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Epilegomenon
The Question of Linguistic Change
The goal of this book is the explanation of social variation in language, otherwisethe meaning and motivation of language change in its social aspect. It is directlyconcerned with the rational explication of linguistic variety as evidenced byspontaneous innovations in present-day American English. For the most part, Iexamine the ascription of social value to novel linguistic entities, as one of the areasin which the effects of spontaneous innovations are most notable. A special featureof the data is the plethora of examples drawn from media and colloquial language.
In fact, what I present here is an exploration of the ideological value of a wholelist of changes-in-progress in American English. To a certain extent, I am contin-uing the older tradition of books like Mencken (1957), Pyles (1952), andMarckwardt (1980), while also investigating an important area of contemporarysociolinguistics not illuminated by books like Wolfram (1974), McDavid (1980),Dillard (1992), Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (1998), or even Labov (1973).
The theoretical question posed here (following Andersen 1989) is informed bythe idea of linguistic change as a form of communication—the title of a study byLabov, who concluded that members of a speech community use innovations tosignal a variety of messages, such as “stronger meaning,” “group solidarity,”“greater intimacy,” or their opposites (1974: 253 ff.). Labov’s study clarifies someof the reasons why innovations are adopted and is significant for its key assumptionalone that any novel expression, apart from the content invested in it by grammarand pragmatics, has a specific value by virtue of being different from a traditionalexpression with the same grammatical and pragmatic content.
It is this “connotative content” (Hjelmslev 1960: 114 ff.) of novel linguisticexpressions that is the object here. But whereas, for instance, Labov’s study refersthe specific values carried by the innovations to such established categories ofconnotative content as those mentioned above, my investigation concentrates onuncovering the purport of innovations before their definite, collectively understoodconnotative content has been widely adopted; and before the stage of consolidationof their values has been reached.
The supposed dichotomy between language and society is non-existent in tworespects. For one thing, language is an entirely social phenomenon and cannot beseparated from its social functions. For another, when linguistic rules make refer-ence to social categories such as age, gender, or class, these categories are alsothemselves linguistic categories. They can and should be strictly distinguished fromsuch parameters as chronological age, biological sex, or socioeconomic status,which can be defined prior to—and without regard to—the investigation of anylanguage. What linguistic expressions index are culture-specific categories such as‘youthfulness’, ‘femininity’, or ‘upper class’, not as defined in universal, natural-istic terms, but as conventionally encoded and understood by speakers of the lan-guage in question at the given time. Far from being “sociological factors” or “socialfactors bear[ing] upon linguistic features” (Weinreich et al. 1968: 186), these are infact linguistic features. They are language-particular categories of content, indexedby linguistic elements of expression, that are selected for expression in discourse byspeakers in accordance with their communicative intentions and with the samedegree of freedom (and responsibility) as other categories of linguistic content.While it is a commonplace that language is totally embedded in society (linguisticfacts are social facts), what is important to understand is that through the soci-olinguistic categories of content indexed by linguistic expressions, the categories ofa society are embedded in its language “unevenly” (Weinreich et al.: 185)—that is,selectively.
Any theory of language that wishes to explain language use must come to gripswith the phenomenon of change and its causes. All linguistic variety, includingsocial and dialectal differentiation within a given language, is necessarily the pro-duct of historical changes, some of which are still in progress at a given point in thatlanguage’s development.
Representative of much modern theorizing about the causes of language change isCoseriu’s position (1958), according to which change in a language, as well as theabsence of change, is produced by its speakers as part of that exercise of their freewill which speaking constitutes. In speaking, they may be motivated by the diversecircumstances under which to speak is to deviate from the usage that is traditional intheir community. But such a motivation is not a cause in the sense in which linguists(like Bloomfield 1935) understand the word, for individual speakers are free to letthemselves be moved—or not moved—by the given circumstance(s). In Coseriu’sview, the only true “cause” of change are the speakers, who use their language, andin doing so observe or neglect their linguistic traditions as they see fit.
This way of looking at language is fairly realistic, not only because it assumesthat any change may be conditioned by a number of coexisting circumstances, butalso because it acknowledges the intentional character of speaking, whether itfollows or breaks with tradition, and hence, by implication, an element of intentionin both stability and change. In accordance with this latter aspect of Coseriu’stheory, the language historian’s task is not one of causal explanation but of rationalexplication.
What gives my approach its special stamp is a method whose main assumption isthat linguistic change has a directionality defined by a parallelism between form and
418 Epilegomenon
meaning. A simple example: “knowledges”—‘knowledge’ used in what would beconsidered a deviant, if not outright ungrammatical, plural form. Why? Because itbears a contemporary ideological message that cannot easily be sustained instraightforward argument, the message, namely, that there are incompatible modesof thought that are equally valid. Thus “Western” science is only one (type of)knowledge to which such alternatives as Pawnee creation myths, “Wicca” witch-craft, etc., are just as valid—so many distinct “knowledges.”
In many of the essays in this book, there are series of examples like the one justgiven that are analyzed in terms of the parallelism between the relational value oflinguistic forms and the cultural (ideological) content they signify.
American English, like all national languages, abounds in variety. Differences inage, sex, education, and psychosocial habits are typically correlated with differencesin language use, so that there are always some discontinuities between the gram-mars of individual speakers. At the same time, similarities in speech and writingalso tend to be mirrored by similarities in personalia. One way to understand whatthese correlations mean is to adopt a historical perspective on both the differencesand the similarities of speech/writing. When analyzed with respect to their positionson a continuum, in terms of both the immediately preceding system from whichthey are departures and the new system of which they are manifestations, linguisticinnovations can provide clues to the meaning of social and cultural changes incontemporary American society.
General usage in America is understandably far from monolithic. Beside thevariety in language use associated with geographical and social dialects, there arenumerous linguistic variants that are part of American English in the round, so tospeak. Differences in pronunciation such as that of broad and flat /a/ in words likerather or aunt can cross dialectal lines and constitute indicators of speakers’ atti-tudes, i.e., as linguistic clues to their value systems. This kind of evidence can differfrom the features that are traditionally labeled as stylistic or social. When applied toindividuals that cannot otherwise easily be grouped socioeconomically, a micro-analysis of linguistic habits shifts the focus productively from describing sociolectsalong traditional lines to identifying nascent groups of speakers by the value sys-tems that account for their departures from received patterns.
There is a set of dialectally and socially unlocalized innovations in contemporaryAmerican English that are correlated with cultural changes. For instance, failure toapply the traditional laxing rule in forming the plural of house can be seen notmerely as the imposition of regularity on the paradigm but as a sign of the speaker’sevidently unconscious rejection of the received pattern and adherence to thespreading new one. When phonological and morphological variants such as thisoccur in clusters in the language of a growing group of speakers, they can provideevidence of new attitudes not only toward what constitutes acceptable general usagebut toward aspects of the “ideological” make-up of such groups.
Syntax and semantics represent relatively higher nodes of ascent along the lin-guistic hierarchy from constraint to freedom but are still areas of language structurethat provide evidence of variation that can be correlated with “ideological”differences.
Epilegomenon 419
In the last thirty years, for instance, there has been a change in the government ofthe verb commit whereby the reflexive complement tends to be omitted. Thissyntactic innovation can be analyzed as an indicator of a change in the coremeaning of the verb from that of ‘bind/pledge oneself’ to something more equiv-ocal (‘non-binding/non-committal’). Speakers who habitually use the verb withoutthe reflexive may be said to have a different attitude—and therefore, a differentvalue system—from those speakers of American English who follow the oldernorm.
Semantics is the most fluid of linguistic subsystems and furnishes the richestevidence of the correlation between language use and value systems. An example isthat of pleonasm or redundancy. Locutions like equally as (for equally) or also… aswell abound in contemporary American speech (and even in writing). In some casespleonasms become part of general usage (past experience, advance warning, safehaven, etc.), but there are many others that arise spontaneously. An “ideological”analysis of pleonastic constructions—and of redundancy in general—will seek toexplore how such usage coheres with a particular attitudinal set toward the relationbetween form and content that crosses strictly linguistic boundaries to embracemodes of cognition correlated with beliefs and the predispositions toward actionthey account for.
“Wherever the human mind has worked collectively and unconsciously, it hasstriven for and attained unique form. The important point is that the evolution ofform has a drift in one direction, that it seeks poise, and that it rests, relativelyspeaking, when it has found this poise.” This is how Sapir (1949: 382) famouslycharacterizes the principle of final causation in language. Present possibilities withgreater or lesser powers of actualization exist at any given historical stage of alanguage. Innovations that come to be full-fledged social facts, i.e., changes, musthave something about their form that enables them to survive. The ensemble ofsuch innovations-become-changes is what constitutes the drift of a language.
References
Andersen, H. (1989). Understanding linguistic innovations. In L. E. Breivik & E. H. Jahr (Eds.),Language change: Contributions to the study of its causes (pp. 5–28). Berlin: Mouton deGruyter.
Bloomfield, L. (1935). Language. New York: Holt.Coseriu, E. (1958). Sincronía, diacronía e historia: el problema del cambio lingüístico.
Montevideo: Universidad. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias.Dillard, J. L. (1992). A history of American English. London: Longman.Hjelmslev, L. (1960). Prolegomena to a theory of language (F. Whitfield, Trans.). Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press.Labov, W. (1973). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Labov, W. (1974). Linguistic change as a form of communication. In A. Silverstein (Ed.), Human
communication: Theoretical explorations (pp. 221–256). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Marckwardt, A. H. (1980). American English (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford UP.
420 Epilegomenon
McDavid, R. I. (1980). Dialects in culture: Essays in general dialectology. Tuscaloosa: Universityof Alabama Press.
Mencken, H. L. (1957). The American Language: An inquiry into the development of english inthe United States (4th ed.). New York: Knopf.
Pyles, T. (1952). Words and ways of American English. New York: Random House.Sapir, E. (1949). Selected writings in language, culture and personality. In D. G. Mandelbaum
(Ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.Weinreich, U., Labov, W., & Herzog, M. (1968). Empirical foundations for a theory of language
change. In W. Lehmann & Y. Malkiel (Eds.), Directions for historical linguistics (pp. 95–188).Austin: University of Texas Press.
Wolfram, W. A. (1974). The study of social dialects in American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
Wolfram, W. A., & Schilling-Estes, N. (1998). American English: Dialects and variation. Oxford:Blackwell.
Epilegomenon 421
Master Glossary
abduce, v. < abduction, n. (originally in the writings of C.S. Peirce) the onlyfallible mode of reasoning, viz. the formation or adoption of a plausible butunproven explanation for an observed phenomenon; a working hypothesisderived from limited evidence and informed conjecture
abductive, adj. < abduction, n. vide supra
ablative, adj. of, relating to, or being a grammatical case indicating separation,direction away from, sometimes manner or agency, and the object of certainverbs (found in Latin and other Indo-European languages); the ablative case; aform in this case
ablaut, n. vowel change, characteristic of Indo-European languages, that accom-panies a change in grammatical function; for example, i, a, u in sing, sang, sung;also called gradation (German)
aborning, adv. while being born or produced; at the moment of birth; beforecoming to completion competence
absolute, adj. of a clause, construction, case, etc., not syntactically dependent onanother part of the sentence; of a word: used without a (customary) syntacticdependant; spec. (a) (of a transitive verb) used without an expressed object;(b) (of an adjective or possessive pronoun) used alone without a modified noun
abstracta, n. [pl] abstract words (Latin)
abut, v. to bring (two things) together
accoutrement, n. an identifying but usually extraneous characteristic; anonessential but usual accompaniment
accusative, adj. of, relating to, or being the grammatical case that is the directobject of a verb or the object of certain prepositions
acronym, n. a word formed from the initial letters of a name, such as WAC forWomen’s Army Corps, or by combining initial letters or parts of a series ofwords, such as radar for radio detecting and ranging
adhere, v. to hold, follow, or maintain loyalty steadily and consistently (as to aperson, group, principle, or way)
ad hoc for the particular end or purpose at hand and without reference to widerapplication or employment (Latin)
ad libitum variable according to a performer’s pleasure (Latin)
admirative, adj. characterized by or full of admiration; admiring
adstructure, n. substructure; subsidiary or particular structure within a structuralwhole
adumbration, n. < adumbrate, v. to suggest, indicate, or disclose partially andwith a purposeful avoidance of precision
adversion, n. < advert, v. to turn one’s attention; to take notice, take heed, attend,pay attention
aetiological < aetiology, n. a science or doctrine of causation or of the demon-stration of causes; a branch of knowledge concerned with the causes of particularphenomena
affect, n. the conscious emotion that occurs in reaction to a thought or experience
affected, adj. < affectation, n. manner of speech or behavior not natural to one’sactual personality or capabilities; artificiality of behavior especially in display offeelings
affective, n. (a word or form) expressing emotion
affixation, n. < affix, v. < affix, n. a word element, such as a prefix or suffix, thatcan only occur attached to a base, stem, or root
afflatus, n. a strong creative impulse, especially as a result of divine inspiration
affricate, n. a complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant followed by africative; for example, the initial sounds of child and joy
agency, n. the capacity, condition, or state of acting or of exerting power
agentive, adj. of or relating to a linguistic form or construction that indicates anagent or agency, as the suffix -er in singer
agrammatistically, adv. < agrammatistic, adj. < agrammatism, n. loss of theability to use correct grammar; a form of aphasia characterized by this
à la française ‘in the French style’ (French)
alas and alack idiomatic phrase used to express regret or sadness
aleatory, adj. dependent on chance, luck, or an uncertain outcome
424 Master Glossary
allegro, adj. in a quick, lively tempo (Italian)
alliterative, adj. < alliteration, n. the repetition of the same sounds or of the samekinds of sounds at the beginning of words or in stressed syllables
allomorph, n. any of the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the phonetic[s] of cats, [z] of pigs, and [iz] horses are allomorphs of the English pluralmorpheme {s}
allophonic, adj. < allophone, n. a predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme, e.g.,the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt (pronounced as a flap)of batter—all allophones of the English phoneme /t/
a lokh n kop [like] ‘a hole in the head’ (Yiddish)
alveolar, adj. of or relating to the alveolus, i.e., the socket of a tooth, or to the partof a jawbone which contains the tooth sockets; a speech sound, esp. a consonant:articulated by placing the tongue against or near to the alveolar ridge
alveolar flap a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with thetongue
alveoli, pl. n. < alveolus, n. a tooth socket in the jawbone
ambience, n. a surrounding or pervading atmosphere; environment, milieu
ameliorative, adj. < ameliorate, v. to make better; to better, improve
Americanism, n. a word, phrase, or idiom characteristic of English as it is spokenin the United States
amicus, n. friend (Latin), as in amicus curiae ‘friend of the court’
anacrusis, n. one or more unstressed syllables at the beginning of a line of verse,before the reckoning of the normal meter begins
anadiplosis, n. rhetorical repetition at the beginning of a phrase of the word orwords with which the previous phrase ended; e.g., He is a man of loyalty, loyaltyalways firm
anamnesis, n. the complete history recalled and recounted by a patient
anapestic, adj. < anapest, n. a metrical foot composed of two short syllablesfollowed by one long one, as in the word seventeen
anaphoric, adj. < anaphora, n. the deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at thebeginning of several successive verses, clauses, or paragraphs; for example; theuse of a linguistic unit, such as a pronoun, to refer back to another unit
