8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
1/16
Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey Flax/Linum and Eruca, Important Oil Plants ofAnatoliaAuthor(s): Fsun ErtuSource: Anatolian Studies, Vol. 50 (2000), pp. 171-185Published by: British Institute at AnkaraStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3643022.
Accessed: 15/05/2014 13:00
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at.http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
British Institute at Ankarais collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toAnatolian
Studies.
http://www.jstor.org
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=biaahttp://www.jstor.org/stable/3643022?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/3643022?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=biaa8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
2/16
Linseed oil and
oil mills
in
central
Turkey
Flax/Linum
and
Eruca,
important
oil
plants
of
Anatolia*
Fuiisun
rtug
BodrumResearchCentre
for
Useful Plants
Introduction
This article is a
preliminarycase-studyconcerning
the
importance
of flax/Linum and Eruca as oil
plants
in
central
Anatolia. Linseed oil
('beziryagi')
was
produced
from both Linumand Eruca
seeds,
and this oil was used
in Anatolian
culinary
culture,
in addition to
olive,
sesame, cotton,
poppy,
sunflower,
hazel,
Cephalaria,
safflower
and
hackberry
oils. Linseed oil
was
also
used
in oil
lamps,
to oil
wooden-wheeled
carts and to rubon
the
skins
of
water-buffalo. Both linseed
oil and
flax
seeds
were
widely
used
in folk
medicine.
The
production
of linseed oil
may
have started
thousands
of
years
ago
in
central
Anatolia. Both
plants
are nativeto
Anatolia,
and
flax
seeds have been
found
at
several Neolithic
sites. The
earliesthistorical
documents
concerning
linseed
oil mills
('bezirhane')
are Ottoman
tax recordsfrom
1500-1. Until the
1970s there were still
severaloil mills
in the
Aksaray
area
producing
inseed
oil
during
the winter.
The residue was used as fodder for
draft
animals.
Withthe modemisation
of
agriculture,
nd
the
increased
availability
of
electricity
o
villages,
as well
as the
development
of the road
system
and trans-
portation,
inseed oil
lost its
importance
and the oil
mills
were
abandoned.
The cultivation
and
harvesting
of oil
plants
and the
production
of oil
is
important
o
archaeology
becausethe
identification
of oil
bearing plants,
oil
lamps
and the
interpretation
f various uses
of
grinding
stones are
all
still
at
an
early stage.
Ethno-archaeological
studies
provide importantclues for the interpretationof both
archaeo-botanical
remains and
equipment
found
in
archaeological
excavations.
I
gathered
the
basic information relevant
to the
production
of linseed
oil
during
my ethno-archaeological
studies
in
Aksarayprovince
n
1994-5.
Although
inseed
oil
production stopped
20 to
25
years
ago,
sufficient
*
A
version
of this article
was first
published
n
Turkish
n
TUBA-AR
Turkish
Academyof
Sciences
Journal
of
Archae-
ology) 1 (1998): 113-27, and has been completelyrevised.
informationwas
gathered
rom informants
who were still
availableand hadworked n the mills. In
addition,
I
have
combined this information with the related
archaeo-
logical,
historical and
ethnographic
literature. More
information
is needed from
historians,
archaeologists,
and
ethnographers
o
complete
this
case-study
and to
answerthe
questions
it raises.
Flax/Linum ndEruca
together
with otheroil
plants
such
as
olive, sesame, cotton,
poppy,
sunflower, hazel,
Cephalarial,
safflower2and
hackberry3
were
important
in
traditional Anatolian
cuisine.
In
the
province
of
Aksaray
fig 1),
central
Anatolia,
LinumusitatissimumL.
1
Cephalaria
syriaca (L.)
Schrader:
pelemir'
or 'melemir' is
an
annual
plant
with blue flowers
commonly
seen
as a weed
in
fields in centralAnatolia.
Its
seed contains
21
-6% of fixed
oil,
used
in
the leather
industry
for
rubbing
on animals and as
an
additive
to
linseed
oil
(Baytop
1984:
351;
Oguz
1976).
It
was
commonly
planted
in
central Anatolia until the
1930s
(Morrison
1939),
but
is no
longer
cultivated.
It
was
reported
as
being planted
both
in
Kayseri
and
in
Erzincan
or
its
oily
seeds,
and
the
residue was used as fodder
(Yazicioglu
et al
1978).
2
Safflower:
Carthamus inctorius
L.:
'aspir'
is an
annual
plant
with
yellow
flowers.
It was
planted
in
central and western
Anatolia for its
flowers,
which
were
used as a source of red
dye,
and for
its
oily
seeds.
Its cultivation s now
very
rare
n
central
Anatolia. The seeds contain 28-40% fixed oil.
Baytop
mentions that it was used as
lamp
oil
in
the
dye industry
and in
folk medicine as
a
pain
reliever rubbed on
externally
(1984:
170),
and
suggests
that it was not
used
in
cooking
because the
oil is bitter.
Knowles
reports
that
he
observed safflower oil
production
n
Eskisehir n the
1960s,
and the
villagers reported
that
its
oil is
superior
o
sunflower,
inseed and
poppy
seed oils
when
it
is used
immediately,
but that within a
couple
of months
the oil
develops
undesirable
lavours
(1967: 156).
It was also
used as edible oil
in
Egypt,
and in
both
these cases the residue
was used
as
fodder
(Knowles
1967:
156).
3
Celtis:
'citlembik'
fruits
are
also
used
for oil
(Oguz
1976:
624;
Erciyes
et
al
1989),
but this
is
not
reported
n centralAnatolia.
In
the
aceramic Neolithic settlement of
A?ikli
H6yiik
in
Aksaray,
layers
of desiccated
Celtis fruit stones have been
found
(Esin
et al
1991),
and
they may
have
been used
in
oil
production.
171
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
3/16
Anatolian
Studies
2000
Fig
la.
Map of Turkey.
Townsmentioned n the text
Fig
lb.
Mapof
the
studyarea,Aksaray.Villages
with 'bezirhane'
172
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
4/16
Ertug
('zeyrek')4
and Eruca sativa
(Lam.)
Miller
('izgin'),
were
cultivated ortheir
oily
seeds and for the
production
of
oil.
In
times
of
scarcity,
Sinapis
arvensis
('hardal
otu')
seeds were also
used to
produce
oil. All
threeoils
were
called 'bezir
yagl' (linseed oil)
in
Anatolia. 'Bezr'
is
Arabic for
'seed',
but
the word is used in Anatolia
to
refer
to oil from flax
seeds as well as
to the oil
produced
by
oil
mills from the other two seeds.
Privately
owned
oil
mills
in
Anatolia
were called
'bezirhane'.
Although
linseed oil has
many
industrial
uses5,
t
was
produced
in
central
Anatolia for
cooking,
for
lamp
oil
and to
grease
the axles
of wooden-wheeled
carts,
as
well
as to lubricate
he skins of
water-buffaloes. The
residual
oil cakes were used for animal
fodder,
especially
for draft
animals. Linum and Eruca
seeds were both
used to
produce'beziryagi',
but the oil
produced
from flax was
much
preferred
or
cooking.
Both
linseed oil and flax
seeds were
widely
used
in
folk medicine to relieve
pain,
heal wounds and as an
expectorant
Baytop
1984;
Ertug-
Yara?
1997;
Fujita
et al
1995).
In
centralAnatolia
the
production
of
'beziryagi'
may
have startedseveral thousand
yearsago.
Both
plants
are
native to
Anatolia,
and
flax
seeds have been
found
in
several Neolithic sites. Flax
was used as a
fibre
in
prehistoric
imes
throughoutEurope
and the
Middle East
(Barber
1991;
1994).
