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The Middle English Physiologus:A Critical Translation and
Commentary
Mary Allyson Armistead
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of theVirginia Polytechnic
Institute and University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Artsin
English Literature
Dr. Anthony Colaianne, ChairDr. Joe Eska
Dr. Karen Swenson
April 12, 2001Blacksburg, Virginia
Keywords: Bestiary, Animals, Medieval Iconography, Middle
English
Copyright 2001, Mary Allyson Armistead
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The Middle English Physiologus:A Critical Translation and
Commentary
Mary Allyson Armistead
(ABSTRACT)
The tradition of the Physiologus is an influential one, and
informed medievalliterature not to mention medieval art and
architecturemore than we know. ThePhysiologus was an established
source of Medieval sacred iconography and didacticpoetry and still
continues to rank among the books which have made a difference in
theway we think (Curley x). Thus, our understanding of the
Physiologus and its subsequenttradition becomes increasingly
important to the fields of medieval literature, humanities,
andart.
Considering the vast importance of the Physiologus tradition in
the Middle Ages,one would expect to find that scholars have edited,
translated, and studied all of the variousversions of the
Physiologus. While most of the Latin bestiaries and versions of
thePhysiologus have been edited, translated, studied, and glossed,
the Middle English (ME)Physiologusthe only surviving version of the
Physiologus in Middle Englishhasneither been translated nor
strictly studied as a literary text. In light of the
Physiologustraditions importance, it would seem that the only
version of the Physiologus that wastranslated into Middle English
would be quite significant to the study of medieval literatureand
to the study of English literature as a whole.
Thus, in light of this discovery, the current edition attempts
to spotlight thisfrequently overlooked text by providing an
accurate translation of the ME Physiologus,critical commentary, and
historical background. Such efforts are put forth with the
sincerehope that such a critical translation may win this
significant version of the Physiologus itsdue critical and literary
attention.
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iii
Acknowledgements
Translating the Middle English Physiologus and creating this
present edition canbe likened to the blossoming of a rose bud: what
once seemed so tightly contained and neat becamemore and more
complex as it continued to unfold, unravel and blossom under the
scope ofresearch and the process of translation. However, at the
same time, I must admit that it hasbeen a privilege to be allowed
to try and create a translation of a text that is just beginning
tobe seriously studied and understood.
It is my pleasure to thank those who have helped me in my
attempt to create thispresent edition. My first debt is to my
thesis director, Dr. Anthony Colaianne, who firstinspired me to
pursue my long held interest in the bestiary and Physiologus
tradition duringa summer school course in Early English Authors. I
am also grateful to ChristopherMcClinch and Michael Frase for their
constant reminders that a translation of the MiddleEnglish
Physiologus is a worthwhile endeavor, and I would also like to
extend my gratitudeto T.H.White, whose charming translation of a
twelfth century bestiary inspired me to createa translation of my
own.
I would like to thank my three thesis advisors -- Dr. Colaianne,
Dr. Joseph Eska,and Dr. Karen Swenson -- for reading consecutive
drafts of this edition. Dr. Colaianne andDr. Eska have been a
tremendous help with the translation itself and have
providedinsightful editorial remarks and constructive criticism on
the various commentary includedin the edition. I would also like to
thank all three advisors for the reassurance and boosts
ofconfidence throughout the often intimidating process of writing a
Masters thesis.
Finally, I am indebted to all of the scholars who have dedicated
their lives, theircareers, and their hard work to the study of the
bestiary and Physiologus tradition andgenre. Their hard work and
discoveries have made a critical commentary and compilation ofthe
Middle English Physiologus possible. I would especially like to
thank Hanneke Wirtjesfor her comprehensive edition of the Middle
English Physiologus, as her remarkableedition inspired me to create
a modern translation of the Middle English Physiologus.
Last, but not least, I extend my utmost thanks to the British
Library in London,England for allowing me to view the manuscript of
the Middle English Physiologus with my
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iv
own eyes, and for granting me permission to reproduce a
facsimile of the manuscript itself.I am indebted to their service
and assistance.
I have had all the help that I could wish for, and I sincerely
hope that this presenttranslation and commentary are worthwhile,
helpful, and insightful to bestiary scholars,medieval scholars, and
literary scholars alike.
M.A. Armistead
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vContentsChapter 1:
Introduction......................................................................................1Chapter
2: The Physiologus Tradition
..............................................................3
2.1 0rigin
...................................................................................................32.2
Sources
................................................................................................42.3
Tradition and
History.......................................................................52.4
Significance in the Middle Ages
......................................................7
Chapter 3: The Middle English Physiologus
......................................................93.1 The
Manuscript..................................................................................93.2
The Text
............................................................................................113.3
Sources
..............................................................................................123.4
Audience
...........................................................................................13
Chapter 4: Translators Note
...........................................................................14Chapter
5: The
Translation..............................................................................16
5.1 The
Lion............................................................................................165.2
The Eagle
..........................................................................................235.3
The
Serpent.......................................................................................335.4
The Ant
.............................................................................................435.5
The
Hart............................................................................................515.6
The
Fox..............................................................................................635.7
The Spider
........................................................................................725.8
The
Whale.........................................................................................775.9
The
Siren...........................................................................................855.10
The
Elephant....................................................................................915.11
The
Turtle-Dove.............................................................................1025.12
The Panther
....................................................................................1065.13
The Dove
.........................................................................................114
Bibliography
......................................................................................................118Vita......................................................................................................................121
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Chapter I: Introduction
Every creature of the world Is like a book and a picture
To us, and a mirror.-- Alan of Lille
Animals have long fascinated ustheir strength, their beauty,
their peculiarities.They have informed our most sacred myths and
legends and influenced our most belovedliterature and art. The
Middle Ages are no exception to this phenomenon, as the
literatureand art of this period are rich with animal iconography,
symbols, and allegory. However,what is so significant about the
animal exempla and iconography that frequent medieval artis that
they originate from a most curious and often overlooked
traditionthe tradition ofthe Physiologus. When Chaucer, for
instance, features the turtle-dove who professesmarital fidelity in
the Parliament of Fowls, he is drawing upon this very tradition,
and heeven refers to the Physiologus specifically in The Nuns
Priests Tale:
Agayn the sonne, and Chauntecleer so freeSoong murier than the
mermayde in the see(For Physiologus seith sikerlyHow that they
syngen wel and myrily). (3269 - 72)
This tradition of the Physiologus is an influential one, and
informed medieval literaturenot to mention medieval art and
architecturemore than we know. As Michael Curleynotes in his recent
edition of the Latin Physiologus, the Physiologus was an
establishedsource of Medieval sacred iconography and didactic
poetry and still continues to rankamong the books which have made a
difference in the way we think (x). Thus, ourunderstanding of the
Physiologus and its subsequent tradition becomes
increasinglyimportant to the fields of medieval literature,
humanities, and art.
Considering the vast importance of the Physiologus tradition in
the Middle Ages,one would expect to find that scholars have edited,
translated, and studied all of the variousversions of the
Physiologus. While most of the Latin bestiaries and versions of
thePhysiologus have been edited, translated, studied, and glossed,
I was surprised to find thatthe Middle English (ME) Physiologusthe
only surviving version of the Physiologus inMiddle Englishhas
neither been translated nor strictly studied as a literary text. In
light of
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2the Physiologus traditions importance, it would seem that the
only version of thePhysiologus that was translated into Middle
English would be quite significant to the studyof medieval
literature and to the study of English literature as a whole.
While there have been several critical editions of the ME
PhysiologusWright(1837), Morris (1969), Wirtjes (1991) and an
excerpt in the Middle English LiteratureAnthologythere is no
existing modern translation. Although Reverend Morris
providesmodern English glosses in the margins of his edition, they
hardly constitute a translation.Of course, Morris was glossing the
text, not translating the text, so this is to be expected.Hanneke
Wirjtes 1991 edition of the text also does not provide a
translation of the text, butdoes include a very thorough glossary
of all of the words appearing in the MEPhysiologusincluding their
origin and etymology.
In light of this discovery, the current edition attempts to
spotlight this frequentlyoverlooked text by providing an accurate
translation of the ME Physiologus, as well as (1)background
information on the Physiologus tradition and the ME Physiologus
specifically(2) the transcription of the original manuscript of the
ME Physiologus and (3) criticalcommentary. The critical commentary
focuses not on linguistic concerns per se but (1) thevisual
appearance of the original manuscript, (2) the reasoning behind
particularly difficultsections in the translation, (3) the
structure, content, and organization of the text (4)similarities
between the ME Physiologus and other versions of the Physiologus,
(5) sourcesthat may have influenced the ME Physiologus, both
directly and indirectly, and (6) parallelsbetween Middle English
Literature and the ME Physiologus. Such efforts are put forth
withthe sincere hope that such a critical translation may win this
significant version of thePhysiologus its due critical and literary
attention.
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3Chapter 2: The Physiologus Tradition
In order to fully understand the significance of the ME
Physiologus, it is essential tounderstand the tradition of which it
is a partits origin and purpose, its sources andinspiration, its
history, and its significance in the Middle Ages.
2.1 Origin
The Physiologus is an ancient tradition, although the date and
location of its origin isspeculative. It is accepted that the
initial work entitled Physiologus originated in Alexandria,Egypt
around the year 140 A.D. However, other scholars such as Carl
Ahrens, M. R.James, and Max Wellman, argue that the Physiologus was
was composed much later in thefourth century. The author of this
text is also ambiguous, although at one time or another, ithas been
suggested that either Aristotle, Peter of Alexandria, Epiphanios,
John Chrysostom,Athanasius, Ambrose, or Jerome may have authored
the Physiologus. However, a definiteauthor remains unknown.
