Ethnomedical uses of Zingiberaceous plants of Northeast India

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 132 (2010) 286–296

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

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thnomedical uses of Zingiberaceous plants of Northeast India

ushara,1, Supriyo Basaka,1, Gajen C. Sarmab, Latha Rangana,∗

Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, North Guwahati, Assam 781 039, IndiaDepartment of Botany, Gauhati University, Assam 781 014, India

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:eceived 30 April 2010eceived in revised form 9 August 2010ccepted 11 August 2010vailable online 18 August 2010

eywords:thnomedicineraditional knowledgeortheast Indiaingiberaceae

a b s t r a c t

Aim of the study: Family Zingiberaceae consists of large number of medicinal plants and is well knownfor its use in ethnomedicine. The objective of this study is to systematically analyse and document thetraditional knowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treatment of various humanailments from NE India, adding information to the valuation of biodiversity and, to forward suggestionsfor its sustainable use, conservation and for future pharmacological studies.Materials and methods: A survey on the utilization of medicinal plants belonging to Zingibereceae ofNorth-eastern states was carried out by interviewing herbalists followed by collecting plant specimensand identifying the specimen. Ethnobotanical information on traditional plants was catalogued throughstructured questionnaires in consultations with traditional healers.Results: A total of 34 species were documented belonging to 9 genera of Zingiberaceae for about 25 types

of ailments, 67.6% of which were used in curing multiple disorders. Arunachal Pradesh hosts maximumnumber of Zingiberaceous plant (88%). Rhizomes were found to be the primary plant material as a sourcefor medication and poultices as the predominant mode of preparation. Gastrointestinal conditions (58%)and chest and lungs (41%) related ailments were the main categories for which these plants are used.Conclusions: The study establishes Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family since 41% of all the availableZingiberaceous plant species in NE were found to possess medicinal value. Some new use of herbs also

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. Introduction

The Northeast (NE) region (located between 87◦32′E to 97◦52′Eatitude and 21◦34′N to 29◦50′N latitude) known for its geneticesources world over, is the Biogeographical Gateway to Indiand finds place in part of two-biodiversity hotspots in IndiaMittermeier et al., 2003). Ironically this is also one of the world’s

ost threatened area and the recent estimates indicate it would note long when all this will disappear in the next 15–20 years. Out ofhe estimated 800 species consumed as food plants in India, about00 species are found in Eastern Himalaya alone (Singh and Arora,

978). Despite awareness of their biological diversity, the regionemains disgracefully data-poor for a wide variety of plant taxa.owever the existing traditional knowledge based on plant andnimal resource remains a positive indicator for researcher. North-

Abbreviations: AP, Arunachal Pradesh; GU, Gauhati University; IITG, Indian Insti-ute of Technology Guwahati; IPNI, International plant names index; NE, northeast.∗ Corresponding author at: Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Department

f Biotechnology, Room No 201, O Block, IIT Guwahati, North Guwahati, Assam 78139, India. Tel.: +91 361 2582214; fax: +91 361 2582249.

E-mail addresses: latha [email protected], [email protected] (L. Rangan).1 Both these authors contributed equally.

378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.032

first time.© 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

east India politically consists of Arunachal Pradesh (AP), Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Theregion has a diverse ecotypes ranging from humid evergreen foreststo temperate and alpine vegetation. According to 2001 census, theregion witnesses 130 major indigenous communities and is hometo a number of archaic societies like Abor, Garo, Dafla, Khasi, Kuki,Mishi, Rabha, Naga, Apatani, etc. (Ramakrishnan, 1992; Dutta andDutta, 2005; Kala, 2005). These major indigenous communities arefurther categorized into sub-tribes, together accounting for closeto 300 (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).

The traditional communities of NE living here for thousands ofyears have built a precious knowledge base about the use of therich bio-resources of the region. The region has a strong heritageof herbal remedies and is very much an integral part of indige-nous culture of NE. The herbal healers are known as bejes, bejinis,boidyo, kobiraj, maiba, dhonontori, nong ai dawai kynbat, bawlpuin various ethnic groups. The usage of 2416 plants of ethnomedi-cal purposes in the country has already been documented, out ofwhich about 1953 plant species found its uses among different eth-

nic groups inhabiting the NE region of the country alone (Sajem andGosai, 2006).