When
identifying
carbonised
eeds
from
several
excavations,
t
is difficult to tell
whether he
flax was
planted
for its fibre or for its
oil;
and
if
for oil
whether
for food
or
for
lamp
oil. To test these
various
possibilities,
we must know how the
seeds
or
the fibres
were
processed,
and what kind of tools were
used.
Ethnographic
observations related
to the
cultivation,
harvesting
and
processing
of
several
oil-bearing plants
may
contribute o a better
understanding
f their uses
in
the
past.
Because of
rapid
modernisation
n
Anatolia
after the
1950s,
opportunities
or
obtaining
this kind of
informationare
becomingvery
rare.
A
brief
background
to the research
During my
ethno-archaeological
ieldwork in
Aksaray
from
1994 to
1995
(Ertug-Yara?
1997),
I
observed
variousmills called 'bezirhane'and 'bulgurhane'. The
latter are also called 'dink' or 'seten'
in
various
parts
of
4
'Zeyrek'
r
'zegrek'
s a name
ommonly
sedfor
flax
seeds
throughout
entralAnatolia
TDK:
4363;
Baytop1994).
In
general,
lax s knownas 'keten'.
5
Linseed il is a
drying
il,
and ormsa hard
ilm
on
exposure
to the air
(Renfrew
985).
For his reason t is
widely
used
n
the
industrial
roduction
f various
dyes,
varnishes,
inoleum
and
nks.
Poppy
andsafflower ils arealso
drying
ils but
n
Anatolia
all three oils are used for
cooking.
Linseed
oil,
in
small quantities, s use for cooking in Iraq(Renfrew 1985).
Anatolia,
and there
areseveral
notes about
these
'bulgur'
(cracked
wheat)
mills
in
the
ethnographic
literature
(Hillman
1984;
Ko?ay
1951;
University
Bern
1971).
I
could
not find
any
information
about
'bezirhane',
although
until
very
recently they
played
an
important
role in local
economies.
My
interest
increased
when I
found the
term
'bezirhane'
in
16th
century
historical
documents.
The
earliest
records
concerning
linseed oil
mills are
in
the 1500-1 Ottoman ax
recordsforKaraman
province
which at that
time
included
Aksaray
and
Konya.
A
linseed oil mill
was countedas
part
of the
financial
assets
of
the
Aksarayreligious
foundations
('Vakif')
(Konyali
1974:
532).
In
the tax
records for the
reigns
of
Sultan
Selim I
(1512-20)
and Kanuni
Sultan
Siileyman
(1520-
66),
oil
mills
were taxed in
various
villages
of
the
Aksaray
district6,
as
well as in the
town of
Aksaray
(Konyali
1974:
645).
In
the 1882
recordof
'Salname' of
the
Konya region,
there were 28
'bezirhane' in the
Aksaray
district
(Konyali
1974:
102).
However there
is
no
indication of
'bezirhane'
in
other centralAnatolian
towns
such as
Konya,
Nigde,
Nev?ehir
and
Kayseri
(Konyali 1964).
I
have
howeverbeen
told
that
until
the
1930s a
'bezirhane'was
operating
at
Karapinar
n
Konya
province (ca.
80km
east
of
Konya)7.
There is also a
village
named 'Bezirhane'
on the
Aksaray-Ankara
oad,
30km from
Ankara,
which
probably
took its
name from
an
existing
oil mill.
Further o the
east,
a
guild
of 'bezirci'
(linseed
oil
producers
or
traders)
n
the town
of Sivas is
recorded n
the tax records of the
reign
of MahmudII
(1808-38).
There were
three 'bezirci'
shops,
one owned
by
Muslims
and two
by
non-Muslims.
According
to
Evliya Celebi's
travel
records from the
1650s,
a
section of
Sivas was
6
In towns
such as
Demirci,
Agacli
(new
name:
Giilagac),
Eskinos
new
name:
Uzunkaya)
nd hlarahere
areno
records
of linseed
oil mills
n
the
timesof Sultan
elim
(1512-20)
and
KanuniSultan
Suleyman1520-66). However,
here s a tax
record for the
village
of
K6stiik/G6stuk
new
name:
Dogantarla)
n
the
Selim
I
period
hat
25
akge',
and 12
akge'
inthe Kanuni eriod,were aken rom he'bezirhane' s a tax.
Taxesof '25 ak9e'
and 50
akge'
were aken
romSelimeand
Kizilkaya
villages
after the Kanuni
period
(Ba?bakanlik
Ottoman
Archives,
stanbul,
Books of 'Tahrir
Defterleri' os
40 and
55,
read
by
Professor
ejat
G6yiinq
ndProfessor
ngin
Akarli).
7
Naim
Aydinbelgeb.
1931)
n
Karapinar
old
me
in
1997 hat
they
called hesemills
'dayhane',
nd hat
hey
used o
play
on
the
mill
stones s children.Themill
was
working
n
his
father's
time. Both flax and
Eruca were
commonly
cultivated n
Karapinar
ntilthe
1970s,
and sold to
Aksaray.
Aydinbelge
remembersrom his
childhood hat his mother
made small
lamps
for linseed oil out
of
mud,
and that these
were used for
night time illumination.
173
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
5/16
AnatolianStudies 2000
called
'bezirci tarlasl'
(field
of
'bezirci'),
which was
also
reported
n the
1870s
(Demirel 1998).
Some historical
documentsalso indicate that
linseed
oil
production
was
quite
common
in
and around
stanbul
in the
18th
century.
In a
documentdated
1726,
regula-
tionswere
given
for the oil
producers
n
Galata,
Uskiidar
and
Eyiip,
and
they
were warned to
keep
the
scales and
storagepotsof linseed oil apart rom those used forother
oils
(Kal'a
1998a:
183).
A
courtcase in
1760,
indicates
thatthere were
at least two 'bezirhane' n
Kartal,
owned
by
non-Muslims
Kal'a
1997a:
267).
Anothercourt
case
indicates that in 1750
there were at
least three
'bezirhane' n
Silivri,
a
districtof
Istanbul
Kal'a
1997b:
58;
1998b:
25).
Two
'bezirhane'
were also
mentioned
n
other
court
cases,
one in 1752 in
Tepeviranvillage
of
Yoros area
(AnadoluFeneri),
and
the
other
in
1775 in
?eyhli
village
of ile
(Kal'a
1998c:
18,
51).
Although
the
production
of
linseed oil
may
not have
been limited to theAksaraydistrict t was one of the most
important
production
centres
in
Anatolia.
The oil
was
produced
there for at
least several
hundred
years
and
possibly
several thousand.
Production
began
to decrease
in
the late 1970s
and
completely
stopped
in
the late
1980s.
There are
some
scattered statistics
for the
production
of
flax,
both for
seeds and
fibre,
n
other
areas
of
Turkey,
but
I
have not
found
any
statistics for the
production
of
linseed oil.
A
brief
history
of
flax
Flax
originated
n
Anatolia and the Balkans.
There
are
38
species
of
Linum,
belonging
to the
Linaceae
family,
in
Turkey,
of which
some are
perennial,
some
are
annual,
and
several
are endemic to
Turkey
(Davis
1967:
425).
Linum
bienne Mill. is
the wild
progenitor
of the
crop
Linum
usitatissimum
figs
2,
3),
and
grows
extensively
in
central
Anatolia,
as
well
as
other
parts
of
Turkey
(Herbarium
pecimen
from
Aksaray
no FEY
387;
fig
4).
Archaeological
records ndicatethat
flax is
one of the
most
ancient
crop-plant
pecies,
and has
been cultivated
since
the seventh
millennium
BC
(van
Zeist 1985:
37).