Written in Greek, the original Physiologus (Greek for The
Naturalist) describedthe characteristics of animals and birdsboth
real and fantasticaland provided allegoricalinterpretations of the
characteristics enumerated. T.H. White described the Physiologus
asa kind of naturists scrapbooka compilation of animal description,
lore, and myth.
However, the Physiologus is not to be confused with a work of
natural history suchas Aristotles Historia animialium (231).
Rather, it was a sort of allegorical worka workmeant to instruct
individuals in Christianity through the compelling and
entertainingexempla of animals. As L. A. J. R. Houwen explains in
Animal Parallelism in MedievalLiterature and the Bestiaries,
whereas Aristotles Historia animalium had aimed at asystematic
investigation of nature, the Physiologus tried to explain and
justify the ways ofGod to men (483). Nature, as Wirtjes explains in
her edition of the Middle EnglishPhysiologus, [wa]s not studied for
its own sake but for what it [could reveal] aboutGods purpose and
about how [to] conduct [ones life] (lxix).
In short, the Physiologus is best described as the great
source-book of Christiannature symbolism, in which nature is not
treated as an object of scientific study, but as ametaphor for
Christianity and for God (Diekstra 142). For instance, the Eagle
soaring tothe sky and plunging into a cool well becomes an allegory
for baptism, while the descent of
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4the lion from the hilltop becomes an allegory for Christs
descent to Earth. In this sense,visibilia (animals) were thought to
reflect invisibilia (God).
2.2 Sources
The sources and roots of this animal lore, description and
allegory are difficult todetermine. As Michael Curley notes in his
recent edition of Physiologus, we know of nosingle source which
provided [the author of the Physiologus] with the material for
hiswork, as it draws upon pseudo-science, folk legends, and animal
lore that was common toa number of Eastern Mediterranean
culturesRoman, Egyptian, Hebrew, Greek, Indian(xxi). The
descriptions of the animals featured in the Physiologus, for
instance, are informedby and can be traced to ancient sources,
including Aristotle (4th c. B.C.), Pliny (1st c. A.D.),Oppian (late
2nd c. AD), Aelian (2nd/3rd c. AD), Solinus (3rd c. AD), Horapollo
(4th or5th c. AD), and others.
Although the animal lore present in the Physiologus stems from a
wide variety ofsources, the Physiologus frequently alters or shapes
these sources in order to harmonizethem with Christian doctrine. As
Wirtjes notes, such descriptions are there only so that amoral can
be drawn (lxxi). That is to say, what was essential to the author
of thePhysiologus was not necessarily the natural history of
animals, but the way that naturalhistory could lend itself to
Christianity. In this way, the author of the Physiologus fusedpagan
sources with Christian moral and mystical teaching, creating a work
that is whollyoriginal in its deliberate application of animal lore
to illustrate Christian doctrine (White21).
Aside from the descriptions of the animals featured in the
Physiologus, its mannerof teachingusing visible marvels (visibilia)
to inculcate the basic tenets of the Christianfaithcan also be
traced back to an earlier source and tradition. Specifically, the
didacticflavor of the Physiologus finds its roots in the
Judeo-Christian method of biblical exegesisthat was practiced in
Alexandria by such Christian theologians as Origen in the 2nd and
3rdcenturies. As Houwen notes, the spirit of the Physiologus is
indeed very similar toOrigens Commentary on the Song of Songs, as
it, like the Physiologus, professes thephilosophy that the
invisible truths of God can be known through the visible marvels of
thisworld:
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5The Apostle Paul teaches us that the invisible things of God
may be knownthrough the visible (invisibilia Dei visibilius
intelligantur), and things whichare not seen may be contemplated by
reason of and likeness to those thingswhich are seen. He shows by
this that this visible world may teach about theinvisible and that
earth may contain certain patterns of things heavenly, sothat we
may rise from lower to higher things (ut ab his, quae deorsum
sunt,ad ea, quae sursum sunt possimus adscendere) and out of those
we see onearth perceive and know those which are in the heavens.
.And perhaps everysingle thing on earth has something of an image
and likeness (habent aliquidimaginis et similitudinus in
caelestibus) in heavenly things. (trans. Houwen483)
The Physiologus, in this sense, is reminiscent of Neoplatonic
philosophy (of which Origenwas a part), as the visible world is
regarded as a reflection of an absolute idealGod andHis ultimate
purpose. It is certainly possible, then, that this element of the
Physiologus isrooted in Christianized Neoplatonic theology and
doctrine.
2.3 Tradition and History
With its diverse roots in Eastern Mediterranean lore, Classical
natural history,Judeo-Christian exegesis, and quite possibly
Neoplatonism, the Physiologus becameimmensely popular all over the
world and was subsequently translated into a diversity oflanguages:
Ethiopian, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic, Latin, Russian, Flemish,
Provencal, OldEnglish, Middle English, Icelandic, and many others.
According to E.P. Evans, no bookexcept the Bible has ever been so
widely distributed among so many people and for somany centuries as
the Physiologus (62).
According to Willene Clark and Meredith McMunn in their critical
work Birds andBeasts in the Middle Ages, scholars have recovered
and identified over 64 distinct Latinversions and over a hundred
distinct vernacular versions (in all different languages) of
thePhysiologus or its descendent, the bestiary. Classification of
these versions is based on anumber of factors: (1) geographical
origin (2) the language in which it is written (3) anydifference in
content (the description or allegories of the animals).
What is especially interesting to note amongst these bestiaries
and various versionsof the Physiologus is that the meanings and
Christian equivalents of the animals enumerated
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6continually shift and alter from one version of the Physiologus
to the next, and from oneredactor to another. In many instances, as
well, the Christian equivalents are often acomposite of various
other versions of the Physiologus. Nevertheless, from one version
ofthe Physiologus to anotherand even within the same version of a
Physiologustheunicorn is often Christ as well as Satan; the fox is
often wisdom as well as fraud. AsUmberto Eco says so succinctly, it
was a kind of polyphony of signs and references(56). Or to borrow
the terms Dante Alighieri coined in his Letter to Con Grande,
theallegorical significance of the animals in the Physiologus and
bestiary tradition waspolysemous.
Although the Physiologus has been translated into a host of
languages, the majorityof the translations that have survived are
in Medieval Latin. The Latin redactions can beclassified into four
main groupsversiones x-, y-, a-, and b-. Versio x is found in
themanuscript known as Bern 318, which dates back to the ninth
century. This translation,however, did not have any influence, as
far as we know, on any of the other Latin orvernacular versions of
the Physiologus. All other versionsLatin and vernacularcan betraced
back to versio y-. However, as Wirtjes notes, versio y- has not
been preserved andcan only be reconstructed from its surviving
descendants, versiones a- and b- (lxxiii).Versio a- is the longer
of the two versiones, although its influence on later versions of
thePhysiologus is limited. However, versio b-, although it is the
shorter of the two texts, liesbehind all the later Latin and
vernacular versions (lxxiii).
Versio b- inspired several Latin manuscripts that feature
excerpts from thePhysiologus, such as the Glossary of Ansileubus,
the Dicta Chrysostomi, Hugh of St.Victors De bestiis et aliis
rebus, and many others. Versio b- also inspired the most well-known
Latin Physiologus, or at least the version that was most familiar
to Medievals theTheobaldus-Physiologus which was an
eleventh-century metrical version of thePhysiologus. This version,
which describes only thirteen animals and features a uniquechapter
on the spider, is the very version that certain authors from the
Middle Ages arereferring to when they quote the Physiologus as an
authority. As Curley explains, thisversion was popularly used as a
school text, and thus authors of the Middle Ages were mostfamiliar
with it above all other versions of the Physiologus (xxviii).
The various Latin versions were then translated into various
vernacular Europeanlanguages, including French, German, Italian,
Middle English, and Old English. However,by the twelfth century,
several of these Latin and European vernacular versions
gradually
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7developed into a popular nature-book known as a bestiary. These
bestiaries wereinspired by Isidores Eytmologiesan encyclopedic
compendium of etymologies andanimal lore which included various
excerpts from the Latin versions of the Physiologusaswell as by
other writers who drew upon and edited excerpts from the
Physiologus (AlbertusMagnus, the Hugh of Saint Victor, Alexander
Neckham, and Bartholomew Anglicus). Thegradual absorption of such
material resulted in the bestiarya work that differed fromthe
Physiologus, as it included more chapters, incorporated Isidores
etymologies, adoptedan encyclopedic categorization of chapters into
mammals, fish, birds, and fictitious animals,and frequently
featured illustrations of the animals enumerated. Thus, even though
thebestiary tradition stems from the tradition of the Physiologus,
the two are distinct and fairlydifferent from one another.