The urbanization and reach of modern health system to remoteplaces and villages have led to negligence towards traditionalknowledge related to herbal medicine. In the state AP, the aborigi-

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als continue to live in rural areas having a strong hold to originalthnic faith with an exception of Apatani, which has 51.4% urbanopulation. Mizoram has large ethnic population (94.5%) of whichlmost 50% reside in urban areas. With this shift of the populationo urban areas, the dependence on modern medicine is likely toe on rise and thereby depletion of indigenous knowledge healthystem. Certain community like Nyishi people still continue toelieve that diseases are due to the evil spirits or because of break-

ng of the traditional rules. The knowledge of producing herbaledicine in a systematic ritual manner is acquired through ages

y experience and is very much guarded secretly among certainamilies and clan. The plants used and the methods of preparationf herbal medicine are often closely guarded secrets, usually onlyassed from father to the eldest son as the death of the formerpproaches. The healers from ethnic population keep their eth-omedicinal knowledge confidential as they justify that sharingnowledge with others will result in the loss of healing—a beliefhat is closely safeguarded. Apart from the factor mentioned above,he reason for the loss of knowledge is attributed to the folkloreature than a well-documented system. For the conservation of

ndigenous knowledge the proper documentation has been sug-ested (Rao, 2006). Moreover, the naturally occurring moleculesre in great demand as a new potent drug molecule due to evervolving microorganisms and their lack of side effects. Further ashe health care cost continues to rise speedily; the attraction of lowost remedies has stimulated consumers to re-visit the potential oflternatives (Bouldin et al., 1999).

The family Zingiberaceae well known for its immense medici-al values is distributed widely throughout the tropics, particularly

n Southeast Asia. Zingiberaceae family is an important natu-al resource that provides many useful products for food, spices,edicines, dyes, perfume and aesthetics (Jantan et al., 2003). India

s one of the richest and diverse regions for Zingiberaceae, having2 genera and about 170 species. The NE region of India is a zonef greatest concentration where 19 genera and about 88 speciesre reported (Prakash and Mehrotra, 1995). Most of the membersf Zingiberaceae are found here at wild states, which are yet toe explored. Local literature survey have pointed out that therere numerous medicinal plants described for treatment of manyiseases and herbal medicine. However, there is no report on eth-obotanical study of Zingiberaceae of NE to be effective in a veryide range of diseases. There is an utmost need for such studies as

he environmental scenario of the region is changing drastically dueo myriad number of anthropogenic activities and rapid urbaniza-ion. The conservation of the rich biodiversity and ethnobotanicalnformation requires strong steps. Various ethnobotanical surveysnd studies are a prerequisite in attaining these goals. The objec-ive of this study is to document and critically analyse traditionalnowledge regarding the use of Zingiberaceous plants for the treat-ent of various human ailments from NE India. Such a study may

dd information to the valuation of biodiversity and to forwarduggestions for its sustainable use and conservation.

. Methods

The current ethnopharmacological survey was conducted ineven states of NE, namely: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,eghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura by making field trips

o parts of NE during the period March 2008 to August 2009.rips were made to villages and areas inhabited by indigenous

eople during different seasons, so as to include wide number ofpecies of the family. A total of 14 communities (Apatani, Nyishi,ill Miris, Chakma, Khamptis, Adi, Bodo, Lushai, Thai-Ahom, Garo,akher, Pawi, Jaintia and Bork) were visited during the study. As theembers of the family Zingiberaceae are known to bloom during

acology 132 (2010) 286–296 287

monsoon season, a special account was taken to organize the visitsduring this season. Most of the Zingiberaceous plants are rare andsome are endangered too. Moreover many plants grew on slopesof hills, so at times; it was not only difficult but also inaccessiblefor collection and subsequent documentation. Since the choice ofindividual informant to be interviewed was of great importance tothe reliability of the information, all contacts were established withelderly and local practitioners. Before interviewing any respondent,the study team members explained the objectives of the study,methods and the plans for use of the data that were to be gener-ated from the interviews. Verbal consent to conduct the interviewswas sought from every respondent before the interview and wasgranted in every case. We selected healers who utilized medicinalplants as therapeutic substance and treated patients outside theirimmediate circle of family and friends. Particularly in some casesthey were the only known healer in the region. A total number of370 healers were interviewed. The healers were asked to identifythe plant species from his/her collection as well as from the naturalhabitat. A structured interview form was used to collect informa-tion in the local language and respondents were queried for theherbal remedy known to him or her for various diseases. Tradi-tional healers identified some of the not immediately recognizeddiseases based on the symptoms and physical examinations. Cer-tain diseases are known to healers not by name but by the specificsymptoms and condition, as exhibited by patient. These includegastric ulcer, pulmonary tuberculosis, gravel, pneumonia, ascitesand diabetes. The name of such disease has been assigned basedon the symptoms described by the healers. Since the traditionalhealers diagnose ailments only by physical examination so at timesthe disease is identified at a late and acute phase as in pulmonarytuberculosis and ascites. The mode of preparation and administra-tion were also recorded. The acquired data were also cross-checkedfor its pharmacological significance with the available literature. Alldoubtful and misleading cases where the informants showed littleknowledge concerning the identification of plant species either inthe field or from specimens were excluded from this survey and theinformation provided was discarded. A medicinal use was acceptedas valid only if it was confirmed by at least two separate healers. Theinformation obtained was documented in a tabular form. The dataincluded the botanical name, local name, location, plant parts used,mode of preparation, administration and their utility as remedy fortreating human diseases. The list of major ailments was compiledand the number of plants utilized in treatment was determined.