The
earliest
evidence
yet
found is
from
Ramad
in
western
Syria
dating
to
7190-6700 BC
(van Zeist,
de
Roller
1994).
Carbonised flax
seeds from
the
early
Neolithic
levels of
(ay6nii
in
southeast
Turkey,
have
been dated to
8250-7750
BC,
but are
considered to be
wild.
It
has
been
suggested
that
these
wild flax
seeds
may
have
been used in
oil
production (Stewart
1976),
although
textiles
made
from
flax were
found
both in
(Cay6nii
nd
in
(Catalh6yiik8.
8
Cloth esiduewas found
on the
handle
f
a bone
ool froma
layer dated to ten thousand
years ago
in
Cay6nfi,
Diyarbakir
The
palaeo-ethnobotanist
Helbaek,
who worked on
the
history
of flax
cultivation,
pointed
out the
large
sizes
of seeds found in
the
settlements of
Arpachiyah
n
Iraq
and Brak in
Syria,
dated
to
5000 BC.
These,
he
said,
might
indicate the use
of
irrigation 1970:
211-13).
Sumerianand
Akkadian
exts mention an 'oil
plant',
etymologically
related o
'sesame',
long
beforeevidence
of sesame itself occurs in the archaeological record
(Miller 1991).
The
Sumerianword
SE-GIS-i,
relatedto
the
Akkadian
SAMMASSAMMU,
andthe Hurrian
word
sumisumi,
has
been used in
Hittitetexts as
(GlS)sam
m)
am
(m)
a
(Ertem
1987).
According
o
Helbaek,
his
word
was
probably
originally applied
to
flax,
and
only
later
designated
sesame.
Archaeo-botanical
vidence seems
to confirm
this
hypothesis,
because
the
earliest
sesamein
the
Near East
appears
probably
in the third
millenium
BC9.
Bedigian (1985: 164)
suggests
that the
Sumerian
word SE-GIS-i
might
have
applied
initially
to
whatever
cropwas used for oil, andlater,when sesame was intro-
duced,
the
name becameaffiliatedwith
that
plant.
The Hittite words
for
oil,
fat, lard,
tallow or
grease
are
derived from
Sumerian,
but
as used
by
the
Hittites,
philologists
cannot
distinguish
the referents o oil
types.
The
Hittites used several
kinds
of
oil: in
the
preparation
of
food,
as fuel in
lamps
or
torches,
for
barter,
o anoint
body
and
hair,
as
offerings
to
the
gods,
to
waterproof
baskets and
caulk
boats,
and to rub down
their horses
(Hoffner
1995:
112).
Singer
(1987:
185)
adds
that oil
was
also used in
the
funerary
ites of
the Hittite
imperial
family.
The bones
remaining
after the
cremation
of the
deceasedwere
anointed,
then
wrapped
nto linen
cloths
and
placed
into the
stone-houses.
Although
it was
known that
they
used olive
oil,
and oil
extracted
from
nuts,
the use of
sesame and/or flax as a
source
of oil
is
still
debated
among
philologists (Hoffner
1995:
108-9).
Guiterbock
1968)
does not
mention flax
among
the oil
plants
in
Hittite
Anatolia,
but
further
archaeo-botanical
evidence
may help
to
clarify
this
situation.
In
the
Greco-Roman
world,
as well as in
ancient
Mesopotamia
and
Egypt,
the flax
plant
was
cultivated
mostly
for its
fibre which was
used to
produce
inen and
its
variousderivative
products,
uch as
fish
netsand
lamp
Vilayet.
Analysis
showed
that t
was flax
(The
NewYork
Times,
13.7.1993).
There are cloth
residues
dated to seven
thousand
years
ago
from
Catalh6yiik,Konya
(Ryder
1965;
Barber 1991:
10-11).
9
Until
recently
the
earliest sesame finds in
the Near
East were
from the
seventh
century
BC
(Renfrew 1985;
Miller
1991).
However,
about
15
sesame and a
few flax
seeds were
found in
ca.
2500-2100 BC
levels of the
Abu-Salabikh
excavations in
Iraq
(Charles
1993).
There
is
still
some doubt
concerning
his
identificationof sesameseeds
(pers
commCharles
May 1999).
174
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
6/16
Ertug
Fig
2. Linum usitatissimum
(Flax/zeyrek) lowers
and
seed
pods
(all
photographs
taken
by
the
author)
Fig
3.
Pressed
Linum
usitatissimum Flax/zeyrek)
I
I
i
J
Fig 4. Pressedsample of Linumbienne Fig 5. Eruca sativa (Izgin) n lower, theseedpodsare not
ripened
175
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
7/16
Anatolian Studies
2000
wicks.
Flax seed was
consumed,
but
linseed oil
does not
seem
to have been
important.
In ancient
Egypt,
linseed
oil was used
only
for
lighting,
although today
it
is a
seasoning
for
vicia
faba
beans
(Renfrew 1985).
According
to
Pliny,
the
peasants
of north
Italy
often ate
a
porridge
made
of
ground
linseed,
and the
Spartan
warriorsate
ground
inseed mixedwith
honey during
he
Peloponnesian War. Galen adds that linseed was
consumedwith
fish
sauce,
and
spread
on
bread,
but was
hard to
digest
and
provided
little nourishment
Gallant
1985).
Due
to
the
factthatflax seed is
usually
roasted or
human
consumption,
hereis
a
greaterprobability
hat
it
will be carbonised
and found
in
an
archaeological
context. Indeed
flax
seed can be
toxic
if
it is not roasted
or boiled
in
water.
Sesame
seeds,
on
the other
hand,
need
only
to be soaked
in
water
before
grinding
or
boiling
(Gallant
1985:
155;
Renfrew
1985).
Cultivation of flax
Flax
grown
for
linseed and
flax
grown
for fibre are the
same
species,
but
the
plant
cultivated for
linseed is
shorter
(25-30cm),
with more branches
and more seeds.
When
grown
for fibre
it
was
planted
in
winter
and the
seed
sown
very densely,
so
that the stands
had
few
branchesand
more individual
stocks.
Flax for linen
was
commonlyplanted
along
the
Black Sea
coast,
especially
around
Kandira,
Bartin,
Eregli,
Ayancik
and
Sinop,
less
frequently
in the
Marmara
region
(Kocaeli,
Sakarya,
Balikesir)
and
rarely
n the coastal
areas of
the Mediter-
ranean (Icel, Hatay, Antalya) (TTO; Ziraat Vekaleti
1937).
Fibre
production
of
flax has decreased
rapidly
n
the
last few
decades and
information on
spinning,
weaving
and
rope making
is not sufficient
for
ethno-
archaeological
comparisons.
Flax for
seed was also
planted
n
central
Anatolia
and
in the
zone
from
Marmara o inner Anatolia
(Eski?ehir,
Kiitahya,
UJak,
Afyon,
Amasya),
as
well as
in south-
eastern
Anatolia
(Gaziantep,
Urfa,
Mara?,
Malatya,
Adiyaman)
(TTO).
Flax thrives
in
moderate,
cool
temperatures.
Although
it
will
produce
in rainfall
regimes
of 300-
50mm
peryear,
the best
yields
are
in
areas
receiving
450-
750mm
(Renfrew
1985;
Bedigian
1985).
In central
Anatolia,
flax was
planted
on river banks.
In the western
part
of
Aksarayprovince
(over
1
000m in
altitude),
t
was
sown
at the
end
of
March or
in
April10,
nd
the
bluish-
purple
flowers
(fig
2)
bloomed
in June. The roundish
10
Bedigian1985)says
hat
se-gis-i'
could
be
sesame
because
it
is
planted
n the
spring
whileall otheroil
plants
are winter
crops.
