ENVIRONMENTAL SCIEN - International Atomic Energy Agency

-£>• ta ORNl-4935

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIEN

DIVISION

ANNUAL PROGRESS RE IOO ENDING SEPTEMBER 30.1S73

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ORNL-4935 UC-48 - Biology and Medtcme

Environmental Sciences Division PuUtcation No. 570

Contract No. W-7405-ertg-26

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DIVISION

ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT

For Period Ending September 30,1973

S. I. Aue«t»ach, Director D. J. Nelson, Assistant Director

E. G. Struxness, Assistant Director

-NOTICE Thi-: report was prepir'd as an account ->f •• ~V. sponsored by the Ur.:'»J Statss Government. Neither th» United States nor the United State'. Atomic Energy Conmission. nor any of their emp!oy»es, nor any of their contractors subcontractor-?, «• their employees makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes ».iy legal liability or responsibility for the ac jracy . com­pleteness or usefulness of any information, vparatjs . product or process disclosed, or represents <hjt its iise would net infringe privately owned rights.

MARCH 1974

OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830

operated by UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION

fcr the U.S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

F' k

Contents

PREFACE vii

SUMMARY ix

PART I. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS EVALUATION

1. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS STUDIES 1 CUEX Project 1 Plowshare Project 6 Special Projects 9

2. WASTE MANAGEMENT STUDIES 12 Radioactivity Movement from Burial Grounds in Melton Valley 12 Biological Devitrification of High-Nitrate Wastes 13 Occurrence, Control, and Plugging of Boreholes 15

3. ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT 19 Environmental Impact Analysis of Nuclear Power Stations 19 Land Disposal of Waste Oil 20 Relation of Design Blowdown Rate to Expected Radioiodine Release in Gaseous

Effluents from a Pressurized Water Reactor 20 Ass stance to the AEC en the Norman Rasmussen Reactor Safety Study 21 Radiological Impact of Gianging Chemical Form of Radioiodine Released

from Light-Water Reactors 22 Bioconversion Studies 22

* PARTH. AQUATIC STUDIES PROGRAM

4. POWER PLANT EFFECTS 24 Annual Review of Thermal Effects Literature 24 Acute Thermal Testing 25 Production Responses 27 Behavior Responses 30 Entrapment Simulation 32 Populatior Modeling 33

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5. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM STUDIES 34 Radionuclide Cycling in Aquatic Ecosystems 34 Radiation Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems 38 Comparison of the Effects of Acute and Chronic Cobalt-60 Irradiation

on Fitness in Daphnids 41 Toxicant Formation in Condenser Cooling Systems 42

PART III. ECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS PROGRAM

6. TERRESTRIAL RADIONUCLIDE CYCLING AND EFFECTS 46 Soil Chemistry 47 En dronmental Effects of Cooling Tower Drift 49 Dynimics of Cobalt, Zinc, and Cesium in Microcosms and

Radioactive Seeps 54 Food-Chain Dynamics 56 Radiation Effects 58 Scientific Application 58

7. PLUTONIUM RESEARCH AND APPUED STUDIES 61 Plutonium Behavior in Humid Environments of Eastern United States 61 Chemical Analyses of Plutonium in Environmental Materials 62 Distribution and Characterization of Plutonium in Soils from the

Nevada Test Site 63

8. TOXIC MATERIALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 66 Trace-Element Characterization in River Sediments 66 Cadmium Adsorption-Desorption to Clay Materials 67 Effectc of Temperature and Concentration on Methylmercury Uptake in Fish 70 Forest Stand Budgets and Input/Output Budgets of Trace Elements in

Walker Branch Watershed 71

9. WALKER BRANCH WATERSHED: A STUDY OF TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC SYSTEM Ii<TERACTION 74 Hydrologic Studies 74 Element Input/Output Relationships 77 Terrestrial Studies 78 Aquatic Studies 81 Research Applications 83

10. INTERNATIONAL BIOLOGICAL PROGRAM: OAK RIDGESITE 85 Forest Energetics and Physiological Processes 85 Summary of Plant-Related Belowground Processes 89 Ecosystem Process Model Development 93

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11. EASTERN DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOME, U.S.-IBP 98 Analysis and Modeling 98 Biome and Regional Analysis 102

12. ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION 106 Numeric Information 106 Bibliographic Information 109 Inform ition Service Requests 110

13. EDUCATION I l l

Educational Activities I l l

14. FOREST MANAGEMENT 113

PUBUCATIONS, PAPERS, LECTURES, THESES, AND PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES 115

Publications 115 Papers 129 Lectures 133 Theses 138 Professional Activities 138

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES DIVISION IUBUCATIONS 144

ORGANIZATION CHART 165

Preface

Energy cnses, environmental assessments, ecological impacts, and local, regional, and national problems associated with the environment have been among the areas cf interest to the staff of the Environmental Sciences Division this past year. Meeting these critical problems, responding to the needs of the AEC for the preparation of environmental assessments and impact statements while simultaneously pursuing or initiating vigorous research programs, has provided a taxing challenge. No sooner was one urgent problem resolved than two appeared to take its place.

The magnitude of the Division effort in environ­mental statement preparation can be appreciated from the fact that Division staff members have written statements covering 4] proposed nuclear power reac­tors, the LMFBR general program, the nuclear fuel cycle, the proposed offshore nuclear power facility, and & number of proposed Laboratory facilities. In addition, as this report will attest, ongoing research, both fundamental and applied, has been pursued with vigor, and a number of new research projects have been initiated.

The Division continues to follow closely new develop­ments in its sponsoring agencies. Perhaps the most significant one currently is the possibility of the Atomic Energy Commission becoming a general energy research and development agency. Many staff members of th«. Environmental Sciences Division have assisted Com­mission and various ORNL groups in the development of national plans, in discussions of research needs, and in preparation of proposals.

Environmental problems are associate*" with all major aspects of energy, and the Environment Sciences Division is well stalled to undertake an important role in this expanded program. The Division contin,. ?s to play a key research and management role in the International Biological Program (IBP) for the National Science Foundation. Although the IBP wfll officially

eV. in 1974, the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, which will be sponsored by the Ecosystem Analysis Program of NSF, will continue under ORNL leadership for at least another three years. Here too, our accom­plishments in fundamental research in ecosystem analy­ses, both at the local and regional levels, have demon­strated to the agency and to a large segment of the scientific community that the "ORNL style," as ex­emplified by the Division programs, leads to rapid and significant accomplishment in research. Our studies for the NSF-RANN program moved from preliminary stages into a mature organized effort with a large number of publications that reflect our ability to effectively address environmental problems.

New work was undertaken last year for the EPA's new Office of Toxic Substances, for the Division of Waste Management of the AEC, and for *he Division of Regulation, AEC, all reflecting the growing reputation of the Laboratory as an environmental research center.

While meeting these challenges, the Division has continued to develop its internal organization. The new leaders of Division programs have strengthened their staffs, developed their managerial skills, and further laid the foundation of a unique and effective interdisci­plinary research organization. In anticipation of the growing needs for environmental research, the first phase of a new greenhouse and plant research facility has been built. A wing is being added to the main b'rilding to house a satellite computer facility and to provide space for 12 more professional staff members. Spaoe in anoiher laboratory building is being refur­bished for the Division's new plutonium research project.

While research and organizational development is a continuing process, we now are ready to meet the exciting challenges of 'he energy and environmental decade.

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Summary

1. ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS STUDIES

Considerable progress was made in developing a computer code to calculate CUEX indices for applica­tion as radiation protection guides for environmental releases. The CUEX code now incorporates atmospheric dispersion, transport through the terrestrial food chains, and internal and external dosir.ietry. Work is in progress to incorporate in the CUEX code already developed hydrologjc, aquatic, and sediment models. The environ­mental transport and radiation dosimetry models devel­oped under the CUEX project were used extensively in making radiological predictions for incorporation in environmental statements prepared in response to the NEPA. These activities included assessments for reac­tors, fuel fabrication plants, fuel reprocessing plants, mining and milling, and consumer products containing radioactive sources. The variety of these applications required development of new capabilities in environ­mental transport modeling and dosimetry for radio­nuclides which were new to this program. An important study was concluded on the hypothetical use of nucieaiiy stimu'ited gas from wells in the Rulison field in Colorado. Ihe predicted maximum dose to an individual in that area from combustion products resulting from home use and electricity generation in a large gas-fired plant was less than 1 millirem/year.

2. WASTE MANAGEMENT STUDIES

Field reconnaissance of the ORNL burial grounds has been completed, and installation of groundwater wells for systematic evaluation oi suspected leaching areas is in progress. Mathematical models have been written to follow the movement of water and radionuclides in terrestrial environments. Laboratory studies are being conducted on biologic denitrification of high-nitrate wastes emanating from nuclear installations. Rate con­stants have been obtained for columnar denitrification, and factors affecting column life are being investigated. Special cements for sealing boreholes have been investi­

gated. Cement properties, including strength, permeabil-itv ?xn5*nsion sulfate resistance and bonding qualities, have been determined; these studies are in support of the Bedded Salt Pilot Plant Project for the disposal of radioactive wastes. A field-scale demonstration of bore­hole plugging is under way.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSES AND ASSESSMENT

The assessment of environmental impacts continued to be a significant function of the Division staff who work as members of interdisciplinary tesms. A typical statement requires about 12 months to complete, but this does not require full-time involvement of our staff. At any time we are assigned to work on 10 to 15 reactor stations.

4. POWER PLANT EFFECTS

Power plant effects studies encompass thermal and mechanical effects on fish and other aquatic organisms and computer simulation of the effects of fish losses on their populations in selected water bodies. Studies this year have included laboratory testing of thermal re­quirements for survival, growth, and reproduction; field ar 1 laboratory studies of temperature selection and ou.er behavior patterns; studies of the survival of small fish subjected to thermal and mechanical stresses in a simulated power plant condenser tube; and consolida­tion of all field and laboratory data into models of population responses.

5. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM STUDIES

In aquatic ecosystem studies, investigations were carried out in radionuclide cycling, radiation effects, and toxicant formation in condenser cooling systems. Experiments in radionuclide cycling demonstrated the availability of radionuclides from bott jn> sedimeats to the aquatic food chain and provided information on the

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transport of radionuclides in aquatic ecosystems. The effects of chronic low-level radiation on aquatic biota and the frequency of abnoimalities in the fish popula­tions of White Oak Lake were considered in radiation effects studies. Studies on toxicant formation in con­denser ~ooling systems included the development cf techniques for identifying and quantifying chlorinated organic constituents in water and testing the toxicity of specific chlorine-containing compounds on aquatic biota. These laboratory and field studies are oriented toward providing information to evaluate the ecoiogical consequences of planned or accidental release^ of radionuclides and toxicants to aquatic ecosystems.

6. TERRESTRIAL RADIONUCLIDE CYCLING AND EFFECTS

Research progress on radionuclide cycling includes studies of the mechanism of strontium sorption-desorp-tion by soils from the southeastern United States. Results indicate that strontium adsorption by clays may be related to the same sites which bond organic matter. The Aspergillus niger technique was used to determine available I 3 7 C s in soil; concentration factors (1.2 X 10~2) for the fungus were very similar to those determined by continuous cropping of White Oak Lake soil by millet (2 to 3 X 10" 2).

Distribution and transport of radionuclides leaking from a waste trench were investigated at the Oak Ridge buriai grounds. It was discovered that 6 0 C o is com-plexed with EDTA from the contaminated waste. The fraction of 6 0 C o in vegetation of the radioactive seep was only 1% of the total determined for soil plus biotic components. Ground cover, Impatiens biflora, con­tained more 6 0 C o than all trees growing in the seep.

Results were obtained on the kinetics of 6 0 C o and 1 , ? C s in mineralization immobilization by decomposer organisms. I'.ie influence of microorganisms and de-composability of organic substrate on radionuclide availability to higher plants were investigated. The influence of food type on the food chain bioaccumula-tion of 6 0 C o and , 3 7 C s in quail was determined. Responses of arthropod populations to in situ ex­posures were investigated for 2 to 13 rads/day dose rates.

Results on the environmental fate and effects of chemicals from ^ooling-tower drift include studies of chromium from ORGDP towers and effects of salt from simulated applications of brackish water to forest species. Maximum chromium concentraMons in grass and tobacco were 400 and 200 jzg/g respectively. Effects on tobacco growth were observed at concentra­tions averaging 10 /ig Cr per grarr. at 200 m from the

towers. No effects on trees from experimental salt applications at rates below 100 ib/acre were observed, but photosynthesis was markedly depressed in all species at a cumulative application of 900 lb/acre.

7. TOXIC MATERIALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

The Toxic Materials in the Environment project is concerned primarily w»tb sources, cycling, and fate of trace elements in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This project is currently addressing three major research areas: trace elements in soils and sediments, biological transport of trace elements, and environmental recon­naissance and cycling. This report summarizes our results to date on characterization of cadmium and nickel in river sediments; evaluation of organic matter and sequioxides of iron and aluminum on the absorp­tion of trace elements by clay minerals; the effects of the environmental factors, temperature, and concentra­tion on the accumulation of meihylmercury ty fish populations; and the establishment of forest stand and input/output budgets of cadmium, lead, zinc, and several other trace elements for Walker Branch Water­shed.

8. PLUTONIUM IN MESIC AND HUMID ENVIRONMENTS

Plutonium is expected to become more prominent in nuclear energy applications of the futuie. Plutonium-239 will be both produced ind utilized in nuclear electrical power reactors, ind plutonium-238 will be used in special applications in space and medical technology. While most pluionium in reactor fuels can be recycled, a small quantity which remains as waste residue (assumed to be 0.5%) will require disposal and secure isolation from biological environments. In an expanding plutonium economy ?nd in wider nuclear energy applications, the processes of increased fuel recycle, waste management, and transportation of fuels and wastes will all increase the probability of acci­dental release to the environment. Although plutonium ranks as one of the most toxic elements to man, the large majority of plutonium accidents probably will not create biological hazards. However, should accidental releases result in contamination of aquatic or terrestrial environments, assessment of biological risks can be performed much more proficiently if an adequate data base exists on probable plutonium behavior for typical ecosystems. For even remote possibilities of plutonium release, additional information on immediate and long-term environmental behavior is essential in order to assure safety to man and minimum hazard to other endemic organisms.

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This is a new project this year, designed to expiore the behavior of piutonium on mesic and humid environ­ments of the eastern United States Most existing knowledge on the environmental fate of plutonium has been derived from releases ir sparsely populated arid environments. However, future uses of plutonium will occur in closer proximity to larger human populations and cultivated land. Intention to locate the first liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) in the eastern United States (Tennessee), and locating a Waate process­ing facility (Earnwell. South Carolina) in the Southeast, are examples of the expansion of plutonium facilities l l l i v / n v n ait \A U l i i w i v i l l V l l v 11 V^ttll fl«u l O . IVl lUVi:WU£& \Jll

plutonium behavior in these different environments will be needed because new sites of plutonium technology eventually will be located in mesic, subhumid regions of the eastern United States. Physical characteristics of these environments and related biotic behavior are significantly different from those of arid regions.

9. WALKER BRANCH WATERSHED: A STUDY OF TERRESTRIAL

AND AQUATIC 3YSTEM INTERACTION

Retention and transport of elements and materials in forested landscapes are being investigated in the Walker Branch Watershed project in order to better understand ecosystem function and assess the inpact of controlled and accidental releases of elements to similar eco­systems. The project emphasizes infractions between the terrestrial and aquatic components of the watershed ecosystem and therefore concentrates research on the two dominant element earner systems, water and biomass. Less than 5% of the total amount of elements cycling within a forest is lost to streams through water movement. A dominant mechanism for preventing greater loss of elements has been sho.vii to be the dynamics of root death and decomposition, with microbial immobilization and subsequent plant uptake during new root growth.

Precipitation which produces large increases in streamflcw has ^een shown to be of overriding impor-ta. ^ in the annual transport of water and elements fro ihe landscape. Approximately 20% of trn annual water loss on Walker Branch Watershed occurs during the week of peak annual discharge. Element concentra­tions in streamflow change during these storm periods according to the mobilities of elements, but transport in both dissolved and suspended form increases. The movement of suspended organic and inorganic material, which predominates at high discharge rates, accounts for the major transport to aquatic systems of many

trace elements which are generally present in very low concentrations in dissolved form. Application of results from this watershed study was used to evaluate eco­nomic and environmental considerations associated with land disposal of nitrate-rich industrial effluent* using extant data from the Walker Branch project to provide less critical variables needed for construction of mathematical simulation models. These models pre­dicted ecosystem stability and longevity before detri­mental effects would be incurred due to effluent nitrate additions, and thus provided the basis for cost-benefit analysis of this disposal practice.

10. INTERNATIONAL BIOLOGICAL PROGRAM: OAK RIDGE SITE

The Oak Ridge Site of the U.S.-IBP Eastern Decid­uous Forest Biome is one of five major research efforts, with the primary objectives of quantifying the internal processes of ecosystems, understanding land-water geo-chemical interactions, and modeling the dynamics of whole ecosystems. Research at Oak Ridge includes collaboration with scientists at Purdue University, Wabash College, and the University of Tennessee as part of the site program. Project activities this past year involved the completion of field research on the structure and funrtion of forest ecosystems in anticipa­tion of extensive data synthesis activities this coming year at biome, national, and international program levels.

Research on forest metabolism emphasized analysis of autotroph respiration, storage carbohydrate dynamics, and belowground processes. Two comprehensive studies on decomposer activities, one emphasizing the cryp-tozoan food web, the other microbial activities, were completed this past year as thesis projects. These studies demonstrated the indirect effects of litter fauna on decomposition and the control of microbial proc­esses exerted by substrate quality.