The collected plants along with the rhizome and flowers wereproperly tagged and maintained in the departmental green house,IITG and botanical garden of Gauhati University (GU). Hooker(1875) and Petersen (1889) were used as reference for identifica-tion of the plants. The features were also preserved as herbaria forfuture reference at Botanical Garden, GU and a copy of the same isbeing maintained at IITG with the authors. Taxonomists at BotanyDepartment GU, Assam, later identified the specimens. The botan-ical name was written as in IPNI database.

3. Results and discussion

The survey involved 34 plants belonging to 9 genera of the fam-ily Zingiberaceae from NE region of India. Most of the plant speciesgrow naturally in the different regions and their properties areimportant in traditional herbal medicine. Therefore some plantsare commonly cultivated for its use as spice and vegetables. The

number of healers from a particular community varied from 3 to79. During the process of this study, an average of 31 healers percommunity was interviewed. The average male informer to femaleinformer ratio was found to be 6:5. Interestingly in Garo communityfrom Meghalaya the number of female informer was found to be

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Table 1List of plants and their application in context to ethnomedicine as prevalent in use by various ethnic communities of NE region, India.

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental dataavailable

Alpinia allughas (Retx) ROS. Deotora (Chakma,Arunachal Pradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh Fruits and rhizome Crushed fruits are applied.Rhizome extract takenorally.

To treat ring worm.Antipyretic

Antioxidant (Vankar et al.,2006)

Alpinia bracteata Rosc. (SynAlpinia calcarata).

Latara (Khasi) Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Crushed rhizome Tooth decay, abnormalmenstruation

Antinociceptive(Arambewela et al., 2004),antioxidant (Thabrew et al.,2001)

Alpinia galanga L. Karphul, Kulajan(Assamese); Kanghoo(Manipuri); Aaichal (Mizo);King Pang (Khampti,Arunachal Pradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipuri, Mizoram,Nagaland

Rhizome and Shoot The rhizome is used tocreate a tincture that isapplied topically to treatfungal skin infections.Rhizome powder mixedwith young leaf paste ofEuphorbia neriifolia andapplied locally.Plant extract

Stimulant and carminativein flatulence, laxativedyspepsia, vomiting andsickness at stomach.Inflammation and skinallergy caused by insectbites or microbes.For abortion

Antifungal (Janssen andScheffer, 1985),Antiallergic (Matsuda et al.,2003a), Gastroprotective(Matsuda et al., 2003b),Antimycobacterial(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)

Alpinia malaccensis Rosc. Puprere (Adi, ArunachalPradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Rhizomes boiled withwater.

Abdominal pain Antioxidant (Habsah et al.,2000)

Alpinia nigra BURTT. Pullei (Manipuri); Tora(Assamese)

Assam, Manipur Tender shoot and rhizome Shoot extractRhizome extract is taken2–3 times daily.

Bone weakness, irregularmenstruation.Jaundice, gastric ulcers

Flukicidal (Roy and Tandon,1999), antimycobacterial(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)

Amomum aromaticumRoxb.

Borelachi (Chakma,Arunachal Pradesh);Bodaelachi (Assamese)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Seeds Seed paste Antidote to scorpion andsnakebite.

Antimycobacterial(Phongpaichit et al., 2006)

Amomum dealbatum Roxb. Aidu (Mizo); Alach(Kokborok); Alachi(Tripura)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Tripura

Rhizome leaves, seeds Rhizomes are crushed andfried lightly with mustardoil and applied to joints.Leave juice.Rhizome extract appliedlocally.Seeds powder mixed withequal amount of honey.

Joints painAntisepticAbscessesMuscular rheumatism

None

Amomum linguiformeBenth. and Hook.f.

Karpur (Tai-ahom) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Rhizome. Epidermis is removed fromrhizome under water.

Diabetes, High bloodpressure

None

Amomum subulatum Roxb. Bara elachi (Bengali) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Pods By boiling 2–3 pods for30 min in water. Strain anddrink the extract twicedaily for week.

Eye inflammation, kidneyand urinary disorder,infection of teeth, preventsand treats throat trouble,congestion of lung andpulmonary tuberculosis,asthma, heart disease,digestive disorder, cold,bladder disease, snake bite,scorpion bite, masticatory.

Antimicrobial (Islam et al.,1990), anti-inflammatory,analgesic andantispasmodic (Al-Zuhairet al., 1996)

Amomum zingiber L. Ardraka (Sanskrit) Assam, Meghalaya Rhizome Drinking of water extract ofdried rhizome for a month.