However,
flax
and Eruca
are also
planted
n the
spring
in
central
Anatolia. Her observation
may
be true
for other
areas,
but
it also shows thatwe must be careful n
making
nter-
pretations
based
on
one
area.
seed
pods
(called 'kelle')
were
about
8-10
mm
in
diameterand
ripened
n
July.
Each
pod
containedabout
ten seeds
3-5mm
long
and
2-3mm wide
(fig
3),
the
brownish,
shiny
seeds
weighed
about
3-9mg.
Flax seeds
contain
approximately
32-4% oil and 20-5%
protein
(Renfrew1985).
In the
Aksaray
area,
I
was told that
harvesting
was
done with sickles. As the seedpodshave a mucilaginous
coating
and
stick
together,only
the
tops
of
the
plants
with the
pods
were
harvested. The harvested
pods
were
piled up,
and at the end of the harvest
carriedto the
threshing
floor where
they
were
processed
with
a
threshing
sledge ('diiven')
and
then
sieved11.
Cultivation of Eruca
('izgm')
as
an
oil
plant
The
genus
Eruca
belongs
to the
Brassicaceae
(=Cruciferae) family.
Of
the
14
species,
five are
commonly
found in the Mediterranean
rea.
Only
Eruca
sativa is planted,and aboutsevencultivarsareknown12. t
has
also been cultivated
as
an
oil
plant
n
Iran,
Afghanistan
and
Indiasince
antiquity
Schuster
1992:
49).
It
has been
known
as
a
medicinal
plant
in
Europe
since
the Greco-
Roman
era,
but was not
usually
sown
there as
an
oil
plant 3.
Zhukovsky,
the Russian botanist who
made
extensive
plant
collections
and
detailed
observationson
farming echniques
n Anatolia
n
1925-7,
pointed
out that
E.sativawas
commonly
sown
together
with flax for
the
production
f
oil
(Zhukovsky
1951:
523).
'This
s true f flax s cultivatedor ts
oily
seeds,
when he
op
parts
areharvested
y
sickle. If
it
is cultivated
or
fibre,
hen
there
s
no
need o wait
until
he seeds
ripen,
nd t is
uprooted
while he
plant
s still
green.
Some
sources
ndicatehat t can
be used
for bothafter
he seedshave
ripened,
when t is also
uprootedby
hand
(TTO:
23).
Renfrew
says
that
flax
is
harvested
ith
sickles
n
Iraq
and
uprooted
n
Egypt,
but
does
not
specify
which
use
was intended
1985:63).
McCorriston
(1997:522)
further
xplains
he
uprooting
rocess
or
flax,
an
arduous
ask
n
ancient
Mesopotamia.
12
Baytop
(1948;
1984;
1994)
calls
'lzgm'
Eruca
cappadocica
Reut. or
E.
sativa var.
cappadocia
and
says
'Roka is
Eruca
sativa Miller'. In the Flora of Turkey Davis 1965: 1:1:269)
both
names are
reported
as the
synonyms
of E.
sativa.
While
rocket
('roka')
is
known
as
a
salad
plant,
cultivated
commonly
and sold
in
markets,
nother ultivar
'lzgm'),
planted
or
its
oily
seeds
in
central
Anatolia,
has bitter leaves and was not
eaten
by
the local
people.
A
recent
study
on the
biodiversity
of
E.sativa
in Israel
(Yaniv
et al
1998)
indicates
a
significant
biodiversity
n
the
species
related
o
its
geographic
origin.
This
biodiversity
within
the variouscultivars
of E.sativa
may
be one
of the
factors
in
the variation
n the taste of the
green foliage
when
planted
n different
geographicregions.
13
Eruca sativa cultivation
as an
oil
plant
started
n
Germany
after
the 1936 Hindu Kush
expedition,
but
was
not
very
efficient
and
so was
not
planted
n
large
areas.
In the last few
decades,
a new
use for
it
as
an
engine
oil
has increased
nterest
(Schuster
1992:
49-50).
176
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
8/16
Ertug
Fig
6.
Dry
samples
of
Linum
(bottom)
and Eruca
sativa
E. sativa
is an annual
plant,
about
20-60cm tall with
yellow
flowers
(fig
5).
Its
seeds are much
smaller than
flax
and form
pods (called
'kavuz')
which are
2-2.5cm
long
and 3-5mm
wide.
In
the
Aksaray
area Eruca
was
planted
more
commonly
and
more
consistently
than flax.
Althoughflax cultivation ended in the 1970s, I found a
few
fields of Eruca
in
the
Aksaray
area
n
1995,
whereit
was still
grown
for
fodder.
It
was
planted
at the same
time
as
flax,
in
the
spring,
but
because
it
was more
drought-resistant,
t
could be
planted
n
drier
fields. The
seeds of both are
quite
small
(fig 6)
and for
sowing
they
were
mixed
with
sand,
and then broadcast
by
hand. The
amount
of seed for
one 'donuim'
1600m2)
is about one
handful
(ca.
150-200gr),
mixed with a
sieve
('kalbur')
full of sand
(about
15-20kg).
Both flax
and Eruca were
sownbroadcastn late March
or
in
April
and harvested
n
July. Since the seed pods spreadalong the branches,
harvesting
of Eruca
was done
by
uprooting.
In
July
or
August
it
was
threshed,
winnowed and stored until
linseed oil
production
began
in
winter.
I
was
told
that
most farmers
previously planted
3-5
'donuiim' f one
or
the
other of these
crops.
Linseed oil
('beziryali')
use
in
cooking
In
the
Aksaray
area
inseed oil
-
especially
flax
seed oil
-
was used
to
fry
certain
foods. Until the 1970s it was
used
to
fry
two
types
of
dough, locally
called 'civirtma/
civirtmaq'
or
'katmer'. 'Civirtma'
was
prepared
with
leavened wheat
dough
mixed with
water and the
fairly
liquid
mixturewas
spooned
nto
very
hot
linseed oil. The
fried
balls turned red and were eaten warm.
'Katmer'
dough
was made with
wheat
flour, milk,
yoghurt,
eggs
and
salt. The balls were
shaped by
hand,
and
fried
in
linseed oil.
Sherbetwas
put
on
the
warm
rolls. It
was
also
used to
fry
onions and
potatoes.
Due to
its
strong
odour,
linseed oil
was not
usually
used to cook
vegetables
or
soups.
I
have heard from
several
informants hat in
the town of
Aksaray
and its
villages
of
Ihlara,Demirci,
Selime and
Kizilkaya, 'beziryagi'
was
used to fry 'civirtma'.
I
had
thought
that
the use of
linseed oil
in
cooking
was
specific
to the
Aksaray
area
because linseed oil was
the main
vegetable
oil
produced
o the exclusion of other
oils
such as olive and
sesame. On a recent
trip
to the
Black Sea
coast'4
however,
I was
informed that
linseed
oil was used in
the same
way
in
the
northern
egions
of
Kastamonu
province.
Until 30 or 40
years
ago
the
villagers
of
Azdavay used linseed oil especially to fry
'cizleme',
so
much so that the
neighbouring
villagers
called them
'bezirli',
referring
o the distinctive odour of
linseed oil.
The
Azdavay villagers
did not
produce
linseed oil
themselves,
but
bought
it
in the
Agli
market.
In
another area of
Kastamonu,
n
Kayikqc
village,
near
the town of
S6giitpinar,
was told that linseed oil
was
used
to
fry
a
different kind of
leavened
dough,
'gozleme'. They
bought
linseed
oil
only
to use for
cooking,
eitherfrom the
Inebolu
or
$enpazar
marketson
the
Black Sea coast or
fromIstanbul.
Linseed oil for lamps
Linseed
oil,
especially
that
made of
Eruca,
was used as
lamp
oil in
small
home-made ceramic
lamps,
called
'bezir
clrasl'
(fig 7).