The Oak Ridge IBP project has demonstrated the large allocation of photosynthate belowground, the role of root sloughing and root herbivory in biogeochemical cycles, and how simulation models can be used to describe the dynamics of belowground processes. The synthesis of belowground research to date, supported by model simulations, suggests that the dynamics of roots represent an area of scientific inquiry of great importance in the understanding of total system func­tion, particularly in elucidating what "strategies" have evolved among forest species to ensure survival in a fluctuating temperate environment.

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Modeling of ecological systems continued to be an important objective. Summarization of data on biogeo-chemical cycles led to the construction of linear analytical models of element dynamics. These models were subjected to several system analysis procedures in order to elucidate general properties and time responses of biorjochemical cycles. Other modeling activities included the completion of a simulation model of forest organic-matter dynamics. This model, SERENDIPITY, is presently being coupled with data on element dynamics and plant-soil-water relationships to include the effect of fluctuating climate on forest production-OiOgeoChcffiiCiii cycling.

11. EASTERN DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOME

H addition to its role in mission-orieited research, the Division also participates in a variety of other activities related to its position as a center of environ­mental research. Included are managerial tasks asso­ciated with the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biorne component of the International Biological Program, administrative and service functions in ecological infor­mation, pragmatic aspects of forest management, and a variety of educational endeavors spanning many levels.

The direction of the Biome, ? large and diverse multidisciplinary program, has presented many chal­lenges in the coordination of institutions, people, and resources to investigate ecosystem structure and func­tion. A major emphasis has been on the formulation and analysis of mathematical models of ecological processes and subsystems that lead to new and more realistic theory. An example involves the behavior, in a nonlinear trophic interaction model, of biomass in a combined food source and the biomass of a consumer population. Based on feeding rate, above an optimal level a further increase in feeding rate leads to a decrease in the consumer population, a counterintuitive result.

The Biome and Regional Analysis program has pro­duced a simulation model of forest succession for the Piedmont of North Carolina. The model, based on intrinsic rates of the "flow" of area from one cover type to another, includes the effects of both natural and artificial perturbations of the system, and 250-year simulations predict varying amounts of different forest types that can be u^ed in management decisions.

12. ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION CENTERS

Numeric information integrated with bibliographic information constitutes a urvque and irreplaceable resource for research scientist because of the functions

data serve in decision-making processes and system evaluations. The information activities that support Division work sponsored by the Atomic Energy Com­mission and the International Biological Program East­ern Deciduous Forest Biome involve the unique combination of numeric and bibliographic data. Manip­ulations of these data are used for evaluating alterna­tives to research objectives and Division goals. Some of the manipulations performed as information activities include numeiic data retrieval, literature searches for specific subjects, and tailored bibliographic compila­tions. A system for describing, cataloging, storing, retrieving, and statistically manipulating numeric data sets has become fully operational during this year.

Specialized bibliographic information fdes that have been developed or expanded during lis year include Thermal Effects on Aquatic Organisms; Aquatic Im­pacts (chlorine effects from power plant use, dredging); Striped Bass Life History; Environmental Plutonium Data Base (supported by the AEC Nevada Operations Office); Radioecology; Modeling for Ecosystem Analy­sis; Biological Decomposition; and Abstracts of IBP Ecosystem Analysis Studies.

13. EDUCATION

For the past several years, the Division's role in education and training has increased. These activities include participation by visiting students and scientists for periods ranging from ten weeks to one year. This year, 26 undergraduates, 11 graduate students, £>id 5 postdoctoral participants were affiliated with Division research activities. Six AEC trainees received on-the-job training in assessing the environmental impact of nuclear facilities. In addition to this in-house student and faculty participation, five Division staff members held faculty appointments, and many others served as resource people for governmental, educational, and private institutions on environmental matters. This year the Division staff collaborated with 52 such in­stitutions.

14. FOREST MANAGEMENT

The objective of the forestry program is the manage­ment of timber resources in conjunction with the overall research of the Environmental Sciences Division at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The basic concept is to develop the Oak Ridge AEC Reservation into an ecological park, with environmental research and all aspects of timber management, from planting to har­vesting, being compatible. New timber inventory and

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type-mapping procedures have been instigated to re­evaluate the reservation timber resources in order to locate research niches for future studies. Research studies presently associated with the Forest Manage­ment program include Forties annusus root rot studies in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) plantations by the State

of Tennessee Department of Conservation and dis­semination of nitrate waste materials in the forest by the Division. Future studies are planned in association with the University of Tennessee concerning the effects of controlled burning in loblolly pine plantations on the AEC Reservation.

Part I. Environmental Hazards Evaluation

E. G. Struxness

1. Environmental Hazards Studies S.V Kaye

C. J. Barton J. R. Kercher2 G. W. Parker2

R. S. Booth1 G. G. Killough4 P. S. Rohwer F. H. Clark1 L. R. McKay H. A. Vanderploeg2

J. 0 . Duguid2 R. E. Moore W. H. Wilcox5

D. E. Dunning, Jr. 3 F. R. O'Donnell2 J. P. Witherspoon2

The principal objectives of this continuing research are to dtvelop a predictive methodology for assessing radiatior exposures from radioactivity released to the environment and to apply this methodology to situa­tions expected to result in environmental releases. Our philosophy is to work on both objectives simultane­ously, because this experience with practical applica­tions provides important feedback that helps to delin­eate a useful and relevant methodology.

Radiological research is carried on in three areas: (1) CUEX index and radiological assessment methodology, (2) dose predictions related to the use of natural gas stimulated with underground nuclear explosives, and (3) other special applications, especially environmental statement; requiring radiological assessments. Most of the staff 'ire involved in more than one area of research but share the common task of methodology improve­ment based on the needs of the various projects. The radiological assessments are facilitated with a variety of

1. Instrumentation and Controls Division. 2. Dual capacity. 3. ORAU-NSF undergraduate research participant, University

of Tennessee. 4. Consultant, East Tennessee State University. 5. Consultant, University of Tennessee.

environmental transport and dosimetry codes pro­grammed for remote terminal operation.

The staff is involved in preparing environmental statements in response to the NEPA for a variety of applications, including consumer products containing nuclear sources, a fuel element refsbricaJion pilot plant for high-temperature gas-cooled reactors, the liquid-metal fast breeder program, the light-water nuclear fuel cycle, and nuclear power stations. This type of activity is expected to continue at a relatively high level during the comirgyear.

CUEX PROJECT Development ind Implementation

of the CUEX Index

The CUEX index is a time-integrated radionuclide concentration for which the estimated total dose via all exposure pathways does not exceed the annual dose limit for ;nan established by advisory bodies such as the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The cumulative exposure index is intended to be utilized *s an operational guide to indicate concen­trations of released radionuclides which should not be exceeded in the interest of public health and the

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environment. The formulation for calculating CUEX has been presented in detail previously.6

Environmental models are used to predict the fraction of each released radionuclide exposing man as a function of time at any given location. The data base for the generalized model to predict quantitative radionuclide movement through terrestrial food path­ways (TERMOD, ref. V has been updated. The com­panion model for aquatic food pathways (AQUAMOD) is in an advanced stage of development. The develop­ment of methodology within CUEX has progressed to the point that initial applications can be undertaken and studied. The materia! which follows briefly de­scribes the CUEX code and an application.

The CUEX code estimates the atmospheric dispersion of radionuclides released from a nuclear facility and the subsequent deposition on land surfaces, but it does not as yet include releases of radionuclides to water. Exposures to people by air inhalation, submersion in air, contaminated ground surfaces, submersion in water. and ingestion of beef, milk, and vegetable crops pioduced in the area are estimated; however, ingestion of fish, which may be an important pathway because of high bioaccurnulation factor.; for some radionuclides, is still to be included. An aquatic modd and a hydroiogic modd are under development for inclusion in the CUEX code for this pathway.

The region surrounding the nuclear facility is divided into 400 square areas, each of which is specified as to size, human population, numbers of beef and dairy cattle, vegetable crops, and water areas. Doses received by people through all of the pathways except ingestion are computed as iocation-specifk, but the ingestion doses are equal in all areas because it is assumed that all people in the region consume food produced from the entire region. A CUEX for each radionuclide and for each of 11 reference organs is computed by the code at an air monitoring station to be located as specified within one of the 400 square areas. If the sum of ratios of measured radionuclide concentrations to their re­spective CUEX values exceeds I for any reference

6. S. V. Kaye, R. S. Booth, P. S. Rohwer, and E. G. Struxness, "A Cumuiatrr? Exposure Index (CUEX) for Assess­ing Environmental Releases of Radioactivity," pp. 909-22 in Proc. Int. Symp. on Radioecotogy Applied to the Protection of Mm and His Environment, EUR-4800, Luxembourg, May 1972.

7. R. S. Booth, S. V. Kaye, and P. S. Rohwer, "A Systems Analysis Methodology for Predicting Dose to Man from a Radioactrvety Contaminated Terrestrial Environment," Third National Symposium on Radioecology, May 10-12, 1971, Oak Ridge, Tenn. AECCONF-710501.

organ, the person who receives the highest dose commitment from all pathways in the region surround­ing the plant is considered to be overexposed with respect lo the selected annual dose limit for that reference organ.

The CUEX code was recently applied to a selected nuclear power station considered representative of conventional light-water-cooled reactor designs. Al­though the selected power station was not yet opera­tional, sufficient site-specific data were available to enable the assessment to be made when these data were used in conjunction with the average or typical radio­active release information for several operating reactors of the same type. A partial summary of the air concentrations of radioactive material calculated for the maximum grid square is shown in Table 1.1. The radioisotope ' 3 ! I was chosen from the source term listing for illustrative purposes, and a full tabulation of CUEX values for each organ and exposure mode is presented in Table 1.2. Inhalation, ingestion, and exposure to the contaminated land surface can be seen to be the principal exposure pathways for ' 3 ' I. In addition, , 3 , I can be seen to result in 32% of the CUEX value for the thyroid. Similar tabulations for the other nuclides in the source-term inventory considered were prepared, and a summation of the ratios of postulated concentration to be measured to the respec­tive CUEX's is shown in Table 1.3, along with the rdative contribution of each radionuclide to the total body, thyroid, and gastrointestinal tract. The predomi­nance of , 3 3 X e , for example, in irradiating the total body and the major contribution of the radioiodines to thyroid dose can be readily observed.

Considerable effort toward perfecting existing dose-conversion codes, determining bioaccumulation factors, completing preliminary environmental transport models such as the soil-groundwater or sediment-water models, and general improvement of food-chain models is required to make CUEX calculations more realistic. Parametric analyses of CUEX are continuing activities by which valuable information, such as the minimum resolution required in assigning the grid square size for land surrounding a facility or the optimum placement and number of mo.iitoring stations, c?n be derived. Application of CUEX and its composite computer codes to other types of nuclear facilities, such as fuel element reprocessing or fabrication plants, or to other types of reactors, such as the high-temperature gas-cooled reactor, is anticipated, fn addition, the code will be applied to assess the cumulative impact of multiple nuclear facilities within a specified geographical region.

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Table 1.1. Partial summary of radioactive materials in gaseous effluents for routine operation of a light-water-cooled

nuclear power station

Radionuclide Release rate (Ci/year)

Air concentration at maximum

GiCi/cm3)

Annual integrated air concentration at

maximum grid" OiO-hi/cm3)

8 5 K r 133

131 Xe

I 133.

1520

3600 1.4 7.4

3.4 X 10

8.0 X 10

3.1 X 10

1.6 X 10"

- 1 0

- 1 0

-13

3.0 x 10"

7.0 x 10'

2.7 x 10'

1.4 x 10 - 8

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1 3 1 . Table 1.2. Results of CUEX compuUtions for nuclide I in gaseous effluents for routine operation of a tight-water-cooled nuclear power station

Dose limit (reins/year)

CUEX OxCi-hr/cm3)

Ratio of measured

concentration to CUEX

Percent of dose contributed by each mode of exposure Organ Dose limit

(reins/year) CUEX

OxCi-hr/cm3)

Ratio of measured

concentration to CUEX

Inhalation Submersion in air

Surface exposure Ingestion Submersion

in water

Total body 0.005 4.4 x 10~ 7 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 GI tract 0.005 5.3 x 10" 7 0.0051 9.4 4.1 80.4 6.1 0.01 Bone 0.005 4.4 X 10 " 7 a 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Thyroid 0.015 8.3 X 10" 9 0.32 67.9 0.02 0.42 31.7 0.00 Lungs 0.005 4.4 X 1 0 " ' a 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Muscle 0.005 4.4 X 1 0 _ 7 a 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Kidneys 0.005 4.4 X 10" 7 f l 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Liver 0.005 4.4 x 10" 7 f l 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Spleen 0.005 4.4 x 10 " 7 a 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Testes 0.005 4.4 X 10 ~la 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01 Ovaries 0.005 4.4 X 10 ~la 0.0061 19.5 3.4 67.8 9.3 0.01

"Default value.

Reference organ

Table 1.3. Contribution of each radionuclide to each organ dose from gaseous effluents for routine operation of a

tight-water-cooled nuclear power station

Dose limit (miUirems/year)

Sum of ri. :o$of measured concen ration

to CUEX

Contribution (%) , : , Kr 133 Xe 131 I 1 3 3 .

Total body

Thyroid

G3 tract

5

15

5

0.16

0.71

0.16

0.81

0.06d

0.79"

89.4 3.9 5.9 6.6* 46.1 47.3

87.7" 3.2 8.3

"Based on default value.

4

«

Development of the AIRDOS Computer Code

AIRDOS is a FORTRAN IV computer code which estimates radiation dose commitments to people living in the vicinity cf a nuclear facility &. a result of atmospheric releases of radionuclides. Five exposure pathways are considered: (1) inhalation, (2) submersion in air, (3) exposure to contaminated ground surfaces, (4) ingestion of food produced in the area, and (5) submersion in water, such as by swimming in contami­nated water. Doses to each of the following organs are estimated: whole body, gastrointestinal tract, bone, thyroid, lungs, muscle, kidneys, liver, spleen, testes, and ovaries.

The code can treat as many as 36 different radio­nuclides released from as many as s*'x stacks of different heights. PasquilTs* Gaussian plume equation as modi­fied by Gifford9 is used to estimate dispersion of the radionuclides in the atmosphere. Those radionuclides emitted as particulates large enough to be significantly affected by gravity are treated as falling from the plume at a rate *qual to their settling velocities. The rate of dry deposition on the ground of particulates or of gases that can react chemically with vegetation is computed as the product of the ground-level air concentration of the radionuclide at a specific location and its deposition velocity, which are supplied as input data. Additional deposition on the ground results from wet scavenging processes, such as washout, rainout, snowout, and the solution of soluble gases in raindrops. Scavenging deposition is estimated through the use of scavenging coefficients supplied as input data. The code computes the depletion of plumes by both scavenging and dry deposition as the plumes are blown by the wind away from the plant. Subroutines developed by Dunning10

are used to evaluate plume depletion by the dry deposition processes.

The plant is assumed to be at the center of a large square area which is subdivided into 400 small squares. Human population, numbers of beef and dairy cattle, vegetable crops, and water areas are specified for each of the 400 squares. Dose commitments for a one-year exposure by air inhalation and submersion, ground surface, and submersion in water are computed for the center of each of the 400 squares. The estimates of ingestion doses from food chains, obtained by using a terrestrial model,1' are based on the resumption that each person living in the aria consume^ food produced throughout the entire are* Ingestion doses, therefore, we the same for al! people living in the area. An output table lists the population doses (man-rems per year) to each organ through each pathway from each radio­nuclide. Other tables in the computer output list the

doses to each organ through all pathways from each radionuclide and total doses to each organ from all radionuclides through each pathway.

A Modd for Calculating Radionuclide Transport between Receiving Waters and

Bottom SHSments

A four-compartment systems model was developed to predict dynamic radionuclide transfer between the receiving water and bottom sediments. The dependent variables of ^ e model are the receiving water and interstitial water associated with the bottom sediment particles which undergo only sorption reactions with the bottom sediments.

The first use of the model was to generate two factors for each radionuclide. The first factor corrects equilib­rium radionuclide concentrations in receiving water, calculated without considering transfer to sediments, to water concentrations *vith transfer to sediments. These factors are always less than 1 since the total amount of radioactivity (corrected for radioactive decay) is con­stant in a closed system; adding sediments to the system adds another compartment where radionuclides will equilibrate. The second factor is the radionuclide concentration in sediment divided by a corresponding receiving water concentration. The sediment concentra­tions can be used to calculate external doses resulting from sunbathing or fishing.

Preliminary results indicate that neglect of sediment interactions will usually result in an overestimate of the total potential dose to man from the radionuclide release. This is because neglecting sediment interactions overestimates receiving water concentrations, which, in turn, overestimates potential doses from important pathways (drinking water, eating fish) directly relaxed to the receiving water concentration. This would not be the cai«, however, for a release situation where sedi­ment exposure is the critical pathway.

The results for 137Cs are particularly interesting since this radionuclide is often a major contributor to population dose for typical release situations. For example, environmental parameters appropriate to freshwater lakes in the northeastern United States, neglecting sediment interactions, could result in esti-

8. FftsquHlMeteoroLMag. 90,1063(1961). 9. F. Gifford,.Vuci Safety 4(2), 47 (1961). 10. D. E. Dunning, Jr., student participant. University of

Tennessee (summer 1973). •' R. S. Booth and S. V. Kaye, A Preliminary Systems

Analysis Model of Radioactivity Transfer to Man from Deposi­tion in a Terrcztrial Environment, ORNL-TM-3135 (October 1971).

s

mated doses from * 3 7 Cs releases due to drinking water and eating fish that are approximately 4 times too high. Further, increasing only the K<t value of the sediment from the sample value of 27,000 to a value of 270,000 (which reflects measured variations among various freshwater environments) increases this factor from approximately 4 to 25. For the sample calculation (Kj = 27,000), sediment exposure contributed a potential dose approximately one-tenth of that from eating fish.