2.4 Significance in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, the bestiaries tended to be more popular
than the variousversions of the Physiologus, as the bestiaries
tended to include illustrations. However, thePhysiologus, rather
than the bestiary, was used as the definitive text in schools,
themonastery, and in sermons that were intended for mass audiences
(McMunn and Clark 3).As a result, the Physiologus was the primary
source for Christian iconography and washeavily alluded to in
medieval literature (Chaucer, for instance, refers to the
Physiologus inthe Nonnes PriestsTale: For Physiologus seith
sikerly). 1
The Physiologus and bestiary tradition was so incredibly
important to people of allclasses in the Middle Ages because it
perceived the animal kingdom, and all of nature, as anallegory of
God and of Christianity. The zeitgeist of the Middle Ages was that
of atheocentric world, and all of nature was regarded as a
reflection of God himselfas avisible sign system that signified the
spiritual and the holy. As Hugh of St. Victor explains:visible
beauty is an image of invisible beauty. According to Eco in his
dissertation Artand Beauty in the Middle Ages, nature was meant to
be studied and read the way the Biblewas studied and
readallegorically (56). That is to say, nature and the animal
kingdomwere seen as earthly instructors of the divine and holya
philosophy that is stronglyreminiscent of the ancient Christian
theology of Origen in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
1 Because of the sheer number of bestiaries and versions of the
Physiologus in existence, it is very difficult
for literary scholars to draw clear and distinct parallels
between a specific descendent of the Physiologustradition and a
literary work (from this time period or any other).
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8In this way, the Physiologus and bestiary tradition offered
Medievals a glimpse ofGod and His word, as the animals
enumeratedboth real and fictitioussignified certainspiritual
figures, Christian practices, or guidelines for leading a devout
Christian life. Whileit may strike us as odd that fictitious
animals could be seen as illustrations of invisiblebeauty, the
Medievals did not find this problematic. As T.H. White suggests, it
did notmatter whether certain animals existed; what did matter was
what they meant (245). In thisregard, mythical animals became just
as real as live flesh-and-blood animals in the medievalmind, as
they, too, offered a glimpse of God.
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9Chapter 3: The Middle English Physiologus
The ME Physiologus is a curious text and one that is quite
significant to scholarlystudy, as it is the only existing version
of the Physiologus written in Middle English. Inorder to appreciate
the significance of this text, however, it is important to
understand itsorigin, its style and appearance, its sources and
inspiration, and its intended audience.
3.1 The Manuscript
The manuscript of the ME Physiologus was discovered by Lord
Arundel (1585-1646) in Norwich Cathedral Priory in the East
Midlands of England. The ME Physiologusis found in folios 4v-10v of
the Arundel 292 manuscriptnamed after its discovererandis currently
kept in the British Library in London, England. In the manuscript,
the MEPhysiologus appears after The Creed, The Lords Prayer, Hail
Mary, In manuas tuas,Three things that make me fear, and Meditation
on death (all of which are written in MEverse) and before the
Fables of Odo de Cheriton (written in Latin prose). As
Wirjtesnotes, none of the original items that appear in Arundel 292
are inappropriate for thelibrary of a religious foundation
(xii).
The redactor of the text is anonymous, and scholars debate over
whether there wasone redactor or several, as the manuscript
reflects two or possibly three different styles ofhandwriting.
However, as Wirtjes notes, the body of the text is clearly written
in one hand,and one hand only, while additions and corrections in
the margins appear to be written inanother hand (possibly two) (x).
Wirtjes theorizes that this second (and perhaps third)hand made
these additions after the initial date of composition.
Nevertheless, the redactor(or redactors) were most likely monks
residing in Norwich Priory.
Aside from the identity of the redactor and the number of
redactors, the date ofcomposition is also difficult to determine;
however, scholars generally agree that the MEPhysiologus was
created sometime around the year 1250, although this date is
muchdebated. Wirjtes argues that the text was actually composed
much earlier, as the vellum andhandwriting of the manuscript dates
from the thirteenth century, while the language of thetext dates
from the twelfth century. Wirtjes attempts to explain this by
suggesting that theME Physiologus currently held at the British
Library may be a transcription of an earlierME Physiologus that was
originally composed in the twelfth century. She postulates thatour
ME redactor copied litteratim this supposed original nearly almost
a century later,
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10
which explains why a text that has come down to us in a
manuscript of around 1300 iswritten in the language of the previous
half-century (lii). According to Wirtjes, if the MEPhysiologus was
indeed a transcription of an earlier, pre-existing ME Physiologus,
wemight be able to explain why there are so many mistakes,
misspellings, and missing wordsin the current manuscript, as such
errors may indicate a garbled transmission. However,such theories
are speculative, as this supposedly original manuscript has not
beenrecovered nor identified. As such, we are left with different
dates for the vellum andhandwriting of the ME Physiologus and the
language of the ME Physiologus. Therefore,scholars tend to base the
date of the manuscript on material evidence handwriting,
paper,inkand theorize that the twelfth-century old language has
somehow been maintained wellinto the mid thirteenth-century. More
evidence and research is certainly needed in this areabefore a
conclusive date for the manuscript can be established.
In the manuscript itself, the ME Physiologus is one continuous
fourteen-page blockof prose. There are no spaces, headings, or
paragraph breaks. There is no punctuationexcept for a punctum (a
dot) that functions as sort of a multi-purpose punctuation
mark.That is to say, the function of the punctum shifts, since it
can be equivalent to a colon,comma, semi-colon, exclamation point,
question mark, or even a period. Interestingly, thefirst letter of
the first word following a punctum mark is written in red, working,
in a way, toemphasize the punctum itself. Wherever a punctum mark
is absent, there are long series ofdashes or scrolls written in
red. Finally, the majority of the text is written in lower
caseletters with the exception of the first letter of the word that
begins a new section and a fewrandomly capitalized letters.
The text is comprised of thirteen chapterseach on a different
creature: the lion, theeagle, the serpent, the ant, the hart, the
fox, the spider, the whale, the mermaid, the elephant,the turtle
dove, the panther, and the dove. For the most part, each chapter is
separated intotwo Latin headingsNatura and Significaciowhich
signify the description of the beastand the corresponding moral
allegory. However, there are deviations: the final chapteronthe
Dovecombines the description and the allegory into a single
passage, and the chapterson the Lion and Hart feature more than one
moral allegory; the Lion chapter presents aSignificacio prime
nature (The Significance of the First Characteristic) and the Hart
chapterpresents a Significacio prima (First Significance) in
addition to a Significacio(Significance). Similarly, the chapter on
the Fox presents a second heading entitledSignificacio. The
chapters on the Lion, the Serpent, and the Hart also feature
numerical
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11
abbreviations in their headings, which designate the 1st, 2nd,
or sometimes 3rd quality of ananimal: ija, iija, etc.
Nevertheless, all chapter headingsNatura, Significacio,
Significacio prima,Significacio prime nature and the name of the
animalappear in red, are bracketed bypuncti, sometimes followed by
extended dashes (---------), and are always found either inthe text
at the end of a line or in the margins of the manuscript itself
3.2 The Text
The ME Physiologus is complex in terms of its language and
metric structure. Thevocabulary of the ME Physiologus is a curious
combination of French, Scandinavian, andAnglo-Saxon. As Wirtjes
notes, the largest part of the vocabulary featured in the
MEPhysiologus is Anglo-Saxon, while a considerable number of words,
often nouns andverbs denoting ordinary things and activities and
also prepositions and conjunctions areScandinavian (xxxi). French
borrowings tend to be incidental, as Wirjtes describesthem, as they
tend to only fill a lexical gap, such as the names of animals.
Nevertheless,the majority of the text is Anglo-Saxon in
vocabulary.
Aside from vocabulary, the text is also complex in terms of its
metre and form.Wirtjes identifies four different metrical forms in
the ME Physiologus:
(1) septenaries for the Nature and the Significance of the
turtle dove(2) couplets, both three and four stress, that follow
the rhyme scheme aabb for theHart, the Whale, the Elephant, the
Panther, the Dove, the Nature (but not theSignificance) of the
Eagle, and the Significance (but not the Nature) of the Fox andthe
Mermaid(3) ballad stanzas for the Significance (but not the Nature)
of the Eagle(4) alliterative long line for the Lion, the Ant, the
Spider, the Nature (but not theSignificance) of the Fox and the
Mermaid (not to mention that several of thealliterative long line
sections turn into septenaries).
Needless to say, the ME Physiologus is very complicated in terms
of its metrical form.Wirtjes suggests that the text is so diverse
because the ME redactor was attempting toimitate the range of
metrical forms in the very version of the Physiologus that he
wassupposedly translatingthe Theobaldus-Physiologus of the eleventh
century (liv-lv).
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12
Looking at the text, one might go so far as to say that the
redactor is showing off, asthough he were in direct competition
with Theobald.
3.3 Sources
According to Wirtjes, the ME Physiologus is a descendent of the
Theobaldus-Physiologus. Like the Theobaldus-Physiologus, the ME
Physiologus contains thirteenchapters and is written in a wide
variety of metrical forms (lxxix). For this reason,
Wirtjesclassifies this text as a version of the Physiologus rather
than a bestiary, since it is a directdescendent from a Latin
version of the Physiologus and contains no etymologies
norclassification schemes (classifying animals into distinct
chapers on fish, birds, and animals)after Isidore. Wirtjes rightly
notes the definition and distinction between the two genres;thus,
according to this definition, the ME Physiologus is most certainly
a version of thePhysiologus and not a bestiary.