One side of these
lamps
was
pressedby
hand and the
wick of hand
spun
cotton was
added to this
tip
(called
'liiliik' in
the local
dialect).
In
the
Cappadocia
area,
several caves
and carved rooms
have small
niches
dug
out of
the
walls,
and the
ceilings
are covered with
a thick
layer
of
soot from the use
of
linseed oil
lamps.
Small
lamps
made of
tin
and/or
pottery
called 'bezirlik'
(linseed
oil
lamp)
are also
reported or easternAnatolia(Kosay 1977: 11).
Use of linseed
oil
in animal
husbandry
Linseed
oil
was
important
to the health of water-
buffaloes. It was
rubbed nto their hides to
protect
them
from
insects and from
cracked skin
during
cold winters.
In
the
autumn,
everyone
appliedslightly
heated linseed
oil with
a
piece
of cloth to the whole
body
of
the animal.
When
the
villagers
wanted
to
provoke
their water-
buffaloes
to wrestle
(called
'camiz
kaki?tirma'),
they
mixed red
pepper
in a
small
ball
of
dough,
kneaded
it
with
linseed
oil,
and
fed them this ball
(called
'bezir
topu')15.
14
The
nformationbout
Azdavay
was
given
by
HabibeEker
(b. 1958)
nMancilik
illage,
about 0kmnorth f
Kastamonu.
The
information bout
Kaylk4lvillage
was
given by
Elife
Kayikqi
b. 1922)
n
August
1998.
15
This information as
given by
Gazi
Guiqliier
n Ihlara n
August
1998. He
says
that
water-buffalo
restling
was
very
famous
n
Ihlara nd hat t
continued ntil20-5
years
ago.
A
saying
about
eating
'bezir
topu'
is still used
among
the elders
for people who show badtemper.
177
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
9/16
Anatolian Studies
2000
>:..::.:d.?Si.........
'''
.........
Fig
:
7a. Tw'
:
,
.a la*m
r
'd
:
ofptty
i'
vlg
Aksara
Fig
7a.
Two linseed oil
lamps
made
of
pottery, Kzzllkaya
village, Aksaray
Fig
8a.
Oil
container
for
ox-carts made
of
water-buffalo
horn
178
0
5cm
I
I I
I I I
Fig
7b.
Oil
lamp
(by Ay,e
Ozkan)
Fig
8b. Oil container
(by Ayse
Ozkan)
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
10/16
Ertug
Fig
9. Atalar
Bezirhanesi
rom
the
outside.
The arched
entrance
leads
to the
'harman daml'
section
of
the
linseed
oil mill. The
building
on the
left
would
have been
used as
the
guest
house
of
the
mill
It was also used
in
Aksaray
to oil
the axles of
wooden-wheeled
carts
('kagni')
in order
to reduce
friction. Linseedoil was mixed with
groundgreensoap,
put
into containers
made of buffalo
horn
(fig
8),
and
hung
on
the back
of the cart
(Ertug-Yara?
997:
346).
This
practice
may go
back
to the Hittites
in Anatolia.
The cakes
('karayem')
formed
from the residue
of
linseed
oil
production
were used
as
fodder,
especially
for
draftanimalssuch as oxen
and buffalo'6.
This
was a
very
important
nd-product
f the
process
because
theresidue
contains 33-43%
protein
and
fat. It was as valuable
as
wheat.
Linseedoil
production
was
timed in accordance
with its use
as fodder.
While the harvest
of the
plants
took place in July and August, processingwas delayed
until
January
or
February
because
the cakes
were not
storable and had to be
fed to the
animals as soon
as
possible.
During
the
summer,
especially
after
the
harvest,
there was
always
enough
fodder
(e.g.
straw,
grasses)
to nourish the
animals.
However,
when the
tilling
fields
for
spring
crops began
in
February-March,
the
villagers
needed
strong
fodder
to enable
their draft
animals
to do the
heavy ploughing.
This is
a
good
example
of interconnections
among
several
aspects
of
the older
rural
economy.
With the introduction
of
electricity, new agricultural machinery and cheaper
margarine
ils,
linseed oil
production
ost
its
importance.
As
a
result,
traditional
nimal
husbandry
nd
agricultural
practices,
as well as local medicinal
usage, changed.
16
According
o the iterature
Renfrew
985:
64;
Charles
985:
52)
if linseed oil is
produced
by
'cold
pressing',
it contains
cyanogenetic
glucoside,
resulting
n
the
production
of
hydrogen
cyanide (prussic
acid)
and cannot be
given
to
animals.
In
Anatolia seeds are either
pre-processed
by
roasting
or
boiling
and then
cold
pressed,
the cakes were
fed to animals. It is
possible
thatthis
pre-heating
detoxified
the chemical
contentof
the seeds.
A case
study
of
an oil mill:
Atalar
Bezirhanesi, Demirci/Aksaray
Among
the
five linseed
oil mills
in the town of
Demirci,
the best
preserved
s
Atalar17,
amed after
its owner.
It
produced
oil until 1978
and
the whole
process
was
described
to
me
by
its
owner and
two
previous
workers.
The
mill,
completed
n
1936,
is
partly
carved
out of
tufa,
and partly constructed from stone a construction
technique
typical throughout
Cappadocia.
The
mill-
stone
and the wooden
parts
were
installed
in 1938 and
it
began
to
produce
oil the
same
year,
confirmed
by
an
inscription
on its
wall. The
adjacent
building
also
belongs
to
the same
family
and
was used as
the
mill's
guest-house.
The
guest-house
inscription
s dated
1912
(see
fig
9).
This oil-mill
has two sections
(fig
10):
the first
contains the
large
mill-stone
('harman
a?l')
from
which
it takes its
name 'harman
daml'
(fig
11);
the
second
section
contains
the
pressing
beams
('kiri,')
and
the
vertical wooden screw
('ig'),
and is called the 'kirin
daml'
(fig
12).
In the first
section,
a
seed-roasting
oven,
a
cooling
section
and a sieve
are situated
on the
left of the
entrance.
In
the centre
is the
big
mill-stone,
about
2m in
diameter
and about
50cm
high.
The vertical
upper
stone is
about
Im in
diameter,
30cm
thick and
is carved
out of
local
tufa. It rests on
the concave
surface
of the
lower
horizontal
mill stone.
A wooden
centre
post
passes
through
a hole
in the horizontal
stone and
is
firmly
embedded
in a
ceiling
beam.
A horizontal
axle beam
attaches he upperstone to the centralpost andan ox or
buffalo
with a draw
harness
s hitched
to the end
of
this
beam
to
turnthe
upper
stone.
The
animal walks
around
the
mill-stone,
turning
he
upper
stonewhich crushes
the
seeds
as
a
worker
brushes
them towards
it. This
mill-
stone is
basically
similar to
bulgur-mill
stones
in
Anatolia and to
oil mills
in Iran
(Wullf
1966:
297).
17
On
my
lastvisit
o the
AtalarBezirhanesi
n
August
998,
the
internalwooden
structures
had all been
removed,
probably
by
the owner. On
my previous
visit
in 1997 these wooden
struc-
tures had still been intact which is a good indicationof how
rapidly
the
materialevidence
of the
past
can
disappear.
There
are the remains
of two more 'bezirhane'
in Demirci.
Haci
Hasanlar,
ust
a few
houses
away
from
Atalarand
(;angallar
n
the
Kalealti district
of Demirci.
In Ihlarathe
largest
and best
maintained bezirhane
is 'Tekke
6nii Bezirhanesi'.
It
was
restored
n 1990
by
the local
municipality
but
is not
yet
open
to
the
public.