Filaria Antibacterial andAntifungal (Islam et al.,1990)

Costus speciosus Sm. Jamlakhuti (Assamese);Khongbam takhelei(Manipuri); Sumbul(Mizo); Jomalkhuti(Chakma, ArunachalPradesh); Myonpobap(Nyishi, ArunachalPradesh)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental dataavailable

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya,Nagaland, Tripura

Whole plant includingrhizome

Rhizome extractRaw plant is taken orally.Fresh rhizome extractorally taken twice daily for3 days.Raw seeds are chewedseveral times.Rhizome essential oil.Stem extract mixed withsugarcane juice is takenorally.Rhizome and stem areeaten raw.Warm stem juice isapplied.Dried powdered leaf andyoung stems mixed withlukewarm water.

Burning sensation,flatulence, constipation,helminthiasis, leprosy, skindiseases, fever, hiccough,asthma, bronchitis,bleeding from nose andmouth inflammation andanaemiaTonsillitisDog biteContraceptiveJaundiceUrinary problems andblood in urineSnake or insect biteBurning woundsFor curing piles

Sexual hormones andcontraceptives (Warrier etal., 1993)

Costus variagata L. Kewpachla (Assamese) Assam Leaf and stem Leaf and stem extract inwater.

For curing piles None

Curcuma amada Roxb. Amada (Assamese);Aiengpui (Mizo)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Mizoram

Rhizome Rhizome extract and paste. Carminative, bronchiolyticand vulnerary

Anti-inflammatory(Mujumdar et al., 2000),cholesterol loweringactivity (Srinivasan et al.,2008) antioxidant andantibacterial (Policegoudraet al., 2007)

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Yaipan (Manipuri); Gorusathaladhi (Assamese)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Nagaland

Rhizome Pudding using rhizomepowder with milk andsugar is used as generaltonic for children.The powder of rhizomeswith honey is applied onthe mucous membrane ofthe oral cavity.Rhizome paste is applied tocattle injured by leech.

Demulcent, antipyretic,effective against gravelStomatitisAid in blood coagulation

Antifungal (Banerjee andNigam, 1977)

Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Bon haladhi (Assamese);Lam-yaingang (Manipuri)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya

Rhizome Paste of rhizome with milkis used for blood dysenteryand stomach-ache.Paste of rhizome takenwith water.

Carminative, antidote tosnake bite, astringent andused for bruises, corns andsprainsKills intestinal worms

Inhibits proliferation ofhepatoma (Wu et al.,2000), anticancer activityperformed oneight-week-oldSprague–Dawley rats (Li etal., 2009).Larvicidal (Madhu et al.,2010)

Curcuma caesia Roxb. Kalahalud (Assamese);Amuba yaingang(Manipuri); Aihang (Mizo);Chongkah (Khampti,Arunachal Pradesh);Homen (Lohit, ArunachalPradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Mizoram

Rhizome and seeds The dried rhizome powderis mixed with powderedseeds of Andrographispaniculata and appliedduring insect, scorpion andsnake bite.Fresh rhizome juice alongwith mustard oil is givendaily.Rhizome paste

Against inflammationcaused by insect and snakebite (anti-inflammatory)and anti-asthmaticDysenteryFor healing of wound

Antimicrobial (Garg andJain, 1998), antifungal(Banerjee and Nigam,1976)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental dataavailable

Curcuma domestica (Medik)Valh.

Haldi (Assamese);Yaingang (Manipuri)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Nagaland

Rhizome The dried powder ofrhizome.

Against burn by fire(anti-inflammatory),flatulence, jaundice,Scabies

Anticancer activityperformed on nationalhuman prostate epithelialcell line PrEC and normalhuman bronchial epithelialcell line Beas2B (Shankarand Srivastava, 2007),antioxidant (Ramsewak etal., 2000),anti-inflammatory(Ramsewak et al., 2000;Chainani-Wu, 2003),antifungal (Apisariyakul etal., 1995), antibacterial(Kim et al., 2005), antiviral(Sindelarova et al., 1996)

Curcuma longa L. Haladhi (Assamese); Aieng(Mizoram); Khumein Nak(Khampti, Arunachal,Pradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya,Mizoram, Nagaland,Tripura

Rhizome Crushed rhizomes aretaken orally before food.Rhizomes are chewed forrelief from asthma.

DyspepsiaVasodilator

Anti-inflammatory,Antispasmodic activity(Ammon and Wahl, 1991),anti-HIV, antioxidant,anti-tumour, antivenom(Araújo and Leon, 2001)

Curcuma zedoaria (Christ.)Roscoe.

Keturi (Assamese);Aidizung (Mizo).

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Mizoram

Rhizome Rhizome extract Blood purifier, coughantiseptic, indigestion,wound healing, toothache,leucoderma, tuberculosis,enlargement of spleen andfor promotingmenstruation.