Although the ME Physiologus is a descendent of the
Theobaldus-Physiologus, it ishardly a literal translation, as the
text frequently departs from the Theobaldus-Physiologus.As Wirtjes
notes, the ME poet did not set out to produce a slavish rendering
of hissource (xci). The greatest differences between the ME
Physiologus and the Theobaldus-Physiologus is that the ME
Physiologus deletes the original chapter on the
Onocentaur,transposes the chapters of the Fox and the Stag, and
adds an entirely new version of theSpider. There are also minor,
yet significant, ways the ME Physiologus departs from
theTheobaldus-Physiologusall of which are addressed in detail in
the critical commentaryfollowing each translated chapter.1
Aside from drawing upon the Theobaldus-Physiologus, the ME
redactor was alsosomewhat inspired, it seems, by a wide variety of
other sources, although as Wirtjes notes,the ME redactor consults
other sources but rarely and bases his Physiologus primarily
onTheobalds Physiologus (xci). Nevertheless, the ME redactor draws
on other booksrecording animal lore, such as Alexander Neckhams De
naturis rerum (12th c A.D.), theDicta Chrysostomi, and Hugh of St.
Victors De bestiis et aliis rebus (12th c A.D.).1 It isalso quite
possible that Bartholomew Anglicus De proprietatibus (12/13th c
A.D.)inspired the ME Physiologus; however, as the date of
Bartholomews text is uncertain(1260
1 All source criticism is not discussed here, but in the
critical commentary sections following each
translated chapter.
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13
or before), it could just as easily have been influenced by the
ME Physiologus (which waswritten 1250 or before). It is difficult
to say. Finally, of course, the ME Physiologus echoesthe voices of
Pliny, Aelian, Oppian, Solinus, and even Aristotlejust as its
ancestor, theoriginal Physiologus, initially drew upon these
sources.
3.4 Audience
The specific, intended audience for the ME Physiologus is
difficult to determine,although John Frankis, as discussed in his
work The Social Context of VernacularWriting in the Thirteenth
Century, suspects that it was used either as a teaching text for
theclergy or as a source for sermons that were intended for mass
audiences. According toFrankis, the ME Physiologus, along with the
other pieces included in the Arundel 292manuscript, were assembled
in order to transmit them to the clergy as well as to the laity
atlarge (184). This would certainly seem likely, as the Physiologus
and bestiary tradition,according to G.R. Owst in his work
Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England, wasthought to be an
effective means to inspire a congregation to virtue (195). As
BeatriceWhite explains, most monasteries and ministers possessed
copies for consultation forthis very reason, and thus the ME
Physiologus may very well have served as thisconsultation source
for creating sermons that would simultaneously entertain and
educatethe laity about God and his purpose (26). In this way, the
laity (artists, writers, etc.) wouldhave certainly been exposed to
and inspired by the specific descriptions and allegoriesfeatured in
the ME Physiologus.
1 The exact date of the Dicti Chrysostomi is unknown, but it is
from before the ninth century (Wirjtes
lxxxiii).
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14
Chapter 4: Translators Note
In order to ensure an accurate translation of an eight hundred
year old text, one ustreturn to the initial source itselfthe
manuscript. Although a recent transcription of the MEPhysiologus is
currently availableI am referring specifically to Hanneke Wirtjes
1991editionI felt that I needed to verify such a transcription with
my own eyes at the BritishLibrary in London, England. Upon
transcribing the text myself, I found Wirtjestranscription to be
remarkably accurate. Furthermore, I found her explanations
andsuggested emendations regarding the ambiguous places in the
manuscript insightful andprobable. Therefore, the present
transcription and translation are based upon Wirtjes
owntranscription and suggested editiorial emendations.
However, it is important to note that the transcription featured
in this editionmaintains the original format of the manuscriptblock
prose that is only punctuated by thepunctum markrather thanWirtjes
modern line breaks and punctuation. I have done thissolely for the
purpose of presenting readers with a more accurate impression of
the visualform of the ME Physiologus. The critical commentary on
the transcription, therefore, onlyrevolves around the appearance of
the text in the original manuscript (page breaks and theplacement
of headings), since a detailed rationale for the present
transcription has alreadybeen provided by Wirtjes in her 1991
Middle English Physiologus.
As far as the translation is concerned, I have remained faithful
to the literal meaningof the text in lieu of remaining faithful to
the metrical form. Although the diversity ofmetrical forms featured
in the ME Physiologus is fascinating and impressive, I found
thatrecreating such forms interfered with the literal transmission
of the text into modernEnglish. Of course, in my attempt to capture
the literal meaning of the text, I have frequentlyopted to
translate idiomatically for the sake of clarity and smoothness.
Wherever anidiomatic translation dramatically alters the literal
translation of the text, I have included anote of explanation in
the critical commentary sections following each chapter.
In creating this translation, Wirtjes critical edition of the
Middle EnglishPhysiologus proved to be most helpful, as I relied
heavily on her appended glossary andlinguistic research into the
words which occur in the ME Physiologus. In a few
particularlydifficult areas of the text, I have also resorted to
the advice and suggested translationsprovided in Selections from
Early Middle English edited by Joseph Hall, Early MiddleEnglish
Verse and Prose edited by G.V. Smithers and J.A.W. Bennett, and
Smitherss
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15
article A Middle English Idiom and Its Antecedents. Whenever I
have adopted suchadvice, I have included a note of acknowledgement
in the critical commentary following eachchapter.
As far as the visual form of the translation is concerned, I
have not maintained theprose-block format of the original
manuscript, but rather have inserted the artificial linebreaks that
Wirtjes uses in her 1991 transcription. These line breaks occur
after every otherpunctum mark featured in the original manuscript.
For instance, the lines
bi wilc weie so he wile To dele nier wenden Alle hise fet
steppes after him he fille
are formatted in the following way in the present
translation:
by whatever way he will go down to the valley.All his footprints
he fills up after him;
This format, I feel, allows readers to follow the Physiologus
smoothly and with relative ease,as it groups together phrases that
form a complete thought or significant action. Othereditors of the
ME Physiologus, such as Morris, insert lines breaks at every
punctum mark;however, this, I feel, creates a much more choppy,
stagnant, and disorienting text. Thus, Ihave adopted Wirtjes line
breaks for the present translation.
Finally, I must also note here that I have inserted my own
modern punctuationmarks, since there are no punctuation marks
present in the original manuscript itself (withthe exception of the
punctum mark). Essentially, I have eliminated the traditional
punctummarks and the occasional dashes that follow headings, and I
have added punctuation markswherever I felt that they might
heighten understanding for the modern reader. I have alsoadded
capitalization for the same reason.
The ME Physiologus is certainly a challenging text in a number
of waystranslation concerns, visual form and punctuation. However,
I must say that it is a charmingrendition in the Physiologus
tradition, and that I sincerely hope my translation of it is
asdelightful and as true to the original Middle English text.
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16
Chapter 5: The Translation
5.1 The Lion
Leun stant on hille & he man hunten Natura leonis ia
here Oer urg his nese smel smake at he negge biwilc weie so he
wile To dele nier wenden Alle hise fet steppes after him he fille
Drage dust wi his stert er hesteppe Oer dust oer deu at he ne cunne
is finden ri ue dun to his den ar he him bergen wille
ija----------- 1An oer kinde he haue wanne he is ikindled stille
lie leun ne stire he nout of slepe Til e sunne hauesinen ries him
abuten anne reise his fader him mit te rem at he make
iija---------e ridde lage haue e leun anne he lie to slepen sal he
neure luken e lides of hise egen Significacio Welle heg is tat hil
at is heuenriche Vre prime nature 2
louerd is te leun e liue erabuuen wu o him like de to ligten her
in ere migte neure diuel witen og hebe derne hunte
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17
The First Nature of the Lion
1 The lion stands on a hill, and when he hears a man hunting,
3
Or scents a man approaching,By whatever way he will go down to
the valley.All his footprints he fills up after him;
5 He drags dust with his tail wherever he steps down Either dust
or dew so that he cannot be found 4
And hastens down to his den, where he may take refuge.2
The lion has another characteristic: when he is born,The lion
lies still; he stirs not from sleep
10 Until the sun has shone thrice around him;Then his father
rouses him with his cry. 5
3The lion has a third characteristic: when he lies sleeping,He
never closes the lids of his eyes. 6
The Significance of the First Characteristic
Very high is that hill, which is heaven's kingdom;15 Our Lord
Christ is the lion, who lives above.
Oh! When it pleased our Lord to come down here to earth, 7
The devil did not know, though he hunts stealthily,
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18
hu he dun come ne wu he dennede him 8
in at defte meiden Marie bi name e him bar to man-ne frame o ure
drigten ded was & doluen also his ifa et iifawille was In a
ston stille he lai til it kam e dridde dai his fader him filstnede
swo at he ros from dede o Vs tolif holden wake so his wille is so
hirde for his folde heis hirde we ben sep silden he us wille If we
heren to hisword at we ne gon nowor wille
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19
How he descended, nor how he sought shelter in that humble
maiden,Mary, who bore him for the salvation of all mankind. 9
2 & 320 When our lord was dead and buried, as was his
will,
He lay still in the stone tomb until the third day.Then his
father helped him rise from the dead so thatHe might give us
life.He keeps watch this is his will as a shepherd for his
flock.
25 He is the shepherd, we are the sheep; he will protect usIf we
obey his wordso that we do not go astray.
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20
Commentary
1ij a -------: This is a numerical abbreviation, indicating the
second characteristic of the lion.These numerical headings (ja,
ija, iija) are equivalent to 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, respectively ,
andalso appear throughout the chapters on the Serpent and the Hart.
It is also important tonote that the headings in the manuscript are
frequently followed by long dashes. Wherever adash is present, the
usual punctus mark is absent. This practice is not consistent
throughoutthe entire ME Physiologus, however.
2Significacio prime nature: This heading The Significance of the
First Characteristic appears only in the chapter of the Lion.