It is
a multi-room
subterranean
actory dug
out
of
the tufa
in
the usual
Cappadocian
ashion.
Dr Peter Kuniholm
from Cornell
University
kindly
took
a
sample
(BEZ 1)
from
one of
its
large
vertical tree-trunks
(estimated length
15m,
diameter
ca.
35cm).
The
sample
gives
a date of
1842.
The
log
was identified
s
Pinus
sylvestris
y
Dr
Werner
choch
of
the
Laborfir
Quartaeme
Hoelzer
(pers
comm
from
Dr
Kuniholm
1998).
179
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
11/16
Anatolian Studies
2000
* ..*
ii.
GIR1S
ENTRANCE
B-B
KESlTI/SECTION
B
A
-A-
..
A-A
KESITI
SECTION
0 1
5M
Fig
10.
Plan
and the section
of
the Atalar
Bezirhanesi,
Demirci,
Aksaray
June
1995
(by
the architect
S Bebekoglu
and the restorationspecialist G Duru)
180
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
12/16
Ertug
The two
sectionsof the 'bezirhane'
areconnected
by
an
opening.
Entering
the second
section,
one sees
four
verticallyplaced
beams,
each about
30-40cm thick and
10-12m
long.
These beams
(possibly
willow)
are
connected
to an
impressive
wooden
screw,
6-7m
high,
thought
o be madeof oak.
This
screw
rests
in a
mortar-
like
stone,
also carved
from local tufa.
A wooden
piece,
called 'agir~ak',holds the screw and connects it to four
beams.
Two beams
pass
to
the
right
of the screw and two
other sets
pass
to the
left,
and while the
screw
turns,
the
'agir,ak'
presses
onto the
beams. The other ends
of the
beams are attached
to the back
wall of the
building,
secured
by
another
piece
of wood called a 'bestirek'.
The oil basketsare
placed
in a
special pit
at the end of
the
four beams.
The screw is
lowered with the
help
of
an
animal,
or
by
several
men,
and the beams
apply pressure
to the
baskets,
causing
oil to flow fromthem.
One turn
of the
animal s about
equal
to one thread
of the screw.
It
needs
four
people
or one ox
to raise the screw but
only
two men to lower
it. While the
ceiling
of the
mill is
constructedon
arches,
the
top
part
of the screw is closed
with
wooden
beams,
preventing
t from
tearing
downthe
arches
if the screw should
fly
from its socket.
In
general,
one master and
three workers are needed
to work
an oil
mill. It has been said that
in the
past
(before
1922)
most of
the masters were Greeks
('Rum')18.
Workershave
a room over the entrance o rest
and eat which can be reached
by
the stairs next to
the
entrance. This
space
has a
fire-place
with a
chimney
and
two windows.
The workers rest on
platforms
covered
with woven mats. Inaddition,behindthemill stone there
is
a
stable
for the
animals water buffalo or
oxen
used
in the oil
mill,
as well
as
other
villagers'
animals
bringing
seeds
to
process.
The
production
of linseed
oil
The
process
of linseed oil
production
was as follows.
The seeds
were first
roasted,
then
ground
on the mill-
stone and
the flour-like
product
was mixed
with
water to
prepare
a
dough.
This
dough
was
packed
into
special
baskets
which were stacked
under
heavy
wooden beams
and pressedby turningthe wooden screw. The baskets
stayed
under
pressure
for about
24
hours,
during
which
time the oil drained
rom them.
18
Someelders
remembered
hat hese masters amefrom he
Greek
villages
of
Cappadocia
or a few months
during
he
winterand
then,
whenthe oil
pressing
eason
was
over,
hey
went
back o their
villages. Only
one record ouldbe found
about his
fact,
saying
hat some Greeks romSinasos
new
name:
Mustafapa?a)
n
Nev?ehir
were
earning
heir
ivelyhood
by pressing
flaxseeds and sesame
oils
(Augustinos
1997:
40).
Fig
11. The oven and the
large
mill-stone 'harman ail'
in the 'harmandaml'
section
of
the
Atalar
Bezirhanesi,
Demirci,
Aksaray
I was told that at the
beginning
of the
process
the
seeds
were
poured
down
from the roof
through
a
chimney into the oven. Then the oven was lit with
branches of
'ketegen'
(Salsola
ruthenica)
and vine
cuttings
(Vitis
vinifera).
For one
day's
roasting
about
15-
20
carts of Salsola
were needed.
About
30kg
of seed19
were roasted
in the oven on a
furiously
burning
fire for
about
half an hour. One
worker
maintained he fire
by
carrying
uel and the masterstirred
he seeds
with an iron
shovel,
called
a
'qek'.
When
all the seeds were
evenly
roasted,
the master
poured
hem into
the
cooling
section,
called
an
'alirt'.
The cooled seeds
were then sieved
(cleaned
from the
ashes)
and carried
o the
mill-stone.
To shorten
the
process
at the
peak
of the
production,
the
mill-crew roasted he seeds
one
day
and
ground
hem
the next. Ten
to
12
roasting
sessions
could be
completed
in one
day
and about
half of the total
190-200kg
of
roastedseeds-
could be
ground
on the
mill
stone
at one
time. This was
called one 'direk'
as
it
was sufficient
to
produce
one
pillar
('direk')
or
vertical stack of
baskets
(two
pillars
went into the
oil
pit
at one
time).
It
took
aboutanhourwith the
help
of draft
animals to
grind
this
quantity
of seed
and then
it was screened
with a
large
fine-meshed
sieve.
If
the
powder
was
not fine
enough,
it
was
ground
again
until
everything
passed through
the
sieve. After the powderwas screenedand put back on
the mill stone about
1-1.5
tins
(20-30kg)
of
water was
added. This
mixture was
ground
on the mill-stone
with
the
help
of
an ox or
a
male buffalo
until it becamea hard
dough.
Several
shifts of
animals and several
hours were
required
before
the
mixture
became
hard
enough,
'not to
19
The
people
use
localmeasurementsalled
kile' and
?inik':
1
kile
is
equal
o
4
?inik
and
about
30-2kg
of seed.
In
every
roasting
ession
heypour
4
~inik
and
n
everygrinding
kile
(=
24
?inik)
f
roasted eedsare
processed.
181
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
13/16
Anatolian Studies 2000
4
Fig
12. The wooden screw and
the
large
beams
in the
Fig
13.
An
old
master
of
the linseed oil mill
shows the
'kirin
dami' section
of
the bezirhane
baskets made
of
Juncus
inflexus
(kova otu),
Demirci
stick to the stone', as the master said. Then the dough
was
packed
into baskets
by
hand. The
baskets
(fig
13)
were made of
a local
plant,
'kova otu'
(Juncus
inflexus)
and
each of these containers
(50cm
in
diameter)
took
about
8kg
of
dough.
About
35-50kg
of linseed oil were
produced
rom 20 baskets.
When all the baskets
were
filled,
they
were taken to
the second
part
of
the mill
('kiri?
dami'). Twenty
or
24
of them were stacked in two
pillars
in
the
pit
and
heavy
wooden
pieces,
called
'a?lk'
or
'yag
tahtasl',
were
placed
on
top
of
them.
Finally,
the wooden screw was turned
down
to
squeeze
the baskets
under he
weight
of the four
beams.
It
took
about
24
hours of
pressing
to
produce
wo
or three
tins,
a total of
35-50kg
oil.
During
this time the
screw was released
a
few times and
the
baskets
were
repositioned.
The residue
within the baskets was cracked and
groundagain
on the mill-stone. Some
bran,
barley
or
rye
was added before
it was
given
to
the animals.
From 20
baskets about
200kg
of fodder are
produced.