anent, prep. in reference to, concerning
Anglophone, adj. English-speaking
anima ‘air, breath, life, soul, spirit’ (Latin)
Master Glossary 425
animadversion, n. < animadvert, v. to comment critically (on, upon), to uttercriticism (usually of an adverse kind); to express censure or blame
animus, n. ill will, antagonism, or hostility usually controlled but deep-seated
anodize, v. render anodyne, i.e., soothing to the mind or feelings
anosognosia, n. an inability or refusal to recognize a defect or disorder that isclinically evident
antanaclasis, n. the stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a differentmeaning each time
antepenultimate, adj. < antepenult, n. the third syllable from the end in a word,such as te in antepenult
anthropomorphize, v. to attribute a human form or personality to (as an animal orinanimate object)
antimetabole, n. the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposedgrammatical order (e.g., “I know what I like, and I like what I know”)
antonym, n. a word having a meaning opposite to that of another word
aperçu, n. a short outline or summary; a synopsis (< French)
aphaeretic, adj. < aphaeresis, n. the loss of one or more sounds from thebeginning of a word, as in till for until
aphasia, n. the loss or impairment of the power to use words as symbols of ideasthat results from a brain lesion that is clinically evident
aphesis, n. the loss of an initial, usually unstressed vowel, as in cute from acute
apocope, n. the loss of one or more sounds from the end of a word, as in ModernEnglish sing from Middle English singen
aporetic, adj. < aporia, n. a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses orpurports to be in doubt about a question; an insoluble contradiction or paradox ina text’s meanings
apothegmatic, adj. < apothegm, n. a terse, witty, instructive saying; a maxim
apotropaic, adj. < apotropaism, n. an act or ritual conducted to ward off evil ordanger
appellation, n. a name or title by which a person, thing, or clan is called andknown
appositive, adj. < apposition, n. a construction in which a noun or noun phrase isplaced with another as an explanatory equivalent, both having the same syntactic
426 Master Glossary
relation to the other elements in the sentence; e.g., Copley and the painter in Thepainter Copley was born in Boston
apropos, prep. with respect to; concerning, regarding
aqueous, adj. of, relating to, or having the characteristics of water
archaic, adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of words and language that were oncein regular use but are now relatively rare and suggestive of an earlier style orperiod
archaism, n. an archaic word, phrase, idiom, or other expression
argosy, n. a rich source or supply
artfully, adv. < artful, adj. performed with, characterized by, or exhibiting art orskill
artifice, n. n ingenious expedient, a clever stratagem; (chiefly in negative sense) amanoeuvre or device intended to deceive, a trick
arytenoid, adj. relating to or being either of two small cartilages to which the vocalcords are attached and which are situated at the upper back part of the larynx
aspectual, adj. < aspect, n. a category of the verb designating primarily therelation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to com-pletion, duration, or repetition
aspirate, adj. pronounced with an immediately following h-sound in a syllable inwhich the h is not usually represented (as in English)
aspirated, adj. pronounced with the initial release of breath associated withEnglish h, as in hurry; followed with a puff of breath that is clearly audiblebefore the next sound begins, as in English pit or kit
aspiration, n. the pronunciation of a consonant with an aspirate, i.e., the speechsound represented by English h; the puff of air accompanying the release of astop consonant like p or t
assertory, adj. being or containing an assertion
assimilation, n. the process by which a sound is modified so that it becomessimilar or identical to an adjacent or nearby sound. For example, the prefix in-becomes im- in impossible by assimilation to the labial p of possible
assimilatory, adj. < assimilate, v. to be or become similar or alike
atavism, n. recurrence of or reversion to a past style, manner, outlook, approach, oractivity
athwart, prep. in opposition to; contrary to
attendance, n. < attend, v. fix the mind upon; give heed to
Master Glossary 427
attendant, adj. accompanying, connected with, or immediately following asconsequential
attenuate, v. to lessen the amount, force, or value of
au fond at bottom; fundamentally (French)
augmentative, adj. indicating large size and sometimes awkwardness orunattractiveness; used of affixes and of words formed with them (such as Italiancasone “big house”, from casa “house”, and Italian -one in words like casone)
aureole, n. a quality, condition, or circumstance that surrounds and glorifies agiven object
automorphism, n. an isomorphism of a set (such as a group) with itself
autonomous, adj. of a thing, esp. an abstract concept: self-contained, unrelated toanything else; able to be considered in isolation
autotelic, adj. having a self-contained goal or purpose
autres temps, autres mœurs other times, other customs (French)
auxiliary, n. a verb used to form the tenses, moods, voices, etc. of other verbs
axiological, adj. < axiology, n. the study of the nature of values and valuejudgments
Babel, n. a confusion of sounds, languages, or voices
back-formed, adj. < back-formation, n. a new word created by removing an affixfrom an already existing word, as vacuum clean from vacuum cleaner, or byremoving what is mistakenly thought to be an affix, as pea from the earlierEnglish plural pease
baneful, adj. creating destruction, woe, or ruin
barbarism, n. an instance of the use of words, forms, or expressions consideredincorrect or unacceptable
base, n. a morpheme or morphemes regarded as a form to which affixes or otherbases may be added
bathetic, adj. < bathos, n. insincere or grossly sentimental pathos; banality;triteness
Bauplan, n. building plan, blueprint (German)
beggar, v. to reduce to inadequacy; exceed the resources of
beg the question to take for granted the matter in dispute; to assume without proof(translation of Latin petitio principii)
428 Master Glossary
behaviorist, adj. <behaviorism, n. a school of psychology that confines itself tothe study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and excludes sub-jective phenomena, such as emotions or motives
bifurcation, n. separation or branching into two parts, areas, aspects, or connectedsegments
bilabial, adj. produced with both lips
bilateral, adj. relating to the right and left sides of the body or of a body structure
binomial, adj. having or characterized by two names
bipartite, adj. being in two parts
bipedal, adj. having two feet
biuniqueness, n. < biunique, adj. being a correspondence between two sets that isone-to-one in both directions
bizarrerie, n. something bizarre (French)
blandishment, n. speech, action, or device that flatters and tends to coax or cajole;allurement (often used in the plural)
blather, n. voluble, foolish, or nonsensical talk
bossa nova, n. a Brazilian dance characterized by the sprightly step pattern of thesamba and a subtle bounce
bound, adj. being a form, especially a morpheme, that cannot stand as an inde-pendent word, such as a prefix or suffix
broad vowel (here) the a vowel as pronounced like the a in father
buccal, adj. of or relating to the cheeks or the mouth cavity
burlesque, n. a literary or dramatic work that ridicules a subject either by pre-senting a solemn subject in an undignified style or an inconsequential subject ina dignified style
by the bye by the way; incidentally
cachinnation, n. < cachinnate, v. to laugh usually loudly or convulsively
cacoglossic, adj. < cacoglossia, n. a language full of mistakes and imperfections(nonce word)
cacophonic, adj. < cacophony, n. harsh or discordant sound; dissonance
cajolery, n. use of delusive enticements
calque (= loan translation), n. a form of borrowing from one language to anotherwhereby the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into
Master Glossary 429
their equivalents in the borrowing language, e.g., English superman for GermanÜbermensch
capacious, adj. not narrow or constricted; marked by ample scope
cartographer, n. map maker
case, n. a distinct form of a noun, pronoun, or modifier that is used to express oneor more particular syntactic relationships to other words in a sentence
castrato, n. a male singer castrated in boyhood so as to retain a soprano or altovoice
catachrestic, adj. <catachresis, n. the misapplication of a word or phrase; the useof a strained figure of speech, such as a mixed metaphor
ceteris paribus with all other factors or things remaining the same (Latin)
chaconne, n. a slow, stately dance of the 18th century or the music for it
characterological, adj. < characterology, n. the study of character, especially itsdevelopment and its variations
chattel, n. an item of tangible movable or immovable property except real estate,freehold, and that movable property which is by its nature considered to beessential to such an estate
chef d’oeuvre masterpiece (French)
Cheshirely, adv. < Cheshire Cat a fictional cat, known for its distinctive grin,popularized by Lewis Carroll’s in his Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
chevelure, n. [a head of] hair (French)
chiasmus, n. the figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to eachother through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; that is, theclauses display inverted parallelism
childish, adj. of, relating to, befitting, or resembling a child
Chomskyan, adj. < Chomsky, n. Noam Chomsky, American linguist, founder ofgenerative (transformational) grammar
chorale, n. a harmonized hymn, especially one for organ
Christological, adj. < Christology, n. the theological study of the person and deedsof Jesus; a doctrine or theory based on Jesus or Jesus’s teachings
Church Slavonic the medieval Slavic language used in the translation of the Bibleby Cyril and Methodius and in early literary manuscripts and still used as aliturgical language by several churches of Eastern Orthodoxy
430 Master Glossary
cluster, n. two or more successive consonants in a word, as cl and st in the wordcluster
coda, n. the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus
cognate, n. (of languages) descended from the same original language; of the samelinguistic family; of words: coming naturally from the same root, or representingthe same original word, with differences due to subsequent separate phoneticdevelopment
collective, adj. (of a word or term) indicating a number of persons or thingsconsidered as constituting one group or aggregate
collocational, adj. < collocation, n. an arrangement or juxtaposition of words orother elements, especially those that commonly co-occur, as rancid butter, bo-som buddy, or dead serious
compactness, n. < compact, adj. a phonological distinctive feature value repre-sented acoustically in a relatively narrow, central region of the auditory spectrumand a higher concentration of energy (opposed to non-compact [vide infra])
compass, n. range or limit of perception, cognizance, knowledge, interest, concern,or treatment
complement, n. an added word or expression by which a predication is madecomplete (such as president in “they elected him president” and white in “shepainted the house white”)
compositum, n. a compound word
compounding, n. the process of creating a compound (word)
conative, adj.: < conation, n. the conscious drive to perform apparently volitionalacts with or without knowledge of the origin of the drive
concomitant, n. something that accompanies or is collaterally connected withanother
condign, adj. entirely in accordance with what is deserved or merited: neitherexceeding nor falling below one’s deserts
conduce, v. to lead or tend especially with reference to a desirable result
configure, v. to arrange in a certain form, figure, or shape
congener, n. a member of the same kind or class with another, or nearly allied toanother in character
congeries, n. a collection or mass of entities (as objects, forces, individuals, ideas)
conjoined, adj. being, coming, or brought together so as to meet, touch, or overlap
conjugate, adj. joined together, especially in a pair or pairs; coupled
Master Glossary 431
connotative, adj. < connotation, n. the signifying in addition; inclusion ofsomething in the meaning of a word besides what it primarily denotes
connote, v. to signify in addition to its exact explicit meaning
constate, v. to assert positively
constituent, n. any meaningful element of a linguistic form
constrict, v. to draw together or render narrower (as a mouth, channel, passage)
constructivist, adj. < constructivism, n. a nonobjective art movement originatingin Russia and concerned with formal organization of planes and expression ofvolume in terms of modern industrial materials (such as glass and plastic)
consummate, adj. of the highest degree; absolute, total; supreme; of a person: fullyaccomplished, supremely skilled
contamination, n. the process by which one word or phrase is altered because ofmistaken associations with another word or phrase; for example, the substitutionof irregardless for regardless by association with such words as irrespective
contiguity, n. < contiguous, adj. next or adjoining with nothing similar intervening
continuant, n. a consonant that may be continued or prolonged without alterationfor the duration of an emission of breath; an open consonant
contour, n. the distinctive rising and falling patterns of pitch, tone, or stress
contraindicated, adj. inadvisable
contravention, n. < contravene, v. to go or act contrary to
coordinate, adj. standing in the same rank or relation in a sentence
copula, n. a verb, such as a form of be or seem, that identifies the predicate of asentence with the subject
corporeal, adj. (Law) tangible; consisting of material objects
cortex, n. outer layer of neural tissue in humans and other mammals
countenance, v. extend approval or toleration to
counterfactual, adj., n. pertaining to, or expressing, what has not in fact happened,but might, could, or would, in different conditions; counterfactual conditional, aconditional statement of this sort, normally indicating its character by the use ofthe subjunctive mood in its protasis
countermand, v. to counteract; to frustrate; to counterbalance
count noun a noun that forms a plural and is used with a numeral, with words suchas many or few, or in English with the indefinite article a or an (as bean, stick,sheet, beer in “a dark beer”)
432 Master Glossary
coup de grâce a blow by which one condemned or mortally wounded is ‘put out ofhis misery’ or dispatched quickly; hence fig. a finishing stroke, one that settles orputs an end to something (French)
couplet, n. two successive lines of verse usually having some unity greater thanthat of mere contiguity (as that provided by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, orthe complete inclusion of a grammatically or rhetorically independent utterance)
courtly, adj. marked by highbred polish, stateliness, and ceremony; characteristicof court usage or of courtiers
creole, n. a language that has evolved from a pidgin (vide infra) but serves as thenative language of a speech community
creolize, v. to make Creole; cause to adopt Creole qualities or customs; to cause tobecome a creolized language
cutaway, n. a man’s formal daytime coat, with front edges sloping diagonally fromthe waist and forming tails at the back
dactylic, adj. < dactyl, n. a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable fol-lowed by two unaccented or of one long syllable followed by two short, as inflattery
dative, adj. (of a grammatical case) marking typically the indirect object of a verb
datum, n. something that is given either from being experientially encountered orfrom being admitted or assumed for specific purposes; a fact or principle grantedor presented; something upon which an inference or an argument is based orfrom which an intellectual system of any sort is constructed
declarative, adj. having the characteristics of or making a declaration
decorum, n. propriety and good taste, especially in conduct, manners, orappearance
deduction, n. the process of deducing or drawing a conclusion from a principlealready known or assumed; spec. in logic, inference by reasoning from generalsto particulars; opposed to induction
definiens, n. whatever serves to define (Latin)
déformation professionnelle conditioning by one’s job (French)
deixis, n. the function of a deictic word in specifying its referent in a given context
dejotation, n. the elision of a liquid or a glide following a consonant and precedingthe medial vowel of a syllable
Master Glossary 433
demoticization, n. < demiticize, v. < demotic, adj. of or relating to the people;popular, common; (n.) ordinary colloquial speech; the everyday language ofordinary people
denominal, adj. derived from a noun
denominate, v. to give a name or appellation to; to call by a name, to name
denotative, adj. of a word: Having the quality of designating, as distinguishedfrom connotative
dental, adj. articulated with the tip of the tongue near or against the upper frontteeth
deontic, adj. of, relating to, or concerning duties or obligations
de rigueur strictly or rigorously obligatory (French)
derivative, n. a derived word
derive, v. to trace the origin, descent, or derivation of
derived, adj. formed by derivation, i.e., in descriptive linguistics (1): the relation ofa word to its base as expressed usually in terms of presence of an affix (as inpeddler, base peddle, or teaches, base teach), vowel alternation (as in rode, baseride, or song, base singular), consonant alternation (as in spent, base spend, orGerman halb [hälp] “half”, base halb- [hälb]), difference of accent (as in convict[kənˈvikt], base convict [ˈkänˌvikt]), absence of one or more sounds (as inFrench gris [grē], masculine, “gray”, base grise [grēz], feminine), suppletion (asin better, base good), or zero difference (as in sheep, plural, base sheep, singular)(2): the relation of a word to its base when the two do not belong to the sameinflectional paradigm (as in peddler, base peddle, song, base sing, convict[kənˈvikt], base convict [ˈkänˌvikt])
deriving, adj. < derivation, n. the process by which words are formed fromexisting words or bases by adding affixes, as singer from sing or undo from do,by changing the shape of the word or base, as song from sing, or by adding anaffix and changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as electricity fromelectric
Der Untergang des Abendlandes “The Decline of the West” (German; title of abook by Oswald Spengler [1st ed., 1918])
descry, v. to spy out or come to see especially with watchful attention and carefulobservation of the distant, uncertain, or obscure
designee, n. one who is designated or delegated
desinential, adj. < desinence, n. grammatical ending
desuetude, n. discontinuance from use, practice, exercise, or functioning
desyllabication, n. < desyllabicate, v. to cause or undergo the loss of a syllable