Anticancerous activity onHuman ovarian cancerOVCAR-3 cells (Syu et al.,1998)

Elettaria cardamomumMaton

Elassi (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Seeds and pods Infusion, powder, milkdecoction

Eye inflammation, kidneyand urinary disorder, totreat infection of teeth,prevent and treat throattrouble, congestion of lungand pulmonarytuberculosis, asthma, heartdisease, digestive disorder,cold, snake bite, scorpionbite, masticatory.

Antimicrobial (Islam et al.,1990), anti-inflammatory,analgesic andantispasmodic (Al-Zuhairet al., 1996)

Globba clarkei Baker. Silaadha (Chakma,Arunachal Pradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Rhizome extract mixedwith leaf extract ofAdhatoda vasica is takenorally.

To cure cough None

Globba multiflora Baker. Belah (Nyishi ArunachalPradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh Rhizome Crushed rhizome appliedlocally on wound.

Analgesic and Antipyretics None

Hedychium coccineumBuch.-Ham. ex Sm

Aichhia (Mizoram);Mansila (Lohit ArunacahalPradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh,Mizoram

Rhizome Rhizome paste appliedover swollen part.

Against swelling caused bybruises and wounds(Anti-inflammatory)

None

Hedychium coronariumKoenig.

Pakhila phul (Assamese);Tora (Chakma ArunachalPradesh)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Flowers, rhizome and stem Flower pasteRhizome extract preparedby boiling the rhizome inwater.Essential oil from rhizome.

Foetid nostrilsFebrifuge, tonic andantirheumatic swellingsAntihelmintic, tonic andmild tranquiliser

Antibacterial (Aziz et al.,2009)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental dataavailable

Hedychium spicatum SM. Takhellei-hanggam-mapan(Manipuri); Aithur (Mizo)Karpurakachari (Bengali)

Arunachal Pradesh,Manipur, Meghalaya,Mizoram

Rhizome Root decoctionPowder of root

Nausea, Bronchial Asthma,Halitosis, Vomiting andindigestion, expectorant;stimulant; stomachicTreatment of livercomplaint, treating fevers,vomiting, diarrhoea,inflammation, pains andsnake bite, heating potencyto the female, stimulant,expectorant, tonic,carmative

Antibacterial againstmethicillin andvancomycin resistantStaphylococcus aureus andfungal cultures (Bisht et al.,2006)

Kaempferia galanga L. Chandramula (Assamese);Sying khmoh, Sying shmoh(Khasi)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Leaves and rhizomes The rhizome is externallyused.Rhizome is taken orally.Used together with therhizomes of Z. montanum,and Z. officinale.

Treating indigestion, cold,pectoral and abdominalpains, headache,carminative and toothache,menstrual pain,insecticidal.Effective for dandruff orscabs on the head.Against poisoning whenthere is blood vomiting.Antidiarrheal

Larvicidal activity (Othmanet al., 2006), inhibitsactivity of Epstein–Barrvirus (Kanjanapothi et al.,2004), kills larvae of themosquito (Ahn et al., 2008)

Kaempferia pulchra Ridl. Khanjanburah (Assamese) Assam, Mizoram Rhizome leaves and stem Rhizome paste is used inthe treatment ofpneumonia and bronchialcomplaints.Steamed rhizomes, stemsand leaves for curingwound.

Pneumonia, bronchialcomplaintsWound healing

Topical anti-inflammatoryactivity (Pongprayoon etal., 1996)

Kaempferia rotunda L. Bhuyichampa (Assamese);Yai-thamna-manbi(Manipuri); Tuktinpar,Tuktinpar (Mizo)

Assam, Manipur, Mizoram Rhizome and leaves The rhizomes are used inlocal medicine by grinding(fresh or dried) and makinga paste with water. Thispaste is mixed with otherherbs and applied tosprains and covered with abandage.The leave paste is used asbody lotion.

Sprain ache, stomachic Insecticidal againstneonate larvae of theSpodoptera littoralis(Nugroho et al., 1996)

Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Bura-ud (Assamese);Naga-shing (Manipuri);Manthing (Mizoram);Banada (Bengali)

Assam, Manipur,Mizoram,Meghalay,Arunachal Pradesh

Rhizome Rhizome paste with salt isgiven orally once for twodays.

Indigestion/gas formation Anti-inflammatory,antiallergic, antioxidantactivity and are usedagainst asthma and muscleand joint pain(Jeenapongsa et al., 2003)

Zingiber chrysanthum Rosc. Sobleksin (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Fruit Rhizome powder is mixedin a glass of water anddrank in instances ofnausea.

Nausea Antioxidant (Adlercreutz,1984)

Zingiber montanum (Koen.)Link ex A. Dietr.

Banada (Assamese) Arunachal Pradesh, Assam Rhizome Used together with therhizomes of Z. officinale,and Kaempferia galanga.As a rhizome paste.