In
1950-60
an oil mill worked about three to four
months
in the winter to
process
about
14
tons of
Linum/Eruca,producingabout3 tons of linseed oil and
about
1.5
tons of
fodder20. When
all
the
mills were
working,
the local seed
yield
was
not sufficient and the
mill
owners
brought
seed from other
places
such as
Konya
and Adana. The
importance
of linseed oil
production
becomes clear
when one realizes
that there
were
18 'bezirhane'
within an area
of
20-5km2.
20
Production
yields
are
given
by
Abdullah
Ata
(b. 1931),
the
owner and masterof
the Atalar inseed oil
mill.
He
said that he
started
o work
in
the
mill
when he
was seven
years
old and for
40
years
-
until 1978
-
he worked
n
the 'bezirhane'.
During
the
1950-60s,
in
addition to
the five linseed oil mills
in
Demirci,
there were one
in
each
of the
following
towns:
Ibrasar
(new
name:
Yaprakhisar),
Selime, Belisirama,
Gelveri
(new
name:
Giizelyurt),Kizilkaya, Agahll,
Ihlara,Ilisu, Camili6ren,
Kitreli, Suvermez,
Helvadere and
in the
Aksaray
Kallnlar/Kireqlik
istrict. Camel caravans
of 20-30 camels
were used to
transport
Eruca
from
Konya,
Nigde
and
Keqikalesi
until
1955. Information n
production
was
provided
by
?ehabettin
Can
(b. 1944)
who worked as a master
at the
Atalarmill from 1963 to 1978.
182
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
14/16
Ertug
Different
techniques
of
oil
production
Diversity
in the oil
productionprocess
at other towns in
Anatolia,
as well as in some other
countries,
may
be
due
to the use of differentoil
plants
and
also to
differences
n
local
knowledge,
as well
as the local
requirements
and
local technical
capacity.
For
example,
in the Keban
area
of eastern
Anatolia linseed oil
is called
'gingircek
yagl'.
The seeds are roasted, pounded on a stone, boiled in
water and the oil on the
surface
is
collected
(Ansan-
Giinay
1980:
28).
Linseed
oil was
probably
produced
from
flax
but
the
technique
was different because
only
small amountswere
produced
at a time.
Knowles
(1967: 157)
observed safflower
oil
production
n a
workshop
n
Eski?ehir
n the 1960s.
He
reports
hat
the seeds were
first
crushed,
hen heated and
pressed.
In
Egypt
saffloweroil
(Knowles
1967:
161),
and
in Iranlinseed
oil,
as well as
poppy,
cotton, castor,
rape
and mustardoils
were
produced
n the
same
way
as in
central Anatolia, namely roasted, ground and pressed
(Wulff
1966:
296).
The
techniques
and the
tools were
also similar.
In
the Deccan area
of
India
a
different
technique
was
observed.
Carthamus tinctorius
(safflower)
seeds were
placed
in
an earthen
pot,
and
a
perforated
id was sealed to
it with
wet
clay.
Then the
pot
was invertedand
placed
on a smaller
pot
buried
n
soil.
A
fire of dried
dung
was
kept
burning
around
he
upper
pot
overnight.
This
melted
about two thirdsof the
oil
in
the
seeds. It was usedas axle
grease
and as
waterproofing
or
leatherbuckets
(Knowles
1967:
158).
A
similar
process
of extractinghot-drawnoil from safflowerseedswas also
recorded in
Iraq
which
yields
a
thick, black,
viscous
materialused
for
waterproofingCharles
1985:
52).
Results
and
discussion
Flax
and
Eruca
were two
plants
cultivated
especially
for
oil
production
in
central Anatolia.
It
is known that
linseed oil mills were
present
n
this
area for at least
the
last 500
years.
However,
the several centuries
or
perhaps
millennia-
of
dependence
on this oil have now
ended and the local oil
industry
has
disappeared. Hydro-
genated
solid
vegetable
fats and
tasteless,
odorless
vegetable
oils
are
now used
instead of
linseed
oil
in
culinary
culture.
Mechanisation
has
greatly
affected
local
agriculture
and animal
husbandrypractices.
When
electricity
became common
there was no need for oil
lamps.
Nowadays,
no one misses
the
flickeringlight
of
oil
lamps
and
their
soot,
or the odor
that covered the
whole
village
when linseed oil was used for
frying,
or the
wooden-wheeled
oxcarts
greased
with
linseed
oil. Yet
linseed
oil is still needed
in
urban
ndustry.
In
fact,
some
linseed
oil
producers
n
Istanbul old me
that
they import
raw oil or seeds from abroad
as there is so little
in
Anatolia. The cultivationof flax and its
production
n
some of the old
'bezirhane' could
still be
important,
f
not for local
consumption,
then for industrial and
for
touristic
purposes.
Archaeological
evidence
indicates that
flax
fibre has
been
used from
prehistoric
times,
but we do not know
when its use as an oil
plant began.
If
we
want
to
know
which
plants
were used for their
oily
seeds
in
the
distant
pastand how theywereprocessed,we need to knowhow
they
were
cultivated,
harvested and
processed
in
the
recent
past.
In
this
study
I note the various uses of linseed oil as
food,
as fuel and
in
animal
husbandry. Ethnographical
observationsshow
that
oil
production
needs the concen-
trateduse of both human and
animal
power by
means of
quite simple techniques
and tools.
The most
common
technique
seems to be
crushing
the seeds between two
stones after
roasting, mixing
the
powder
with
water,
filling
sacks
or
baskets with the resultant
dough
and then
pressing it. In small-scale production, seeds can be
roasted on a metal
plate
or in an
oven,
they
can be
crushed
n
mortarsor
hand-mills,
put
into
mats,
baskets
or
sacks
and then
pressed
between two
heavy
stones. Oil
can also be
producedby boiling
the seeds in
water.
In all
cases
but one that
of India the seeds are crushed
andlose their
shape,
and,
as the resultant
pulp
is
used
for
animal
fodder
or
fertiliser,
we
may
not find
any
archaeo-
logical
evidence.
Still,
in
the
process
of
roasting
and
grinding,
seeds
may
be lost
in
and around he oven and
the mill stones. To check
archaeological
mortars and
grindingstones for residues or other indicationsof oil
productionmay
be a
promising archaeological
research
topic.
Plant
residue
analysis
on these stone
tools,
as well
as
in
possible
oil
storage pots
and
lamps, may
also
produce
valuable results.
During
this
study
I
have discussed
oil
plants
from
an
archaeological
point
of
view,
but there are
other
facets
of
this
topic.
Some
cultivars
such as
Linumand
Eruca
have
probably
been cultivated
in
Anatolia for thousands of
years,
but
with
recent
rapid changes
cultivation has
ended.
In
relatively
isolated areasof the
country
these
cultural forms
(cultivars)probably changed
genetically,
and
became more
adapted
o
climate,
soil
and
pathogens.
As a
limited numberof
major
cultivarsbecame
dominant
throughout
he
country
almost all these diverse cultural
(genetic?)
forms
may
well have been lost. Older
cultivarsare
related o
a
greatvariety
of
handicrafts,
olk
medicine
and local
culinary practices
which are
rapidly
being forgotten.
These
aspects might
well
be
as
important
as the
efficiency
of
newer
cultivars.
I
think of this
paper
as
a
preliminarycase-study
in a
limited area of Anatolia. More information s
needed
from
historians,
social
anthropologists
and
ethnogra-
phers,
as well as
archaeologists,
o
complete
this
puzzle.
183
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
15/16
Anatolian
Studies
2000
Acknowledgements
I am
extremely grateful
to
Patty
Jo
Watson,
Josephine
Powell
and Mark
Nesbitt for
their corrections
to the
manuscript
of
this
paper,
and
to Rene
Cappers,
Naomi
Miller,
Mike
Charles,
OmerDemirel
and
~evket
Pamuk
for
providing
valuable
references.