434 Master Glossary
detritus, n. a product of disintegration or wearing away: fragment or fragmentarymaterial
deverbal, adj. derived from a verb
devoicing, n. < devoice, v. to pronounce (a normally voiced sound) withoutvibration of the vocal chords so as to make it wholly or partly voiceless
diachrony, n. < diachronic, adj. of or concerned with phenomena, such as lin-guistic features, as they change through time
diacritic, adj. serving to distinguish, distinctive
diagrammaticity, n. < diagrammatic, adj. < diagram, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory)an icon of relation
diagrammatization, n. < diagrammatize, v. < diagram, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory)an icon of relation
dialectal, adj. < dialect, n. a regional or social variety of a language distinguishedby pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech dif-fering from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture inwhich it exists
dialectism, n. a form or feature characteristic of or originating in a dialect
dialectology, n. the study of dialects; the body of data available for use in thesystematic study of a dialect or group of related dialects
dialogism, n. the principle that all utterances (and hence all communication)acquire meaning only in the context of a dialogue to which they contribute andin which the presence and contributions of other voices (or other discourses,languages, etc.) are inescapably implied, with the result that meaning andexpression cannot be reduced to a single system or subjected to a singleauthority; the embodiment of this principle in a form of expression, esp. a lit-erary text
diapason, n. the entire compass, scope, or range (as of an activity or otherphenomenon)
dichotomy, n. division into two parts, classes, or groups and especially into twogroups that are mutually exclusive or opposed by contradiction
differentia specifica a property which distinguishes it from others (Latin)
difformity, n. irregularity or diversity of form
digraph, n. a group of two successive letters whose phonetic value is a singlesound (as ea in bread, ng in thing) or whose value is not the sum of a valueborne by each in other occurrences (as ch in chin, where the value is [t]+ [sh])
diminutive, n. indicating small size and sometimes the quality or condition ofbeing loved, lovable, pitiable, or contemptible; used of affixes
Master Glossary 435
diminutized, v. < diminutive, adj. indicating small size and sometimes the qualityor condition of being loved, lovable, pitiable, or contemptible; used of affixes
diphthongal, adv. < diphthong, n. a complex speech sound or glide that beginswith one vowel and gradually changes to another vowel within the same syl-lable, as [oi] in boil or [ai] in fine
discontinuous, adj. not continuous; marked by breaks or gaps
disfluency, n. impairment of the ability to produce smooth, fluent speech; aninterruption in the smooth flow of speech, as by a pause or the repetition of awordor syllable
disinter, v. to bring out of concealment; bring from obscurity into view
dissyllabic/disyllabic, adj. consisting of two syllables
distinctive, adj. phonemically relevant and capable of conveying a difference inmeaning, as nasalization in the initial sound of mat versus bat
divagation, n. < divagate, v. to wander about or stray from one place or subject toanother
divinatory, adj. < divination, n. < divine, adj. being in the service or worship of adeity; sacred
doctrinal, adj. < doctrine, n. that which is taught or laid down as true concerning aparticular subject or department of knowledge, as religion, politics, science, etc.;a belief, theoretical opinion; a dogma, tenet
don, n. a head, tutor, or fellow in an English university
doublet, n. one of two words or forms that are identical in meaning or value
dross, n. something that is base, gross, or commonplace
echt, adj. real; genuine (German)
ecology, n. the interrelationship between any system and its environment; theproduct of this
effete, adj. totally devoid of an original positive drive or purposiveness
ejaculation, n. the hasty utterance of words expressing emotion
élan, n. vigor, spirit, or enthusiasm typically revealed by assurance of manner,brilliance of performance, or liveliness of imagination (< French)
elide, v. > elision, n. omission of an unstressed
elision, n. the act or an instance of dropping out or omitting something
ellipsis, n. the omission of a word or phrase necessary for a complete syntacticalconstruction but not necessary for understanding
436 Master Glossary
emblematic, adj. < emblem, n. a typical representative
en bloc as a body or whole (French)
encomia [pl.], n. compliments; words of praise
ensemble, n. a system of items that constitute an organic unity
épater le bourgeois to shock people who have attitudes or views perceived asconventional or complacent (French)
epenthetic, adj. < epenthesis, n. the occurrence of an intercalated consonant (suchas a homorganic stop after a nasal consonant) or vowel in a succession of speechsounds without a counterpart in etymon or in orthography (such as [t] in [ˈfents]fence or [ə] in [ˈathəˌlēt] athlete)
epicene, adj. having but one form to indicate either male or female sex (such asLatin bos “a bull, ox, or cow”)
epiphenomenon, n. a secondary phenomenon that results from and accompaniesanother
episodic, adj. of or limited in duration or significance to a particular episode
episodically, adv. < episodic, adj. occurring, appearing, or changing at usuallyirregular intervals
epistemological, adj. < epistemology, n. the study of the method and grounds ofknowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity; broadly, the theoryof knowledge
epithet, n. a characterizing word or phrase
epitomical, adj. < epitome, n. a typical representation or ideal expression
eponymous, adj. < eponym, n. one for whom or which something is named orsupposedly name
equipossible, adj. what can occur equally in a probability experiment
errare humanum est ‘to err is human’ (Latin)
ersatz, adj. a substitute or imitation; usually, an inferior article instead of the realthing (German)
et al. abbreviation for Latin et alia ‘and others’
ethical dative a use of the dative case signifying that the person denoted has aninterest in or is indirectly affected by the event
ethology, n. the scientific study of animal behavior especially under naturalconditions
etiolation, n. < etiolate, v. to lessen or undermine the strength, vigour, or effec-tiveness of (a quality, group, movement, etc.); to have a weakening effect upon
Master Glossary 437
etymologically, adv. < etymological, adj. < etymology, n. the origin and historicaldevelopment of a linguistic form as shown by determining its basic elements,earliest known use, and changes in form and meaning, tracing its transmissionfrom one language to another, identifying its cognates in other languages, andreconstructing its ancestral form where possible
etymon, n. a foreign word from which a particular loan word is derived
evince, v. show, display, contain
excogitate, v. to evolve, invent, or contrive in the mind
exemplar, n. one that serves as a model or example
exeunt ‘they go out’ (Latin); used as a stage direction to indicate that two or moreperformers leave the stage
exogenous, adj. produced from without; external to a group
ex parte from or on one side only, with the other side absent or unrepresented(Latin)
explanandum, n. the thing to be explained (Latin)
explanantia, n. pl. < explanans, n. the explaining element in an explanation; theexplanatory premisses (Latin)
extancy, n. < extant, adj. continuing to exist; that has escaped the ravages of time,still existing
ex tempore extemporaneously (Latin)
extirpate, v. to pull up or out by or as if by the roots or stem; pluck out; root out
façade, n. a superficial appearance or illusion of something
factitious, adj. produced artificially or by special effort (as for a particularsituation)
facultatively, adv. < facultative, adj. optional
faiblesse, n. weakness (French)
falsetto, n. a forced voice of a range or register above the natural
fatigued, adj. hackneyed; stale, as a joke, phrase, or sermon
fatuity, n. smug stupidity; utter foolishness; something that is utterly stupid or silly
fatuous, adj. marked by want of intelligence and rational consideration; esp.marked by futile ill-founded hope or desire, by witless complacent disregard ofreality, or by inane lack of consideration
faux, adj. resembling something else that is usually genuine and of better quality;not real (French)
438 Master Glossary
fee simple, n. a freehold estate of inheritance in land or hereditaments that may lastforever and may be inherited by all classes of both lineal and collateral heirs ofan individual owner or grantee
fee tail, n. an estate in fee granted to a person and his issue or a designated class ofhis issue that is subject to the possibility of reversion if there is no such issue orno alternative gift to a designated person in case there is no such issue, that issubject under modern statutes to being converted into a fee simple absolute bythe owner's barring the entail by executing a deed in his lifetime or to beingconverted to other types of estates more in harmony with present socialconditions
fellow, n. that which makes a pair with something else
Fennicist, n. specialist in Finnish and Finno-Ugric philology
figural, adj. pertaining to figures of speech and their action (= figuration)
figurational, adj. < figuration, n. < figure, v. to symbolize (as a figure of speech)
figuratively, adv. < figurative, adj. transferred in sense from literal or plain toabstract or hypothetical (as by the expression of one thing in terms of anotherwith which it can be regarded as analogous)
filler, n. a short word or phrase that is largely devoid of meaning and has mostly aphatic function
fillip, n. a spur or impetus; an embellishment that excites or stimulates
finesse, n. fineness or delicacy especially of workmanship, structure, texture, orflavor
Finno-Ugric , adj. of, relating to, characteristic of, or constituting the Finno-Ugriclanguages
flap, n. a sound articulated by a single, quick touch of the tongue against the teethor alveolar ridge, as [t] in water
flat vowel the vowel a as pronounced in bad or cat
flummoxer, n. < flummox, v. to throw into perplexity; embarrass greatly
folk etymology the popular perversion of the form of words in order to render itapparently significant
fons et origo source and origin (Latin)
foot, n. a unit of poetic meter consisting of stressed and unstressed syllables in anyof various set combinations
foreground, v. to place in or bring to the foreground; esp. to give prominence oremphasis to
forename, n. first (given) name
Master Glossary 439
forma mentis form of thought (Latin)
formulaic, adj. < formula, n. a set form of words for use in a ceremony or ritual
fortis, adj. ‘strong’ (Latin), opposed to lenis ‘soft’
frac, n. cutaway (French)
freehold, n. a tenure of real property by which an estate of inheritance in fee simpleor fee tail or for life is held
Frenchification, n. < Frenchify, v. to make French in qualities, traits, or typicalideas or practices; to make superficially or spuriously French in qualities oractions
Freudian slip a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief,thought, or emotion
fricative, adj., n. consonant, such as f or s in English, produced by the forcing ofbreath through a constricted passage
frisson, n. a moment of intense excitement; a shudder (French)
front, v. to cause (a sound) to be pronounced farther toward the front of the oralcavity
front, adj. designating vowels produced at or toward the front of the oral cavity,such as the vowels of green and get
fulsome, adj. exceeding the bounds of good taste
fundament, n. an underlying ground or theory; basic principle
gainsay, v. to deny, speak against, contradict
gambit, n. a remark or comment designed to launch a conversation or to make atelling point
gargantuan, adj. of tremendous size or volume
gavotte, n. music for a French peasant dance of Baroque origin in moderately quickduple meter
Geekish, n. the jargon of geeks (nonce word)
genealogy, n. an account or history of the descent of a person, family, or groupfrom an ancestor or ancestors or from older forms
generative, adj. [= transformational] pertaining to a grammatical theory thatgenerates the deep structures of a language and relates these to the surfacestructures by means of transformations
genitive, adj. of, relating to, or being the grammatical case expressing possession,measurement, or source
440 Master Glossary
gestalt, n. a structure or configuration of physical, biological, or psychologicalphenomena so integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties notderivable from its parts in summation (German)
gesunkenes Kulturgut ‘buried cultural patrimony’ (German)
girlize, v. ‘render as by, or to resemble, a girl’ (nonce word)
glide, n. the transitional sound produced by passing from the articulatory positionof one speech sound to that of another, specifically a sound that has the qualityof one of the high vowels, and that functions as a consonant before or aftervowels, as the initial sounds of yell and well and the final sounds of coy and cow
gloss, n. a comment, explanation, interpretation
glottal, adj. < glottis, n. the opening between the vocal cords at the upper part ofthe larynx
go-between, n. one who promotes a love affair especially by carrying messages andarranging meetings; one who negotiates a marriage
govern, v. to require (a word) to be in a certain case or mood
government, n. the influence of a word over the morphological inflection ofanother word in a phrase or sentence
gradience, n. the property of being continuously variable between two(esp. apparently disjunct) values, categories, etc.; an instance of this property, acontinuum
grading, adj. < grade, v. to determine the grades or degrees of
grandiloquent, adj. marked by a lofty, extravagantly colorful, pompous, orbombastic style, manner, or quality especially in language
grapheme, n. the class of letters and other visual symbols that represent a phonemeor cluster of phonemes
gratias otiosae sunt odiosae ‘otiose thanks are odious’ (Latin)
grave versus acute a phonological distinctive feature of vowels and obstruents
gravid, adj. made larger or increased beyond a due, expected, or reasonableproportion
hackneyed, adj. used so frequently and indiscriminately as to have lost its fresh-ness and interest; made trite and commonplace; stale
haecceity, n. what makes something to be an ultimate reality different from anyother
handmaiden, n. something whose essential function is to serve and assist
head, adj. < head, n. occurring at the head (beginning) of a construction
Master Glossary 441
hegemony, n. preponderant influence or authority
“Heiße Magister, heiße Doktor gar” (Goethe, Faust, Pt. 1, “Night”) ‘I’m calledMaster [of Arts], and Doctor [of Philosophy] too’ (German)
hereditament, n. heritable property: lands, tenements, any property corporeal orincorporeal, real, personal, or mixed, that may descend to an heir
hermeneutic, adj. < hermeneutics, n. the study of the methodological principles ofinterpretation and explanation
heterogeneity, n. the quality or state of being heterogeneous
heterolingual, adj. of or relating to the use of different languages within oneutterance or discourse
heteronomous, adj. subject to an external law
hieratic, adj. of or associated with sacred persons or offices; sacerdotal
high, adj. of or relating to vowels produced with part of the tongue close to thepalate, as in the vowel of tree
Hippocratic, adj. < Hippocrates, n. Greek physician who laid the foundations ofscientific medicine by freeing medical study from the constraints of philo-sophical speculation and superstition
hirsute, adj. of or pertaining to hair; of the nature of or consisting of hair
hominid, n. any of a family (Hominidae) of erect bipedal primate mammals thatincludes recent humans together with extinct ancestral and related forms and insome recent classifications the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orangutan
homo abducans ‘abducing man [nonce phrase]’ (Latin)
homo figurans ‘figurational man’ (Latin)
homo habilis ‘handy/skillful man’
homologous, adj. < homology, n. a similarity
homo loquens ‘talking man’ (Latin)
homophony, n. < homophonic, adj. having the same sound
homorganic, adj. sharing one or more of the articulating vocal organs; articulatedwith the same basic closure or constriction but differentiated by one or moremodifications
homo sapiens ‘wise or knowing man’ (Latin)
honorific, adj. of a title, form of address, or linguistic form given or used as a markof respect
horror silentii ‘fear of silence’ (Latin)
442 Master Glossary
horror vacui ‘fear of empty spaces’ (Latin)
hushing, adj. pertaining to a lower-pitch sibilant sound similar to a sustained sh
Husserl, Edmund German-Jewish phenomenologist (1859–1938)
hypercorrection, n. an alteration of a speech habit on the basis of a false analogy(as when between you and I is used by one who is substituting it is I for it is meor when [ˈfiŋə(r)] is used for finger by one who is attempting to be rid ofpronunciations like [ˈsiŋgə(r)] for singer)
hypermetrical, adj. having one or more (stressed) syllables beyond those normal tothe meter
hyperplasia, n. an abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or a tissuewith consequent enlargement
hypertrophic, adj. < hypertrophy, n. an inordinate or pathological enlargement
hyperurbanism, n. a pronunciation or grammatical form or usage produced by aspeaker of one dialect according to an analogical rule formed by comparison ofthe speaker’s own usage with that of another, more prestigious, dialect and oftenapplied in an inappropriate context, especially in an effort to avoid soundingcountrified, rural, or provincial; hypercorrection
hypocorism, n. a name of endearment; a pet name
hypocoristic, adj. endearing; belong to affective vocabulary
hypostasis, n. a reified abstraction
hypotaxis, n. the dependent or subordinate relationship of clauses with connectives
iambic, adj. < iamb, n. a metrical foot consisting of an unstressed syllable fol-lowed by a stressed syllable or a short syllable followed by a long syllable, as indelay
icon, n. (in Peirce’s sign theory) an image; a representation, specifically, a signrelated to its object by similarity
iconism, n. = iconicity, n. < iconic, adj. < icon, n. the conceived similarity oranalogy between the form of a sign (linguistic or otherwise) and its meaning
idée fixe a fixed idea; an obsession (French)
idem, pron. the same
idiolectal, adj. < idiolect, n. the speech of an individual, considered as a linguisticpattern unique among speakers of his or her language or dialect
idiomaticity, n. < idiomatic, adj. < idiom, n. an expression established in the usageof a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction (as no, itwasn't me) or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from theconjoined meanings of its elements (as Monday week for “the Monday a week
Master Glossary 443
after next Monday”; many a for “many taken distributively”; had better for“might better”; how are you? for “what is the state of your health or feelings?”)