User's Manaul ior MODSOV, a Terminal-Operated Program Solving me Linear Matrix

Equation x-Ax + k

To meet day-to-day calculation requirements of en­vironmental systems analysis, the linear matrix equation x = Ax + k was programmed for terminal operation by adaptation of the existing program MATEXP, which deals with this class of equations. A simple conversa­tional structure was created to enable use of the program with only a few minutes of training. The user can specify a specific activity or a radioactivity model,

thereby causing the program to undertake some of the coefficient processing from minimal input. Or, he may choose to solve a more general problem and simply all coefficients explicitly. This option enables avoidance of the most often encountered form of mathematical instability for this class of problems.

Aquatic Modeling for CUEX

We are developing a general model to predict the time history of radiological dose to aquatic organisms and man from any input of radioactivity into an aquatic system. This is a challenging endeavor in that the dynamics of radionuclides are strongly influenced by morphometry, water now, sediment type, and, sec­ondarily, by productivity and food-web structure of the water body. We are attempting to define the transfer coefficients of the system in a way that allows derivation from either empirical data or first principles.

As a first step toward development of tins model, we have simulated the dynamics of 1 3 7 C s specific activity in a hypothetical oligotrophy lake following an acci­dental pulse release. Figure 1.1 shows the control

( M L - OIK 73-- « * 6 0

«5 HYPOUMNETC NIEHSriTlAL

WATER

3 HYPOUMNETC

UKTER

5 EPUMNETC

WATER

M EPUMNETC WTERSnTlAL

WTER

«5 HYPOUMNETC NIEHSriTlAL

WATER

3 HYPOUMNETC

UKTER

5 EPUMNETC

WATER

M EPUMNETC WTERSnTlAL

WTER

«5 HYPOUMNETC NIEHSriTlAL

WATER

3 HYPOUMNETC

UKTER

5 EPUMNETC

WATER

M EPUMNETC WTERSnTlAL

WTER

«5 HYPOUMNETC NIEHSriTlAL

WATER

3 HYPOUMNETC

UKTER

5 EPUMNETC

WATER

M EPUMNETC WTERSnTlAL

WTER

1 1 1 1

. '

4 9 O C HYPOUMNETC

SEGMENT HYPOUMNETC PHYTO- EPHMNOTC

SEOMENT HYPOUMNETC

SEGMENT PC ONBC JTTOM

PLAN KT0N EPHMNOTC

SEOMENT

' « -1 O

ZOO-PLANKTON

E P L N N E T C POM

ON BOTTOM

ZOO-PLANKTON

E P L N N E T C POM

ON BOTTOM

ZOO-PLANKTON

E P L N N E T C POM

ON BOTTOM

' 7 » .

0ETWUS-FEEOMG

NVEKTEBRATE (HYPOUMNETC)

FtSHI (DETRITUS- I 0ETWUS-FEEOMG

NVEKTEBRATE (HYPOUMNETC)

FEEDMG NV^RTEBRATE (EP IUMNETO

' 1

> 6 FISH 2 OETRrrus-

PEE F BH

6

Fig. 1.1. Control dapun for flow of ' 3 7 C t specific activity in an oiaptrophk lake. Arrows connect sfcnificant pathways.

6

diagram from the lake ecosystem. Specific activity in each compartment is governed by the equation:

where

5,- = specific activity of nuclide in compartment i (uCi per gram of total element),

a^ = rate of movement of total element from / to /* divided by amount of total element in i (day - 1),

X = physical decay constant of nuclide (day -'), Kj = external input of nuclide to compartment i

OCi/day), Zj = amount of total element in compartment i, Rt = external input of stable element to compart­

ment /,

and th summation is understood to extend over all fs, with the restriction that/ ^ i. Figure 1.2 shows the time behavior of some of the compartments following the pulse i&™* of ! 3 7 Cs into the epilimnion of the lake for a set Ot the rapid decline of specific activity in the

ORNL-OWG 7 i - t 0 l 5 9

0 50

o c - ' • • • 0 200 400 600 3CC COO '230 #*OC '600 '800

TiMe 'doyV

Fig. 1.2. Behavior of' 3 7 C i specific activity in an ottgotrophk lake following a pube input of ' 3 7 Cs into the epiiimnion.

epilimnion and coincident increase of specific activity in the hypolimnion up to about day 200 follow from exchange of total cesium across the thermocline. The continued decrease of specific activity following day 200 in both the epilimnion and hypolimnion is caused by sediment-water exchange of total cesium. Inter­estingly, the feeding habits of the fishes affect both the magnitude and timing of their specific activity maxima. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the specific activi­ties in the fishes are not strongly influenced by the transfer coefficients except for o t n j l 0 , the uptake coefficient for zooplankton.

PLOWSHARE PROJECT

Potential Doses from Nonfud Uses of Nudearty Stimulated Natural Gas

Some effort has been devoted to assessing exposure pathways to man from using natural gas from nuclearly stimulated wells to make products that people ingest. Doses from several consumer products were considered earlier.12 We have estimated potential doses from other gas uses of this type which are reported here.

If aspirin is made in part from natural gas contaiiing 1 pCi/cm3 of tritium and is taken at a rate of eight 5-grain tablets per day for one year, the whole-body dose commitment would be 0.012 millirem, approxi­mately 1% of the annual dose from ! 4 C in the body. The estimated daily intake of tritium in aspirin (320 pCi) would be approximately 40% of the adult daily intake of tritium in water.

Food additives or supplements included in the con­sumer product studies were protein, modified starch, and sorbitol. Estimated doses for the last two products would be about the same as for aspirin, whi'e a dose of 1.0 millirem/year could be received through daily intake of 18.4 g of protein prepared by use of natural gas as nutrient in growing yeast.

Dose Estimations for the Hypothetical Use of Nuclearly Stimulated Natural Gas in the

Cherokee Steam Electric Station

Preliminary results of a study of dose predictions through hypothetical exposure to corrbustion products of nuclearly stimulated natural gas discharged from the

12. C. J Barton, D. G. Jacobs, M. J. Kelly, and E. G. Struxness, NucI Technol 11(1). 33 (1971).

7

stacks of the Cherokee Steam Electric Station were given in the previous annual report. 1 3 Two important changes were made in our dose prediction procedures before the final report 1 4 was prepared. We used the tritium dose assumptions adopted in another publica­tion, 1 5 which result in a factor of 2 reduction in predicted dose for a given air concentration of triMated water vapor (HTO), as compared with the earlier dose estimations13 based on ICRP-2 assumptions.16 The other modification was the development of computer codes for estimation of population doses, BLOWBACK 1 and 2, that take into account the almost daily wind reversals that occur in the Iknver area. These changes resulted in a maximum estimated dose irorn inhalation and skin absorption of airborne HTO of 0.006 nr , , ;rem/ year for individuals living 5.2 km due north o» the station. The total predicted population dose to approxi­mately 1,600,000 people living around the plant was 3.0 man-rems/year. This dose can be compared with 250,000 man-rems/year received by the same popula­tion from natural radiation sources.

Relative Radiological Importance of Tritium and Krypton

Tritium and 8 5 K r are both prominent radionuclides receiving special attention in two of our radiological safety assessment activities: (1) together they con­tribute 99% of the total dose estimated to result from the use of nuclearly stimulated natural gas,1 7 and (2) both are released to the environment in large quantities in the nuclear fuel cycle. 1 8 Simple comparison of concentrations of these radionuclides does not provide

13. Environmental Sciences Div. Annu. Progr. Rep. Sept. 30, 1972, ORNL4848 (February 1973), p. 64.

14. R. E. Moore and C. J. Barton, Dose Estimations for the Hypothetical Use of Nuclearly Stimulated Natural Gas in the Cherokee Steam Electric Station, Denver, Colorado, ORNL-TM-4026 (October 1973).

*5. C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and S. R. Hanna, Nucl Technol. 20(1), 35 (1973).

16. International Commission on Radiological Protection, Report of Committee 11 on Permissible Dose% for Internal Radiation, ?ergamon Press, 1959.

17. M J. Kelly, P. S. Rohwer, C. J. Barton, and E. G. Struxr _is, "Relative Risks from Radionuclides Found in Nu­clearly Stimulated Natural Gas," Proc. Third IAEA Panel on Peaceful Nuclear Explosives, Vienna, Austria, Novem'.*r 1972 (in press).

18. P. S. Rohwer, "Relative Radiological Importance of Environmentally Released Tritium and Krypton-85," Proc. IAEA Symp. on Environmental Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provence. France, ticy 19.3 (in press).

a good indication of the relative radiological impor­tance, even though a comparison of their maximum permissible concentrations ( 3 H. 0.2 pCi/cnr ; 8 5 Kr , 0.3 pCi/cm3) suggests that equal concentrations of 3 H and * 5 Ki axe of nearly equal radiological significance. Dose estimates are presented in Table 1.4 for continuous exposure to a unit concentration (1 pCi per cubic centimeter of air) of each radionuclide.

Released 3 H and S 5 K r are freely dispersed in world­wide dilution pools: 3 H in the hydiosphere and 8 S K r in the atmosphere. Neither radionuclide is known to concentrate significantly in any compartment of its respective element pool. A Jow-energy beta particle (O.OiS MeV maximum) is the only radiation emission from 3 H , eliminating tritium as an external exposure hazard. Tritiated water is metabolized like ordinary water; thus it enters the body readily and irradiates essentially the whole body. Tritium which becomes organically bound is estimated to contribute approxi­mately 15% of the total tritium dose. Krypton-85 is a noble gas and thus, in contrast, is poorly absorbed by the body. The principal dose from 8 5 Kr , primarily a beta emitter, is delivered to the external body surface (skin), a tissue which is not particularly radiosensitive. External gamma and bremsstrahlung contribute ap­proximately 95% of the whole-body and gonad doses from 8 5 Kr , while external beta contributes over 99% of the skin dose. The whole-body dose for 8 5 K r is approximately 2% of the skin dose.

The risks associated with exposure to the two radionuclides were judged on the basis of the dose estimates given in Table 1.4. Taking into account differences in radiosensitivity of the reference tissues and selecting death as the end point, it appears that the

Table 1.4. Estimates of dose for exposure to 3 H (as HTO) and 85 Kr in air at a concentration of 1 pCi/cm (STP)

Reference tissue Dose (nriDJrains/year)

Reference tissue 3H f 1 pO/cni *f , s»Cr(lpa/cin 3)*

Surface of skin ~0 2100 Shallowest layer of the skin

Depth 0.0* ram 960 1450 Depth 0.07 nun 960 1040

Whoiebody 960 14 Gonads 960 17

'intake via skn absorption asrvued to be 75% of that dm to inh*Liiion.

*W. P. tCkk, Kr/ptott&S. a Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Radiation Hazmds, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (1972).

8

somatic risk fiom Kr is approximately one-tenth of the *>matic risk from 3 H at equal concentrations. The generic risk from 8 s K r is estimated to be '/so of that from 3 H at equal concentrations. When a significant portion of 3 H is released in liquid effluents rather than in gaseous effluents with the 8 5 Kr, exposure pathways other than inhalation and skin absorption may be most important. In that event, only site-specific evaluation is likely to provide an adequate estimate of the relative impacts of the released activities in terms of potential dose to the local population. When interest is shifted to the global population, 3 H and 8 5 K r are of essentially equal radiological importance on a unit release basis.

Estimation of the Contribution of Radon in Natural Gas to Natural Radiation

Doses in Hcnics

The previous annual progress report described a three-part program to provide estimates of the radio­logical impact of radon and its daughter products in natural gas to people who use gas in unventea appli­ances in their homes.1 * A preliminary report on this program wa published,20 and a par^i giving final results and conditions was presented.2 *

The first part of the program was a gas sampling program designed to obtain data on the radon contort of natural gas used in several metropolitan areas in the U.S. The average measured radon concentration was 17 pCi/liter, but individual gas samples varied from 1 to >100 pCi/liter. We selected a rounded value of 20 pCi/liter for th* radon concentration in our dose predictions. Ventilation air was assumed to contain 0.13 pCi/liter of radon, the average of a number of measurements in the Unitec" States.

The exposure model that we considered involved the same assumptions made earlier in calculating tritium doses in homes.2 2 Combustion products from a kitchen range using 27 ft3/day of gas were assumed to be uniformly dispersed in a home with a volume of 8000 ft 3. Computer models were developed to calculate

19. Environmental Sciences Div. Annu. Frogr. Rep. Sept. ?•<), 1972, ORNL4848 (February 1973), p. 66.

20. C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and P. S. Rohwer, Contribu­tion of Radon in Natural Gas to the Natural Radioactivity Dose in Homes, ORNL-TNt-4145 (April 1973).

21. C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and I'. S. Rohwer, "Contribu­tion of Radon in Natural Gas to the Dose from Airborne Radon Daughters in Homes," Proc. of Noble Gases Symposium, Las Vegas, Nevada, September 24-28, !973 (in press).

22. C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore and S. R. Hanna, Nucl. Technol. 20(1), 35 (1973).

radon daughter concentrations in the homos at ventila­tion rates in the range 0.25 to 2.0 air changes pei hour. These concentrations were used to calculate doses to the bronchial epiihel'um on the basis of a dose conversion factor of one working level (WL) equals 100 rads/year for continuous exposure. A quality factor of 10 for alpha radiation was adopted for the calculation of the dose to the bronchial epithelium from the alpha-emitting radon daughters ( 2 ' 8 Po and 2 ' 4Po).

D xs calculated on the assumption that ventilation air contained no radon or radon daughters varied from 90 to 5.1 millirems/year as th'j ventilation rate in­creased from 0.25 to 2.0 air charges per hour for pus containing 20 pCi/liter of radon but no daughtCis and from 110 to 15 millirems/year if radon daughters are assumed to be in equilibrium with radon ;n the gas entering the home. Similar calculations taking into account the radon content of ventilation air varied from 1350 to 1310 millirems/year for 0.13 pCi/liter of radon and each of its daughters in air and 1250 and 960 millirems/year for a more normal daughter ratio (non-equilibrium).

Home Ventilation Rates

We have assumed a home ventilation rate of one air change per hour in most of our calculations of doses to residents of homes hypothetical^ us»ng natural gas from nuclearly stimulated wells.2 2 In the study of the contribution of radon in natural gas io potential doses in homes described below, we considered air change rates of 0.25 to 2.0 per home because of the lack of information on average or probable air change rates in homes having an unvented kitchen range. A technique for measuring home ventilation rates was described in the previous annual report. 2 3 It was decided, however, that a study of published information on measurements of home ventilation rates, supplemented by discussion with experts in the field, would be more useful than a few experimental measurements of our own.

The survey2 4 was devoted primarily to published information on ventilation of single housing units located in the United States, including techniques used to measure the rate of air change. Helium was found to be the most commonly used tracer gas. The available data suggest that the average annual ventilation rate of most occupied houses falls in the range 0.5 to 1.5 air changes per hour, and this rar, e is recommended for

23. Environmental Sciences Div. Annu. Rep. Sept 30, 1972, ORNL4S48, p. 68.

24. T. H. Handley andC. J. bailor. Home Ventilation Rates: A Literature Survey, ORNL-TM4313 (September 1973).

9

calculations of doses resulting from home exposure to airborne radionuclides. Inclusion of apartments irr modern high-rise buildings would raise the recom­mended upper limit to 2.0 air changes per hour if all ventilation air is from outside the building.

SPECIAL PROJECTS

Environmental Analysis and Impact Statement Preparation for Consumer Products

That Contain Radionuclides

As part of its continuing mission to provide tech­nological and advisory support io other groups, the Environmental Hazards Study Group is assisting the AECs Directorate of Regulatory Standards in ihe preparation of environmental impact statements for consumer products chat contain radionuclides. These products are intended for use by the general public, the individual user being exempt from the requirement to be licensed to possess* or use a product that contains radionuclides. The dete tied impact assessment is in* tended to assist 'he AEC in reaching a decision concerning the granting of an "E" (exemption) license.

Determination and evaluation of the radiological characteristics of these products are essential because their users will be exempt from licensing requirements and because the products will be distributed nationally or, in some cases, internationally. The various pathways by which radioactivity can reach and expose man and hio environment because of the distribution, use, and disposal of each product are defined and evaluated. Conversion of the exposures resulting from each path­way to radiation dose estimates for users are facilitated by use of our INREM internal dose code 2 5 and AIRMOD (a modification of the STACKDOSE code 2 6). These individual dose estimates are combined with appropriate population estimates to obtain the population dosec. Estimates of the dose commitment to biota other than man are also made, if applicable.

A detailed impact assessment of each product is produced when the dose commitments to man and the biota, the potentia' for release of radioactivity to the

25. W. D. Turner, S. V. Kaye, and P. S. Rohwer, EXREM and INREM Computer Coda for Estimating Radiation Dees to Population from Construction of a Sea-Level Canal with Nuclear Explosives, K-1752 (Sept. 16,1968).

26. R. E. Moore and C. J. Barton, Progress Report on Radiological Safety of Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosives: Preliminary Equations and Computer Techniques for Estimating and Controlling Tritium Doses from Nucl".arly Stimulated Gas, ORNL-TM-3755 (June 1972).

environment, and the values and costs that its distribu­tion, use, and disposal might generate are enumerated. Comparison of these factors allows a judgment of whether or not the value of the product to society outweighs the potential hazards that it might introduce. Oily relatively small potential hazards are considered acceptable.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle Project

The objective of these studies is to develop engineer­ing an J environmental information which wll be of direct use to the AEC's Directorate of Regulatory Standards in formulating "as low as practicable" guide­lines for application to facilities of the nuclear fuel cycle. This project is a rr.ultidiscipUnary effort in which the Chemical Technology Division is preparing engineer­ing and cost criteria and the Environmental Sciences Division is preparing environmental radiological assess­ments of fuel cycle facilities.