However, the chapter on the Hart features asimilar heading:
Significacio prima (The First Significance), and the chapter on the
Foxfeatures a second Significacio. In the manuscript, Significacio
and Prime nature appear onseparate lines (as shown in the present
transcription).
3The lion stands on a hill, and when he hears a man hunting: The
ME Physiologusbegins, like all versions of the Physiologus, with
the lion, King of the Beasts, or, as Wirtjespoints out, with the
ultimate symbol of Christ (lxxiii). However, the ME Physiologus
hasomitted the traditional Prologue that appears not only at the
beginning of the Lion chapter inTheobalds version of the
Physiologus, but also at the beginning of the Lion chapter in
allsurviving manuscripts of the Latin original (Wirtjes lxxx). In
Theobalds version, thePrologue explains what he sets out to do to
catalogue the animals, provide allegories, andwrite in different
meters:
Tres leo naturas et tres habet inde figurasQuas ego, Christe,
tibi ter seno carmine scripsi.Altera divini memorant animalia
libri,De quibus apposui, que rursus mystica novi.Temptans, diversis
si possem scribere metris;Et numero nostrum complent simul addita
soldum.
The lion has three natural characteristics and hence
threeallegorical interpretations, which I have described for you,
Christ,
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21
in a poem of eighteen verses. Holy books record the other
animals,about which I have added the mystic allegories I have got
to know,trying to see if I could write in different metres; and, at
the sametime, additions fill up our sum-total (Eden 25).
In the ME Physiologus, the redactor has eliminated this Prologue
entirely, and has simplystarted with the three characteristics of
the Lion.
4He drags dust with his tail where he steps down / Either dust
or dew so that hecannot be found: The source of this image the lion
dragging its tail in order to obliterateits tracks is difficult to
determine, and, as McCulloch suggests, in ancient literature
theerasing of the tracks by the lions tail is not attested (137).
However, this image of theLion can be compared with Aelian author
of De Natura Animalium who explains thatwhen the Lion returns to
its den it erases its path by running about (ix.30). McCullochnotes
this as well (137).
5The lion lies still; he stirs not from sleep...Then his father
rouses him with his cry:In the ME Physiologus and Theobalds
version, the manner in which the newborn lion isresuscitated
differs from that of the Physiologus tradition. As McCulloch notes,
mostversions of the Physiologus describe how the breath of the
father lion revives the dead cubs(137). However, in the ME
Physiologus and Theobalds version, the lion is awakened notby the
breath of the father, but by his roar. Although the ME redactor and
Theobald havealtered the manner of resuscitation, this
characteristic of the lion is meant to echo Genesis49:9 (Judah is a
lions whelp; who has awakened him?) (Wirtjes 24).
6He never closes the lids of his eyes: The lion sleeping with
its eyes open, as McCullochnotes, is perhaps the most popular image
in medieval art, as it signifies the ever-watchfulness of Christ
(140).
7Oh! When it pleased our Lord to come down here to earth: Hall
suggests translatingWu! as how when it pleased him (176-96).
However, Wirjtes argues that this isincorrect and inaccurate, as
Wu! is an Old English exclamation or exultation (24).
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22
Literally, this would translate as Wow! or How! However, as both
wow andhow are a little awkward, I have opted for Oh! as it seems
to carry the same power ofexultation while blending much more
smoothly with the remainder of the translation.
8hu he dun come ne wu he dennede him: In the manuscript, this
appears at the end ofthe line, after be derne hunte
9Mary, who bore him for the salvation of all mankind...He is the
shepherd, we arethe sheep; he will protect us: As McCulloch notes,
the three characteristics of the lion covering tracks upon smelling
a hunter, sleeping with open eyes, and rising from the deadupon
inhaling the fathers breath or, in the case of the ME Physiologus,
upon listening tothe fathers roar correspond to three allegories:
the Incarnation of Christ, the ever-watchfulness of Christs
divinity, and Christs resurrection on the third day (137). Just
asthe lion covers his tracks, Christ covered the traces of his
divinity by assuming a humanform. Just as the lion sleeps with its
eyes open, Christs body may sleep, but his divinity isever
watchful. Just as the father lion arouses the lion cub with his
breath, or his roar, theomnipotent Father revived Christ on the
third day. The order of these characteristics andtheir
corresponding allegorical interpretations, then, follows the
Incarnation of Christ, hisburial and resurrection, and his
ever-watchfulness.
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23
5.2 The Eagle
Natura aquile------- 1
Kien I wille e ernes kinde Also Ic it o boke rede wu henewe his
guhede hu he cume ut of elde sien hislimes arn unwelde sien his bec
is alto wrong sien hisfligt is al unstrong & and his egen dimme
here wu he ne - 2
we him A welle he seke at springe ai boe bi nigt &bi dai
erouer he flege & up he te til at he e heu-ne se urg skies sexe
and seuene til he cume to heuene so rigt so he cunne he houe in e
sunne e sunne swi-e al his fligt & oc it make his egen brigt
hise feresfallen for e hete & he dun mide to e wete falle in
atwelle grund
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24
The Nature of the Eagle
I will speak of the nature of the eagle,As I have read of it in
books: 3
How he renews his youth,30 How he escapes old age,
When his limbs are weak,When his beak is completely twisted,When
his flight is feeble,And his eyes are dim.
35 Hear how he renews himself: 4
He seeks a well that always springsBoth by night and day.He
flies above it and up he goesUntil he sees heaven;
40 Through whatever clouds may chance to come his way 5
He reaches heaven,And hovers as straight in frontOf the sun as
he can. 6
The sun singes his wings,45 And clears his eyes; 7
His feathers fall off from the heat, 8
And he down into the waterFalls to the bottom of the well,
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25
er he wure heil & sund & cume ut al 9 newe ne were his
bec untrewe his bec is get biforn wrong og hise limes senden strong
ne maig he tilen him no fode himself to none gode anne go he to a
ston &he bille eron bille til his bec biforn haue e wreng -e
forloren sien wi his rigte bile take mete at he wile Al is man so
is tis ern wulde ge nu listen Significacio Old in hise sinnes dern
or he bicume cristen & tus henewe him is man anne he nime to
kirke Or he it bi -enken can hise egen weren mirke forsaket ore
satanas
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26
Where he would become healthy and sound50 And emerge anew
If his beak was not still crooked. 10
But his beak is still twisted in the front,And even though his
limbs are strongAnd he may not procure food
55 Of any benefit to himself.He then goes to a stoneAnd he
strikes on it;He strikes until his beakIs no longer crooked.
60 When his bill is right,He takes food whenever he wishes.
11
The Significance
As is man, so is the eagle.Listen now:He is old in his innate
sins
65 Before he becomes Christian. 12
Thus man renews himselfWhen he goes to church.But before he
considered it,His eyes were dim.
70 He renounces Satan
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27
& ilk sinful dede take him to Iesu Crist for he salben his
mede leue on ure louerd Crist & and lere pre - stes lore of
hise egen were e mist wiles he drecche ore his hope is al to gode
ward & of his luuehe lere at is te sunne sikerlike us his sigte
he be -te Naked falle in e funt fat & cume ut al newe buten a
litel wat is tat his mu is get untrewe hismu is get wel unku wi
pater noster and crede fare henor er fare he su leren he sal his
nede bidden boneto gode & tus his mu rigten tilen him so e
sowles fodeurg grace off ure drigtin 13
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28
And each sinful deed;He devotes himself to Jesus Christ,For
Christ shall be his reward.He believes in our Lord Christ,
75 And learns the teaching of priests;The mist of his eyes fades
away 14
While he remains there.His hope is all toward God,And he learns
that God's love
80 Is surely the sun; 15
Thus his sight is restored.Then he falls naked in the fontAnd
emerges all anew,Except for a little thing - and what is that?
85 His mouth is still crooked.His mouth is still completely
unacquaintedWith Our Father and the Creed. 16
He may travel north or he may travel south,But he will learn
what is necessary for himself:
90 He shall ask a request of God,And thus his mouth will be
right;Procure the food of the soulThrough the grace of our
Lord.
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29
Commentary
1
Natura aquile---------: In the manuscript, this heading appears
in the body of the text, atthe end of the last line of the
Significance of the Lion section. As noted earlier in thediscussion
of the Middle English Physiologus manuscript, all headings appear
either inthe body of the text itself or in the margins . That is to
say, they are not readily recognizableas headings, or titles of
chapters, except for the fact that they are written in red and
bracketedby puncti .
2fligt is al unstrong & and his egen dimme here wu he: In
the manuscript, this linemarks the start of the second page.
3As I have read of it in books: It is unclear as to what books
the ME redactor isspecifically referring to here. However, as
Wirtjes notes, the ME redactor was certainlyfamiliar with the Dicta
Chrysostomi, Pseudo-Hugh of St. Victors De bestiis et aliis
rebusand Alexander Neckhams De Naturis rerum (lxxxiii). Perhaps
these are the books towhich the redactor is referring. If not, then
perhaps he is simply referring to the Physiologustradition
itself.
4Hear how he renews himself: Authorial intrusion (I will speak
of the nature of theeagle) and direct address to the readers or
listeners (Hear how he renews himself) isnot, as Wirtjes notes,
paralleled in other Latin versions of the Physiologus. While
bothTheobalds version and the ME Physiologu are similar in terms of
authorial intrusion, theME Physiologus, unlike Theobalds version,
does not directly address Christ in secondperson (i.e., The lion
has three natural characteristics and hence three
allegoricalinterpretations, which I have described for you, Christ,
in a poem of eighteen verses).