idiomatization, n. < idiomatize, v. make into an idiom
idiosyncratic, adj. < idiosyncrasy, n. a structural or behavioral characteristicpeculiar to an individual or group; a physiological or temperamental peculiarity
illocutionary, adj. pertaining to a linguistic act performed by a speaker in pro-ducing an utterance, as suggesting, warning, promising, or requesting
illud tempus a mythical or paradisiacal time before time existed (Latin)
illusionist, n. a ventriloquist or sleight-of-hand performer or magician
immanent, adj. existing or operating within; inherent
imperative, n. of, relating to, or being the grammatical mood that expresses the willto influence the behavior of another (as in a command, entreaty, or exhortation)
imperfective, adj. of, related to, or being the aspect that expresses the actiondenoted by the verb without regard to its beginning or completion
impetigo, n. a contagious bacterial skin infection, usually of children, that ischaracterized by the eruption of superficial pustules and the formation of thickyellow crusts, commonly on the face (Latin)
implicature, n. the act or an instance of (intentionally) implying a meaning whichcan be inferred from an utterance in conjunction with its conversational orsemantic context, but is neither explicitly expressed nor logically entailed by thestatement itself; a meaning that is implied contextually, but is neither entailedlogically nor stated explicitly
inanition, n. the condition or quality of being empty
incipiency, n. > incipient, adj. beginning; commencing; coming into, or in an earlystage of, existence; in an initial stage
incision, n. the effect of cutting into something; a division produced by cutting
inculcate, v. to teach and impress by frequent repetitions or admonitions
indecorous, adj. not proper; conflicting with accepted standards of propriety orgood taste or good breeding
indexical, adj. < index, n. a sign that is related to its object (meaning) by conti-guity; something (such as a manner of speaking or acting or a distinctivephysical feature) in another person or thing that leads an observer to surmise aparticular fact or draw a particular conclusion
indicative, adj. that points out, states, or declares; applied to that mood of a verb ofwhich the essential function is to state a relation of objective fact between the
444 Master Glossary
subject and predicate (as opposed to a relation merely conceived, thought of, orwished, by the speaker)
indirection, n. Indirect movement or action; a devious or circuitous course to someend; round-about means or method
individualism, n. an individual characteristic; a quirk
individuation, n. < individuate, v. to give an individual character to; to distinguishfrom others of the same kind; to individualize; to single out, to specify
induction, n. the process of inferring a general law or principle from the obser-vation of particular instances
ineluctable, adj. unavoidable, inescapable
infantilistic, adj. < infantilism, n. a condition of being abnormally childlike; aretention of childish physical, mental, or emotional qualities in adult life
inflected, adj. modified by inflection [vide infra]
inflectional, adj. < inflection, n. an alteration of the form of a word by the additionof an affix, as in English dogs from dog, or by changing the form of a base, as inEnglish spoke from speak, that indicates grammatical features such as number,person, mood, or tense
in potentia ‘in potentiality’; potentially (Latin)
insinuate, v. to impart or communicate with artful indirect wording or obliquereference and without direct or forthright expression
insouciantly, adv. < insouciant, adj. marked by blithe unconcern; nonchalant
instantiation, n. < instantiate, v. to represent (an abstraction or universal) by aconcrete instance
in statu nascendi ‘in the state of being born’; in the nascent state; in the course ofbeing formed or developed (Latin)
instrumental, adj. of, relating to, or being a case in grammar expressing means oragency
intentionality, n. the quality or state of being intentional; specifically, the char-acteristic of being conscious of intending an object
inter alia ‘among other things’ (Latin)
intercalation, n. < intercalate, v. to insert between or among existing elements
interdental, adj. formed with the tip of the tongue protruded between the upperand lower front teeth
interlard, v. to insert between; mix, mingle; esp. to introduce something that isforeign or irrelevant into
Master Glossary 445
interlingual, adj. of, relating to, or involving two or more languages
interpolation, n. < interpolate, v. to insert between other things or parts
interpretant, n. a sign or set of signs that interprets another sign; the response orreaction to a sign
interrogative, adj. having the form or the force of a question
intervocalically, adv. < intervocalic, adj. occurring between vowels
intonational, adj. < intonation, n. the use of changing pitch to convey syntacticinformation
intransitive, adj. designating a verb or verb construction that does not require orcannot take a direct object, as snow or sleep
intransitivity, n. < intransitive, adj. designating a verb or verb construction thatdoes not require or cannot take a direct object
introversive, adj. < introversion, n. the act of directing one’s attention toward orgetting gratification from one’s own interests, thoughts, and feelings
ipso facto ‘by the fact itself’; by that very fact (Latin)
ironize, v. to use irony: speak or behave ironically
irrefragably, adv. < irrefragable, adj. impossible to refute or controvert;indisputable
irreversible, adj. not capable of or lending itself to being reversed
isogloss, n. geographic boundary line delimiting the area in which a given lin-guistic feature occurs
isomorphism, n. a one-to-one correspondence between the form of two items orcontexts; strict parallelism of form
James, n. William James (1842–1910), American psychologist and philosopher
jejune, adj. devoid of interest or significance; dull, flat, inane, vapid
jocular, adj. said or done in joke; of, containing, or of the character of a joke
juncture, n. the manner of transition between two consecutive speech sounds orbetween a speech sound and a pause
knight-errant, n. a wandering knight; esp. one traveling at random in search ofadventures in which to exhibit military skill, prowess, and generosity
krepier, v. ‘to die’ (Yiddish)
lacuna, n. a missing part; gap, hole
lambaste, v. to assault violently; beat, pound, whip
446 Master Glossary
lapidary, adj. having the elegance and precision associated with inscriptions onstone
lapsus linguae slip of the tongue (Latin)
larynx, n. voice box, vocal cords
lascivious, adj. tending to arouse sexual desire
Latinate, adj. of, derived from, or suggestive of Latin
lax, adj. of a speech sound: produced with the muscles involved in a relativelyrelaxed state (the English vowels [i] and [u ̇] in contrast with the vowels [ē] and[ü] are lax)
laxing, n. < lax, adj. Latin lenis ‘soft’, opposed to fortis ‘strong’ (vide infra undertense vs. lax)
leitmotif, n. something resembling a musical leitmotiv (as a word or phrase, anemotion, an idea) that is repeated again and again; a dominant recurring theme
lenis, adj. ‘soft’ (Latin), opposed to fortis ‘strong’
lenited, adj. < lenite, v. cause lenition (vide infra)
lenition, n. laxing; production of a lax sound
lentigo, n. a small, flat, pigmented spot on the skin (Latin)
lento, adj. in a slow tempo (Italian)
letzten Endes ‘in the end’, in the final analysis (German)
lexeme, n. a meaningful speech form that is an item of the vocabulary of alanguage
lexicalized, adj. < lexicalization, n. the treatment of a formerly freely composed,grammatically regular, and semantically transparent phrase or inflected form as aformally or semantically idiomatic expression
lexically, adv. < lexical, adj. of or relating to words, word formatives, or thevocabulary of a language as distinguished from its grammar and construction
lexicon, n., pl. lexica the words of a language considered as a group
lexis, n. vocabulary, word-stock
license, n. excessive liberty; abuse of freedom; disregard of law or propriety; aninstance of this
limn, v. to describe or portray in symbols (as words or notes)
lingua franca a medium of communication between peoples of different languages(Italian ‘Frankish tongue’)
Master Glossary 447
liquid, adj., n. a consonant articulated without friction and capable of being pro-longed like a vowel, such as English l and r
literalist, n. one that advocates or practices literalism, viz. adherence to the explicitsubstance of an idea or expression
locative, adj., n. belonging to or being a grammatical case that denotes place or theplace where or wherein
locus, n. a center or source, as of activities or power
lower, v. to be dark, gloomy, and threatening
macaronic, adj. characterized by a mixture of two or more languages
maladroitness, n. < maladroit, adj. revealing a lack of perception, judgment, orfinesse
malapropism, n. ludicrous misuse of a word, especially by confusion with one ofsimilar sound
malefactor, n. one who commits an offense against the law; one who does illtoward another
malgré lui in spite of himself (French)
manus manum lavat one hand washes the other (Latin)
marked, adj. < markedness, n. the evaluative superstructure of all semiotic(‘sign-theoretic’) oppositions, as well as the theory of such a superstructure,characterized in terms of the values ‘marked’ (conceptually restricted) and‘unmarked’ (conceptually unrestricted); of or relating to that member of a pair ofsounds, words, or forms that explicitly denotes a particular subset of themeanings denoted by the other member of the pair. For example, of the twowords lion and lioness, lion is unmarked for gender (it can denote either a maleor female) whereas lioness is marked, since it denotes only females
marriage portion, n. dowry
mass noun a noun characteristically denoting in many languages a homogeneoussubstance or a concept without subdivisions (as sand, butter, beer, accuracydistinguished from a grain of sand, a pat of butter, a glass of beer, a degree ofaccuracy), having in this usage in English only the singular form, and precededin indefinite constructions by some rather than a or an
media, adj., pl. mediae ‘intermediate in degree of aspiration’ (Latin)
medial, adj. being a sound, syllable, or letter occurring between the initial and finalpositions in a word or morpheme morpheme, n., a meaningful linguistic unitconsisting of a word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, thatcannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts
mélange, n. mixture (French)
448 Master Glossary
meliorative, adj. < meliorate, v. to make better or more tolerable
metagrammatical, adj. < metagrammar, n. a formal grammar that describes a setof possible grammars
metalanguage, n. a language or vocabulary used to describe or analyze language
metalinguistic, adj. of or relating to a metalanguage
metanalysis, n. the reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creationof a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or mor-phological units
metaphonological, adj. transcending phonology
metaphoric, adj. < metaphor, n. a figure of speech in which a name or descriptiveword or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogousto, that to which it is literally applicable; an instance of this, a metaphoricalexpression
metaphorize, v. make or turn into a metaphor
metathetic, adj. < metathesis, n. transposition within a word of letters, sounds, orsyllables, as in the change from Old English brid to modern English bird or inthe confusion of modren for modern
metonymic, adj, < metonymy, n. (a figure of speech characterized by) the action ofsubstituting for a word or phrase denoting an object, action, institution, etc., aword or phrase denoting a property or something associated with it; an instanceof this
metonymization, n. < metonymize, v. make into or become a metonymy
metrical, adj. < meter, n. systematically arranged and measured rhythm in verse
metricist, n. a specialist in the study of metrics (versification)
milieu, n., pl. milieux the physical or social setting in which something occurs ordevelops (French)
mimetic, adj. using imitative means of representation
mimic, v. to copy or imitate very closely especially in external characteristics
mimicry, n. the action, practice, or art of copying or closely imitating; esp. imita-tion of the speech or mannerisms of another in order to entertain or ridicule
mirabile dictu ‘wonderful to relate’ (Latin)
mír práxu eë ‘may peace be on her remains’ (Russian); cf. םולשההילע (alehaha-shalom) ‘may peace be upon her’ (Hebrew); olevasholem (Yiddish)
Master Glossary 449
mode/mood, n. the grammatical category embodying the distinction of form in averb to express whether the action or state it denotes is conceived as fact or insome other manner (as command, possibility, or wish)
mollify, v. to soothe in temper or disposition
momenta medica ‘medical moments’ (Latin)
monolingual, adj. knowing or able to speak only one language
monophthongal, adj. < monophthong, n. a single vowel articulated withoutchange in quality throughout the course of a syllable, as the vowel of Englishbed
morae, pl., n. < mora, n. the minimal unit of quantitative measure in temporalprosodic systems equivalent in the time value to an average short syllable; such aunit used in linguistic analysis especially with reference to vowel quantity
morphea scleroderma a disorder characterized by thickening and induration(‘hardening’) of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (Latin)
morphemic, adj. < morpheme a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word,such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be dividedinto smaller meaningful parts
morphological, adj. < morphology, n. the system or the study of (linguistic) form;a study and description of word-formation in a language including inflection,derivation, and compounding; the system of word-forming elements and pro-cesses in a language
morphophonemic, adj. < morphophonemics, n. the changes in pronunciationundergone by allomorphs of morphemes as they are modified by neighboringsounds, as the plural allomorphs in cat-s, dog-s, box-es, or as they are modifiedfor grammatical reasons in the course of inflection or derivation, as house versusto house and housing
motive, adj. of or relating to motion or the causing of motion
mot juste ‘exactly the right word’ (French)
multifarious, adj. having great diversity or variety
multiply, adv. in a multiple manner; in several or many ways
mutatis mutandis with the necessary changes; with due alteration of details (Latin)
name day the day of the saint whose name one bears
narratorial, adj. pertaining to a narrator or the structure of a narrative
nasal, adj., n. articulated by lowering the soft palate so that air resonates in thenasal cavities and passes out the nose, as in the pronunciation of the consonantsm, n, and ng or the nasalized vowel of French bon; a nasal consonant
450 Master Glossary
nasalization, n. < nasalize, v. to make nasal or produce nasal sounds
NB, abbrev. nota bene ‘note well’ (Latin)
nec plus ultra the highest point, as of excellence or achievement; the ultimate(Latin)
necropolis, n. a cemetery, especially a large and elaborate one belonging to anancient city
neologism, n. < neology, n. the use of a new word or expression or of an estab-lished word in a new or different sense; the use of new expressions that are notsanctioned by conventional standard usage; the introduction of such expressionsinto a language
neophyte, n. a young or inexperienced practitioner or student
neostructuralism, n. a new linguistic theory based on Peirce’s whole philosophy(esp. his sign theory) and supersedes traditional structuralism
ne plus ultra the highest point capable of being reached or attained; the summit ofachievement (Latin)
neutralization, n.< neutralize, v. to suspend an opposition, such that only one ofthe two terms of the opposition represents both terms
nexus, n. connection, interconnection, tie, link
ninepins, n. a bowling game in which nine wooden pins are the target
noisome, adj. offensive to the smell or other senses
nominal, adj. pertaining to nouns and adjectives
nominalism, n. the doctrine that things denominated by the same term sharenothing except that fact; the view that such terms are mere names without anycorresponding reality
nominalization, n. < nominalize, v. to convert (another part of speech) into a noun,as in changing the adjective lowly into the lowly or the verb legalize intolegalization