Model facilities for milling of uranium, preparation and fabrication of light-water reactor fuels, and reproc­essing of fuels are being studied. Each facility is characterized for vaiious site locations, populations, and radioactive waste treatment cases ranging from current practices to radioactive vaste technologies that might be applied in the next two decades. The annual amounts of radioactive materials released (the source term), the car ital and annual contribution to power costs, and the radiological impact to the environment are calculated for each case.

Methodology developed in the CUEX program is used to estimate potential radiation doses to individuals, populations, and biota other than man. Because fuel cycle facilities oilier than nuclear power plants are different in terms of environment and radionuclides released into these environments, we have had to develop much additional information on environmental transport phenomena, such as aeolian transport of uranium mill tailings, groundwater transport of radio­nuclides from seepage ponds, and food-chain dynamics of actinide elements.

Table 1.S, which gives the principal radionuclide; contributing to potential tota'-body doses of individuals living at the boundary of fuel cycle facilities, illustia es the diversity of radionuclides (kind and form) released into the environment from gaseous effluents. In addi­tion, there are liquiu releases and solid wastes such as mill tailings which furnish a source of radiation expo­sure from dusts and larger particulates moved by wind. Forty-two radionuclides are being considered in the assessment of fuel cycle facilities.

10

Table 1.5. Percent contribution of radionuclides to total-body dose of individuals'1 exposed to airborne effluents

from hght-water reactor fuel cycle facilities

Facility Gases Semivolatiles Particulates

Milling 2 2 2 Rn(<1.0) None 2 l 0 Pb(1.4) 2 I O Po(6.2) 2 2 6 R a (40.8) 2 3 8 U (6.8) 2 3 0 Th(44.6) Other:«1.0)

Fuel fabrication None None 2 3 4 U(87.5) 2 3 5 U(1.9) 2 3 8 , - ~ -.. O (J I) 2 3 4 Th(1.0) Others (< 1.0)

Fuel 3H(14.1) l 0 6 Ru(2.6) 9 0 Sr( i .6) reprocessing 8 5 Kr (9.3) I 3 4Cs(37.2) 2 4 V ; n (5.6)

1 2 9 I (6 .1) l 3 7 Cs(l6.6) Others K1.0) Others «1.0) Others «1.0)

'individuals are located at she boundaries and are exposed by immersion in air, inhalation, contaminated ground, and ingestion pathways.

Most of the potential radiological impact from these facilities is on terrestrial ecosystems. Work to date has indicated that more environmental transport informa­tion is needed for elements of the actinide series (U, Pu, Th, Am, Cm) -vhich are in the radioactive effluents of fuel cycle facilities.

Tennessee Valley Region Year 2000 Study

In cooperation with the Atomic Energy Commission (USAEC), a joint study of the pc'ential radiological impact of an expanding nuclear power economy on the Tennessee Valley Region (TVR) has been undertaken by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Laboratory—National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (ATDL-NOAA), and the Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory (HEDL).

The TVR study involves an appraisal of the genera­tion, management, and control of radioactive effluents from nuclear facilities in the region through the year 2000. It considers nuclear power requirements to year 2000 and sites for nuclear facilities, radionuclides that may be leleased and their transport in air and water and concentration in terrestrib' and aquatic systems, and estimation and interpretation of potential dose to man. The Environmental Sciences Division participated in this study by furnishing data on regional food produc­tion and uptake of radionuclides by fish.

Data on production of food in each of the 140 counties (seven states) of the study area were obtained from statistics reported by the U.S. Department of Commerce for the year 1969. This Census of Agricul­ture gives (by county) for each state the farm produc­tion of crops and livestock. The Census is reported every five years, and the 1969 Census is the latest. Thirty-six food types were used in this study.

In the TVR study, ingestion of freshwater fish represents the major aquatic food-chain pathway of dose to man. Therefore, an attempt was made to update radionuclide concentration factors for freshwater fish that Had been used in previous calculations, mis updating included supplying values determined for fish species in TVA area waters and addition of values for elements which were previously undetermined.

Bioaccumulation Factor Topical Report

The nonspecialist requiring bioaccumulation factors (BF's) for completing environmental reports and en­vironmental impact statements (EIS's) for nuclear power stations is faced with a wide range of BFs in a diverse literature. The objectives of this report are to provide (1) a concise compilation of bioaccumulation factors for freshwater biota derived from published sources and (2) a generalized bioaccumulation factor model. Also, a modeling methodology is given to convert the BF of a stable element (long-lived isotope) into the BF of its shorter lived isotopes. This report treats radioisotopes of Cs, I, Co, Mn, and Sr, which are known to contribute most of the potential radiation dose to biota and man,2 7 and tritium. This study may be contrasted with others in which a BF of each element is given to z broad taxonomic group of organisms. By limiting the scope of this study to a few elements and to the freshwater environment, where most of the reactors are being sited, we are able to devote our attention to defining the reiatk nship be­tween BF's and environmental and biological factors, that is, intrinsic factors.

Results to date indicate that potassium concentration and trophic position are important in influencing the BF of cesium in fishes, as had been generally reported. In addition, eutrophy of the water body exerts an apparent influence on the BF of cesium and certain

27. S. V. Kaye, "Assessing Potential Radiological Impacts to Aquatic Biota in Response to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969," Proc. Symp. on Environmental Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provenc*. France, May I973 (in press).

11

Table 1.6.

Nature of water body Flesh

Mesotropiuc *it*r« '/»> Eutrophic waters (4)

2GC T 43 (9) c

26 2 3.8 (12)

other elements. As shown in Table 1.6, this influence appears to be strong for the BF of cobalt.

A major difficulty in defining the relationship be­tween the BF and intrinsic factors has been resolution of the influences of extrinsic factors, that is, artifacts of the experimenters' analyses which bias the BF. One serious failing of many studies has been the failure of the experimenter to filter his water samples. Non-filtered samples can include, in addition to the soluble fraction, suspended sediment, particulate organic mat­ter, and plankton. Thus, for elements which are strongly concentratec by sediment and microorganisms, the BF must necessarily diminish with increasing of the studies are net conduct

bctors of cobalt

Based on filtered water vahjes. Number of water bodies examined.

^Number of species averaged.

Whole

376 ± 63 (9) SI ±12(11)

*~ fcr !&£ turbidity and eutrophy if the water is not filtered. Also, we have found that BFs derived from laboratory studies are usually seriously biased. This is because most

periods for steady state to be reached, and because the feeding habits of organisms in these studies usually do not pandlel those of the organisms in nature.

2. Waste Management Studies Tsuneo Tamura1 ' 2

F. S. Brinkley1 E. R. Eastwood1

T. Cathcart3 C. W. Francis1

J. 0. Duguid1 O. M. Sealand1

The program in waste management research is aimed primarily at preventing or minimizing the adverse effect of nuclear wastes discharged into the environment. For many years the environs of ORNL have been used for solid and liquid waste disposal. To ensure that these operations do not result in undue hazard, continuous monitoring and assessment are necessary. In April 1973 a study of the movement of radionuclides from burial grounds in Melton VaJley was initiated. Although the major emphasis is on radioactive waste, effluents often contain other contaminants that may have deleterious effects on the environment. Such an example is the discharge of high-nitrate wastes from nuclear opera­tions.

Another research activity at ORNL is the develop­ment of a radioactive waste repository in bedded salt. One of the major concerns is the isolation of the repository from groundwater. Since holes are drilled to secure information on the suitability of a site as well as to transport wastes if a site is suitable, these holes must be plugged in a manner that prevents groundwater from reaching tht repository. Tests performed on the suit­ability of specialty cements and the upcoming field demonstration of hole p i l i n g are described.

RADIOACTIVITY MOVEMENT FROM BURIAL GROUNDS IN MELTON VALLEY

The purpose of the study is to locate areas where movement of radioactivity is occurring, to quantify this movement, and to propose methods of decreasing the movement. During this first year, location of problem areas and analysis of water and soil samples will be

1. Dual capacity. 2. Senior Research Autisbr, Waste Management and Soils. 3. Graduate student, Tennessee Technological University.

completed. In the initial phases of this study, existing publications and reports on past burial ground studies and monitoring data were collected. Since the collec­tion consists of a 1- rge number of documents, it is being incorporated into the Environmental Information Sys­tem. This allows future investigators easy retrieval of vital information through a computer search using specific key words.

To date, field studies consisted of reconnaissance of all burial grounds and seepage pits where movement of radionuclides WJS likely to occur. A number of small seeps located below intermediate-level waste pits and trenches were sampled and found to contain 6 0 Co, from 13 to 400 dis min - 1 m l - 1 ; ' 0 6 Ru, from 0 to9 dis min"1 ml - 1 ; and l 2 5 S b , fromO to 12 dis min"1 ml"'. The volume of flow and the concentrations of the seeps are dependent directly on the amount and occurrence of precipitation prior to sampling. One of the seeps containing predominantly 6 0 C o was analyzed to deter­mine the form of the co'osU; these results are reported in Chap. 6.

During reconnaissance, two points where leakage had occurred from the transfer line between the laboratory area and the hydrofracture site were discovered and reported to plant operations. This line is used to transfer intermediate-level liquid waste to the hydro-fracture site prior to operation. The contamination had seeped from the buried line and was sorbed by the soil before large-scale movement had occurred. The leaks were repaired immediately, and the contaminated soil was removed and buried in burial ground 6 (BG 6).

Several seeps below solid waste BG 4 were found to contain 1 to 14 dis min"1 ml"1 of 9 0 Sr and0 to 5 dis min"' ml"1 of , 3 7 C s . Because l 3 7 C s and 9 0 Sr v/ere found in water samples taken below BG 4, a more intensive investigation was begun in that area. A 30-m-square grid system was established which covers

12

13

the lower end of BG 4 and the flociplain between the burial ground and White Oak Creek. A groundwater monitoring system consisting of 30 weils has been completed using the grid system for exact weli location. Measurable concentrations of l 3 7 C s were detected in six of the wells, and the highest concentration was 1.3 dis min - 1 ml - 1 . The concentration of 9 0 S r in the first set of samples from the wells ranged from 0.17 to 18.1 dis min"1 ml - 1 , with an average concentration of 7.1 dis min"1 ml - 1 . From these data ii is estimated that BG 4 contributes between 0.5 and i Ci of *°Sr per year to White Oak Creek.

To mike future predictions, computer modeling of radionuclide movement from the burial grounds and seepage pits is necessary. Modeling is also important for the evaluation of proposed methods for decreasing the movement of radioactivity from the burial grounds. Two computer codes have been written in collaboration with the Computer Sciences Division.4'5 The fir«t program provides numeric^ solution to the equation governing moisture infiltration and redistribution iu unsaturated-saturated media; the second code gives numerical solution to the transport equation. Both programs use Galerkin finite-element methods to obtain numerical solutions of the governing equations. This model (SOGMOD) is fully operational, and documenta­tion is being prepared.

By using boundary conditions, the first code provides two components of fluid velocity it nodal poh:ts within a cross section for successive time increments. For moisture movement through the medium, the boundary condition at the ground surface may be precipitation, flux from a seepage pond, seepage out of the medium along a seepage surface, or a combination of all three conditions. The seepage surface is allowed to increase or decrease in length due to fluctuations in the elevation of the groundwater table.

The velocity output of the first program is used in the second code, which provides numerical solution to the transport equation. In this analysis, both adsorption and radioactive decay are considered. The output from this code is the concentration of a given contaminant at nodal points within a cross section at successive time increments.

4. M. Reeves and J. O. Doguid, Water Movement through Saturated-Unsaturated Porous Media: A Finite Element Galer­kin Model, ORNL-4927 (in preparation).

5. J. O. Duguid and If. Reeves, Material Transport thrcigh Porous Media: A Finite Element Galerkin Model, ORNL-4928 (in preparation).

BIOLOGICAL DENITRIftCATlON OF HICIi-NITRATE WASTES

Within AEC operations there are two general types of nitrate wastes produced. These include acid raffinate wastes and a neutralized waste water effluent. Acid raffinate wastes are generated in the uranium refining operations and at various weapon development plants. These wastes range in nitrate nitrogen concentration from 25,000 to 75,000 ppm and often contain 1000 to 34,000 ppm aluminum. Uranium refining operations also produce neutralized waste water streams containing as much as 1000 pom nitrate nitrogen. As the nafies becomes more dependent on nuclear energy, large amounts of nitrate wastes will b? generated at uranium fuel fabrication and recycling plants.

Typical nitrogen wastes generated in the waste stream of fuel fabrication plants are NH4NO3 and HN0 3

whose concentrations are 26,000 *nd 12,000 ppm respectively. In terms of nitrate, one fuel fabrication plant is expected to generate over 2 tons of nitrates per day. Obviously this quantity of nitrate cannot be disposed of directly in the waste water effluent, and plans are to recycle some of these wastes; however, the efficiency as well as the total costs involved are presently unknown. One disposal method for nitrate wastes is via biological denitrirkatkm. Under anaerobic conditions certain facultative microorganisnis have the ability to use nitrate as the terminal hydrogen acceptor in carbohydrate metabolism, thus producing H 3 0 , CO?, and N 2 . During the past few years, biological denitrifi-cation of municipal waste water containing nitrate nitrogen concentrations between 10 and 60 ppm has become accepted as a nitrate disposal process. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has supported a number of these research projects, and methanol has been conventionally used as the carbohydrate source. However, almost no research has been conducted in regard to biological denitrification of waste streams containing concentrations of nitrate nitrogen greater than 1000 ppm.

Work has centered around denitrification of high-nitrate wastes in anaerobic columns because past research has shown the rate of denitrification in columns of this type is SO to 100C times greater than in stirred reactors. The initial columns contained sod-sand and soil-gravel as packing media since soi provided a large surface area for microbial growth as well as containing an indigenous bacteria population capable of denitrification. Rates of denitrification in these col­umns were adequate, but the columns soon became clogged; thus, research efforts the past six months have

14

Table ?.l. Columnar denitrificabon rates Ricking medium c coal. Particle diameter, 0.9 to 1.2 mm;

void space, 34%

Nitrate nitrogen concentration (ppm)

influent Effluent

Effluent nitrite nitrogen

(ppm)

Flow rate (ml/min)

First order Ka

(hr" 1)

830 <10 0.1 6 J 2.28 1150 <10 Tr 62 2.33 940 <10 *5 2.34 940 <10 TT 64 2.31 840* <i0 62 2.18

1400 <10 0.2 63 2.47 1400 <10 2.0 60 2.35

37 175 50 1.73 145CC 35 110 62 1.83 1400 32 120 48 1.44 1450 <10 0.2 31 i.22

aK = (t/'V) In (CQIC), where C 0 = influent nitrate nitrogen concentration, C -effluent nitrate nitrogen concentration, F - flow rate (cm /hr), and V = void space volume (cm3).

^Datfy removal rate, 74 g nitra e nitrogen. • Daily removal rate, 116 g nitrate nitrogen.

been evaluating various packing media in which denitri-iication rates are equivalent to soil-sand columns but which are not as susceptible to clogging. The pricing media tested were ceramic Raschig rings (1 in. by 1 in. OD), gravel ('4 in. in diameter), quartz sand, vermicu-lite (10 to 30 mesh), and coal (1 mm effective diameter). The best rates of denitrification were ob­tained in the coal and vermiculite columns. A microbial population was more difficult to establish with vermicu-lite than with coal, and air locking occurred using vermiculite as a packing medium. Coal provided a larger surface area than sand, and its low density (1.27 g'cm3 ) made backwashing practicable. All anaerobic columns (IS cm in diameter by 122 cm) were operated under upward flow.

Rates of biological denitrification using coal as a packing medium in anaerobic coluruis at various flow rates and influent nitrate nitrogen concentrations are presented in Table 2.1. Methanol at a rate of 2.7S g per gram of nitrate nitrogen was added to the influent for the carbon source. Observe that the nitrite nitrogen concentration was lower than the nitrate nitrogen concentration only when the latter was below 10 ppni in the effluent. Thus it is imperative that nitrite nitrogen as well as .it) ite nitrogen concentrations be monitored before denitnfication effluent is released to the environment. The coal column was operative for approximately three months before high head loss (20

psi) prevented further operation. On disassembling the column, it was observed that large quantities of CaC03

ha J f'rmed (greater than 50% of the original void space). It appears that CaC03 formation rather than microbial buildup was responsible for columnar clog­ging. In Uiese trials, simulated nitrate wastes were formed by neutralizing HN03 with Ca(0H)2. Further tests are being conducted using caustic soda to neu­tralize HNO3 and acid raffinate wastes from the Y-12 Plant. Buildup of Na 2 C0 3 in these columns is not expected.

Denitri fixation in stirred reactors revealed thai nitrate nitrogen concentrations of 2000 ppm could be lowered to less than 10 ppm in 48 hr. Rate, of denitrification in the stitred reactors were quite variable, and further work is being carried out to understand the cause of this variability. Both the stirred reactor and columnar units appear to be satisfactory for carrying out biologi­cal denitrification. The use of one v, preference to another depends on type and quanti* of waste, type of facility, and space as well as preference in engineering design. For example, denitri cation treatment plant design for 3 X 10s liters of wastes per day (10 3 ppm nitrate nitrogen) would require four stirred reactors (based on a four-day residence time) 30 ft in diameter and IS ft in height, while a bed of coal 32 ft in diameter and 4 ft high would suffice to lower the nitrate nitrogen concentration to less than 10 ppm.