5Through whatever clouds may chance to come his way: Bennett and
Smithers suggesttranslating skies as clouds and the curious phrase
sexe and seune as chance(165-73). They argue that sexe and seune is
a variation on cinque et six, the highestthrow at dice, and is thus
associated with chance. As Wirtjes notes, such a phrase also
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30
appears in Troilus and Criseyde IV 622, But manly sette the
world on six and seven, andthis occurrence, curiously enough, is
the first instance of the phrase that is recorded in theO.E.D.
6And hovers as straight in front / Of the sun as he can: I have
reversed the word orderin these two lines. Following the original
word order renders an awkward translation: asstraight in front as
he can / he hover in the sun. Therefore, I have altered the word
orderwith the intention of best capturing the literal meaning of
the poem, which is an image of theeagle hovering straight in front
of the sun.
7The sun singes his wings / And clears his eyes: Literally, this
translates as the sunsinges his winge entirely / And it makes his
eyes clear. However, for the sake of clarityand smoothness, I have
translated idiomatically here. It is also important to note here
that inlater works of literature, the eagle (the animal whose
eyesight is restored by flying to thesun) becomes the animal agent
that helps other characters renew their "sight" that is tosay, the
eagle is the animal agent that helps characters reach
enlightenment. In medievaldream visions, the eagle is frequently
seen carrying the pilgrim toward the heavens. Forinstance, in
Chaucer's House of Fame, an eagle lifts Chaucer into the air, and
carries him toa strange celestial city in the sky, where he becomes
enlightened about the consequences ofwords and poetry, among other
things. Allegorically, the eagle lifting the narrator into thesky
is the pilgrim's first step toward enlightenment the first step
toward a new way of"seeing." This motif of the eagle carrying the
pilgrim toward enlightenment most likely hasits roots in the
bestiaries and versions of the Physiologus.
8His feathers fall off from the heat: The feathers of the eagle
are not typically mentionedin the Physiologus tradition. However,
it is interesting that the feathers are described inBartholomew
Anglicus De proprietatibus: and so then by the heat the pores are
openedand the feathers chafed (Steele Translation 118).
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31
9er he wure heil & sund & cume ut al: In the manuscript,
this appears at the endof the line, after welle grund
10If his beak was not still crooked: Hall suggests translating
this line as If his beak wasnot still crooked, meaning that the
eagle has emerged anew from the well, but its beak isnot perfect,
as it is still crooked and twisted in the front.
11He then goes to a stone...He takes food when he wishes: Since
the eagles beak istwisted, it has difficulty obtaining food. To
remedy this problem, the eagle strikes its beakagainst a stone in
an attempt to straighten it, and henceforth to procure food. It is
alsointeresting to note that the eagles renewal process involves
all four elements (air, fire, water,earth): the eagle must fly
upward to the sky (air), singe its wings against the sun
(fire),plunge into a well (water), and strike its beak against a
stone (earth). The renewal process, itseems, involves the
integration of all four elements.
12As is man, so is the eagle...Before he becomes Christian: Just
as the eagle renews hisyouth by flying up to the sun and plunging
into the well, we are made young again, we arecleansed of original
sin through baptism.
13urg grace off ure drigtin: In the manuscript, this line marks
the start of the third page.
14The mist of his eyes fades away: Bennet and Smithers suggest
translating this line asThe mist of his eyes fades away (165-73).
However, Morris translates this line asFrom his eyes he keeps off
the mist. I have adopted the advice of Bennet and Smithers.
15And he learns that God's love / Is surely the sun: As Frank
notes, the comparison ofGod and the sun is not present in Theobalds
version of the Physiologus (72). At this pointin the text, the ME
Physiologus is perhaps most similar to the a- and b- versiones of
the
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Latin Physiologus which cites Malechia 4:2: As you fly into the
height of the sun ofjustice, who is Christ, as the Apostle says
(Curley translation).
16His mouth is still completely unacquainted / With Our Father
and the creed: Justas the sun and the fountain do not fully renew
the eagle, faith in God (sun) and baptism(fountain) are not
sufficient for salvation. Rather, we must study the creeds and
God'sprayer. Just as the eagle must sharpen his beak if he is to
eat meat, our mouths must learnthe lore of God if we are to feed
our souls (we are suddenly reminded of Psalms 103:5:Your mouth will
be renewed like the eagles). Wirtjes notes, however, that this
allegoricalinterpretation is the ME redactors own invention or at
least it is not Theobalds, nor doesit appear in any other version
of the Physiologus, or in the Latin works which the MEauthor may
have known, the Dicta Chysostomi, Psuedo-High of St. Victors De
bestiis et aliis rebus and Alexander Neckhams De naturis rerum
(lxxxii-iii).
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5.3 The SerpentNatura serpentis ja --------- 1
An wirm is o werlde wel man it knowe Neddre is tename us he him
newe anne he is forbroken &forbroiden & in his elde al
forwurden faste til his felhim slake ten daies fulle at he is lene
& mainles & iuele mai gangen he crepe cripelande for his
crafthe us kie seke a ston at a irl is on narwe bu -ten he nede him
nime vnne es urg for his fel heer lete his fles for crepe walke to
e water ward wile anne drinken oc he spewe or al e uenim atin his
brest is bred fro his birde-time drinke sien ija inog & tus he
him newe anne e neddre is of hishid naked & bare of his brest
atter if he naked manse ne wile he him nogt neggen oc he fle fro
him alshe fro fir sulde if he cloed man se cof he waxe for uphe
rigte him redi to deren to deren er to ded maken if he it muge
foren wat if e man war wur e & werenhim cunne figte wi is wirm
& fare on him figtande is neddre sien he nede sal
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The First Nature of the Serpent
A worm is in the world man knows it well.95 Serpent is its name,
and he renews himself in this way:
When he is broken, made monstrous, and in his old age all
enfeebled,He fasts ten full days until his skin grows loose on him,
2
So that he is emaciated and weak and can scarcely crawl.He
crawls forth lamely, and his skill he thus exercises:
100 He seeks a stone with a hole in it,And forces himself to be
narrow, but goes through with difficulty,For his skin he leaves
behind there, and his flesh crawl forth.He moves toward the water
where he will drink,But before he does he spews out all the
venom
105 That has bred in his breast since his birth-time. 3
Then he drinks a great deal and thus renews himself.2
If the serpent is bare of skin and of the venom in his breastAnd
he sees a naked man, he will not approach him,But will flee from
him, as he flees from fire.
110 If he sees a clothed man, he grows fierce,For he assumes an
upright position, ready to inflict injury;To injure or to killif he
may achieve it.But what if the man were capable and became aware of
himAnd fights against this serpent and attacks him?
115 Then this serpent , since he is need,
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Make seld of his bodi & 4
silde his heued litel him is of hise limes bute he life holde
Knov cristene man wat tu Crist higest Atte kirke dure 5
ar u cristned were u higtes to leuen on him & hiselages
luuien to helden wit herte e bodes of holi kirke if u hauest is
broken al u forbredes forwures & for -gelues eche lif to wolden
elded art fro eche blis so iswirm or werld is newe e fori so e
neddre do it is te ned Feste e of stedfastnesse & ful of ewes
& helpe e pouremen e gangen abuten ne deme e nogt wuri at 6
tu dure loken up to e heuene ward oc walke wie ere mildlike
among men no mod u ne cune mod ne mannes vncost oc swic of
sineginge & bo -te bid tu e ai boe bi nigt & bi dai at tu
milcemote hauen of ine misdedes is life bitokene esti at te neddre
gange bi & Crist is e irl of e stonat tu salt urg gon let in
file froe so e wirmhis fel do
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Makes a shield of his body and protects his head.He cares little
about his limbs, so long as he protects his life.
The Significance
Know, Christian man, what Christ promised youAt the church-door,
where you were christened;
120 You promised to believe in him and love his laws,To practice
with sincerity the precepts of the holy church.If you have failed
to obey, then you are corrupted;You are lost and withering as far
as the attainment of eternal life is concerned.7
You have failed to attain eternal bliss, as the worm of this
world has. 8
125 Renew yourself, for that reason, as the serpent does: it is
your need.Confirm yourself in steadfastness and full virtue,And
help the poor men who wander from place to place.Do not deem
yourself so worthy that you dare lookUp toward heaven,
130 But walk with the people of the earth, humbly among men;Do
not have pride as pride is an evil feature of man But stop
sinningAnd always ask for forgiveness, both by night and by day,So
that you may have forgiveness for your sins.
135 This life symbolizes the path by which the serpent moves,As
Christ is the hole in the stone that you must go through. 9
Cast your filth from you, as the serpent does his skin;
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37
Go u an to Godes hus e godspel to heren 1 0
at is the soule drink sinnes quenching oc or sei u inscrifte to
e prest sinnes tine feg e us of i brestfile & feste e forward
fast at tin herte at tu fir -mest higtes us art tu ging & newe
forward beu trewe nede e e deuel nogt for he ne mai e de -ren nogt
oc he fle from e so neddre from e nakede on e cloede e neddre is
cof & te deuel cliuer onsinnes ai e sinfule bisetten he wile
& wi al mankinhe haue ni and win wat if he leue haue of ure
heuenlouerd for to deren us so he ure eldere or dede do we ebodi in
e bale & bergen e soule at is ure heued geue -lic helde we it
wurlic
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Go then to God's house to listen to the Gospel:That is the
soul's drink, and sin's quenching.