nomina propria proper nouns (Latin)
nomina sunt odiosa names are odious (Latin)
nominative, adj. of, relating to, or being the case of the subject of a finite verb (asI in I wrote the letter) and of words identified with the subject of a copula, suchas a predicate nominative
nonce, n. the one, particular, or present occasion, purpose, or use
nonce word a word created ‘for the nonce/occasion’
Master Glossary 451
non-compact, adj. a phonological distinctive feature value represented acousti-cally in a relatively non-central region of the auditory spectrum and a lowerconcentration of energy (opposed to compact [vide supra])
nonpareil, adj. having no equal; peerless (French)
nota bene ‘note well’ (Latin)
notionally, adv. < notional, adj. of a thing, a relation, etc., not substantially oractually existent; existing only in thought
nucleus, n. the part of a syllable having the greatest sonority
nullity, n. the state of being null or nothing; want of efficacy or force; nothingness
objective, adj. relating to, characteristic of, or being the case which follows a verbused transitively or a preposition; being the case that denotes the relation ofobject
oblique, adj. any grammatical case but the nominative or vocative (called direct)
obsolescent, adj. going out of use; falling into disuse especially as unable tocompete with something more recent
obstruent, n. a sound that is produced with complete blockage or at least partialconstriction of the airflow through the nose or mouth; a true consonant
occlusion, n. closure at some point in the vocal tract that blocks the flow of air inthe production of an oral or nasal stop
octave, n. a poem or stanza containing eight lines
odious, adj. < odium, n. the state or fact of being subjected to widespread or deephatred and severe condemnation and often loathing or contempt usually as aresult of a despicable act or blameworthy situation
oeuvre, n. a substantial body of work constituting the lifework of a writer, an artist,or a composer (French)
offglide, n. a glide produced by the movement of the vocal organs from thearticulatory position of a speech sound to a position of inactivity or to thearticulatory position of an immediately following speech sound
onomastic, adj. of, relating to, or explaining a name or names
onomastically, adv. < onomastic, adj. < onomastics, n. the science or study of theorigin and forms of proper names of persons or places
onomatopoeia, n. formation of words in imitation of natural sounds: the naming ofa thing or action by a more or less exact reproduction of the sound associatedwith it (as buzz, hiss, bobwhite); the imitative or echoic principle in language
onset, n. the part of a syllable that precedes the nucleus
452 Master Glossary
ontological, adj. < ontology, n. the science or study of being; that branch ofmetaphysics concerned with the nature or essence of being or existence
opacity, n. < opaque, adj. hard to understand, solve, or explain; not simple, clear,or lucid
open, adj. pronounced with a relatively wide opening of the mouth and the tongueheld low in it
orthoepic, adj. < orthoepy, n. the study of the pronunciation of words; the cus-tomary pronunciation of words
orthographically, adv. < orthographic, adj. < orthography, n. a method of rep-resenting the sounds of a language by written or printed symbols
otiose, adj. lacking use or effect; superfluous
pace, prep. with the permission of; with deference to; used to express polite orironically polite disagreement (Latin)
palatal, adj. produced with the front of the tongue near or against the hard palate,as the [y] in English young; produced with the blade of the tongue near the hardpalate, as the [ch] in English chin
palatalization, n. < palatalize, v. to modify the utterance of (a nonpalatal sound)by simultaneously bringing the front of the tongue to or near the hard palate[vide infra]
palate, n. the roof of the mouth in vertebrates having a complete or partial sepa-ration of the oral and nasal
palette, n. the range of qualities inherent in nongraphic art forms such as music andliterature
Pale of Settlement geographic area in Czarist Russia where Jews were allowed tolive (translation of R чepтa oceдлocти)
palliate, v. to reduce the violence of (a disease); cause to lessen or abate; easewithout curing
pamplemousse, n. grapefruit (French)
panchronic, adj. designating or relating to a linguistic structure or theory that maybe applied to all languages at all stages of their development
paradigm, n. a set or list of all the inflectional forms of a word or of one of itsgrammatical categories
paradigmatic, adj. pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that cansubstitute for each other in a given context, as the relationship of sun in The sunis shining to other nouns, as moon, star, or light, that could substitute for it inthat sentence, or of is shining to was shining, shone, will shine, etc., as well as tois rising, is setting, etc.
Master Glossary 453
paragogic, adj, < paragoge, n. the addition of a letter or syllable to a word, eitherin the course of a word's historical development, or (in certain languages, such asHebrew) to add emphasis or modify the meaning
paralinguistic, adj. < paralinguistics, n. the study of optional vocal effects (suchas tone of voice) that accompany or modify speech and may communicatemeaning
parallelism, n. resemblance, correspondence, similarity between two entities orgroups
parataxis, n. the juxtaposition of clauses or phrases without the use of coordinatingor subordinating conjunctions
parodic, adj. < parody, n. a form or situation showing imitation that is faithful to adegree but that is weak, ridiculous, or distorted
paroemic, adj. of the nature of a proverb; proverbial
paroemics, n. the stock of, and study of, proverbs in a given language
paronomastic, adj. < paronomasia, n. a play upon words in which the same wordis used in different senses or words similar in sound are set in opposition so as togive antithetical force
passivization, n. < passivize, v. turn an active verb into its passive counterpart
patency, n. < patent, adj. open to view; readily visible or intelligible
patently, adv. < patent, adj. readily visible or intelligible; obvious
pater, n. father (usu. jocular)
patois, n. a variety of language specific to a particular area, nationality, etc., whichis considered to differ from the standard or orthodox version
patrial, n. the word for the name of a country or place and used to denote a nativeor inhabitant of it
patrimony, n. an inheritance from the past
patronymic, n. a name derived from that of a father or male ancestor, esp. byaddition of an affix indicating such descent; a family name
Peircean, adj. < Peirce, n. Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), American logi-cian and scientist; founder of the modern theory of signs and of pragmatism
pejorative, adj. having a tendency to make or become worse; depreciatory,disparaging
penchant, n. a definite liking; a strong inclination
pendant a supplement or consequence (French)
pentasyllable, n. a word consisting of five syllables
454 Master Glossary
penultimate, adj. next to last
perambulate, v. to cover ground at a leisurely pace
perdure, v. to continue to exist
peregrination, n. he action or an act of travelling or going from place to place
perfective, adj. of, related to, or being the aspect that expresses the completion orthe result of the action denoted by the verb
performative, adj. designating or relating to an utterance that effects an action bybeing spoken or by means of which the speaker performs a particular act
perfunctoriness, n. < perfunctory, adj. characterized by routine or superficiality;done merely as a duty
peripeteia, n., pl. a sudden change of events or reversal of circumstances, espe-cially in a literary work
persona, n. the social front, facade, or mark an individual assumes to depict to theworld at large the role in life that he is playing
perspicuous, adj. capable of being clearly and readily understood; plain to theunderstanding
petrification, n. < petrify, v. to make lifeless or inactive
phatic, adj. of, relating to, or being speech used to share feelings or to establish amood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas
phenomenalism, n. a mode of thought which considers things from a phenomenalviewpoint, or as phenomena only; the metaphysical theory or belief that (actualor possible) phenomena are the only objects of knowledge, or the only realities
phonation, n. the act or process of producing speech sounds
phonemically, adv. < phonemic, adj. < phoneme, n. the smallest phonetic unit ina language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning, as the m of matand the b of bat in English
phonetic, adj. < phonetics, n. the study and systematic classification of the soundsmade in spoken utterance as they are produced by the organs of speech and asthey register on the ear and on instruments
phonetic, adj. of, relating to, or being features of pronunciation that are notphonemically distinctive in a language, as aspiration of consonants or vowellength in English; pertaining to phonetics, i.e., the study of speech sounds fromthe acoustic or articulatory point of view
phonic, adj. of, relating to, or having the nature of sound, especially speech sounds
Master Glossary 455
phonological, adj. < phonology, n. the study of speech sounds in language or alanguage with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rulesgoverning pronunciation
phonostylistic, adj. < phonostylistics, n. the study of the stylistic implications ofphonetic variation, or, more generally, of different kinds of sounds
phonotactic, adj. < phonotactics, n. the branch of linguistics concerned with therules governing the possible phoneme sequences in a language or languages;these rules as they occur in a particular language
phraseological, adj. < phraseology, n. the selection or arrangement of words andphrases in the expression of ideas; manner or style of expression; the particularlanguage, terminology, or diction which characterizes a writer, work, subject,language, place, etc
phraseologism, n. typical modes of expression that assemble words in order tosignify something that is not limited to the sum of the meanings of the singlewords that compose them
physiognomic< physiognomy, n. the mental, moral, philosophical, or politicalaspect of something as an indication of its character; characteristic aspect
pidgin, n. a form of speech that usually has a simplified grammar and a limitedoften mixed vocabulary and is used principally for intergroup communication
pitch, n. a prominence or emphasis given to a word, syllable, or mora by itsdifference in pitch from its immediate surroundings
platitudinous, adj, < platitude, n. a thought or remark that is flat, dull, trite, orweak : a dull, stale, or insipid truism
plebes, n. the general populace; ordinary people
plenitude, n. a more than ample amount or number; great sufficiency; abundance
pleonastic, adj. < pleonasm, n. the use of more words in a sentence or clause thanare necessary to express the meaning; redundancy of expression either as a faultof style, or as a rhetorical figure used for emphasis or clarity. Also: an instance ofthis; a superfluously worded expression or phrase
pleophonic, adj. (In the East Slavic languages) a type of vowel duplicationwhereby the sequences -oro-, -olo-, and -ere- have developed from earlier-ra-, -la-, -le-, and -re- occurring between consonants; the process of develop-ment of this phenomenon
plosive, adj. of, relating to, or being a speech sound produced by complete closureof the oral passage and subsequent release accompanied by a burst of air, as inthe sound [p] in pit or [d] in dog
plurale tantum ‘occurring only in the plural’ (Latin)
456 Master Glossary
pluriverbation, n. the transformation of one word into a phrase
Pninesque, adj. resembling the eponymous character in Vladimir Nabokov’s(best) novel, Pnin
politesse, n formal and cultivated politeness; decorousness (< French)
polyphonic, adj. < polyphony, n. a style of musical composition employing two ormore simultaneous but relatively independent melodic lines
polyptoton the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root arerepeated (e.g. “strong” and “strength”)
polysyllable, n. a word containing more than one syllable
pons asinorum ‘bridge of fools [asses]’ (Latin); the fifth proposition of the firstbook of Euclid’s Elements, which states that the angles at the base of an isoscelestriangle are equal
portionless, adj. having no dowry or inheritance
portmanteau, n. a word that is composed of parts of two words (such as chortlefrom chuckle and snort), all of one word and part of another (such as bookmobilefrom book and automobile), or two entire words and that is characterizedinvariably in the latter case and frequently in the two former cases by singleoccurrence of one or more sounds or letters that appear in both the componentwords (such as motel from motor hotel, camporee from camp and jamboree,aniseed from anise seed) (French)
postbiotic, adj. pertaining to the period following the appearance of life
postposition, n. a word or element placed postpositionally, as a preposition placedafter its object
post-tonic, adj. occurring after the stressed syllable
post-vocalic, adj. following a vowel
potpourri, n. a general mixture of often disparate or unrelated materials or subjectmatter (French)
pragmatistic, adj. < pragmatism, n. an American movement in philosophyfounded by Peirce and James and marked by the doctrines that the meaning ofconceptions is to be sought in their practical bearings, that the function ofthought is as a guide to action, and that the truth is preeminently to be tested bythe practical consequences of belief
prandial, adj. of or relating to a meal
praxis, n. the rhetorical or performative aspect of language; speech as an action
preciosity, n. extreme meticulousness or overrefinement, as in language, taste, orstyle
Master Glossary 457
predication, n. < predicate, v. to express an action, state, or quality by a gram-matical predicate
predicative, adj. of or belonging to the predicate of a sentence or clause
predilection, n. a preference or particular liking for something; a bias in favor ofsomething; a predisposition, a proclivity; also: the fact of having such a liking orpreference
prefix, n. an affix, such as dis- in disbelieve, attached to the front of a word toproduce a derivative word or an inflected form
prescriptivist, adj. < prescriptivism, n. the support or promotion of prescriptivegrammar
preterit, adj. of, relating to, or being the verb tense that describes a past action orstate
pretonic, adj. occurring before the stressed syllable
pristine, adj. unspoilt by human interference, untouched; pure
privative, adj. a word denoting the negation of a quality otherwise inherent
probity, n. uncompromising adherence to the highest principles and ideals;unimpeachable integrity
prolixity, n. < prolix, adj. unduly prolonged or drawn out; diffuse, repetitious,verbose
promiscuousness, n. < promiscuous, adj. indiscriminate, careless
propensity, n. a natural inclination; innate or inherent tendency
propitiation, n. < propitiate, v. to appease and make favorable
proprioception, n. the unconscious perception of movement and spatial orientationarising from stimuli within the body itself
prosodic, adj. < prosody, n. a suprasegmental phonological feature such as into-nation and stress; also: such features collectively; the patterns of stress andintonation in a language
prosopopoeia, n. personification
protensity, n. category of phonological distinctive features comprising the acousticopposition tense versus lax, defined by the longer (vs. reduced) duration of thesteady state portion of the sound, and its sharper defined resonance regions in thespectrum
prothesis, n. the addition of a letter or syllable, usually at the beginning of a word
provenience, n. origin
458 Master Glossary
psyche, n. the whole conscious and unconscious mind, esp. when viewed asdeciding or determining motivation, emotional response, and other psycholog-ical characteristics
punctilious, adj. marked by exact accordance with the details of codes orconventions
purlieu, n. a place where one may range at large; confines or bounds
purport, n. meaning conveyed, professed, or implied
purview, n. the range or limit of authority, competence, responsibility, concern, orintention
putative, adj. commonly accepted or supposed; reputed
QED < quod erat demonstrandum ‘which was to be demonstrated’ (Latin)
quadrisyllabic, adj. containing four syllables