15

OCCURRENCE, CONTROL, AND PLUGGING OF BOREHOLES

This activity is part of the Bedded Salt Pilot Plant (BSPP) project, a program leading to the establishment of a pilot plant in southeastern New Mexico for storing radioactive wastes in a bedded salt formation. In the development of this test facility, boreholes will be drilled to secure detailed information on the geology of the site. In addition, holes drilled for oil and gas exploration in the area of the repository site may be present. Since boreholes may serve to connect any or all of the rock formations and any fluids contained therein from the surface to the deepest rock units penetrated, their occurrence and control are of special concern in the development and operation of the pilot plant. The objectives of this study are to evaluate candidate plugging materials and equipment, to obtain, laboratory data of the properties necessary for a secure, durable, and impermeable plug, and to demonstnte the effec­tiveness of plugging materials and procedures in field tests.

Candidate Materials and Laboratory Evaluation

At this stage of development, attention is focused on materials which have been used for plugging purposes in oil field applications. This approach provides the basis for evaluating the significant factors in selecting poten­tial sealants and the types of equipment available for emplacement. This effor: is carried on under a sub­contract with the Dowell Company of Tulsa, Okla­homa, a well-known oil well cementing company.

Cement is the most commonly used sealant material in oil field plugging operations. In selecting the type of cement for use in plugging, the geologic and hydrologic regimes must be considered. In New Mexico the groundwater is high in sulfate concentrations; this anion is one of the most destructive agents on cements. Thus, sulfate-resistant cement is a requirement. For any site, ready availability is an important consideration; other­wise the cost of shipping could be unacceptably high. Tests should be performed on cements from a given area, since cements are manufactured from natural earthen material and manufacturing processes differ.

Laboratory tests were conducted on eight cements supplied by three manufacturers whose products are available within reasonable distance from the proposed repository site. Selected properties of different cements are listed in Table 2.2. Note that the cement slurries were prepared with sodium chloride additions; 19% addition provides sufficient salt for saturation; above

19%, a mortar is produced. The need for strength is obvious; from an operational standpoint, the one-day strength test is important, since undue delay in setting results in loss of time for the next operation. In the preparation of the slurry, note is taken of the nature of the slurry characteristics: for example, high viscosity or flash setting is undesirable. None oi the cements tested showed abnormal slurry properties. The permeability values are in the microdarcy range; these values com­pare favorably with rocks.6 Test specimens also were immersed in a 1% Na 3S04, 1% MgSO« solution and periodically examined for cracks or fractures and other signs of deterioration. The visual observations recorded are after four months of immersion, in the mortar system (over 19% salt), only ti>e Tijeras C specimens showed cracks; in the salt-saturated system, all but El Toro 5 and El Toro Chem Comp showed cracks in one or more of the specimens.

The advantage of expansion of the slurry as it sets is to provide good contact between the cement and the formation. Shrinkage, which is common in standard cement, would result in possible weakness at the cement-formation interface. Note that both Chem Comp mixes show a relatively high degree of expansion for the salt-saturated system. Chem Comp formulations are especially designed for expansion; the expansion of the other cemenU is likely due to the presence of salt.

Another problem encountered in ofl field situations is the presence of drilling muds. These muds coat the surface of the holes, and if left there, the cement-formation contact is greatly weakened. Without a good bond between the sealant and the formation, any water finding its way to the plug will flow downward along the wall. Hence, a good bond is requisite for a satisfactory plugging job. Although several techniques are available to reduce the influence of mud, including scratchers, mud-tolerant cements, and cement overflow, it was decided that the removal of mud prior to cementing was the most desirable. The results shown in Table 2.2 are the bond strengths after saltwater flushing or acid (15% HO, 3% HF) flushing of a bentonite mud on a sandstone formation. The results show that saltwater flushing is ineffective since the bond measured without any mud application was approximately 500 psi. After acid treatment, the bonds were stronger than without treatment; these results suggest that the acid not only removed the mud but probably also removed loose materials on the surface which could have weakened the bond. Bentonite muds are not used in salt

6. T. C. Powers et al., Proc. Amer. Concr. Inst 51, 285 (1954).

16

Ail tests contained 0.1% by weight citric acid and we e set at 100" F. except the expansion tests, which were set a: 80° F

Type cement Brand

Percent weight cemei

by of

it

Salt

Compressive strength

(P«> Permeability

(rod* x 10"5) Sulfate waterc

Sandstone bond4'

Salt Acid

Linear 14-day

expansion (%) Brand

Water

by of

it

Salt i day 3 days

Permeability (rod* x 10"5)

Sulfate waterc

Sandstone bond4'

Salt Acid

Linear 14-day

expansion (%)

T-2 D Toro 2 46 19 677 1637 <1.0 Cracks 100 1225' 0.12 1C1 172 2700 <1.0 OK 0.25

oc B Toro 35 56 19 1287 2637 <1.0 Cracks 1140 005 113 245 2856 <L0 OK 0.04

T-5 B Toro 5 46 19 830 1662 1.0 OK 130 M50 0.08 i65 2850 2.3 OK 0.0"

T-i El Toro Cfaem Gimp 56 19 962 2156 <1.0 OK 1225 e 0.32 125 130 2500 <1.0 OK 0.23

CHI BToroH 46 19 97

6 48

?187 3275

3.4 18

Cracks OK

CK: TgerasC 56 19 121

1248 17

6125 7062

5.2 <1.0

Cracks Cracks

T-5 Tgeras 5 46 19 283 4712 <1.0 Cracks 600 0.05 121 266 5125 2.7 OK 0.10

T-K TXI Chem Comp 56 19 505 3750 1.1 Crack 0.36 121 655 4275 0.2 OK 165 1095 0.46

*T refers to type cement according to the American Association for Testing and Materials; Q refers to dass according to the American Petroleum Institute; T-K refers to type K expanding as referred to by the American Concrete Institute.

*md = muhtfarcy. °The satiate water bea% used is 1$ Na^SXV 1* M*S04 in satefated salt solution; visual observations after fov months.

sandstone bond is in pounds per square inch of surface contact after either a saltwater flush or acid flush of a bemonite mud.

The break was in the formation rather than at the formation-sealant interface.

formations, since fjoccuhtion of the bentonite destroys the desired properties of the mud; in these notations starch muds are commonly used. Tests i/ith starch mud in a simulated salt formation showed that saltwater flush was adequate to provide bondir.g strengths of about 900 psi.

In addition to cement, similar laboratory studies were conducted on potential organic sealants. Organic seal­ants included a phenol-formaldehyde resin, polyester resin, polyacrylamide sealant, and an epoxy resin. The phenol-formaldehyde resin and the potyester resin shrank upon condensation. The poryacrylamide sealant did not set in the normal manner to form a solid matrix but remained rubber-like. This material appears to be a good candidate in zones of high hydrostatic head, since it swells as it contacts water. If placed in contact with a cement plug, it will swell at the expense of the water in the cement. The epoxy resin did not shrink upon setting, made an excellent bond with salt and sandstone formations, and exhibited very low permeability.

In addition to cement and ihe organic rariant, clay-sand plugs were investigated. Although excellent plugs of extremely low permeability were prepared in the laboratory, need for compaction to achieve low permeability is a major disadvantage. Thus far, the search for available techniques to compact the day-sand mix in field situations has been negative. Clays repre­sent the end products of weathered earthen materials. Thus, the question of long-term durability might be more readily answered with clays than with cement or manufactured organic products.

An opportunity to demonstrate a sophisticated plug­ging operation presented itself in Lyons, Kansas, with the phasing out of investigations at the Kansas site. Thus, the investigation would inciuoe both information derived from labotatory studies and evaluation of plugs

17

AEC HOLE NO. I AGE FORMATION (LYONS) (FEET)

0

OIML-DW6 73-120*5

DEMONSTRATION PLUS

SILICATE AQUIFER PLUG

NEAT CHEM. COMP. CEMENT

SILICATE AQUIFER PLUG

SALT SATURATED CHEM. COMP. CEMENT

8 0 0 8 2 0 EPOXY CEMENT

SALT SATURATED CHEM. COMP CEMENT

TO90 E r 0 X Y C E I I E , ( T

SALT SATURATED CHEM. COMP. CEMENT

1300 kO0ELL

¥%. 2.1. Sdmmtic at Lvov,

emplaced in the field. The DoweD Company, under a subcontract, wiD cany out the field demonstration.

The geologic stratigraphy of the site and the plugging system to be used are shown in Fig. 2.1. Above and below the Hutchinson salt formation, salt-saturated Chem Comp cement will be used. Prkr to emplaciiig the cement, the hole will be washed with mud acid to remove the .nud left in the hole. At the contact zones between the salt and the underlying and overlying formations, epoxy cement will be used. The epoxy has all the qualities of an excellent cement plug; its purpose here is to act as a gasket to absorb shocks or settling uliich might damage the cement plug. Presently, a

cemented casing exists down to 315 lit. Prior to cementing the hole, several measures wfll be taken to increase the quality of the Drugging job. These include "squeezing" a siicate into the aquifer zones to prevent water from reaching the hole and lemoving die existing cement and casing from the hole. Hie decision to remove the cement and casing is based on the unknown quality of the cement bond and the potential corrosion of the pipe.

The plugging described above may be compared with the State's mwmua requirements for plugging this hole in Kansas. To meet minimum lequirements, the hole below the casing would be ruled with mud, the

18

casing would be left in place, the bottom 100 ft in the casing would be plugged with cement, and the inter mediate zone would be filled with mud. An alternate procedure, which eight be preferable, but which is not required by the State, would be to fill the h ?le with cement from the bottom to tlie surface. The type of cement specified as satisfactory by the State is light­weight bulky pozzolanic cement with 4% bentonite (*el).

This field demonstration is not intended as a final demonstration of plugging. It merely serves as an

opportunity to utilize the best existing technique for hole plugging with materials that have shown promise in the laboratory. The fundamental question of the long-term integrity of plugs utilizing man-made mate­rials is still unanswered. Consideration is being given to making plugs of natural formation materials, such as recrystallized salt in the salt horizons and natural earthen materials, such as clays, in other horizons.

3. Environmental Analysis and Assessment D. J. Nelson1

B. G. BlayioHc1 ?. M. Garrett J- S. liattice1

W. J Boegly C. W. Gehrs1 G. W. Parker S. W. Christensen C. D. Goodyear A. S. Quist A. L. Compere C. P. Goodyear1 P. J. Ryan C. C. Coutant1 W. L Griffith E. G. Struxness B. E. Dinger1 W. F. Harris' J. R. Trabaika1

N. T. Edwards1 S. G. Hfldebrand H. A. Vanderploeg1

J. W. D^ood1 J. W. Huckabee1 W. Van Winkk, Jr. L. D. Eyman1

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS

Since our initial invohement in environmental impact statement preparation in connection with nudear power stations, our staff has participated in activities with 41 assessments. These activities have involved 22 staff members, although at any one time only about one-half are activeiy involved in an impact statement.

The impact analysis staff reviews the environmental reports submitted by the applicants as to completeness and acceptability. Following the acceptance of an environmental report, a preliminary draft environ­mental statement is prepared for the ABC. With addition of sections on radiological analyses, accidents, and transportation by the AEC Regulatory Staff, the draft environmental statement is issued to locil, «;ta»e, and Federal agencies for comment. The statement is revised to reflect comments received and is finaly issued as the final environmental statement on the facility under review. Our staff members must appear at hearings to explain and defend the position they have taken with respect to the impact cf power stations on the environment. The period of involvement with an individual impact statement has ranged from six months to two years. A typical statement requires approxi­mately 12 months to complete. The variation in time depends upon the complexity of the environmental

1. Dual capacity.

issues involved and whether or not the action is contested.

We originally became involved in impact statements in May of 1971. However, following the Calvert Cliffe decision in July of 1971, our activities increased significantly and peaked in May of 1972 (Fig. 3.1). Our current activities indicate a steady-state involvement with 19 to 15 reactor stations at any one time. Because of the on- and off-again nature cf the impact statement activities, we are actively working on about one-half of these statements at any one time. Thus, it is essential that we maintain an active research program with appropriate fiscal support to complement our impact statement activities. Cooperation of the AEC staffs in

ORNl-OVG 7 3 - I 2 3 M

i ! i ; ! M i ! 1 1.1 i M i l l ! •

! 1 1 ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 1

• •

•

• •

• • • •

• • • • •

•

• • •

1 • • ' 1 ; i : i i i i ! 1 i I i i i I ; i i i i I i I i i i i ! i i i J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0

1971 1972 1973

F*. 3.1. Impact statement activities from May 1971 t!tfo«gt< September 1973. At any time, work is in progress on about one-half of the power stations assigned to the Laboratory.

19

I.

the Division of Regulation and the Division of Bio­medical and Environmental Research has permitted shifting of personnel between impact statement activi­ties and research to meet the C ommission's goals.

LAND DISPOSAL OF WASTE OIL

| Experience gained through ecosystem analysis re-| search in the IBP is applicable to environmental

pollution problems, such as those resulting from waste disposal. Collaborative research between the AEC Y-12 Plant and the Environmental Sciences Division was initiated to evaluate biological efficiency and environ­mental impact of waste oil disposal on surface soil. Two 0.065-hectare plots were sprayed with lubricating oil at a rate of 154.23 metric tons of oil carbon per hectare in May 1973. Additional plots were sprayed with coolant oil (20% emulsified oil in water) at a rate of 22.87 metric tons of oil carbon per hectare. An additional 61.33 metric tons of oil carbon per hectare was applied to the oil plots in July. The coolant plots received additional applications of 64.3? metric tons of oil carbon per hect?;e in June and 50.64 metric tons of oil carbon per hectare in July. All plots were disked after each oil application. Two weeks following the first oil application, differences between C0 2 efflux rates from control plots and oil plots indicated an oil carbon efflux rate of 1.6 kg per hectare per day from the oil plots and 1.4 kg per hectare per day from the coolant plots. Addition of nitrogen fertilizer to the oil plots reduced the C/N ratio from 1000 to 230 and resulted in a

; threefold increase in carbon efflux rates in June. j However, the addition of more emulsified oil to the ( coolant plots in June kept the C/N ratio relatively high

and resulted in no increase in carbon efflux rates from those plots. By the end of July, rates of carbon efflux (based on a three-day sample period) had increased to 7.8 kg per hectare per day from the oil plots with no increase in the decomposition rates in the coolant plots. Rainfall during the last day of measurements in July increased the carbon efflux rate to 17.1 kg per hectare per day from the oil plots and to 5.8 kg per hectare per day from the coolant plots. T he oil plot rates were three times higher than decomposition rates of forest litter during summer. Even at these relatively high rates, the oil substrate turnover time would be 34 years for the 215 metric tons of oil carbon added to the oil plots and 59 years for the 128 metric tons r i oil carbon added to the coolant plots.

Estimated losses of organic carbon via soil water percolation below 75 cm (collected biweekly from June 6 to August 1 with vacuvrr. type tube lysimeters)

averaged 1 kg pei hectare per day from control plots. 2.2 kg per hectare per day from oil plots, and 2.6 kg per hectare per day from coolant plots. Losses of nitrate nitrogen from cil and coolant plots via soil water percolation were not significantly different from nitrate nitrogen losses from control plots.

A materials balance of hydrocarbons (with measure­ments of losses by volatilization and runoff, and accurate measurements of carbon remaining) will be necessary before conclusions can be drawn concerning land disposal of oil.

RELATION OF DESIGN BLOWDOWN RATE TO EXPECTED RADIOIODINE RELEASE

IN GASEOUS EFFLUENTS FROM A PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR

The assessment of the level of radioiodine expected to be released to the environment by a nuclear power station depends upon average leakage rates derived from an evaluation of past operating experience. In a pressurized water reactor (PWR), the secondary system (steam supply) is isolated from the reactor by means of the steam generator and, in theory, is subject to radiological contamination only in the event of a leak through the generator into the steam supply. The size of this leak is normally taken as 20 gpd2 although higher rates have been experienced for short times. Because of the need to control the buildup of chemicals in a recirculation-type generator, the range of design purge rates (blowdown) recommended by the supplier has been the subject of several engineering design evaluations by vendors and architect engineers,3,4 and more stringent controls have recently been suggested which may require blowdown rates to be increased frcm IC gpm to 50 gpm. Consequently, it was of interest to estimate the release of radioiodine as a junction of the blowdown rate resulting from untreated process gas streams or from building ventilation.

We have evaluated the radioiodine effluent for a 1500-MW(t) f*o-generator plant and for a 3400-MW(t)

2. Directorate of Regulatory Standards, USAEC, Final Environmental Statement Concerning Proposed Rule Making Action: Numerical Guides for Design Objectives and Limiting Conditions for Operation to Meet the Criterion "As Low As Practicable" for Radioactive Material in Light-Waier-Cooled Nuclear Power Reactor Effluents, WASH-1258 (July 1973).

3. Reference Safety Analysis Report, RESAR 3, Westinghouse Nuc!ear Energy Systems, June 1972.

4. Beaver Valley Power Station Environmental Report, Duquesne Light Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., September 1972.

21

four-generator plant using the ORNL code STEFEO.s

The assessments showed relatively little diFerence in the expected release from the small and large plant4

because of the assumed 20-gpm generator leak ran in both plants and the dilution effect of the larger plant.

Of interest, however, is the large effort of blowdown on the secondary system effluents, provided the blow down is contained in a recycle system. As the blow-down rate increases, both the air ejector discharge and the turbine building steam leak sources diminish to nea> the levels recommended in the proposed Appendix I of CodelOCFR50.

Increasing the blovvdown rate up to 50 gpm would maintain a low residual concentration of radioiodine in mc ^ciiciaiui aiiu, u i c i c iv i c , icau «x> a i t a u t u u i i m iui<u release as compared with the 10-gpm blov/down rate. The increased blowdown rate would necessitate pre-cooling to avoid flashing and decontamination of the blowdown water, which would require additional equip­ment and cost. If the air ejector is fitted With a charcoal filter and the blowdown is contained, the remaining source of radioiodine is the turbire building steam leak. Since the source is inversely proportional to the blowdown, the radioiodine release rate may be as low as 5 mCi a year, or about half the activity that will exceed the most stringent regulations.

