe and ZambiaMissionaries – Malawi and UgandaStrategic reasons – French Djibouti, British EgyptTake so others can’t – Tanzania, Namibia, BotswanaPseudo scientific racial theories prominent after 1870 – blacks the least developed in the evolutionary sequence – imperial expansion in Africa “natural”Economic downturn after 1873 – grab land “in case” economically useful

Leopold II: The CatalystKing of Belgium motivated by sheer greed1876 established International African Association ostensibly to “stamp out” slaveryTrading stations established; ivory and rubber plantationsLobbies for formal European recognition of rights in the Congo Basin1884 International Conference held in BerlinCongo Free State established and rules for colonial acquisitions in Africa established“Effective occupation” involving real presence and the plan of economic development

Nature of the ScrambleEuropean - Conflict minimal

Fashoda 1898 Kitchener heads south along Nile; Marchand heads east for the Red Searesults in the Entente Cordiale - Africa not worth going to war overMoroccan crises

Africans – like shooting ducks in a barrelEthiopia the exception

The importance of modern weaponryMenelik II – concessions to France and Italy (Russia and Britain) in return for gunsGeneral Oreste Baratieri and PM Francesco CrispiBattle of Adowa 1896

South AfricaAfrikaners – the original Dutch settlers

Great Trek (1837-1844)Orange Free State and Transvaal established

British Cape ColonyGerman annexation of Namibia (1884)1886 gold deposits found in Witwatersrand

Need for capital investmentCecil Rhodes politician and financier – problems with Transvaal policies – Jameson raid

Alfred Milner’s policies to force unification

Boer War350,000 British troopsGuerilla warfareScorched earthConcentration campsDeaths 1902 – 25,000 Afrikaners, 22,000 British troops, 12,000 AfricansCost to Britain – “splendid isolation” no longer so splendid; segregation the model promised to Afrikaners