quantité négligeable an insignificant or inconsequential factor; a matter of noaccount (French)
quasi-, adv. as if; as it were; in a manner; in some sense or degree
quasi-paronomastic, adj. < paronomasia, n. resembling paronomasia
quaternion, n. a set of four persons or items
quiddity, n. the real nature of a thing; the essence
quién sabe? ‘who knows?’ (Spanish)
quotative, adj. for the purposes of quotation
quotidian, adj. commonplace, ordinary
raison d’être reason for being (French)
ramified, adj. < ramify, v. to separate into divisions or ramifications
realism, n. the doctrine that matter as the object of perception has real existence(natural realism) and is neither reducible to universal mind or spirit nordependent on a perceiving agent
received, adj. generally adopted, accepted, or approved as true, authoritative, orstandard
recherché, adj. rare, choice, exotic (French)
rection, n. grammatical government [vide supra]
recumbent, adj. having a horizontal position; lying down
redivivus ‘revived’; come back to life (Latin)
Master Glossary 459
reduced, adj. < reduction, n. any of various changes in the acoustic quality ofvowels, related to changes in stress, sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, orposition in the word, which makes the reduced vowels shorter as well
reference, n. the action or fact of applying words, names, ideas, etc., to an entity;the relation between a word or expression and that which it denotes; the entity orentities denoted by a word or expression, a referent (freq. contrasted with sense)
referential, adj. containing, denoting, or constituting a reference or meaning
reflex, n. a form or feature that reflects or represents an earlier, often reconstructed,form or feature having undergone phonetic or other change
reflexive, adj. of, relating to, or constituting an action (as in “the witness perjuredhimself” or “I bethought myself”) that is directed back upon the agent or thegrammatical subject
register, n. the range of an instrument or a voice
reify, v. regard (as an abstraction, a mental construction) as a thing: convertmentally into something concrete or objective
réplique, n. a reply, a response (French)
repose, v. to depend or be based on
requiescat in pace ‘rest in peace’ (Latin)
resp., abbrev. respectively
revivification, n. < revivify, v. to impart new life to; cause to revive
rigor mortis rigidity of muscles after death depending in time of onset and durationupon variable factors in the body and in the environment (Latin)
riposte, n. a retaliatory verbal sally; retort (French)
risible, adj. arousing, exciting, or provoking laughter
risus sardonicus ‘sardonic smile’ (Latin), a highly characteristic, abnormal, sus-tained spasm of the facial muscles that appears to produce grinning, most oftenas a sign of tetanus
roomicule, n. a little room (nonce word)
root, n. the element that carries the main component of meaning in a word andprovides the basis from which a word is derived by adding affixes or inflectionalendings or by phonetic change
Russophone, adj. Russian-speaking
rustic, n. one who is rude, coarse, or dull
sandhi, n. modification of the sound of a word or morpheme when juxtaposed withanother, especially in fluent speech, as the modification of the pronunciation of
460 Master Glossary
don’t in don’t you from its pronunciation in isolation or in a phrase like don’t we(Sanskrit)
sans, prep. ‘without’ (French)
sc., adv. scilicet (Latin); used to introduce more detailed information, or to specifya referent: that is to say, to be specific; namely, to wit
scant, v. to give scant attention to; to treat slightingly or inadequately; to neglect,do less than justice to
schwa, n. a mid-central neutral vowel, typically occurring in unstressed syllables,as the final vowel of English sofa; the symbol (ə) used to represent an unstressedneutral vowel and, in some systems of phonetic transcription, a stressedmid-central vowel, as in but
seemliness, n. < seemly, adj. conforming to accepted standards of good form ortaste
segmentally, adv. < segmental, adj. < segment, n. a unit forming part of a con-tinuum of speech or (less commonly) text; an isolable unit in a phonological orsyntactic system: of or relating to (linear) segments of the speech chain
self-fashioning, n. the process of constructing one’s identity and public personaaccording to a set of socially acceptable standards
self-referential, adj. referring to oneself
self-reflexive, adj. disposed to or characterized by self-reflection
semantic, adj. < semantics, n. the study dealing with the relations between signsand what they refer to, the relations between the signs of a system, and humanbehavior in reaction to signs including unconscious attitudes, influences of socialinstitutions, and epistemological and linguistic assumptions
semeiosis, n. = semiosis, n. the process of signification, sign action
semeiotic, n. (Peirce’s) sign theory, any system of signs
semiotically, adv. < semiotic, adj. < semiotic, n. of or pertaining to signs
sensu stricto in the strict sense, strictly speaking (Latin)
sentient, adj. capable of sensation and of at least rudimentary consciousness
sequela, n. a secondary result; consequence (Latin)
sesquipedalianism, n. < sesquipedalian, adj. given to or characterized by the useof long words
set, n. a particular psychological state, usually that of anticipation or preparedness;mental inclination, tendency, or habit
sibilant, n. a sibilant speech sound, such as English s, sh, z, or zh
Master Glossary 461
sic, adv. so; thus (Latin); usually written parenthetically to denote that a word,phrase, passage, etc., that may appear strange or incorrect has been writtenintentionally or has been quoted verbatim
sic transeunt onera mundi ‘thus do the burdens of the world pass [from it]’ (Latin)
sic transit gloria mundi ‘thus passes the glory of the world’ (Latin); a catchphraseexpressing the impermanence of things
sidebar, n. something incidental
sign, n.: sign, adj.: semiotic, adj. pertaining to elements of or any system of signs,defined as anything capable of signifying an object (meaning)
sign-theoretic, adj. pertaining to sign (semiotic) theory
simplex, n. a word or other linguistic unit that has no grammatical morphemes andis not part of a compound
simulacrum, n. something having merely the form or appearance of a certain thing,without possessing its substance or proper qualities
sine qua non somebody or something indispensable (Latin)
singulare tantum ‘having only a singular form’ (Latin)
singulative, adj. < (idem) n. a grammatical form or construction that expresses asingular entity or indicates that an individual is singled out from a group,especially as opposed to a collective noun, as snowflake as opposed to snow
skittles, n. a British form of ninepins, in which a wooden disk or ball is thrown toknock down the pins
slough, n. a depression or hollow, usually filled with deep mud or mire; a state ofdeep despair or moral degradation
slovenliness, n. < slovenly, adj. negligent of neatness and order especially in dressor person
sociolectal, adj. < sociolect, n. a variety of a language that is used by a particularsocial group
soft palate the movable fold, consisting of muscular fibers enclosed in a mucousmembrane, that is suspended from the rear of the hard palate and closes off thenasal cavity from the oral cavity during swallowing or sucking
solecistically, adv. < solecistic, adj. < solecism, n. a nonstandard usage orgrammatical construction; an impropriety, mistake, or incongruity
sonorant, n. a usually voiced speech sound characterized by relatively free air flowthrough the vocal tract and capable of being syllabic, as a vowel, liquid, or nasal
sonority, n. the degree to which a speech sound is like a vowel
462 Master Glossary
speciously, adv. < specious, adj. calculated to make a favourable impression onthe mind, but in reality devoid of the qualities apparently possessed
spirant, n. a consonant which admits of a continued emission of some amount ofbreath, so that the sound is capable of being prolonged
spondaic, adj. < spondee, n. a metrical foot consisting of two long or stressedsyllables; a foot with a hypermetrical stress
Spoonerism, n. a transposition of sounds of two or more words, especially aludicrous one, such as Let me sew you to your sheet for Let me show you to yourseat
Sprachgefühl, n. ‘a feeling for language’; an ear for the idiomatically correct orappropriate (German)
sprezzatura, n. ease of manner, studied carelessness; the appearance of acting orbeing done without effort; spec. of literary style or performance (Italian)
stative, adj. belonging to or designating a class of verbs that express a state orcondition
stem, n. the part of an inflected word that remains unchanged except by phoneticchanges or variations throughout a given inflection, is sometimes identical withthe root, but is often derived from it with some formative suffix
stem-final, adj. occurring at the end of a stem
stop, n. one of a set of speech sounds that is a plosive or a nasal
stress, n. the relative force with which a sound or syllable is spoken; the emphasisplaced on the sound or syllable spoken most forcefully in a word or phrase;placement of an accent on a vowel, either primary (louder and longer) or sec-ondary (less loud and shorter)
stridency, n. < strident, adj. of the articulation of a consonantal sound: charac-terized by friction that is comparatively turbulent. Also as n., a consonantarticulated in this way
strident versus mellow a phonological distinctive feature of obstruents
strong, adj. of or relating to those verbs in the Germanic languages that form theirpast tense by a change in stem vowel, and their past participles by a change instem vowel and sometimes by adding the suffix -(e)n, as sing, sang, sung or tear,tore, torn
structuralist, n. < structuralism, n. any theory or mode of analysis in whichlanguage is considered as a system or structure comprising elements at variousphonological, grammatical, and semantic levels, the interrelation of these ele-ments rather than the elements themselves producing meaning
subjective, adj. being or relating to a grammatical subject
subjunctive, adj., n. of, relating to, or constituting a verb form or set of verb formsthat represents an attitude toward or concern with a denoted act or state not asfact but as something entertained in thought as contingent or possible or viewedemotionally (as with doubt, desire, will)
sub rosa privately, secretly, in strict confidence; unspoken, tacit (Latin)
subserve, v. to serve as an instrument or means in carrying on (as an activity) orout (as a plan) or in furthering the ends of (as a person)
substantive, n. noun
substrate, n. something that is laid or spread under or that underlies and supportsor forms a base for something else; an underlying structure, layer, or part
substratum, n. an indigenous language that contributes features to the language ofan invading people who impose their language on the indigenous population
subsume, v. to bring (an idea, principle, etc.) under another; to instance or include(a case, term, etc.) under a rule, category, etc
succeed, v. to follow
suffix, n. a grammatical element added to the end of a word or stem, serving toform a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending, such as -ness ingentleness, -ing in walking, or -s in sits
suffixal, adj. contains a suffix
suffixation, v. the process by which a suffix (grammatical element)is added to theend of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as aninflectional ending, such as -ness in gentleness, -ing in walking, or -s in sits
superordination, n. higher rank, status, or value
supersession, n. < supersede, v. supplant and make inferior by better or moreefficiently serving a function
supervenient, adj. coming after (and in connection with or as a consequence of) anexisting situation, condition, etc.; subsequent; occurring as a change or addition
supervening, adj. < supervene, v. to come after so as to take the place of; tosupersede
suprasegmental, adj. of or relating to significant features of pitch, stress, andjuncture accompanying or superadded to vowels and consonants when the latterare assembled in succession in the construction of a speaker-to-hearercommunication
464 Master Glossary
syllabic, n. a vocal sound capable by itself of forming a syllable, or constituting theessential element of a syllable
syllogism, n. an argument expressed or claimed to be expressible in the form oftwo propositions called the premisses, containing a common or middle term,with a third proposition called the conclusion, resulting necessarily from theother two
symbol, n. (in C.S. Peirce’s sign theory) a sign whose relation to its object(meaning) is established by a rule; otherwise, something that stands for, repre-sents, or denotes something else (not by exact resemblance, but by vague sug-gestion, or by some accidental or conventional relation); esp. a material objectrepresenting or taken to represent something immaterial or abstract, as a being,idea, quality, or condition; a representative or typical figure, sign, or token
symbolism, n. a system of symbols or representations
syncategorematic, adj. pertaining to a unit or category which cannot be used byitself but only together with another unit or units, such as an adverb, preposition,or conjunction
syncretic, adj. < syncretism, n. the merging of two or more inflectional categories
synchrony, n. < synchronic, adj. of or relating to the study of phenomena, such aslinguistic features, or of events of a particular time, without reference to theirhistorical context
syncopate, v. to cut short or contract (a word) by omitting one or more syllables orletters in the middle; to shorten (a word) by syncope
syncope, n. the shortening of a word by omission of a sound, letter, or syllablefrom the middle of the word
syndetic, adj. serving to connect, as a conjunction
syndeton, n. a form of syntactic coordination of the elements of a sentence with thehelp of a coordinating conjunction
syntagm, n. a sequence of linguistic units in a syntagmatic relationship to oneanother
syntagmatic, adj. pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that occursequentially in the chain of speech or writing, as the relationship between the sunand is shining or the and sun in the sentence The sun is shining
tacit, adj. silent, unspecified
takeoff, n. an imitation especially in the way of caricature
tantamount, adj. equivalent in value, significance, or effect
tant pis ‘so much the worse’ (French)
Master Glossary 465
tautological, adj, < tautology, n. needless or meaningless repetition in closesuccession of an idea, statement, or word
taxonomy, n. a classification of something; a particular system of classification
teleologically, adv. < teleological, adj. < teleology, n. the doctrine or study of endsor final causes, esp. as related to the evidences of design or purpose in nature;also transf. such design as exhibited in natural objects or phenomena
telic, adj. directed or tending toward a goal or purpose; purposeful
telos, n. goal (Greek)
tense, n. any one of the different forms or modifications (or word-groups) in theconjugation of a verb which indicate the different times (past, present, or future)at which the action or state denoted by it is viewed as happening or existing, andalso (by extension) the different nature of such action or state, as continuing(imperfect) or completed (perfect); also abstr. that quality of a verb whichdepends on the expression of such differences
tense, adj. < tense versus lax (acoustically) longer versus reduced duration of thesteady state portion of the sound, and its sharper defined resonance regions of thespectrum; (genetically) a deliberate versus rapid execution of the required ges-ture resulting in a lastingly stationary articulation
tenuis, adj., pl. tenues ‘thin, slight, aspirate’ (Latin)
tenure, n. the action or fact of holding anything material or non-material
terminus ad quem ‘a goal or finishing point’; a final limiting point in time (Latin)
terminus a quo starting point of a line of action or of a journey; point of origin(Latin)
ternary, adj. composed of three or arranged in threes; pertaining to a poetic meterconsisting of units (feet) with three syllables
tertium non datur ‘no third term obtains’ (Latin)
thirdness, n. a fundamental category in Peircean philosophy consisting of theconnecting bond between firstness and secondness and expressive of law, gen-erality, purpose, and habit
tic, n. a frequent usually unconscious quirk of behavior or speech
ticastic, adj. pertaining to or resembling a tic