It appears, therefore, that thta is a more direct solution of the problem of reducing the radioiodine release rate from PWR turbine buildings than attempt­ing to filter the building ventilation air through char­coal, which is both expensive and difficult to justify.

ASSISTANCE TO THE AEC ON THE NORMAN RASMUSSEN REACTOR SAFETY STUDY

A reactor safety study, under Jie direction of Norman Rasmussen of MIT, was initiated by the UJS. Atomic Energy Commission in response to & request from its commissioners, to whom Dr. Rasmussen reports directly. In a statement before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy on September 25,1973, Rasmussen defined tne principal objective of the study as "to determine, within the limits of present-day knowledge, an estimate of the risks to the public from potential accidents:.»today's nuclear power plants."

5. F. T. Binford, T. P. Hamrick, G. W. Parker, and T. H. Row, "Analysis of Power Reactor Gaseous Waste Systems," Proceed­ings of Twelfth AEC Air Cleaning Conference, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, August J972, CONF-720823.

In a press release on June 25, 1973, announcing its release of WASH-1250, The Safety of Nuclear Power Reacto,s and Related Facilities, the AEC stated tha* it was also releasing an incomplete draft of a 1965 reactor safety study which was intendet to be a revision of the original (1957) "worst case" safety study, knotvn as WASH-740, Theoretical Possibilities and Consequencies of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants. WASH-740 defined maximum accident consequences based on the small amount of information on fission product release available at the time, and it formed the basis foi the liability protection and government in­demnity known as the rice-Anderson Act.

Because there appeared to be no significant ad" ance III ICVlUIVMi JUbOl OAStaOl l l fc l l l 111 U l « I 7 U J S lUUjr U I W

W _^ i-740, it was decided that there was insufficient reason to compete it. On the other hand, as Rasmussen pointed out, during the last decade, techniques have oeen developed, particularly in the aeronautics and aerospace industry, to make useful predictions on a probability basis. System reliability has been signifi­cantly ".dvinced, as shown by the experience records in these industries.

In order to complete the study in two years, Rasmussen and his AEC itaff solicited help from about 50 contributors who are familiar with various technical disciplines of interest such as reactor safety, fault tree analysis, containment leakage, radiological dosimetry, and reliability analysis.

While the lead role was assigned to Battelle-Columbus Laboratories (BCL) for the documentation of fission product release and transport (Task 3), a steering committee was formed of individuals from ORNL, BCL, Pacific Northwest Laboratories, and Aerojet Nuclear Corporation. It k o\ interest that only ORNL was a contributor to the 1957 and 1965 studies.

In order to produce an authoritative summary of the fission product source term, an independent evaluation was requested from each of the principal processes contributing to fission product release, namely, (1) gas release upon clad failure, (2) meltdown release inside the pressure vessel, (3) vaporization release beyond the pressure vessel, and (4) oxidation release upon fuel dispersion and cooling.

As an example of the type of information provided by ORNL, the fuel-cladding gap release fraction was determined by combining a thermal analysis of a reference reactor (Surry) performed with the computer code MAMU with an unpublished diffusion release mode! code (DIREI) using fuel managem^t, heat balances, and exposure times representative of tliis particular reactor. The results of this study program

22

were well within the envelope of previously reported values. The reference BWR gave essential'y the same values as for the reference PWR, so one set of values can be used for both.

The data which ORNL contributed for the meltc iwn release and oxidation release fraction were published earlier in ORNL-3981. The vaporization release fraction was calculated by a method based on relative molar concentrations and estimated vapor pressures.

RADIOLOGICAL IMPACT OF CRvNGING CHEMICAL FORM OF RADIOIODINE

RELEASED FROM LIGHT-WATER REACTORS

Radioiodine is one of the most important of the fission products released from reactors because it concentrates in the human thyroid, resulting in high organ doses. Both the rate at which radioiodine is released at different points in light-water reactors and its deposition rate are strongly affected by its chemical form. Thus the radiological impact of radioiodine is, to a large extent, determined by its chemical form or oxidation state.

Direct identification of the chemical state of radio­iodine in the dilute (less than 10' 1 ' M) solutions existing in light-water reactors is very difficult, but, by inference, it has been established that I 2 hydrolyzes to form HOI, which is volatile at reactor operating temperatures, and HI, which is essentially nonvolatile but is readily oxidized to I 2 or atomic iodine. ILe latter chemical entities, being very reactive, are retained in ihe reactor containment system by deposition on surfaces or adsorption on charcoal. The compound HOI can be converted to organic iodides such as CH3I, which are the most probable form of iodine that escapes from the reactor system into the environment.

If one assumes that the radioiodine released into the environment from light-water reactors continues to exist as CH3I, which has a low deposition rate, the calculated radioiodine population dcses are higher than if the CH3I is converted to a form that deposits more rapidly. Preliminary observations of macro concen­trations of CH3I in room-quality air revealed that photochemical decomposition of the CH3I occurred when it was exposed to sunlight. The half-time of the reaction was found to be 24 hr. Similar observations in air representative of that exhausted from reactor containment systems have not been made, but if this photochemical effect is confirmed under real reactor conditions, it will significantly reduce the estimated population dose per unit release of radioiodine.

BIOCONVERSION STUDIES

During the present energy cri »is, considerable atten­tion has been given to the conversion of biological products to fuels. Methane, or natural gas, is a primary fuel which is currently in short supply. We have been developing a process for the conversion of liquid wastes directly to a high Btu fuel gas.

The anaerobic filter process is a method for liquid waste treatment in which the waste is passed upward through a column packed with inert support material covered with a thin slime layer of biological growth. As the waste passes over the slime layer, the organic material and many inorganic ions are sorbed to the slime. These are fermented by the slime microorganisms to various products. Organic compounds tend to be broken down primarily into meJiane and carbon dioxide.

This process was first used at the Water Pollution Research Laboratory in Stevenage, Herts, United King­dom, where it was noted that the suspension of baskets of gravel in the final clarifier tank of a biological sewage treatment plant produced a well-polished effluent. The process was adapted, primarily through the work of P. L. McCarty and his students, to the treatment of relatively concentrated industrial and agricultural wastes. From their work, it appears that the process has the advantages of a short detention time, high capacity to withstand shock loading, low cost, simple operation, and a fairly high efficiency.

100*. OfML-<N(G 73-12832

20 L

» — - , — , — -

• • -

• \^ •

>. • ;

•

- 4

\ X • • - - \

• \ S \

t

2 3 ' 5 6 COLUMN HEIGHT (ft)

Fig. 3 2. Typical filter performance on synthetic sewage.

23

Although it was thought difficult to use anaerobic processes to treat low-strength liquid wastes, such as domestic sewage, current experimental work indicates that an anaerobic filter can be satisfactorily used to treat domestic sewage to produce an effluent meeting the 1985 EPA secondary treatment standards (se* Fig. 3.2). The gas produced by this device is roughly SO to 85% methane and 15 to 20% carbon dioxide, with traces of ether gases.

A process to produce simple sugars from solid wastes is currently under way. Cellulose in solid wastes is

degraded by a group of cellulases produced by Trichoderma viride and other molds. Current research indicates that this process is feasible, but that con­siderable process optimisation is necessary. It is pro­posed to use the carbohydrates produced by cellulose degradation as an input feed to a fuel generating process, such as an anaerobic filter or an ethanol fermentation.

Part II. Aquatic Studies Program

D. J. Nelson

4. Power Plant Effects

C. C. Coutant

D. S. Carroll J. S. Mattice D. K. Cox M. L. Fraikk C. W. Gehrs J. W. Gooch C. P. Goodyear S. Lasda1

The objective of the Power Plant Effects program is to develop information that has predictive utility for assessing impacts of power plant cooling systems on aquatic life. Information sought ranges from the level of physiological effects of temperature on single organisms to the level of dynamic aquatic communities which may interact with cooling waters of power plants. The program encompasses both a search for fundamental (and yet unknown) temperature limitations of aquatic organisms and the production of data on well-understood responses such as thermal tolerance and growth, for which data and modified methods are needed on additional species. Principal areas of funding are for: (1) thermal effects, (2) mechanical effects of entrainment, and (3) population dynamics. There is direct interchange of data and research needs between this research program and the Laboratory's environ­mental impact statement activities.

1. Undergraduate Research Participant. 2. Instrumentation and Controls Division. 3. Computer Sciences Division.

B.Melnyk1

J. M. Rochelle2

L. M. Stubbs W. Van Winkle B. Rust3

ANNUAL REVIEW OF THERMAL EFFECTS LITERATURE

The thermal effects literature of 1972 was reviewed, and two documents were published. One, largely in narrative form, was published as part of the review of the literature of 1972 on warte water and water pollution control by the Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation. The June issue of the journal is devoted to comprehensive reviews of the water pollu­tion control literature foT the previous calendar year. The second publication was issued by ORNL through the Environmental Information Systems Office. It reproduced the bibliographic information on the 1972 thermal literature that has been stored in the ORNL computer files, and it contained a KWIC (key word in context) index of titles, an author index, a key-word index (for key words not in titles), and a taxonomic index. The second document was necessitated by lack of indexing in ;hs journal version, and it serves as an example of the capabilities of the ORNL information

24

25

system. The 1972 thermal review covered 448 refer­ences.

ACUTE THERMAL TESTING

Temperature Resistance of Goniobaas sp., an Operculate Snail

Operculate snails present a special problem whe.i a conventional thermal resistance procedure is employed. These snails simply contract their operculum tightly against their shell when exposed to an extreme tempera­ture, making it very difficult to determine the exact time of death after the initial exposure. A technique utilizing timed exposures to a high test temperature aid the subsequent enumeration of live snails at the end of a two-week period was developed. The soft tissues of dead snails protrude beyond the operculum and support a cottony bloom of i ingus in about three days after they die. The exposure drjation yielding 50% mortality was determined grapJ icLuy.

Various timed exposures to 35°C of Goniobasis dupaeformis acclimated to 17°C yielded an exposure time of 89 min to produce 50% mortality. Tests are planned at other potentially lethal temperatures.

Tolerance of Corbicula manUensis to Short-Term Increases in Temperature

Many studies of thermal tolerance have involved 24-, 48-, or 96-hr exposures and measured mortality as the response. In the present studies on Corbicula mani-lensis, a bivalve mollusk, long-term observations (more than one month) were made following 0.5-hr shocks. Animals acclimated to 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35°C were exposed to various temperatures ranging from 36 to 50°C. The lowest temperatures to cause ultimate death of all clams :howed little variation with acclima­tion temperature - HI were 40 to /!2°C. Temperature required to yield 100% death by the enG of the 0.5-hr shock varied somewhat more, with a trend to higher required temperatures (i.e., increased resistance) in the middle range, 15 to 25°C.

Figure 4.1 shows a plot of time in thousands of minutes to 50% death vs acclimation temperature. These data also show that for a given shock tempera­ture, animals acclimated to the middle range of temper­atures (10 to 20°C) are more resistant. The same trend is found if time to 100% death is considered. The data presented allow two conclusions for studies of and development of protection for Corbicula manilensis: (1) short-term observations cf mortality arc inadequate for

OftML-MS 73-flM)

10 15 20 25 30 35 ACCLIMATION TEMPERATURE (*C)

Fig. 4.1. Time to 50% mortality of GorftfcNM at temperatures graphed agaicst connect equal shock temperatures.

determining thermal tolerance, and (2) extrapolation of mortality trends in the middle range of acclimation tem­peratures toward the ends of the range overestimates tolerance. If these results prove generally true, they may necessitate changes in temperature-tolerance studies.

The Response of Carp Larvae to an Acute Thermal Shock

Thermal sensitivity of various ages of carp (Cyprirms carpid) larvae was investigated by exposing groups of 25 larvae to a 10-min thermal shock at various times after they hatched and noting 24-hr mortality. Larvae were from 0.5 to 30 days old. Exposure temperatures were from 35 to 38°C, with controls receiving a sham treatment at 25°C.

Table 4.1 shows the numbers in each age group that died after being exposed to a thermal shock. The pattern of thermal resistance of me larvae was: (1) relatively high tolerance the first day after hatching

26

4.1. EfSectoof otCyprima

25 larvae were used in each treatment

I sfc>ck o* the survival at 25*0

ORNL-OWG 73-10247

Age of larvae at tane of

(days)

0.5 1 2 3 4 5

7 8 9

10 11 12 19 30

Number of larvae that died within 24 hi following a 10-min thermal shock

(from 25*) at -

2TC 3?C i^C 37*C 38°C

0 0 0 0 0 0 n V

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 3 6 2 8

13 9 9 4 0 0

0 0 1

10 7

23 25 25 25 25 25 25 25

5 0

0 0 8

22 24 25 25 25

a a a a a

12 0

*No larvae shocked at this temperature.

which gradually decreased during the next 5 days, (2) a more sensitive period 6 to 12 days after hatching, (3) increased thermal resistance after two weeks. Thermal sensitivity appeared related to nutritional state. Newly hatched larvae have enough yolk to last about S days. As the yolk was exhausted, the thermal sensitivity of the larvae increased. Larvae were approximately two weeks old before they assimilated food rapidly enough to promote growth, and they were more susceptible to thermal death from the time their yolk was exhausted until they began to grow. Presumably, physiological stress resulting from a lack of nourishment contributed to the relatively high thermal sensitivity of the lar\"*e during the no-growth period, since their thermal sensi­tivity decreased when growth began.

Thermal Resistance of Larval White Bass

Survival times of larval white bass, Morone chrysops, were determined at four high temperatures (Fig. 4.2). The bass were acclimated to 2t.5°C, a temperature at which this stage of the life cycle is commonly found in East Tennessee waters. Test larvae were obtained from adults spawned in the laboratory after hormonal injec­tion. They were about 3 mm long and had not yet begun

36

35

< Ui OL 5 uj

34 v

33

\ LARVAL WHITE BASS

! \ \

! . . . . \ o

ACCL. TEMP- 21.5*C • INDIVIDUALS o GEOMETRIC MEAN

! S>

• • — . a t »« o t CO

32

31

V \

K3? b 10 J 2 TIME TO DEATH (sec)

«T

Fig. 4.2. Survival times of larval (3-mm-k>ng) white DISS exposed to four hhjh temperatures. Results for individuals and geometric means for groups of 10 are given. The line is a linear regression of the four geometric mean death times.

to feed. Survival time v* s temperature-dependent, with fish surviving longer at the cooler test temperatures. The incipient lethal temperature was below the lowest temperature tested (31.5°C). The experiments will be repeated and expanded in the spring ">f 1974. These data will be useful for predicting tolerance of entrained larvae to thermal exposures in power plant cooling water.

Effects of Three Rates of Temperature Elevation on Critical Thermal Maxima of Bluegill,

Lepomis macrochirus

The critical thermal maxima (CTM) technique was used to evaluate the effects of three rates of heating on the thermal tolerance of bluegill (Fig. 4.3). Blueg" were acclimated to 26°C for a minimum of 14 days and were subjected to temperature elevation ates of 0.1, 0.5, and '.0°C/min. Temperatures at which loss of equilibrium and cessation of opercular beating occurred were determined. The slower rates of heating produced lower CTM values. A CTM value is derived froir. the simultaneous operation of two variables, time anil temperature. For this reason, the CTM method has questionable utility in predicting the specific thermal characteristics of a species. Its usefulness is largely confined to maWng relative comparisons and the production of acclimation curves.

27

ORNL-DWG 73-5330R ONNL-owc n-mea ~\

4 0

G 3 9

UJ

< UJ

a. 2 111

38

• CESSATION OF I OPERCULAR BEATING

* LOSS OF EQUILIBRIUM

J STANDARD DEVIATION OF MEAN

^39.24 P - N . S . 4 / 39.08

I

P=0.95

37

36

f3794 ; / : P = Q 9 4 i

i f 437.53 r 3 7 4 9

-L P=0.99+-*-

'36.60

10 20~ TIME (min)

:o 4 0

Fig. 4.3. Effects of three rates of temperature elevation (1.0, 0.5, and 0.1oC/min) on loss of equilibrium and cessation of opercular beating in bluegills acclimated to 26° C. Points are means for 30 fish.

Rate of Temperature Decrease Affects Susceptibility of Juvenile Catfish to Predation

Juvenile channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, were less stressed by temperature decrease (as measured by vulnerability to piedation by adult largemout'. ^rss) when the rate of decrease from 30 to 17°C was 0.5 to 1.5°/min than when the rate was instantaneous or 2°/min (Fig. 4.4). Replicate tests conducted at 0.3°/min were inconclusive due to variability.

These experiments tested the relative survival of cold shocked and unshocked prey when groups of both weie offered simultaneously to adult largemouth bass preda­tors and about half of the combined number were eaten. These results suggest that the rate of temperature decrease may be a significant factor in determining whether a given temperature differential is sufficiently stressing to young fish to increase vulnerability to predation. Measures taken at power plants to reduce cooling rate may thus decrease environmental impacts of sudden shutdown.

o < <r 3

.. . _ " • "

• • /»<0.05 < >

T 1 i

• i i «

A \

• i

1

<

i

i

• • • i

i

— V ^ — • 1

O 0 5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2 5 INSTANTANEOUS RATE OF TEMPERATURE DECREASE rc/min)

Fig. 4.4. Differential predation rates of adult largemotxiB baas on young *iannel catfish cooled at known rales compared with iincooled fish. A dof 1 indicates equal vulnerability. Closed circles are individual tests; open circles are combined replicates. Asterisk indicates significant inequality of predation (P < 0.0S).