AntidiarrhealAntidote to snake venom

Anti-inflammatory activity(Khayungamnawee et al.,2009)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Botanical name Local name Location Parts used Mode of preparation Usefulness Experimental dataavailable

Zingiber officinale Rosc. Ada (Assamese); Shing(Manipuri)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur, Meghalaya,Mizoram, Nagaland,Tripura

Rhizome The juice extracted fromthe rhizome is mixed withmolasses and taken orally.Rhizomes along Nigellasativa and spider are madeinto paste and appliedlocally.Used together with therhizomes of Z. montanum,and Kaempferia galanga.

Promotes digestive power,cleanses the throat andtongue, dispels cardiacdisorders and curesvomiting, ascites, cough,dyspnoea, anorexia, fever,anaemia, flatulence, colic,constipation, swelling,elephantiasis and dysuria.Inflammation fromirritation caused bycaterpillar.Antidiarrheal

Rheumatism andinflammation of liver(Aiyer and Kolammal,1966; Kurup et al., 1979).Ingredient of Indukantamkashaya, Suranadi lehya,Talisapatravataka,Visvamrta etc. (Sivarajanand Balachandran, 1994)

Zingiber purpureum Rosc. Bon ada (Assamese) Pale;ramthing (Mizoram);Borahu (Assamese)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Mizoram

Rhizome Juice extracted fromrhizome.

Paralysis Antifungal (Ficker et al.,2003)

Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. EXSM.

Gathian (Assamese);Yaiimu (Manipuri)

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Manipur

Rhizome Mixture of Rhizomepowder and ripe Noni fruit(Morinda citrifolia) isapplied on sprains.Cooked and softenedrhizome was pressed intothe hollow and left for aslong as was needed.Ground and strainedrhizome material is mixedwith water and drunk.

Treats severe painTooth ache and cavitycough, asthma, worms,leprosy and other skindiseasesStomach ache

Anti-inflammatory (Elliottand Brimacombe, 1987)and anticancer activity onHL60 (humanpromyelocytes); LS174T,LS180, COLO205,COLO320DM (each humancolon adenocarci-nomacells); CCD-18 Co (humancolon normal fibroblast);AS52 cells (Chinesehamster ovary cells);RAW264.7 cells (mousemacrophages); 2F0-C25cells (human normalfibroblasts) (Murakami etal., 2002)

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Fig. 1. Frequency of plant parts used according to the mode of preparation of herbalmedicine. Decoction: aqueous extract of plant material; tinctures: alcoholic extractoaao

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f plant material; maceration: grinded and taken orally; poultices: grinded andpplied locally; essential oil: concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatileroma compounds from plants; raw plant: specified part of the plant either takenrally or applied locally.

igher than the male informer. This can be attributed to matrilinealature of Garo community. Among the states of NE region, AP was

ound to be floral rich as far as members of the family Zingiberaceaes concerned (88%). Plants like Zingiber officinale Rosc. and Curcumaonga L. were found to occur in all the 7 sister states and has a wideeographical distribution. All the documented plants were foundo be prevalent in use by local practioners for their therapeutic usegainst human disease and as herbal care as enlisted in Table 1. Ineneral the medicinal plants were collected by the males and pre-ared by the females. Various parts of the plants are being used aserbal medicine, although, rhizome was the most frequently usedlant part. This is well supported by the scientific literature as vari-us molecules and extract from the rhizome have shown bioactivityFicker et al., 2003; Lantz et al., 2005; Chien et al., 2008; Kumar andingh, 2008; Lee et al., 2009). Some medicinal preparations weressential oils extracted from various plants parts such as Curcumangustifolia Roxb., Curcuma caesia Roxb. showing antifungal activityBanerjee and Nigam, 1976; 1977), Alpinia malaccensis Rosc., Costuspiralis Rosc. and Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. showing antimicrobialnd antioxidant activities (Habsah et al., 2000). The essential oils aregood source of fragrance apart from having the desired therapeu-

ic use. Another thing that emerged out from the survey was that theractitioner used the plants singly or in association with differentlant species for treating human ailments. The use of single plants a therapy for an ailment was observed to be 84% while 16% oferbal preparation involved combination of plants. The remedies,hich involved merely the use of single plant, could be of great

nterest for the development of novel drugs as the exploration ofherapeutic activity bearing ingredients from a single plant, may beasier (Saikia et al., 2006).

The majority of herbal medicines were prepared in aqueousedium and the healers administer the remedies in various forms

ike poultices (32.3%), maceration (28.41%), decoction (27.4%), rawlant parts (6.5%), essential oil (3.2%) and tincture (1.6%) (The per-entage shown is over total number of preparations). The individualercentage breakdown of plant parts used in different type ofreparation further shows that tincture and essential oils are pre-ared only from rhizome (Fig. 1). The remedies were administeredrally or locally applied to the affected portion of the body accord-ng to the treated disease and preparation method. In addition to

ure herbal preparations, in some cases the drug was administeredlong with milk, ghee, honey, curd, etc. to enhance the effect of theerbal preparations or to make the preparations palatable.