timbral < timbre, n. the combination of qualities of a sound that distinguishes itfrom other sounds of the same pitch and volume
tone-deafness, n. < tone-deaf, adj. unable to distinguish differences in musicalpitch; (here) unable to perceive nuances or subtleties
transitivity, n. < transitive, adj. expressing an action carried from the subject to theobject; requiring a direct object to complete meaning
transliteration, n. < transliterate, v. to represent or spell (words, letters, or char-acters of one language) in the letters or characters of another language oralphabet
trebuchet, n. a medieval catapult for hurling heavy stones (French)
triadic, adj. < triad, n. a union or group of three especially of three closely relatedpersons, beings, or things
*triblet, n. a nonce word mimicking triplet [the asterisk denotes a hypotheticalform]
trigeminal neuralgia also called tic douloureux [French], a chronic pain conditionthat affects the trigeminal or 5th cranial nerve; a form of neuropathic pain (painassociated with nerve injury or nerve lesion)
trinomial, adj. consisting of three terms
tri-relative, adj. comprised by three relations
trochaic, adj. < trochee, n. a prosodic foot of two syllables of which the first islong and the second short (as in Latin ante) or the first stressed and the secondunstressed (as in English motion)
trope, n. a figure of speech which consists in the use of a word or phrase in a senseother than that which is proper to it. Hence (more generally): a figure of speech;(an instance of) figurative or metaphorical language
troping, n. (the use of) figurative or metaphorical language; spec. (in later use):interpretation or representation of something figuratively; use (of a figure ofspeech, an image, etc.) as a recurrent motif
tropism, n. (with reference to people) a natural or innate instinct, tendency, orimpulse; (now more generally) a preference, an inclination
tropologically, adv. < tropological, adj. < tropology, n. the use of tropes in speechor writing
truism, n. an undoubted or self-evident truth; esp. one too obvious or unimportantfor mention
truncation, n. < truncate, v. to abbreviate by or as if by cutting off
Master Glossary 467
typologically, adv. < typological, adj. < typology, n. comparative study of lan-guages or aspects of languages as to their structures rather than their historicalrelations
Ugric, adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of the languages of the Ugrians (anethnological group including the Magyars [Hungarians] and related peoples ofwestern Siberia
ultima, n. the last syllable
ultimate, adj. < ultima, n. the final syllable
umbrage, n. displeasure, resentment, annoyance
unassailable, adj. not open to adverse criticism
unbidden, adj. not asked or invited; not commanded or directed
univerbal, adj. < univerbation, n. the creation of one word from two or more
univerbative, adj. < univerbation [vide supra]
unmarked, adj. vide supra under markedness
unmarking, n. the change from a marked to an unmarked value
unreflectively, adv. < unreflective, adj. not reflective; unthinking, heedless
unrounded, adj. pronounced with the lips in a flattened or neutral position
unsuffixed, adj. without a suffix
unvoice, v. to pronounce (a normally voiced sound) without vibration of the vocalchords so as to make it wholly or partly voiceless
uptalk, n. speech in which each clause, sentence, etc., ends like a question with arising inflection
Ur-, prefix ‘original’, prototypical (German)
usurpation, n. < usurp, v. to employ wrongfully
ut pictura poesis as is painting so is poetry (Latin)
valorization, n. < valorize, v. to give or assign a value to
velar, adj. articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate,as (g) in good and (k) in king
velarize, v. to articulate (a sound) by retracting the back of the tongue toward thesoft palate
velum, n. the soft palate
veracious, adj. marked by truth
468 Master Glossary
verbatim, adv. in exactly the same words; word for word (Latin)
Vermontian, adj. of or pertaining to Vermont (nonce word)
versification, n. the making of verses; the act, art, or practice of metrical compo-sition; metrical structure; a particular metrical structure or style
vexed, adj. (< vex, v.) much discussed or disputed
vibrato, n. a tremulous effect imparted to instrumental tone for added warmth andexpressiveness by slight and rapid variations in pitch
vilipend, v. to view or treat with contempt; despise
virgule, n. slash, i.e., a short, usually slanting stroke or mark used to indicatealternation
vis-à-vis, prep. in relation to; over against (French)
viva voce by word of mouth; orally (Latin)
vive la différence (jocular) expression denoting approval of the difference betweenthe sexes (French)
viz., abbrev. vidēlicet (Latin) that is to say; namely; to wit: used to introduce anamplification, or more precise or explicit explanation, of a previous statement orword
vocable, n. a word considered only as a sequence of sounds or letters rather than asa unit of meaning
vocative, n. of, relating to, or being a grammatical case marking the one addressed
voice, n. a property of verbs or a set of verb inflections indicating the relationbetween the subject and the action expressed by the verb: “Birds build nests”uses the active voice; “nests built by birds” uses the passive voice
voiced, adj. uttered with vocal cord vibration
voicing, n. the action or process of producing a speech or breath sound withvibration of the vocal cords; the change of a sound from voiceless to voiced
voilà ‘there [you are]’ (French)
vulgarism, n. a word, phrase, or manner of expression used chiefly by uneducatedpeople
wayward, adj. characterized by extreme willfulness and by determination to followone's own capricious, wanton, or depraved inclinations to the point of beingungovernable
wile, n. a trick or stratagem intended to ensnare or deceive; a sly artifice
Master Glossary 469
winged, adj. of or relating to words or phrases which, first uttered or written in aspecific literary context, have since passed into common usage to express ageneral idea
withal, adv. for all that; nevertheless
Wunderkind, n. a child prodigy (German)
yod, n. the voiced glide or spirant sound /y/ that is the first sound of the Englishword yes
-ate, 15, 362Athwart, 181Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157Attendance, 310Attendant, 263Attenuate, 187At the end of the day (phrase), 207, 213, 407Au fond, 61, 333Augmentative, 164Augustine (saint), 321Aureole
Alliterative Proverbs, 132defined, 207errors, 131extemporaneous speech, 241, 242idiomatic contamination, 232in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214metaphors (use of word), 234metaphors (use of word), 234, 235Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138self-delusion, vocabulary of, 139ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265
CatachresticAnglo-Saxon Versus Latinate:, 143Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144semantic contamination,, 134
Catch, Glottal, 17Catch, glottal, 18Category (pronunciation), 278Cave/caving versus cave/caving in, 299Censorious, 253, 254Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, The
catachresis defined, 207Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, the
Vowel Alternation, 14Cervantes, Miguel de, Don Quixote, 162Ceteris Paribus, 69Ceteris paribus, 70, 233Chaconne, 7Chahal, Gurbaksh, 317Challenge versus problem, 138Change, language
Companies who versus companies which, 222Compass, 378, 379Compassion defined, 154Competence, linguistic
competent defined, 119speech adjustments, 246
Competence, Linguisticspeech adjustments, 246
Complementdifferent(ly) from versus different(ly) than,
280Enjoy!, 193, 194Grammar, 358grammar, 359head for versus head to, 282Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353rection, 291, 292
Composed versus self-composed, 294Compositum, 51, 52Compound, compounding words
compound adjectives, 285Compound, Compounding Words
Social Security (Pronunciation), 49Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52
cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171going forward versus in the future, 172tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100well versus good, 170
Concord, 310Condign, 244Conduce, 181Confer on versus confer to, 359Configure
Dental FormationLatino Speakers, 90Latino speakers, 92Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109Tw-, 376tw-, 377word as structural unit, 86
Deontic, 328De rigueur
back (use of word), 290behavior/(mis)behavior, 242contextual hypertrophy, 223indefinite article, 214
American English,, 332American English, 149, 150, 236, 315, 316,
330, 335, 338anaesthetics of language, 335Anaesthetics of Language, 335assertory force, 317British English, 332Horror Silentii, 315like (use of word), 149, 150Repetition, 330
Disinter, 410Dissyllabic
Americans English speakers of French, 101faux English, 103foreign names, 63foreign nomina propria, 95Multiple Versus Many, 164productive/unproductive stress, 233prosody and emphasis, 71Unstressed Vowels, 103
Extempore, extemporaneous speech, 241, 242Ex Tempore, 358Ex tempore, 359Extirpate, 256Extragrammically, 148, 149Extremely, very highly, 181
FFaçade, 375Fables and gender, 401, 404Factitious
Latin Phrases, 211Latin phrases, 211Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83slovenliness, 258
Facultative, facultatively, 107Facultative, Facultatively, 258Faiblesse, 132, 133False Analogies, 106Falsetto, 72Family/cabinet are vs. family/cabinet is., 223Fatuity, fatuous
baneful, banality, 231Fatuity, Fatuous
Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160kick the can down the road (phrase), 249kick the can down the road (phrase), 250let me be clear (phrase), 216let me be clear (phrase), 216phatic, 263that said (phrase), 263
that said (phrase), 263Faux
Englessness, 76englessness, 77Ersatz English, 268Faux Authenticity, 25faux authenticity, 26faux English, 103Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25Macaronic language, 271
Feminine Pronouns, 265Feminine pronouns, 266Feminization of Male Speech, 205Feminization of male speech, 206Fennicist, 195, 196Fewer versus less, 168, 358Figura, figural, figuration, figurative,
Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157folks (use of word), 214folks (use of word), 215going forward versus in the future, 172Issues Versus Problems, 128Linguistic Harmony, 370
linguistic harmony, 372Running the Show (Phrase), 134
Form and Content, 203Form and content, 204Form Follows Function, 12Form follows function, 13Formulaic, 262Fortis
German barbarisms, 56, 57lenition, not voicing, 30, 31
Fossilized Speech, 268Fox and the Raven, The (Aesop), 401Frac (cutaway), 399Franklin, Benjamin, 287Freebooter defined, 174Free Dictionary, The, 306Freehold, 162Free Variation, 80Free variation, 80, 381French
Dental Fricatives, 21dental fricatives, 22Frenchification of Spanish words,, 160
Fricative(S)Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159German barbarisms, 56, 57lenition, not voicing, 31medial, 63normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75Sounds and Sense, 186sounds and sense, 187Th (Pronunciation), 107th (pronunciation), 109word as structural unit, 86
Gestaltdejotation, 65Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353vowel reduction,, 63Vowel Reduction, 59vowel reduction, 60
Gesunkenes Kulturgut, 285Get (pronunciation), 335Gig, 136Gilboa, Eytan, 139Girlized Intonation, 16Girls/women versus guy(s), 267Give him a break versus cut him a break, 232Glass, Ira, 68, 98Glazunov (pronunciation), 8Glide
interjections., 82Interjections, 80Latino Speakers, 90Latino speakers, 92Tw-, 376tw-, 377, 378word as structural unit, 86
GlossFrenchification of Spanish Words, 159Frenchification of Spanish words, 160Speech, 372you are/you’re welcome, 258, 259
Holmes (fictional character) on, 89Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171Going forward versus in the future, 172Goldberg, Molly, 126Goldbergs, The (radio and television program),
126Gonzalez, Sarah (pronunciation), 92Good show (phrase), 134Good versus well, 127, 135Good Versus Well, 169, 170, 375Goose, gosling (pronunciation), 22Gotcha (got you) [pronunciation], 75, 86Govern, Government
Errors, 362Govern, government
errors, 363grammar, 359rection, 292
Governor (Pronunciation), 112Go with him (phrase), 107Grading, gradience
affective vocabulary, 164begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,
280Graeco-Roman Patrimony, 183Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185Graffiti versus graffito, 277Grammar, grammatical
associative meaning fields,, 119Grammar, Grammatical
Associative Meaning Fields, 117biological sex versus grammatical gender,
146, 147, 266, 312, 438Consciousness,, 384consciousness, 384discontinuous grammar., 123Discontinuous Grammar, 121discontinuous grammar, 122errors, 241etymology, 118, 122fundament of thought and knowledge., 359Fundament of Thought and Knowledge,
358grandchildren versus grands., 334Hyperurbanisms, 150
anaphoric, 224Back-Formations, 194back-formations, 195begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167contextual, 224Dr. versus Professor, 175Emphasis and Length of Word, 199emphasis and length of word, 199fixed phrases,, 137Hyperurbanisms, 142hyperurbanisms, 143innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233inter alia, 137morphemic, 224Multiple Versus Many, 155past time, 290, 291
488 Index
Philological Method, 338pleonasm(s), 305pleonastically extruded adjectives, 295pluriverbation, 295Prepositions After Verbs, 312prepositions after verbs, 313prior to versus before, 253Prosody and Emphasis, 71semantics, 129, 130straight talk, 247straight talk, 248Thirdness, 332thirdness, 333
Hyperurbanism(S)Hypertrophy, 142innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352,
353Multiple Versus Many, 155objective versus subjective case, 289reality is (phrase), 298
Hypocoristic(S), HypocorismBad Guy (Phrase), 119
Hypocoristic(s), hypocorismbad guy (phrase), 120Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334Geekish, 209glottal catch/glottal stop, 18Infantilization of Girls, 137infantilization of girls, 138Russian Hypocoristics in English, 166Russian hypocoristics in English, 166
Hypostasis, 183, 185Hypotaxis
different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,280, 281
head for versus head to, 282
II’m Called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of
Philosophy] Too (Heiße Magister, HeißeDoktor Gar) [Phrase], 174
I’m called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [ofPhilosophy] too (Heiße Magister, heißeDoktor gar) [phrase], 175
-ia, 37Iambic
exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),405
exactly right (phrase), 405language of thought, 410paroemics, 410Prosodically, 71Russian poetry, 395
If you like (phrase), 316Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25Illocutionary, 237, 238Illud tempus, 235Illusionist, 399Immanent, 384, 385Imperative
back-formation of compound verbs, 284in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214pronunciation:, 362Vocative Case, 88
Imperfective learning, 212Imperfective Learning, 212Imperfect versus perfect verbs, 161, 284
Impetigo, 34Implicature
grammar and praxis tension, 312Style, 363style, 367
Inanition, 143, 144Inauthentic/authentic, 56In cahoots with (phrase), 304Incipient, Incipiency
affectation, 252Incipient, incipiency
style, 363, 366Incision, 367, 442Incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129Incredible/incredibly
emphasis and length of word, 199hypertrophy,, 199very highly, extremely versus, 181
JJakšić, Đura, 307Jakobsonian mode, 384James, Caryn, 289James, P. D., 289James, William, 177, 178Japanese
affective vocabulary, 164American English drift, 171Cachinnation (Laughter), 345extemporaneous speech, 241female speech, 394Japlish, 271Lenition, not Voicing,, 29lenition, not voicing, 30marked., 51politeness, 244Prosody, 27proverbs, 55, 132Proverbs, 191sex defined, 188
Jargon, 129, 374, 375
Jejune phrase, 405Jewish names, 138Jocular
language change, 374, 375Judge (pronunciation), 63
KKöchel, 58Kant, Immanuel (pronunciation), 20Kegel, 16Keillor, Garrison, 80, 229, 388Keleman, Michele, 89Kell, Reginald, 367, 368Kennedy, John F, 27Kenyon, Peter, 25Kick the Can Down the Road (Phrase), 249Kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Kid versus young kid (use of word/phrase), 293Kiev (Pronunciation), 94King’s Speech, The (film), 332King James Bible, 116, 235, 319Kipper, Judith, 296Kissinger, Henry, 76Knave defined, 318, 319Knickers versus knikerbockers, 334Knight-errant (use of word), 162Knive/knives (pronunciation), 319Knowledge