PRODUCTION RESPONSES

Influence of Temperature on Production of Lymnaea

This study attempted to estimate the effect of various temperatures, both constant and varying, on growth and reproduction of the snail Lymnaea. Forty snails were maintained at constant temperature (10, IS, 20, 25, 30°C), in cages in the pond where all experimental animals were collected, or in the laboratory at the average temperature for the previous 24-hr period at the pond (ambient) and ambient plus 5CC and ambient plus 10°C. The last two groups were chosen to mimic the condition of a thermal release at a power plant. The snails in the pond were exposed to the diurnal and seasonal variation, while the ambient groups were exposed only to the seasonal variation. The latter temperatures were changed every 24 hr. At weekly intervals, egg masses were collected; eggs were counted, and snails were measured for shell length (growth). Growth plus reproduction would estimate production for the reproductive period.

Preliminary data >.ave shown that although tempera­ture affects reproductive output, it is not the con­trolling factor in ending the reproductive period (solid lines in Fig. 4.5). Considering only the groups held at constant temperatures, in the early period of reproduc­tion an increase of temperature (from 13 to 25°C) results in an increase in production of eggs per adul?.

28

eo

125 —

100

OfML-MG 73-12249

s ut

* FCLD * AMBENT+5*C o AMBENT + <0*C * AMBENT

TIME (weeks)

Rg. 4.5. Cumulative egg production per adult over the reproductive period at constant (lines) and varying (dots, circles, dosed opes triaagtes) temperatures. Egg production at 15°C continued for about nine weeks after the time shown.

No eggs were produced by snails kept at 30°C. Overall egg production, however, was highest at 15°C and lowered on either side (20 and 10°C). Egg production at 25°C was lowest.

The results were similar for the early periods for animals at varying temperatures (Fig. 4.5). Generally, egg production increased with increase in temperature. However, egg production of the field group surpassed that at any other temperature either constant or varying and approached the early rate of the constant 25°C group. Availability of food may have played a role in this, but every effort was made to avoid this. Ambient and ambient plus 5 JC groups, on the other hand, produced eggs at a lower rate than expected. The early rate of production at ambient plus 10°C was about what was expected. Overall eggs per adult did not directly follow temperature.

It appears that the ultimate control of cessation of reproduction is not the temperature and that diurnal temperature fluctuation is very important to the repro­ductive physiology of Lymnaea. This raises the question concerning the practice of applying laboratory data obtained at constant temperatures to field situations, especially in regard to impact assessment of thermal releases.

Temperature Effects on Growth of Largemouth Bass

Largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, fed ad libitum at temperatures of 24 to 35.5°C grew fastest at

ORNL-OWG 73-KK48

• MEAN % WEIGHT INCREASE

I STANDARD ERROR

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 TEMPERATURE PC)

Fig. 4.6. Growth rates of subaduit largemouth bass at various acclimation temperatures. Fish were tested over four time periods (periods 1 -4 as numbered); the fish in period 1 were significantly smaller than the others and thus grew at a faster rate relative to initial body size.

26 to 28°C (Fig. 4.6). The trend of giowth rates at the higher temperatures suggests zero growth near 35.5°C. Fish were tested in four weight groups: (1) 41.09 ± 9.5 (standard deviation) g live weight, (2) 108.25 * 27.9 g, (3) 179.6 ± 36.3 g, and (4) 80.2 ± 11.6 g. Food consisted of live adult fathead minnows.

These results show close correspondence of the optimum growth temperature with the 26 to 28°C temperatures selected by adult largemouth bass in the

29

field during the summer. The zero growth temperature from these studies is about 1° less than the ultimate incipient lethal temperature (36.4°C) reported in the literature.

Largemouth Bass Growth Dynamics

One controversy concerning the operation of power plants is that increased water temperature would lower the growth rate of sport fishes. This hypothesis is supported by laboratory data but apparently contra­dicted by the high levels of angler success and fish growth observed in the discharge of operating power plants. The reason for this apparent paradox could lie at the population level. In the laboratory, biomass is gained by feeding and lost by egestion and respiration. At any fixed food level the growth rate is an inverse function of respiration and therefore is temperature sensitive. The same processes control growth at the population level except that population biomass can also be lost through mortality. Because mortality

reduces the number of fish, it increases the ration (food per individual) for remaining indiv»di!2ls. Therefore, if a population is food-limited, any change in mortility rate is accompanied by a change in ration anong the survivors. Because of this relationship, it is possible for changes in population growth in response to jower plant operations to occur through mortality.

Presently we are organizing our evaluation of Jarge-mough bass growth dynamics aiound the generalized model presented in Fig. 4.7. Laboratory growth studies are providing data that quantify the temperature dependence of the processes depicted in the upper half of this figure. Field studies with temperature-sensing some tags provide information required for proper application of the laboratory-derived relationships for populations in field situations. Other data are being gathered which will help characterize power plant effects on mortality. Particular attention is being directed toward evaluating the importance of power-plant-induced changes in fishing mortality which may result from landings of fish attracted to discharge canals.

ORNL- DWG 73-12248

EGESTION METABOLITES

DEAD FISH

Fig. 4.7. Compartment*! representation of a generalized model of Uigemouth but population growth. Rectangles represent biomass. folk! arrows represent transfer of biomass. Ellipses represent processes. Dotted arrow represent interactions.

30

BEHAVIOR RESPONSES

Field Temperature Selection by Largemouth Bass

Adult largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) tagged with ORNL-developed ultrasonic temperature-sensing tags and released in a quarry lake on the Oak Ridge AEC reservation generally selected the warmest temper­atures available to them when temperatures were below about 25°C, but they remained at 26 to 28°C when maximum temperatures were higher (Fig. 4.8). Records were obtained from three fish in 1973: (I) March 6 through Jury 27, (2) March 24 through June 11,and (3) July 19 through September 4. Single temperatures or ranges over 10-min periods (if fish were moving) were obtained most weekdays at 0800 and 1700 hr. Temper­atures were also monitored periodically at intervals of once or six times per minute for continuous periods of several hours. Fish had vertical thermal gradients available to them throughout the seven-month observa­tion period which were derived from solar heating and normal lake stratification. Bottom temperatures re­mained below 10°C at all times. These data indicate thermal preferences that coincide closely with tempera­ture optinv for growth of this species.

Vertical Response of Zooplankton to Heated Water

Thermal plumes from several planned nuclear power stations are expected to cover large areas of the receiving reservoirs with varying depths of heated water. This research sought to determine if temperature gradients could affect the movement of zooplankton in a water column. Two species of zooplankton were tested: a cladoceran, Daphnia parvula. and a calanoid copepod, Diaptomus sanguineus. Tests were conducted in 90-cm-high by 9-cm-lD Plexiglas columns equipped with heaters and thermometer. Scoring was done on the basis of movement of animals after activation of a heater, with movement up as negative and down as positive.

Results for the two species at an initial water temperature of 21°C and differentials of 2°C are shown in Table 4.2. The warmer water stratified in an upper layer. In the controls, only one animal of both species, a daphnid, changed position, and that one moved upward. All test animals dove. The results indicate that a small temperature increase can act as a deterrent to zooplankton vertical movement. Similar results were found when the initial temperature was 15°C.

Table 4.2. Test data on vertical movement of Diaptomus sanguineus and Daphnia magna in relation to heater placement at an initial water icinpeiatuie of 21°C

Vertical columns are the individual runs. For each run the capital letter signifies the region occupied by the animal at the onset of the test run. Capital A refers to the region abeve the first heater, etc. The sign and arabic numeral refer to the direction of movement and the number of regions traversed by the animal during the test run, with a positive sign signifying a downward movement and a negative an upward movement

Runl Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 5 Run 6 Run 7 Run 8 Run 9 Run 10

Diaptomus sanguineus

lost animals A + 1 A + l A + l 3 + 1 A + l A + l B + l B + l A + l A + l Control animals A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 B - 0 A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 B - 0

Test minus control + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

Daphnia

+ 1

parvula

+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

Test animals C+l C+l B + 2 A+l A + l A + l B + l A + l A + l B + l Contro' animals A - 0 B - 1 B - 0 A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 A - 0 B - 0 A - 0 A - 0 Test minus control + 1 + 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 + - + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1

31

OftNL-OVG 73-10223*

22 24 26 28 30 SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE C O

a

Ui

a.

tr Ul a. 2 ui » -o Ul »-o Ui -J Ui en

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

(b)

LARG^urun l"H BA« >. 56

5S 4 FAG NIC l"H BA« >. 56 J .-11

/ I i

• X '

• •

r»

V I . •

i_ J • • I

• .4' 6 MARC K-27 JULY 1973

• ; = BRIEF EXCURSIONS

/ <

t

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE ( eC)

28 30 32

Fig. 4.8. Water temperatures selected by two adalt largemcuth ba« ((a) and (b)) compared with the surface water temperature in Lambert Quarry, Oak Ridge Reservation. Points are single temperature* recorded about 0800 and 1700 hr; solid ranges are temperatures spanned by actively moving fish; dashed ranges are brief excursions.

32

ENTRAPMENT SIMULATION

Survival *£ Juvenile Fishes in a Simulated Condenser Cooling Loop

One of the most important biological consequences of power plant operation with once-through cooling is associated with mortality of juvenile fishes entrained with the cooling water. As entrained fishes pass through the Mant, they are exposed to a thermal shock, fluid turbiMice, and variations in hydrostatic pressure, commonly including a partial vacuum. These experi­ments utilized a simulated cooling water loop. Orga­nisms were introduced into the system upstream from the condenser and passed through the loop. Two control treatments were necessary, an absolute control where handling was minimized and a treatment control w!«ich included temperature slwk, handling, and re­trieval.

The experimental system provides limited control of hydrostatic pressure and turbulence. When operated at 7 fps, a velocity which is typical of many power plants,

the pressure drops to a partial vacuum of about 0.5 aim. At 15 fps the level of turbulence is greatly increased with little exposure to partial vacuum. Initial expe:imenu> were done primarily to evaluate the system and tc provide data from which to base more detailed experiments. During this portion of the investigation, high-speed photographs of carp larvae being carried through 2-in. glass tubing were made to observe the torsion of fish in turbuknt flow. Other exploratory tests with zooplankton, larval carp, and bluegill indi­cated that loop pass2gb ieduced subsequent survival.

Juvenile mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) were ex­posed to a thermal shock simultaneously with the fluid-induced stresses. These tests were designed to examine the possible interactions of temperature shock with fluid turbulence and a partial vacuum. The results of these tests (Fig. 4.9) indicate that exposure to the combined effects caused greater mortalities than did either fluid-induced stresses or the temperature shock acting alone In addition, exposure to a partial vacuum was consistently more important than the effect of more intense levels of turbulence.

ORNL-DWG 73-12250

-CONTROL l„^.TJ=jpZZZZZz#iNO VACUUM, NO TURBULENCE) |

10 11 12 A T {• C)

Fig. 4.9. Initio .-mortality of juvenile mosquito fish, Gambusia of finis, receiving simultaneous therma! and fluid-induced stresses. AH mosquito fish were animated to 30°C and exposed to the elevated temperatures for 300 sec.

33

POPULATION MODELING

Striped Bass Popula ior. Modeling

The propo. ;d operation of Indian Point Units 2 and 3 with once-through cooling has resulted in concern over the future of the striped bass population that spawns in the Hudson River. The two primary power plant impacts on the s'rined bass population are entrainment and impingement, both of which occur during the first year of life. Two models are being developed to help the AEC and power companies make sound decisions concerning alternative cooling methods and alternative sites. The models provide quantitative predictions of the impact on a fish popul?tion, and they are useful in defining issues where field and laboratory research are essential for more accurate predictions.

The entrainment model estimates t'le number of juveniles surviving the entrainment periled. The differ­

ence equations used in this model nay be conceptual­ized conveniently as a two-dimensional array of com­partments. The horizontal dimension corresponds to the longitudinal axis of the river; the vertical dimension corresponds to the size of the fish during the entrain­ment period. The other inputs and outputs considered ar i stocking from hatcheries and losses due to entrain-ment, predation, and other sources of natural mortality. Output from the entrainment modei serves as a gt.ude-line for certain of the input parameters to the adult model.

The adult model estimates ti.e impact of entrainment and imping* nient on the size and *<** distribution of the adtlt population and on the yield to the striped bass fishery (Fig. 4.10). Natural mortality of the 0-year-old fish and fishing mortality are assumed to be density dependent, while fecundities and other mortality rates are assumed to be constant.

ORNL-OWG 73-I0233R

EGGS *

L» o-YEAR OLDS K 1-YEAR OLDS

ENTRAIN-^ MENT

IMPINGE­MENT

N 2-YEAR OLDS

\ 3-YEAR OLDS N 4-YEAR

OLDS

l-CZJ4

N 5-YEAR OLDS

' ^ ' 4 - Y E A R OLDS

— U

PLC

r3 YEAR-^ i r « —'

2 NATURAL MORTALITY

HZ3 FISHING MORTALITY

Fig. 4.19. Box and arrow diagram for the striped bass population model, iiiustrating aging transfers, production of eggs by mature females, and losses due to natural mortality, fishing mortality, entrainment, and impingement.

5. Aquatic Ecosystem Studies B.G

C. P. Allen1

J. W. uwuuu L. D. Eyman1

M. Frank C. W. Gehrs1

N. A. Grifith J. W. Gooch1

Blaylock1

R. L. Jollty 2

J. T. Kitchings T. A. Lombardino3

D. J. Nelson1

J. R. Trabalka1

W. W. Pitt2

C. D. Scott 2

In aquatic ecosystem studies, three areas ot research have been emphasized: radionuclide cycling, radiation effects, and toxicant formation in condenser cooling systems. In radionuclide cycling studies, our major goal is to provide information for evaluating the ecological consequences of chronic or accidental releases of radionuclides to ecosystems. To reach this go.U we must understand the distribution and dynamics of radio­nuclides released to the aquatic environment. Of pri­mary importance is the need for precise date en environmental transport of radionuclides to calculate resultant doses to man. The major objective of radiation effects studies is to determine the effects of radiation on aquatic biota from the cytological to the population level, with emphasis being placed on the long-term somatic and genetic effects of chronic low-level radia­tion. Also important are the synergistic effects of chemicals, environmental variables, and ionizing radia­tion on fitness (fecundity, viability, egg hatchability, longevity, etc.) of natural and laboratory populations. Chronically contaminated White Oak Lake has served as an area to study the behavior and distribution of radionuclides in a natural ecosystem and aquatic popu­lations which have been exposed to chronic irradiation foT many generations. Data from these studies are being used to develop models and provide basic data for predicting the environmental transport of radionuclides and the effects of radiation on aquatic ecosystems.

1. Dual capacity. 2. Chemical Technology Division. 3. NSF Summer Student.

The formation of toxicants in condenser cooling systems is a relatively new area of interest, and this is our second year of involvement in this project. In­creasing amounts of surface water are anticipated to be used in cooling systems for nuclear and fossil fuel plants. Although chlorine has been routinely used as a biocide in condensers, the reaction products arising '.'rom chlorination or the effects of the products on ths biota are virtually unknown. The objectives of this study are to identify chlorinated organics and other chemical compounds related to condenser cooling systems present in natural waters, to determine the range and persistency of these chemicals, anc. 10 determine inc toxicity on aquatic organises. Tech­niques for identifying and quantifying specific cliiorine-containing compounds have been developed in cooper­ation with the Chemical Technology Division.

RADIONUCLIDE CYCLING IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Validation of a Two-Compartment, Three-Parameter Model for Predicting the Absorption, Retention, and Body Burden

of an Element in Animals

To assess the potential hazard to man and biota of radionuclide releases to aquatic ecosystems, there is need for models that predict the body burden and rates of uptake, retention, and elimination of elements in

34

35

organisms living in contaminated ecosystems. An ex­periment was conducted to validate a model4 for predicting the absorption, retention, and equilibrium body burden of elements which are obtained prima' fly through food ingestion. The differential equations describing the dynamics of the model are:

dG(t)ldt = i(t)-(u + ki)G(t),

dB(t)idt = uG(t)-k2B(t),

(1)

(2)

where G is the amount of unabsorbed element in the animal's gut; B is the amount of element in the body; u, k\, and k2 are transfer coefficients for the processes cf absorption of element from the gut, elimination of unabsorbed element, and elimination of absorbed ele­ment respectively; and i(f) is the rate of element ingestion.

Bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) were fed a single meal of earthworms labeled with , 3 7 C s . The retention of 1 3 7 C s in the gut [G(t)] and body [B(i)] was followed for 74 days by sacrificing fish at intervals

4. P A . Goldstein and J. W. Elwood, Ecology 52, 935-39 (1971).

following the single feeding and measuring the 13,,Cs in the gut contents and body of each fish (Fig. S.l(a) and (b)J. Absorption and elimination of * 3 7Cs from the gut in bluegills fed the single meal of labeled food were compared with predicted v?lues which were calculated from data on whole-body retention of 1 3 7 C s . Other bluegills were then fed earthworms labeled with l 3 7 C s for 15 days. The body burden [QLt) = Blt) + Git)) was compared with predicted values calculated from (1) absorption and elimination coefficients determined in the single-feeding experiment and (2) daily ingestion rates of ' ' 7 Cs which were measured prior to feeding fish the labeled food.

Once ingested, I 3 7 C s is subjected to the competing processes of egestion and absorption from the gut into the body (B). The model simulates the absorption of ' 3 7Cs from the gut into the body [Fig- 5.1(a)) and shows that the maximum amount of I 3 7 C s in the body occurs 2 to 3 hr following ingestion. Loss of cesium from the gut is relatively rapid [Fig. 5.1(b)], with an average retention time of an atom of * 3 7 Cs in the gut of only 0.4 hr. The rate of absorption of cesium exceeds the rate of egestion. The calculated absorption efficiency of ' 3 7Cs by bluegills fed the contaminated earthworms was approximately 88%.