In current survey, the use of only underground plant parts foredicinal purposes was found to be higher (56%) than the case

acology 132 (2010) 286–296 293

where both above and underground parts were used together(29%). The usages of aboveground plant parts were comparativelyless (only 15%). Rhizomes were used in most of the preparations(60%) followed by fruits (14%), leaves (12%), shoot (12%) and flower(2%). (The percentage shown is over total number of preparation).In two cases viz. Hedychium coronarium Koenig and Costus speciousSm. all plant parts were found to have a medicinal value.

Thirty-four medicinal plants were used in curing about 25 dif-ferent types of ailments, of which the highest number of plantspecies (58%) were used for the treatment of gastrointestinal dis-orders and 41% of them for curing chest and lungs related diseases(Fig. 2) (percentage calculated over total number of applications).The plants also showed effective activity as antipyretic, analgesicand anti-inflammatory. We observed that some plants were usedfor ailment like cardiac disorder, kidney and urinary disorder, skinrelated diseases, irregular menstrual cycle, diabetes and as abor-tifacient. The survey of scientific literature has yielded maximumreport of bioactivities against gastrointestinal ailments (Yamaharaet al., 1990; Matsuda et al., 2003b; Gilani et al., 2005) and as anantioxidant (Adlercreutz, 1984; Habsah et al., 2000; Ramsewak etal., 2000; Vankar et al., 2006). A large amount of literature is alsoavailable for anticancerous activity but this is not a generalizedfeature of this family rather attributed to promising affect of Cur-cuma genus. A close analysis revealed that about 67.6% plants areknown for their use to cure multiple disorders. Among these, Costusspecious and Elettaria cardamomum Maton were primarily effectiveagainst wide range of diseases. The rhizome powder from someplants such as Amomum subulatum Roxb., Curcuma aromatica Sal-isb., Elettaria cardamomum and Hedychium spicatum Sm. are usedas antivenom for snake and insect bite. Mostly the rhizome as awhole or as paste is used for medication. In certain cases, prepara-tion of medicine involved use of a mixture of herbs and sometimemolasses. The use of mixture of other herbs with Zingiberaceaemembers were also documented such as Alpinia galanga L. alongwith Euphorbia neriifolia L. for treating skin allergy, Curcuma caesiaalong with Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wallich ex Nees. asanti-asthmatic agent and anti-inflammatory in case of insect andsnake bite, Globba clarkei Baker along with Adhatoda vasica Nees.for treating cough, Zingiber officinale along with Nigella sativa L. asanti-inflammatory and Zingiber montanum (Koen.) Link ex A. Dietr.along with Kaempferia galanga L. and Zingiber officinale for treatingdiarrhoea.

It was interesting to note that most of the plants that were foundin all the 7 states of NE region had more or less same utility and beara similar resemblance from the other parts of India. There were alsoinstances where a particular plant species was used by a particularethnic community from one region for treating a particular diseaseand the same plant species with a different name was used by dif-ferent community from other location for treating an altogetherdifferent ailment. For example, Alpinia galanga is used as an anti-inflammatory agent by Khampit community in state of AP whilethe same species is also used as an abortifacient by ethnic commu-nity of Barak valley in Assam. Similarly, Amomum dealbatum Roxb.is used as an analgesic by indigenous communities in Assam suchas Lushai and Jaintia while it is used as an antiseptic in west Mizo-ram. Since the indigenous communities, which are residing in closeproximity uses a plant in a similar way against same ailment, theproximity of distance from one to another community might bean important factor in widening or narrowing the scale of herbalpractices.

The use of Amomum dealbatum species as an analgesic and as an

antiseptic has been reported earlier but its use against rheumaticjoints is a new report. The communities of Borok apply the crushed,fried rhizomes to relieve the joints pains. The use of Amomum lin-guiforme Benth. and Hook.f. against diabetes has been reportedearlier but its use against high blood pressure by the Nyishi com-

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ig. 2. Percentage use of Zingiberaceous plants for treating various human ailmentshat is also supported by large number of pharmacological reports. Percentage was

unity of AP is a new report. Use of Globba multiflora Wall. andedychium coccineum Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. species as an antipyreticsnd anti-inflammatory (in case of bruise and wounds) respectively,as never been reported till date. Similarly the property of Cos-us variagata L. is known for generation’s altogether but its use foruring piles is a new report.