140 But before you confess your sins to the priest,Cleanse
yourself of the impurity in your breast and confirmFirmly in your
heart what you promised foremost:Thus you are young and renewed;
from now on be true.The Devil will not oppress you, for he cannot
inflict injury on you,
145 But he will flee from you, as the serpent from a naked
man.Towards the clothed man the serpent is fierce & the Devil
highly skilled in seizing sins.11
He will always beset the sinfulAnd towards all mankind have
malice and animosity.But what happens if he has permission from our
Lord of Heaven
150 To harm us, as he did our ancestors before us?Then let us
subject the body to the sufferings of the world and protect the
soul Which is equal to the serpents head and hold it in high
esteem. 12
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Commentary
1Natura serpentis ja: In the manuscript, this heading appears in
the body of the text, atthe end of the last line of the
Significance of the Eagle section. This heading is also oneof the
very few which include a numerical abbreviation ja.In this case,
the ja indicates thatthis is the first nature of the serpent. This
kind of abbreviation also appears later in theSerpent chapter ija
(which indicates the second nature of the serpent) as well as in
thechapters on the Lion and the Hart.
2...in his old age all enfeebled / He fasts ten full days until
his skin grows loose onhim: There are two items that are noteworthy
of comment here. (1) The serpent and eagle two animals who are old
and enfeebled and who seek to renew themselves are placedside by
side here and in Theobalds version, as well. Whether this
arrangement isintentional is unclear. Also, according to Hassig,
pagan sources on the serpent (specificallyAelian, Pliny, and
Solinus), unlike the Physiologus tradition, mention neither the old
age ofthe serpent nor how it fasts for an extended period of time.
Hassig suggests that theseelements are original contributions that
served the Christian moralization, in which oldage serves as an
allegory of sin and fasting serves as an allegory of spiritual
purification orcleansing (157). (2) Also, unlike the ME
Physiologus, Theobalds version does not specifyan exact period of
fasting. In the most common versions of the Latin Physiologus
andbestiaries, though, the length of time that the serpent fasts is
forty days and forty nights notten days (McCulloch 170).
3But before he does he spews out all the venom / That has bred
in his breast sincehis birth-time: This image of the snake spewing
forth venom can be traced back toAeliens De naturis animalium, in
which the snake is said to deposit all of its venom in theground
before mating with the muraena (ix.66). McCulloch notes this as
well (170-1).
4Make seld of his bodi &: In the manuscript, this appears at
the end of the line, afteris neddre sien he nede sal
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40
5Knov cristene man wat tu Crist higest Atte kirke dure: This
would seem to be thestart of the Significacio section of the
Serpent; however, there is no Significacio heading inthe manuscript
itself. It seems that the ME redactor may have overlooked this
headingaccidentally.
6men e gangen abuten ne deme e nogt wuri at: In the manuscript,
this line marksthe start of the third page.
7You are lost and withering as far as the attainment of eternal
life is concerned:Literally, eche lif to wolden translates as to
desire eternal life. However, the sensehere is that those who have
failed to follow the precepts of the church cannot attain
eternallife. Thus, Hall suggests translating this line as far as
the attainment of eternal life isconcerned. This seems to capture
the sense effectively, and, therefore, I have adopted it forthe
present translation.
8You have failed to attain eternal bliss, as this worm of this
world has: In the MEPhysiologus, the allegorical interpretation of
the serpent is twofold: the serpent is both theprudent man and the
devil himself the worm of this world. However, in Theobaldsversion,
the serpent is not the Devil. Rather, Theobald asks us to imitate
the serpent, not tobe wary of it: Ergo sis semper imitator anguis
(therefore, you may always be animitator of the snake). The serpent
as Devil is seems to be an innovation on the part of theME
redactor, as noted by Wirtjes (lxxxiii).
9And Christ is the hole in the stone that you must go through:
Versio b- of the Latin
Physiologus includes a quotation from Matthew 7:14 to further
explain the hole in the stoneor, allegorically speaking, the way of
Christ: The gate is narrow and there is tribulationon the way which
leads toward life and few are those who enter it. Thus, it seems
that the
serpent squeezing itself through a hole is an echo of Matthew
7:14.
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10Go u an to Godes hus e godspel to heren : In the manuscript,
this appears at theend of the line, after his fel do
11But he will flee from you, as the serpent from a naked man /
Towards the clothedman the serpent is fierce, and the Devil highly
skilled in seizing sins: It isinteresting that the serpent has two
allegorical interpretations (1) The serpent who casts offits skin
and rids itself of venom is analogous to the prudent man who casts
off andconfesses sin as he passes through the door of Christ (2)
The serpent who flees from thenaked man, but attacks the clothed
man, is analogous to the Devil who flees from those whohave cast
off sin and seizes those who have not. The serpent is the only
animal in the MEPhysiologus which has a contradicting, twofold,
allegorical significance. However, this kindof contradiction
(whereby the serpent could be both the Devil and the prudent man)
iscommon amongst many animal symbols and icons of the Middle Ages.
As Eco explains sosuccinctly: it was a kind of polyphony of signs
and references (59). Here, the serpentseems to be a polyphonic
symbol, as it shifts smoothly between allegorizing the Devil
andallegorizing the prudent man.
On another note, clothing here seems to be an allegory for sin.
In versio b- of the LatinPhysiologus, the serpent fleeing the naked
man and attacking the clothed man is comparedto the way the serpent
fled Adam in the garden of Eden and the way the serpent
attackedAdam when he dressed in a tunic:
Spiritually we, too, ought to understand that when the first
man, our fatherAdam, was naked in paradise, the serpent did not
succeed in attacking him,but when he dressed in a tunic (that is,
the mortality of a sinful fleshly body),then the serpent assaulted
him (Curley 19).
Clothing is associated with the Fall, with mortality, whereas
nudity is associated with bliss,perfection, the Garden of Eden, the
way of God. The ME Physiologus does not include thisexact
explanation, which is found in later Latin versions of the
Physiologus; however, thesignificance of clothing as sin and nudity
as the way of God remains similar.
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12Which is equal to our headand hold it in high esteem: The
head, of course,refers to the head of the serpent: just as the
serpent protects its head and subjects its limbsto the blows of
attack, so should we protect the soul and subject our body to the
woes of theworld. Just as the serpent values its head, we hold our
souls in the highest esteem.
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5.4 The AntNatura formice -------- 1
e mire is magti mikel ge swinke in sumer & in softe we -der
so we ofte sen hauen in e heruest hardilike gange & renne
rapelike & reste hire seldum & feche hire fo -de er ge it
mai finden gaddre ilkines sed boen ofwude & of wed of corn
& of gres at ire to hauen es ha-le to hire hole at sien hire
helpe are ge wile ben winter agen caue ge haue to crepen in at
winter hire ne 2
derie mete in hire hole at ge muge biliuen usge tile arwiles ge
time haue so it her telle ocfinde ge e wete corn at hire qweme Al
ge forlete is oer sed at ic er seide ne bit ge nowt e barlic
berenabuten oc sune it & sake for so it same were get iswunder
of is wirm more anne man wene e corn at geto caue bere al get bit
otwinne at it ne forwure newaxe hire fro er ge it eten wille
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The Nature of the Ant
The ant is strong: greatly she toils, 3
In summer and in mild weather, as we have often seen.155 In the
autumn she moves about vigorously
And runs hurriedly and seldom restsAnd fetches her food wherever
she may find it.She gathers seed of every kind, both from trees and
plants,From grain and grass, so that she may have bounty. 4
160 She then drags to her hole that which helps her:There she
will meet winter.She has a cave to crawl into, so that winter does
not injure her,And food in her shelter so that she might remain
alive. 5
Thus she procures while she has the opportunity, as it says
here. 6
165 But if she could find wheat grain that is pleasing to her
She will always abandon this other seed that I described before.She
does not wish to carry barley from place to place, 7
But avoids it and moves on, as if it were something to be
ashamed of.Yet there is another marvel concerning this insect
greater than one expects:
170 The grain that she carries to the cave, all of it she bites
in two,So that it does not perish, so that she does not lose it,
before she eats it. 8
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Significacio --------- 9e mire mune us mete to tilen long
liuenoe is lit-tle wile e we on is werld wunen for anne we of
wenden anne is ure winter we sulen hunger hauen & harde sures
buten we ben war here do we fori so do is der anne bewe derue on at
dai at dom sal ben at it ne us harde rewe seke we ure liues fod at
we ben siker ore so is wirmin winter is an ge ne tile nummore e
mire sune e barlicanne ge fint te wete e olde lage we ogen to sunen
e newewe hauen moten e corn at ge to caue bere all ge it bitotwinne
e lage us lere to don god & forbede us sinne itben us erliche
bodes & bekne euelike it fet te licham & tegost oc nowt o
geuelike vre louerd crist it leue us athis lage us fede nu & o
domesdei & tanne we hauen nede
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The Significance
The ant admonishes us to procure food Long-lasting provisions
for the little time we are in this world For when we die, it is our
winter.10
175 We shall have hunger and severe attacks of pain, unless we
are prudent here:Let us for that reason, then, be strong like this
creatureOn that day of judgment, so that it will not grieve us
severely.Let us seek our life's provisions, so that we are safe
there,11
As this insect is in winter, when she labors no more.180 The ant
shuns barley when she finds wheat
The old law we ought to shun, the new we must have.12
The grain that she carries to her cave, all of it she bites in
two The law teaches us to do what is good and to forsake sin;It
offers us the teachings of this world and shows us the
spiritual,
185 It feeds the body and the spirit, but not equally.Our Lord
Christ grants us the law that will feed us,Now and on Doomsday and
when we have need.