LatinateAnglo-Saxon Versus, 143Anglo-Saxon versus, 144learnèd words, 202prior to versus before, 253reading pronunciation, 44
Latinate, 202 See also LatinLatino speakers
congeners, 90, 92emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231
Laughter (cachinnation), 219Lax, laxing. See also tense versus lax
at the end of the day (phrase), 207Lax, Laxing
at the end of the day (phrase), 206Lax, laxing
at the end of the day (phrase), 207lenition, not voicing, 30, 31morphophonemics of nominal derivation,
37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41palatalization across word boundaries, 75pronunciation, 361, 362sounds and sense, 187, 188
Lax, laxing, 207 See also tense versus laxLearnèd words
Latinate,, 202plurals, 323, 324
Learning, imperfect, 212, 213Le Corbeau et le Renard (La Fontaine), 55, 402Leicester (pronunciation), 113Leitmotif, 248Lenin, V. I. (pronunciation), 64, 160Lenis, 57Lenited, lenition
normative/nonnormative speech, 40not voicing), 31
Lenited, Lenitionnot Voicing, 29not voicing, 30
Lentigo (pronunciation), 34, 35Lento, lento tempo, 68Leonhart, Jonathan, 23Lermontov, Mikhail, 395, 397Lesbian(s) defined, 197Less versus fewer, 168Less Versus Fewer, 356Let me be clear (phrase), 216Let Me Be Clear (Phrase), 216Letter (etymology), 118Letzten Endes, 246, 247Levels of patterning in language, 52, 421Lexeme, 171Lexis, lexicon, lexica, lexical, lexicalized,
lexically, lexicalizationabsolutely as emphatic, 205archaic, archaisms, 317, 318competence, linguistic, 246
Lexis, Lexicon, Lexica, Lexical, Lexicalized,Lexically, Lexicalizationcompetence, linguistic, 246, 247competence, 450Conceptualization, 378conceptualization, 379Desuetude, Words in, 170discontinuous grammar, 122, 123emphasis, 261emphasis, 261Feminine pronouns, 265, 266Frisson of Etymological Discovery, 195frisson of etymological discovery, 196incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129infantilization, 127, 128inner speech, 344language of thought, 228learnèd plurals, 323, 324linguistic harmony, 371, 372memoirs (plural form), 131metaphors (use of word), 234, 235non-standard speech, 263Oral Tradition, 58oral tradition, 58philological method, 339profanity, 229professional argots, 330proverbs, 132, 133style, 363, 366well versus good, 170Yiddishized enumerative intonation., 68Yiddishized Enumerative Intonation, 68
Liasson, Mara, 132
Index 493
License, 92Like (use of word), 149, 150, 200, 206, 246,
Literally (Use of Word), 264Literally (use of word), 265Literate defined, 119Lived, long- or short-, 93Loan words (foreign borrowings), 6, 25, 55, 56,
252, 303Locative case
going forward versus in the future, 172past time, 289, 291
Locus, 254, 255Logic governing variations, 65Lomonosov, Mikhail, 394Lone versus alone (use of word), 68Long-lived, 93Long story short (phrase), 53Look (use of word), 250Look up to him (phrase), 107Lopez, Adolfo (pronunciation), 8Lorry versus truck, 171Loss of vowels, 67, 68Lower, 412
Malgré lui, 271, 272Malkiel, Yakov, 169Manhattan (pronunciation), 33Mannerisms, 250Mantra (pronunciation), 20Manus manum lavat, 272Man versus gentleman, 170Many versus multiple, 155Marckwardt, Albert H., 417Margins, 65Marked, Markedness. See also Unmarked,
UnmarkingAblaut Pattern, 325
Marked, markedness. See also unmarked,unmarkingablaut pattern, 326
Americans English Speakers of French, 100Americans English speakers of French, 101desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,
110, 111emphasis, 261englessness,, 77englessness, 77female, 11, 12interjections,, 82interjections, 80Latino speakers, 90, 92normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41palatalization across word boundaries., 75palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98pin versus pen, 43Pin Versus Pen, 43post-vocalic position, 54, 326sounds and sense, 187, 188tw-, 377, 378vowels, 12, 112younger speakers, 12
Native/non-native speech, 322NB (nota bene). See nota bene (NB)Neapolitan pronunciation, 63Nec/ne plus ultra, 141, 142, 178, 179Necropolis, 120Neologism
begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334game-changer, game-changing, 180infantilization, 127, 128neostructuralism, 351well versus good, 170
Obstruent(s)at the end of the day (phrase), 207consonant clusters,, 88consonant clusters, 87dejotation, 65German barbarisms, 56, 57interjections, 80, 82lenition, not voicing, 30, 31morphophonemics of nominal derivation,
37normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41Ronko(n)koma, 412Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52sounds and sense,, 188sounds and sense, 187tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40tw-, 377, 378
Occlusion, 18Octave(s), 389, 390Odd duck versus strange duck (phrase), 212
498 Index
Odiousbaneful, banality, 231kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Nomina Sunt Odiosa, 18nomina sunt odiosa, 175, 328, 387thanks, thank you, 210
Onomastic, onomasticallyinfantilization of girls, 138Shapiro (surname), 117verbal tics, 260
Onomastic, Onomasticallyverbal tics, 260
Onomastic, onomastically names, 137, 138Onomatopoeia, 187, 188On par with (phrase), 304Onset
dejotation, 65tw-, 377, 378
on the Ground (Phrase), 218Ontology, ontological, ontologically
article in phraseologisms, 304diagrammatization, 355like (use of word), 149, 150of human activity,, 340speech, 372style, 363, 366
Orthography, Orthographic, Orthographical,OrthographicallyAmericans English Speakers of French, 100barbarisms, 380Beijing (Pronunciation), 63dejotation, 65desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,
37palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic variation, 46, 47Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52
Pale of Settlement, 166Palette, 389, 390Palliate, 178, 179Pamplemousse, 242Panchronic, 355Pantheon (use of word), 234Pantheon (Use of Word), 234Paradigm, Paradigmatic
Ablaut Pattern, 325Paradigm, paradigmatic
ablaut pattern, 326archaic, archaisms, 318, 319theory of language, 340
Paragogic, 270Paralinguistic(S)
Air Quotes, 316Paralinguistic(s)
air quotes, 316behavior/(mis)behavior, 219behavior/(mis)behavior, 242, 243
Pauses Between Words, 219Pea/pease, 195Peirce, Charles Sanders (Peircean)
abduction, 179analogy as explanans, 337associative meaning fields, 118, 119consciousness and grammar,, 384Consciousness and Grammar, 384diagram as icon of relation, 176diagrammatization, 355different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,
280Economy of Effort, 333economy of effort, 334emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231error defined, 321habit with meaning/skill, 383Irony, 245irony, 245language of thought, 228learnèd words, 202linguistic harmony, 371Molière,, 35neostructuralism, 351Power of Proverbs, 191pronunciation, 361, 362theory of language, 340
Placeless existence, 227, 289, 291Platform (use of word), 412Platitudinous, 405Plato, 158, 204, 228, 340, 356, 413Play versus show, 181Please (Use of Word), 220Please (use of word), 221Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), 406Plebes, 77Plenitude, platitudinous, 274Pleonasm(s)
diagrammatized, 305innovations in language, 219, 220, 222,
223, 226Pleonasm(S)
innovations in language, 227patterns of thought, 322pluriverbation, 295prior to versus before, 253reality is (phrase), 298straight talk, 247straight talk, 248thirdness, 333
Pleonastic, pleonasticallyadjectives, 293, 294exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase),
405Pleophonic, 184Plosive
alveolar flap, 57, 70emphasis, 261englessness, 77Latino speakers, 90, 92palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98sounds and sense, 187tw-, 377, 378
Plurale TantumMemoirs (Plural Form), 131
Plurale tantummisconstrual of words, 197Term Versus Phrase, 191term versus phrase, 191ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298
Plurals, learnèd, 323Pluriverbation, 295Pninesque, 169Poetic, poetry. See also specific poets
PostpositionsAnglo-Saxon Versus Latinate, 143Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144head for versus head to, 282imperfective learning, 212, 213language change, 374, 375nomina propria in adverbial position, 299,
300Patterns of Thought, 322pleonasm(s), 305rection, 291, 292thanks for having me versus thanks for
having me on, 299, 305transitive verbs, 300
Post-tonicLatino speakers, 90, 92
Post-Tonic
Index 503
Post-Tonic (cont.)Quadrisyllabic Words Stress Variation, 65quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66Russian poetry, 396, 398Secondary Stress, 82secondary stress, 83
adjective derivation, 93begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167childish errors, 380false analogies, 106qualified and contrasted words, 178word as structural unit, 86
PrepositionsAfter Verbs, 312after verbs, 313stress of adverbialized prepositional
phrases,, 107Stress of Adverbialized Prepositional
Phrases, 107Prescriptivist, prescriptivism
intrusive r, 27Prescriptivist, Prescriptivism
Norms and Correctness, 328Prestige
“King’s/Queen’s English, The” (ReceivedPronunciation or RP), 105
dialects, 21Dialects, 105eloquence, 236language change, 374, 375Multiple Versus Many, 155pronunciation, 2, 57, 105, 106, 252Standard American English (SAE), 105words, 55, 105
Proof of the pudding (proverb), 132Propensity, 178, 180Propitiation, 256Proprioception, 78Prosodic, prosody, prosodically
504 Index
adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4analogy as explanans, 337at the end of the day (phrase), 207, 407emphasis, 71faux English, 103
Prosodic, Prosody, ProsodicallyHypermetrical Stress, 109Japanese, 28kick the can down the road (phrase), 250language of thought, 410Please exit through the rear door. (phrase),
406Ronko(n)koma, 412secondary stress, 82, 83Spondaic Anapest, 10stress of adverbialized prepositional
Raison d’êtreat the end of the day (phrase), 407childish errors, 380diagrammatization, 355head for versus head to, 282pronunciation, 362sounds and sense, 187
299semantic aureole, 123, 140semantic fields, 134semantic hierarchy:, 60semantic hierarchy, 63so (use of word), 264sound and meaning, 168supersession of literal meaning, 181Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181tw-, 377, 378untranslatability/translatability, 190
Sens commun, bon sens, 184, 185Sense and sounds, 53, 185, 187Sense and Sounds, 376, 377Sensu stricto
exactly right (phrase), 157secondary stress, 82, 83
Sensu StrictoSelf-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138that’s a good question. (phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265
ethical dative, 306lenition, not voicing, 30marked, 51voiced, 40
Sesquipedalianian, sesquipedalianism, 169Set
affective vocabulary, 164Stammering, 331
Sex versus gender, 188Shakespeare, William, 79, 134, 141, 388Shapiro (surname), 117Shapiro, Ari, 137Shapiro, Constantine
“Saison beendet das Orchester,…,”, 390“The poet wishes you happiness,…,”, 412“To a Japanologist Friend…,”, 394“To the right and left are mountains,…,”,
399anapests, 283biographical information about, 401Russian name,, 201
Sine qua non, 112Singulare tantum, 324, 325Singulative, singulative deverbal nouns, 161Skill set (phrase), 42, 231, 232, 294, 295Skittles, 16Sl-, 378Slavic. See also Slavonic, Church
Stem-final, 37Stick to it (phrase), 107Still life(s) [plural form], 131Stolberg, Sheryl Gay, 139Stomping/Stamping Ground (Folk Etymology),
175Stop
alveolar flap, 57, 70emphasis, 261englessness, 77Glottal, 17glottal, 18Latino speakers, 90, 92Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74palatalization across word boundaries, 75phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98sounds and sense, 187tw-, 377, 378word as structural unit, 86
ain’t versus isn’t (phrase), 248Suprasegment, suprasegmental
analogy as explanans, 337assertory force, 317Hypermetrical Stress, 109kick the can down the road (phrase), 250placement of stress, 5prosody and emphasis, 71secondary stress, 82, 83
Sweep under the carpet/floor (idiom), 156Sweet, Henry, 100Syllabic, syllables
teleologydesyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters,
110, 111drift and the iconic, 356, 357Enjoy!, 194errs (pronunciation), 79
Telos/Teleos, Teleological, Teleologically,TeleologyErrs (Pronunciation), 79habit with meaning/skill, 383language change, 47Multiple Versus Many, 164neostructuralism, 351style, 366
Temperature (Pronunciation), 64Temperature (pronunciation), 65Tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40, 98–100Tense
German, 52pronunciation, 361, 362Social Security (pronunciation), 51sounds and sense, 188subjunctive and tense-number syncretism,
348th (pronunciation), 109tw-, 377
Tense versus laxat the end of the day (phrase), 207Latino speakers, 90, 92lenition, not voicing, 30morphophonemics of nominal derivation,
38normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41
palatalization across word boundaries, 74,75
phonetic ellipses, 95tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100tw-, 377
Tent (pronunciation), 70Tenure,, 99, 100Terminus Ad Quem, 132Terminus ad quem, 133Terminus a quo, 366Term versus phrase, 191Term Versus Phrase, 191Ternary
Sounds and Sense, 53spondaic anapest, 11
Tertium non datur, 43Tertium Non Datur, 43Teutonisms, 57Text, textual
Th (pronunciation), 107, 109Thanks, thank you (phrase), 210Thanks for asking (phrase), 262Thanks for Asking (Phrase), 262Thanks for having me versus thanks for having
me on, 299, 306, 322That’s a Good Question. (Phrase), 253That’s a good question. (phrase), 254That’s exactly right, exactly right (phrase), 157,
405that Said (Phrase), 209That said (phrase), 209Theory, language. See also specific
theoreticians and theoriesglobal, 340, 341habit with meaning/skill, 383hermeneutics, 340
Third compared with three (pronunciation), 69Thirdness, 225, 332, 333This year (pronunciation), 75Thorn, 109Thought
To have versus to have on, 306Tokyo, 28Tolstoy, A. K., 389Tolstoy, Leo, 152Tone-Deafness, 24Tone-deafness, 25Toponym
Japanese Prosody, 27Manhattan (Pronunciation), 33Manhattan (pronunciation), 33morphophonemics of nominal derivation,
37theory of language, 340Tunis, 37Vowel Reduction, 59vowel reduction, 60
Tout courtimperfective learning, 212, 213metaphors (use of word), 234not a problem (phrase), 217theory of language, 340thirdness, 333
To wit (use of word), 251, 252Traduttore, traditore, 164Trafficky (use of word), 327Tragedy versus atrocity, 158Transitive, transitivity, transitivization
*triblet of trisyllables, 2, 4media/mediae, 301nomina propria in adverbial position, 301past passive participle, 293transitive verbs, 300
kick the can down the road (phrase), 250Please exit through the rear door. (phrase),
406
Troops (use of word), 298Trope, tropology, tropological, tropologically,
troping, tropehood tropismclichés, 120
Trope, Tropology, Tropological,Tropologically, Troping, TropehoodTropismClichés, 120Drift and the Iconic, 356drift and the iconic, 357Englessness, 76englessness, 77form and content, 203form and content, 204global theory of language, 340Homo Figurans, 323homo figurans, 323Indirection, 237indirection, 237, 360infantilization,, 128infantilization, 127metaphors (use of word), 234Speech, 372style, 363, 366supersession of literal meaning, 181tw-, 377, 378well versus good, 170
Trubetzkoy, Nikolai, 100Truck versus lorry, 171Truisms of linguistics
discontinuous lexica, 122sounds and sense, 187
Truncate, truncationglottal catch/glottal stop, 18kick the can down the road (phrase), 250
Viva voce not a problem (phrase), 217Vive la différence, 277, 278Vocable
Americans English Speakers of French, 100horror silentii, 315infantilization,, 128infantilization, 127stammering, 331, 332that’s a good question. (Phrase), 253that’s a good question. (phrase), 254Untranslatability/Translatability, 189untranslatability/translatability, 190
Vocal fry (creaky voice), 336Vocative, vocative case
Welcome, You Are/You’re, 258Welcome, you are/you’re, 259Wellek, R., 369Well versus good, 127, 135Well Versus Good, 169, 170Wessel, David, 131Whorf, Benjamin Lee,, 379Who versus whom, 273, 375Wife/wives (pronunciation), 319Wile, 401Willful mistakes, 278Williams, Mike, 317Williamson, Lucy, 345Willy Nilly, 141Willy nilly, 141, 142Wilson, Russell, 412Winans, Bill, 288Winged, winged words
isoglosses, 38qualified and contrasted words, 182
Winthrop, Bayard, 77Withal, 360
Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94oral tradition/transmission, 94that’s a good question. (phrase), 254
with Boots/Boots (Use of Phrase/Word), 218Wodehouse, P. G., 366, 367Wolfram, Walter, 417, 418Woman versus lady, 267Word blind (use of word), 239Word Paints a Thousand Pictures\
The Consolation of Philosophy in the Ageof Stupravity, A (Michael Shapiro), 166