From this study certain plants have emerged as critical species,hich deserves extra attention by researchers, and are possi-

le source of potent drug molecule. For example use of Alpiniaracteata Rosc. crushed rhizome as a cure for abnormal menstrua-ion. Another plant belonging to the same genus as previous, Alpiniaalanga L. is used as an abortifacient. These two examples arenkling towards presence of a potent molecule, which can moder-te hormone levels. Further in vitro studies can help in elucidationf the mechanism involved. Costus specious seed was found to besed as contraceptive and its importance is augmented by the facthat it is not used in combination with any other herbs. Zingiber pur-ureum Rosc. use against paralysis, points its activity as neural oruscular stimulant. A detailed study of the bioactive of the above

pecies may yield novel drug molecule.Apart from this study, there have been some reports of eth-

omedical survey, in which Zingiberaceous species from NE regionave been documented. In particular, some species that has beenited in other studies, but not reported in this study include Alpiniafficinarum Hance. (Sharma et al., 2001) and Hedychium dekianum.S. Rao & Verma (Kala, 2005). As 34 plant species have beeneported in this particular study and including the two other mem-ers that has been cited in other studies, the count reaches to 36. Aotal of 88 Zingiberaceae members have been reported from theE region alone out of which 41% have been found to possessedicinal property. Thus it can be said now that the discovery of

ifferent plant species belonging to the family Zingiberaceae usedy different ethnic communities of NE India lays the grounds forstablishing Zingiberaceae as a medicinal family.

. Conclusion

Northeast India is an important reservoir of rich flora withiverse ethnic population and their traditionally conserved knowl-

est percentage of plants used is observed for treatment of gastrointestinal ailmentsated over number of plants documented in the current study.

edge. In this study the information regarding the medicinal usesof Zingiberaceae family by aboriginal people of NE India was sys-tematically collected and critically analysed. A total of 34 plantspecies belonging to the family were identified to possess medicinalimportance and primary activity seems to be against gastroin-testinal ailments. This is also reflected by the scientific literature(Yamazaki et al., 2000; Gilani et al., 2005). In at least two ethniccommunities, the highest number of species used for the gastroin-testinal ailments have been found and it needs to be exploited.The unhygienic livelihood compounded by the excessive alcoholconsumption of the surveyed ethnic communities was found to bemajor concern of the severe gastrointestinal problems. This is fol-lowed by the chest related problems, which was due to excessivesmoking and chewing of tobacco among the males. The use of sin-gle plant as a therapy for an ailment was observed to be 84% whichis a good indication for future research leading to drug discovery.Poultices (32.3%) and maceration (28.41%) were the most frequentway of preparation and hence no complex procedure involved inapplication of these species. Alpinia bracteata, Alpinia galenga L.,Costus specious and Zingiber purpureum are some of the importantspecies for future work. The future research focused on coupledphytochemicals-pharmacological studies can help in elucidation ofnovel phytotherapeutic molecules. Most of the persons from whomwe had gathered the information are illiterate and at times thereis no script for the language they speak, hence the herbal practicesare running in mouth to mouth without any written documents.Therefore there is an utmost need to document the traditional andcultural practices including from remotely located region wherethe different communities has been living in harmony for century’saltogether.

The work has brought to light some hidden but popular prescrip-tions of ethnic group of the NE region. These new prescription willhelp mankind in short term, by providing improved phytothera-peutic preparations while an extensive pharmacological study will

elucidate new drug molecule. Though some scientific literature isavailable for most of the species, the specific properties of all thespecies has not been studied yet. A further pharmacological studyof these particular and scientifically unexplored properties of Zin-giberaceae appears promising. Further, a concrete list of plants

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nd their utilization will not only provide basic data for all stud-es aimed at conservation, cultivation, healthcare and economic

elfare of rural and indigenous people, but all future pharmaco-ogical and clinical studies. Since NE region is rich in species ofingiberaceae with majority of them possessing medicinal values41%), the extensive ethnobotancial study should be carried out.n urgent need to take step for conservation and inventory of Zin-iberaceae species from NE region including varieties from all theossible location is also felt, as the medicinal value of plants arenown to vary with the geographic location (Datte et al., 1998). Theharmacological study to identify the usefulness of plant againstparticular ailments and phytochemical study for identifying the

xact molecule(s) from such inventory is recommended. This reports the good example, which compiles the ethanobotanical informa-ion that may lead to the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals.

cknowledgements

The authors duly acknowledge the local herbalist in particularillage and other representative people for their immense help anduidance rendered during ethnobotanical field work. The authorsre also indebted to the Conservator of Forests and Field Directorf respective states of NE for granting permission to carry out thetudy. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Uni-ersity. Sincere thanks to Botany Department, Gauhati University,or identification and maintenance of plant material. Tushar thanksepartment of Information Technology (DIT) and SB thanks Min-

stry of Human Resources Development (MHRD), Government ofndia for fellowship. LR acknowledges funding by the Department ofnformation Technology, Ministry of Information Technology, Gov-rnment of India (DIT Grant No. DIT No: 0526/T/IITG/014/0809/38).

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