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Commentary
1Natura formice: In the manuscript, this heading appears in the
body of the text, at theend of the last line of the Significance of
the Serpent section.
2agen caue ge haue to crepen in at winter hire ne: This marks
the start of thefourth page of the manuscript.
3The ant is strong: greatly she toils: The ant is only one of
six animals in the MEPhysiologus which are feminine. The others
include the spider, the fox, the mermaid, theturtle-dove, and the
dove. It is also interesting that both insects featured in the text
arefeminine the spider and the ant. However, in later Latin
versions, the ant becomesmasculine. The reason for the shift in
gender is unclear.
4Of grain and of grass, so that she may have bounty: Bennett and
Smithers translatethis line as that is to be had for her while Hall
suggests which constitutes her wealth.Wirtjes, though, recommends
translating the line as that she has as her property (30). Ihave
translated this line, differently from Bennet, Smither, Hall, and
Wirtjes: so that shemay have bounty. I feel that this best captures
the idea that the ant collects seeds and foodso that she may have
wealth, possessions, bounty. Nevertheless, this is a difficult
point oftranslation.
5Food in her shelter so that she might remain alive: Wirtjes
recommends that dat shemuge biliuen be translated so that she might
remain alive (30). I have adopted thistranslation.
6Thus she procures while she has the opportunity, so it is says
here: The Naturasection of the Ant is very reminiscent of Aesops
fable The Ant and The Grasshopper.Also, in the later Latin versions
of the Physiologus, the chapter of the ant includes a citationfrom
Proverbs 6:6-8: Go to the ant, thou sluggard: consider her ways and
be wise...
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Provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the
harvest. The Naturasection of the Ant chapter in the ME Physiologus
is fairly reminiscent of this very passagefrom Biblical
scripture.
7She does not wish to carry barley from place to place: The
translation of bit isunder critical debate. Matzner suggests that
bit is eats (55-75) However, this doesnot fit the context.
Smithers, on the other hand, in his article A Middle English Idiom
andits Antecedents argues that bit is from the Old English word
biddan and meanswishes to (101-13). The latter seems to fit the
context of the line better: She does notwish to carry barley from
place to place. Wirtjes argues this as well (30).
8So that it does not perish, so that she does not lose it,
before she eats it: The MEPhysiologus does not include a detailed
explanation as to why the ant divides the grain intwo, unlike the
later Latin versions of the Physiologus, which explains that the
division(the breaking of the seed) prevents the germination of the
grain which is crucial if the antwishes to devour the grain as
food, not as a full-blown plant:
...when it has hidden the grain in its dwelling, it separates it
into two parts sothat winter might not destroy it nor the flooding
rains germinate it and theant perish of hunger (Curley 21).
In the ME Physiologus, the only explanation given as to why the
ant divides the grain in twois so that she does not lose the
grain.
9Significacio : In the manuscript, Significacio appears in the
body of the text, at the end ofthe line waxe hire fro er ge it eten
wille It is also worthwhile to note that Theobaldsversion of the
Physiologus does not feature a separate Natura and Significacio
section, butblends the two together, so that each characteristic of
the Ant is immediately followed by itsallegorical meaning. The ME
redactor, however, restores the familiar pattern of Natura
andSignificacio. Wirtjes notes this as well (lxxxiv).
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49
10Long-lasting provisions for the little time we are in this
world / For when we die,it is our winter: The ME redactor has
eliminated the reference to the Jewish people that ispresent in
Theobalds text:
Exemplum nobis prebet formica laboris,Quando sup solitum portat
in ore cibum;Inque suis factis res monstrat spiritualis,Quas quia
Judeas non amat, inde reus.
The ant furnishes us with a model of toil when she carries her
usual food inher mouth, and in her doings she indicates spiritual
qualities which the Jewdoes not love and so he stands accused.
(Eden 41)
As Wirtjes notes, the ME redactor has not included this
reference to the Jewish people andtheir supposed distaste for
allegorical explanation (Wirtjes lxxxiv).
11Let us seek our life's provisions, so that we are safe there:
Both the chapters on theAnt and on the Eagle focus on procuring
food for the soul. The eagle scrapes his beakalongside a stone in
order to straighten it so that he might procure food; the ant
gathers foodall summer long so that she will have plenty of food in
the dead of winter. In the Eaglechapter, we learn that we must
study the Word of God (straighten our beaks and procurefood on
earth) if we are to be saved, and, in the ant chapter, we learn
that we should beprudent on earth (procure food while in the heat
of the summer) so that we will be saved onthe Day of Judgement.
Both chapters focus on the procuring of food in life, on earth,
inhopes of the attainment of eternal bliss in the afterlife.
12The old law we ought to shun, the new we must have: The ME
redactor and Theobalddo not offer any explanation of the old law or
the new law. However, according toEden, the new law is the
allegorical interpretations acceptable to OrthodoxChristianity,
whereas the old law is the insistence that the Scriptures should
beregarded as conveying nothing more than truth at a literal level
only (41). Therefore, justas the ant shuns barley and accepts
wheat, we, too, must shun the old law (we must shun theidea that
the Bible can only be interpreted literally ) and accept the new
law (that the Bible
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can be interpreted both literally and allegorically). In versio
b- of the Latin Physiologus,shunning the barley is analogous to
shunning the teachings of heretics.
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5.5 The Hart
e hert haue kindes two & forbisnes oc also Natura cervi 1us
it is on boke set at man clepe Fisiologet he dragee neddre of e
ston urg his nese up onon of e stoc erof e ston for it wile erunder
gon & swele it wel swie er of him brinne sien of at attrie ing
wiinnen hehaue brenning he lepe anne wi mikel list of swet water
2
he haue rist he drinke water gredilike til he is ful
welsikerlike ne haue at uenim non migt to deren himsien non wigt oc
he werpe er hise hornes in wude erin ornes & gingi him us is
wilde der so ge hauennu lered her
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The Nature of the Hart
The hart has two characteristicsand allegorical interpretations
as well:
190 Thus it is set down in a bookBy that man called
'Physiologus.' 3
The hart drags the serpent from the stoneUp by his nose at
once,From a tree trunk or from a stone,
195 For it will go underAnd swallow it very quickly: 4
Then because of it he burns himself.From that venomous
creatureHe has burning pain inside.
200 He rushes then with great dexterity:He is thirsty for fresh
water.And so he drinks water greedilyUntil he is completely
full:That venom does not have the power
205 To injure him any more then. 5Then he casts off his hornsOn
a tree or on thorn bushesAnd thus this wild creature rejuvenates
himself,As you have now learned here.
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Significacio prima 6Alle we atter dragen off ure eldere e broken
drigtin-nes word urg e neddre er urg haue mankin boen ni & win
golsipe & giscing giuernesse & wissingpride & ouerwene
swilc atter imene ofte we brennenin mod & wuren so we weren wod
anne we us bren-nen bihoue us to rennen to Cristes quike welle atwe
ne gon to helle drinken his wissing it quenchetilc siniging
forwerpen pride euerilic del so hert do hisehornes gingen us tus to
gode ward & gemen us sienNatura ija forward 7
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The First Significance
210 All of us draw venom from our ancestors, 8
Who failed to obey the word of the Lord through the
serpent.Because of this, mankind hasBoth malice and
animosity,Lechery and covetousness,
215 Gluttony and concupiscence,Pride and presumption,Such venom
together.Often we burn in angerAnd we become as though we were
mad;
220 When we thus burn,It is fitting for us to runTo Christ's
living well, 9
So that we do not go to hell.Let us drink his guidance:
225 It extinguishes every act of sinning;Let us cast off pride
completely,As the hart does his horns; 10
Let us be rejuvenated thus in GodAnd take heed from now on.
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e hertes hauen anoer kinde at us og alle 1 1to ben minde Alle he
arn off one mode for if he fer fecchenfode & he ouer water ten
wile non at nede oer flen oc onswimme biforn & alle e ore
folegen weer so he swimmeer he wade is non at nede at oer late oc
leige his skinbon on ores lendbon gef him at bigorn te bilimpesfor
to tirgen Alle e ore cumen mide & helpen him for toherien beren
him of at water grund up to e lond al heil& sund & foren
here nede is wune he hauen hem bitwenSignificacio ija og he an
hundred togiddre ben 1 2
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The Second Nature 13
230 The hart has another characteristic 14
That ought to be in all our minds:All are of one mind,For, if
they fetch food far awayAnd they go over water,
235 They will not desert another in distress,But one swims in
frontAnd all the others follow.Whether he swims or he wades,He does
not abandon the other in distress.
240 But places his chinOn the other's haunch.If that one in
front happens to grow tired,All the others with him will come and
help to drag him, 15
And carry him from the bottom of the river245 Up to the land all
healthy and sound
And provide for his needs.This practice they have among themEven
if a hundred of them are together.
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e hertes costes we 1 6ogen to munen ne og ur non oer to sunen oc
eurilcluuen oer also he were his broer wuren stedefast hiswine
ligten him of his birdene helpen him at his nede 1 7
god giue erfore mede we sulen hauen heuenriche gef we betwixen
us ben briche us is ure louerdes lageluuelike to fillen herof haue
we mikel ned at we arwi ne dillen
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The Second Significance
The habits of the hart we ought to consider:250 Do not shun