I
am also
grateful
to
Ay~e
Tuncay
for
redrawing
he
maps
of the area.
Bibliography
Special
abbreviations
used
in the
text
TDK
=
1979:
Derleme
Szliiugui
(vol 11)
(Turk
Dil
Kurumu
Yaylnlan).
Ankara
TTO
=
1969:
Keten. Keten
ifi,
Keten
tohumu,
Keten
yagi
ve Keten
Kiispesi
(Tiirkiye
Ticaret Odalarl
ve
TicaretBorsalan
Birligi).
Ankara
University
Bern
=
1971:
Alacahoyuiik:
tnographische
Skizzen
Eines
Anatolischen
Dorfes
(Ergebnisse
einer
Felduibung
des Seminars
fur
Ethnologie
der
UniversitatBern,Bemishes HistorischesMuseum).
Bern
Ansan-Giinay,
D
(ed)
1980:
Keban
Baraj
Goluii
Yresi
Halkbilim
Ara$tirmalari
(Orta Dogu
Teknik
Universitesi
Keban
Projesi
Yayinlarl
11/3,
Turk
TarihKurumu
Basimevi).
Ankara
Augustinos,
G 1997:Kiiuiik
Asya
Rumlarl.
Ankara
Barber,
E J W
1991:
Prehistoric
Textiles.
The
Devel-
opment
of
Cloth
in the
Neolithic and Bronze
Ages.
Princeton
1994: Women Work.The First20,000years. Women,
Cloth
and
Society
n
Early
Times.New
York,
London
Baytop,
T 1948:
'Izgln
ve
Burc
Hakkinda'
Farmakolog
18:
19-21
1984:
Tiirkiyede
Bitkilerle
Tedavi:
Gecmi;te
ve
Bugiin
(Istanbul
Universitesi
Yayinlarl,
Eczacilik
Fakiiltesi:
40).
Istanbul
-
1994:
Tiirkce
Bitki Adlarl
Szliigii.
Ankara
Bedigian,
D
1985: 'Is
se-gis-i
sesame
or flax?'
Bulletin
on Sumerian
Agriculture
2:
159-78
Charles,
M P 1985:
'An
introduction
o the
legumes
and
oil plants of Mesopotamia'Bulletin on Sumerian
Agriculture
2: 39-61
1993 'Botanical
remains'
in
A
Green
(ed),
Abu
Salabikh
Excavations
(vol
4).
London:204-7
Davis,
P H
1967:
'Linum
L.'
in P
H
Davis
(ed),
Flora
of
Turkey
and the
East
Aegean
Islands
(vol 2).
Edinburgh:
25-50
Demirel,
0
1998:
Osmanli
D6nemi Sivas
$ehri
ve
Esnaf
Te$kilati.
ivas
Erciyes,
A
T,
Karaosmanoglu,
F,
Civelekoglu,
H
1989:
'Fruit
oils
of four plant species
of
Turkishorigin'
Journal
of
the American
Oil Chemists
Society
66/10: 1459-64
Ertem,
H 1987:
Bogazkoy
Metinlerine
Gore
Hititler
Devri AnadolusununFlorasi.
Ankara
Ertug-Yara?,
1997: An
Ethnoarchaeological
Study of
Subsistence
and Plant
Gathering
in Central
Anatolia
(PhD
thesis).
University
of
Washington
Esin, U,
Bicakil, E,
Ozba?aran,
M,
Balkan-Atli, N,
Berker, D,
Yagmur,
I,
Ath,
A
K 1991:
'Salvage
excavationsat the pre-pottery ite of A?ikliH6oyik
in
central
Anatolia'Anatolica 17:
123-74
Fujita,
T,
Sezik, E,
Tabata,M,
Ye?ilada,
E, Honda,
G,
Tanaka,
T,
Takaishi,
Y
1995:
'Traditional
medicine
in
Turkey
VII.
Folk medicine
in middle
and west
Black Sea
regions'
Economic
Botany
49/4:
406-22
Gallant,
T W
1985:
'The
agronomy,
production
and
utilization
of sesame
and linseed
in the Graeco-
Roman
world'
Bulletin on Sumerian
Agriculture
2:
153-8
Giiterbock,
H G 1968:
'Oil
plants
in
Hittite Anatolia'
Journalof AmericanOrientalSociety88: 66-71
Helbaek,
H
1970:
'The
plant
husbandry
of
Hacilar'
J
Mellaart
(ed),
Excavations
at
Hacilar.
Edinburgh:
188-244
Hillman,
G C 1984: 'Traditional
husbandry
and
processing
of archaic
cereals
in
recent
times:
part
1:
the
glume
wheats' Bulletin
on
Sumerian
Agriculture
1: 114-52
1985: 'Traditional
husbandry
and
processing
of
archaic
cereals:
part
2: the
free-threshing
cereals'
Bulletin
on Sumerian
Agriculture
2: 1-31
Hoffner, H A Jr 1994: 'Oil in Hittite texts' Biblical
Archaeologist
58/2:
108-14
Kal'a,
A
(ed)
1997a:
Istanbul
Esnaf
Tarihi
1. Istanbul
-
1997b:
Istanbul
Ticaret
Tarihi
1
(1742-1779).
Istanbul
-
1998a:
Istanbul
Esnaf
Birlikleri
ve
Nizamlarl
1.
Istanbul
1998b: Istanbul'da
Sosyal
Hayat
2
(1755-1765).
Istanbul
-
1998c:
Istanbul
Esnaf
Tarihi
2
(1764-1793).
Istanbul
Knowles,
P F 1967:
'Processing
seeds
for oil
in
towns
and
villages
of
Turkey,
ndia
and
Egypt'
Economic
Botany21: 156-62
Konyali,
I
H
1964:
Abideleri
ve Kitabeleri
ile
Konya
Tarihi.
Konya
-
1974:Abideleri
ve
Kitabeleri le
Nigde
Aksaray
Tarihi
(3
vols).
Istanbul
Ko?ay,
H Z 1951:
Alaca-Hoyiik:
Anadolu
'nun
Etnografya
ve
Folkloruna Dair
Malzeme
(Turk
TarihKurumu
Yayinlan
7/21).
Ankara
1977:
Pulur.
Etnografya
ve Folklor
Arastlrmalari
(Orta
Dogu
Teknik
Universitesi
Keban
Projesi
Yayinlan
2/2).
Ankara
McCorriston,
J
1997:
'The
fiber revolution'
Current
Anthropology
38/4:
517-49
184
This content downloaded from 134.100.17.1 on Thu, 15 May 2014 13:00:39 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp8/10/2019 Ertug Linseed Oil and Oil Mills in Central Turkey, 2000
16/16
Ertug
Miller,
N
F
1991: 'The Near
East' in W Van
Zeist,
K
Wasylikova,
K Behre
(eds),
Progress
in Old World
Palaeoethnobotany.
Rotterdam:133-60
Morrison,
J
A
1939:
Ali~ar:
a
Unit
of
Land
Occupance
n
the Kanak Su
Basin
of
Central
Anatolia
(PhD
thesis). University
of
Chicago
Oguz,
B 1976:
Tfirkiye
Halklnin
Kfiltiir
Kokenleri
1:
Beslenme
Teknikleri.stanbul
Renfrew,
M
1985: Finds
of sesameand inseed
n
ancient
Iraq'
Bulletinon
Sumerian
Agriculture
: 63-6
Ryder,
M 1965:
'Report
of textiles
from
Catal
H6oyuk'
Anatolian
Studies
15:
175-6
Schuster,
W H 1992:
Olpflanzen