0RNL-IMI6 73-12309

® 0.4

1 3 7 , Fig. 5.1. (a) Calculated and measured fraction of ingested Cs 137. earthworms labeled with , 3 7 Cs; (b) fraction of ingested O in

137 earthworms labeled with Cs.

in the body compartment, B, of bluegiOs fed a single meal of the gut compartment, G, of bluegills fed a single meal of

36

ORNL-DWG 73-12304

10«

E o. •o

o -u. O

u o K

CD O o CD

10 s

/ i

. • ' » • • ) • < >

I -PREI )ICTEI

> **

)

E A S U f *ED

/ ( i

•

1 . f

1 f O 4

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 *4 16 18 TIME (days)

Fig. 5.2. Predicted aad measured body burden of 1 3 7 C s in Mueftts £ d contamiiuted food dafly for IS days.

For continuous feeding on contaminated food, the model predicted a kjgher body burden o f I 3 7 C s after the secono? feeding than that actually measured in the bluegill (Fig. 5.2). This would be due to an error in the absorption and elimination coefficient for , 3 7 C s . If absorption of cesium is a function of the concentration gradient of cesium across the gut, the absorption coefficient, //, would change as the "oody burden of l 3 7 C s in;reased. The absorption coefficient used to predict tne body burden of 1 3 7 C s in the continuous feeding experiment was determined under conditions where the concentration gradient for I 3 7 C s would be expected to be maximum and thus the absorption coefficient would be Maximum. Calculated absorption would be higher than actual absorption, and thus the body burden of 1 3 7 C s would be overestimated. The effect of the cesium body burden on the absorption and elimination coefficients currently is being investigated.

Availability of ' 3 7Cs to Fishes from Ingested Sediments

Several authors have demonstrated bzi most of the radionuclide pool in aquatic ecosystems is associated with sediments. Models to predict radionuclide behavior in aquatic systems have addressed the dynamics of transfer between water and sediment; however, the availability of radioactivity for entry into food chains from intake of sediment particulates by biota has not been evaluated. The importance of this input of radioisotopes to aquatic biota is unknown.

Radioactivity associated wth various sediment frac­tions is potentially an important source to aquatic forms feeding in or on them. During feeding, sediments are taken in with the food, and transfer to the feeding organism will depend on the variable distribution of activity within the sediment fractions (Table 5.1).

Montmorillonite, kaolinite, and illite, representing the three major groups of silicate clays found in temperate regions, were tagged with 1 3 7 CsCl to assess the avail­ability of ! 3 7 C s to fish from ingested clay.

The differences in uptake of 1 3 7 C s from the tagged clays by catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) were significant {P < 0.01) with the uptake from montmorillonite > kaolinite > illite (Table 5.2). These data demonstrate the importance of inorganic sediment particulates as a source of radioactivity to aquatic biota. Since the primary association of cesium is with clay (Table 5.1), the prevalent clay type in an aquatic system is a significant factor in determining potential availability of this isotope to biota. Since clays do not exist in natural systems, but are associated with humic compounds, the effects of this association on availability are being evaluated.

Changes in Radionuclide Concentration in Fish Flesh during

Preparation for Consumption

Bioaccumulation factors are used to determine the radiological dose to man from aquatic biota consumed. Dose calculations assume the source to man is un­prepared whole organisms; any loss of activity during cooking of food is neglected. To evaluate the effect of preparation on the concentr*:;™ of , 3 7 C s , flesh samples from largemou'h bass (Micropterus salmoides) were processed by various methods normally used (frying, baking, and pressure cooking).

Fish were collected from a chronically contaminated lake, and two fillets from each individual were divided into four subsamples (one control and three treat­ments). Preparation of the treated subsamples was:

Table 5.1. Distribution of radionuclides between sediment particle size fractions

Sofl fraction

Amount of radionuclide present in each soil fraction Percent of soil

137 Cs 106 Ru Nanocuries per gram Percent Nanocuries

per gram Percent

125 Sb 60 Co 65 Zn

Nanocuries pe gram

Silt 79.6 2.20 50.5 0.84 33.2 0.35 Clay 14.9 10.46 43.4 1.98 14.5 0.90 Organic matter (>35 mesh) 4.3 1.43 1.76 13.45 28.6 7.16 Organic matter density >2.4 g/cc 1.1 0.81 0.26 41.62 23.4 22.70 Sand 11.1 1.25 3.98 0.43 2.3 0.14

Percent

28.4 13.3 30.9 25.9

1.5

Nanocuries per gram Percent Nanocuries

per gram

12.34 24.13 59.42 79.01 3.75

56.9 20.7 14.8 5.2 ?.. 4

N.d.a

0.75 0.64 1.35 N.d.

Percent

N.d. 72.2 18.0 9.8

N.d.

3

Total 100 3.39 100 1.98 100 0.97 100 16.87 100 0.15 100

38

137 Table SO. Ptaceat aptake of trow day nwntuli by catfish (/cMfexmr puitctatut)

Cs

Temperature (°0 MontmonDonite Kaotinite DJite

13 25

84.8 ± 1.5 77.4 ± 1.5

66.9 ± 1.8 62.5 ± 2.0

10.1 t 0.8 8.4 ± 0.7

Table 5.3. EfTectsof vaaounethodsof foodpcepantkm oa the fcx s of• 3 7 Q activity

from fob fPtets

Method of preparation

Number of samples

We«ht(g) ±S£.

Activity (dh min - 1 g* 1)

±S£.

Decrease inactivity

Uncooked Fried Baked Pressure

cooked

27 27 27

24

831 ± 0J3 8.77 ± 0.18 8.89 t 0.18

8.65 i 0.18

68.5 ± 2.2 63.6 ± 1.6 60.1 ± 1.6

60.6 ± 2.2

8° 13"

12 s

«Ai dWaren-:- ? < 0.05.

baked, 40 min at 350°F; pressure cooked, IS min at 15 psi (250°F); fried, 5 min at 284°F. Following prepara­tion, all oil and/or other residual liquid was drained from the samples before counting. The change in activity varied with method of preparation (Table 5.3). The greater activity loss from baking and pressure cooking than from fried samples probably reflects the loss of tissue fluids.

These data demonstrate 2 decrease in ' 3 7Cs from fish flesh due to preparation normally used in the home. Substantially greater losses of certain radio­nuclides (' 0 6 R u and ' 2 S Sb) may occur during prepara­tion. If these radionuclides were important contributors to dose from ingestion of contaminated consumable biota (if they were primary contaminants from an accidental release), preparation for consumption may result in significantly lower dose to humans than would be predicted using present methods (bioaccuinulation).

RADIATION EFFECTS ON AQLATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Long-Term Cytogenetic Investigations of Chironomus in White Oak Lake and

White Oak Creek

In 1960, cytogenetic investigations were started on the population of Chironomus Irving in the radioactive

bottom sediments of White Oak Lake and vVhite Oak Creek. Our objectives were to determine whether the population exposed to chronic irradiation for about 100 generations carried an increased frequency of chromosome aberrations. By examining the salivary gland chromosomes and comparing them with chromo­somes from control populations, there was demon­strated an increased frequency of chromosome aberra­tions in the exposed population. These aberrations did not persist in the population but were rapidly elimi­nated. In 1970, ten years (approximately 50 genera­tions) after the first survey, the population was reex­amined (Table 5.4). The calculated dose to the Chiro­nomus larvae from the radionuclide content in the bottom sediments had decreased from 230 rads/year in 1960 to 11 rads/year in 1970 due to reduced radio­active effluent discharges.

From i960 to 1963, 692 larvae from White Oak Creek were analyzed, and ! 1 abenationswere detected which we concluded were radiation-induced aberra­tions. This conclusion was uased on the fact Ihat each aberration was observed only once and the fact that in 714 larvae from nonirradia ed populations, none of the aberrations were observed. We concluded that an increased number of chromosome aberrations were being produced in the irradiated population but that thest aberrations did not become established in the

39

TaNe 5.4. duomoaome abcnaiiom m irradiated MM! nonirradiated popobtna* of Ckkrmoima lentam

1960-63, 1960-63, 1970-72, White Oak Qr-ek control populations White Oak Creek

(irradiated) (nonuradtated) (irradiated)

Number of larvae analyzed 692 714 761 Number of induced chromosome 11 0 2

aberrations Types of endemic inversions 6 6 5 Dose rate, rads/year 230 in 1950; Background 11 in 1970

67 in 1965

population but were rapidly eliminated by natural selection. The chromosomal polymorphism, which con­sisted primarily of three inversions, was the same in the irradiated and nonirradiated populations.

After ten years, five of the six endemic inversions still occurred in the population. One which occurred at a very low frequency in 1960 was not observed in 1970. These data support our previous conclusion that irradia­tion from the radionuclides in the bottom sediments was producing chromosome aberrations in the Oaro-nomus populations because the frequency of aberra­tions decreased as the concentrations in the bottom sediments decreased. After 40 to 50 additional genera­tions of exposure to chronic irradiation, no new inversion has been established in the White Oak Creek population. After many years of exposure to chronic irradiation significantly higher than background, this population of Chironomus survives with no obvious detrimental effects other than the two radiation-in­duced chromosome aberrations.

Gross Physical Abnormalities in Fish Populations of White Oak Lake

A high incidence of gross physical abnormalities was observed in White Oak Lake juvenile fish ir* 1969. Approximately 80% of 500 juvenile goldfish exhib;ted gross anomalies of the head and spinal column. A previous study5 of White Oak Lake mosquito fish populations in 1966 indicated that although abnor­malities were higher than in ovher local populations of the same «pecies, the frequency of occurrence was still relatively small - 0.4% of embryos examined.

Radioactive waste discharges to White Oak Lake have declined drastically through me 1960's.6 Estimated radiation dose rates to mosquito fish have fallen from -11 rads/day in 1966 to -0.25 rad/day in 1971. During the same period, certain nonradioactive waste

discharges (notably chromium and phenols used in cooling towers) have increased considerably. Measure­ments of chromium concentrations in White Oak Creek, as well as a materials balance calculation for chro­mium,7 indicate that the average concentration in water entering the impoundment is ~4 times that measured at White Oak Dam. The annual average concentration of chromium has been as high as 0.26 ppm at White Oak Dam in recent years. In the summer of 1973, the average concentration in White Oak Creek prior to its entry into White Oak Lake was 037 ppm and at White Oak Dam, 0.094 ppm. Peak values in White Oak Creek were observed to be —4 times this mean value.

White Oak Creek discharges into the northeastern end of White Oak Lake in a very shallow area used extensively for spawning by many fish species. Radio­nuclide concentrations in bottom sediments are highest in this area. Fishes inhabiting this region of White Oak Lake are under significant environmental stress other than from radioactive wastes or other toxicants. Massive blooms of algae, both benihic and neustonic, cover the area for much of the summer and fall periods. Mor­talities of less tolerant fishes, such as sunfish and largemouth bass, were occasionally observed in the traps, probably due to nighttime oxygen sags. Water temperatures of 35°C and pH values of 10 to 11 were recorded during daylight hours in midsummer.

Approximately 4700 juvenile fish from our 1973 collection have been examined for abnormalities (Table 5.5). Only 1.0% of tW* carried gross deformations. Larger species (goldfish, largemouth fcss, etc.), which were present mainly as two- and three-year-old fish, exhibited a significantly higher abnormality frequency

5. B. G. Bhylock, AH&/. Ret. 37,108-17 (1969). 6. S. I. Auerbach et at, Environmental Sciences Dip. Amu.

Prop. Rep. Sept. 30,1972, ORNL-4848, pp. 80-81. 7. Ibid., pp. 81-82.

40

Table 5.5. G K M abnormalities in WMte Oak Lake jureafe fishes collected in 1973

Species Number

examined Number

abnormal T} pes of gross abnormalities

Mosquito fish 2492 10 Spinal flexure Btueguls and hybrids 2019 0 Goldfish 69 9 8 microcephalic, 1 tumor Gizzard shad 53 0 Largemouth bass 32 3 2 tumors, 1 spinal flexure Shmers iflotropis) 6 0 Golden shiner 1 0 Fathead minnow I 0 Carp 1 0 Brown bullhead 1 1 Multiple tumors on fins Blade bullhead 1 0

(8.4%); goldfish carried a 13% frequency. Relatively few goldfish were captured this year, and few have been observed at White Oak Lake, in marked contrast to preceding years. Only one young-of-the-year goldfish was taken in our collections. This conspicuous absence of juveniles may be due to the extremely high flows experienced during the spawnin., period this year.

Effects of Chromium Compounds on Carp Embryos

In a variety of field and laboratory studies, a high incidence of gross skeletal abnormalities in fish has been correlated with unfavorable environmental conditions during ontogeny such as temperature, oxygen concen­tration, and water chemistry, as well as biotic param­eters such as hormonal imbalance, genetic factors, and parasitic infiltration. Since White Oak Lake is the holding pond for laboratory wastes, factors other than ionizing radiation, such as sanitary and chemical waste discharges, are not easily eliminated as a potential cause of abnormalities.

The effects of both hexavalent chromium compounds (chromium chloride and chromium acetate) have been tested on hatchability and abnormality frequency in carp eggs. Fertilized carp eggs were incubated* at 2oC in water containing chromium concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 30 ppm. A lethal effect was not observed in hexavalent-chrcmiurn-exposed groups (Fig. 5.3). Per­centage hatch was significantly higher (99.5 to 100%) than in controls (98.6% in 1102 eggs tested) over the range from 1 to 30 ppm. Complete mortality occurred

between 3 and 10 ppm in trivalent-dirornium-exposed groups treated at fertilization. Mortality was signifi­cantly decreased when chromium chloride treatment began at 30 min post fertilization. At 10 ppm Cr, no eggs hatched when chromium chloride was added at fertilization, but 99.7% hatched when the chromium compound was added 30 min later. Percentage hatch was significantly less than the controls at 0.1 and 0.3 ppm for both hexavalent and trivalent chromium.

Significant increases in frequency of abnormalities appeared in hexavalent-chromium-exposed groups at 10 ppm and in trivalent-chromiurn-exposed groups be­tween 1 and 3 ppm. However, even at these concentra­tions the frequency of abnormalities did not exceed 8%. The results on proportion hatched for hexavalent chromium indicate interaction of chromium with the fish embryo and some environmental factors). The factor seems to be another organism, a fungus which

100

0.96 a ui

5 092 X

| 0.88

| p . 8 4 a.

0 8 0

OffNL-OWG >'3--9M3 ii . » | f • T '

i • i . ( :0NTROC GROL RESPONSE

IP

1

i

i»

.

• sc •ROM

1 C IIUI

Hfl *

f 1 IOMA1 »C£T

rE »TE

i

r

I

o CHROMIUM CHLORIDE (A00E0 AT FERTILIZATION)

_ * CHROMIUM CHLORlOE 1

n ODE RTIL 1

0 3 at i

0

1.

mio » OH) ; 11

•OST-

111 1 I 1 | | « - , *—, •

* r

0.4 0.2 0.5 i z 5 :0 OOSE AS CHROMIUM (ppm)

20 50

8. B. G. Blaylock and N. A. Griffith, Radial. Re%. 46, 99-104(1971).

Fig. 5.3. Hatchability of carp rggs exposed to chromium during embryonic development.

41

pai^sitizes fish eggs. The results could be explained by the observed inhibition of the microbe at higher chromium concentrations, coupled with a potential stmulation at lower levels. This hypothesis is being tested by culture techniques.

A synergistic effect was observed when carp eggs were additionally exposed to sodium chloride at a concentra­tion of 6 parts per thousand for 30 min following fertilization. Although the percentage hatch was signifi­cantly reduced in the controls (from 98.6 to 8 *.3%), no group treated with chromium acetate exceeded a 5% hatch.

We would be bard pressed to explain the previously described aberrations in White Oak Lake fish by an effect of chromium acting alone during the embryonic period. However, a possible synergistic combination of chromium, ionizing radiation, other environmental fac­tors, and toxic agents can neither be eliminated nor be easily isolated. Continuous exposure to elevated chro­mium levels during the entire life cycle of an organism could conceivably produce the observed anomalies. Future experiments are designed to quantify the effects of these factors in field and laboratory studies of chronically irradiated populations.

COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF ACUTE AND CHRONIC COBALT-60 IRRADIATION

ON FITNESS IN DAPHNIDS

viduals, and length of reproductive life-span. When values for total young produced and fcv survivorship were plotted as a function of time, it was observed that at four and seven weeks, respectively, the 3- and 14dlorad dose groups broke from the lower dose and control curves. This is best shown in Fig. 5.4., where the totals of young produceu by the 3- and 1-kilorad groups approach noticeably lower asymptotes. The reductions in total number of young produced (total per replicate in Table 5.6) and in mean lifespan were

Table 5.6. Effects of acute *0<fc radiation on peculations of IH$i*nit nrngm at 21°C

Values shown with associated standard errors. Values below solid black i*ne are significantly

different from controls (P < 0.05)

Dose defends)

Total number of young per

replicate

l ieu survival time

(days)

Mumoer of young per

fveday

•Control 0.1 0.3 1

251 ± 31.1 260i312 252 ± 33.7 218 ± 28.6

35.6 ± 3.13 30.9 ± 3J68 37.9 ± 3.10 30J±2.89

3.51*030 4J7±0J7 3.25 ±032 3.52 ±034

3 164 ± 19.4 1.20 x 0.51 0 0 0

25.9 * 1.92 13.2 ± 0.66 7.3 ± 0.86 5.2 ± 0.17 2.6 ± 0.10

3.13*0.29 10 16 48 96

164 ± 19.4 1.20 x 0.51 0 0 0

25.9 * 1.92 13.2 ± 0.66 7.3 ± 0.86 5.2 ± 0.17 2.6 ± 0.10

0.045*0.020

0 0

The purposes of this study were to determine the threshold for detection of the effects of acute radiation exposure on survivorship and production of young in Daphnia populations and to compare these effects with those already reported for chronic exposures. Young Daphnia magna (24 ± 24 hr old) were exposed to acute doses of 6 0 C o irradiation in a series of eight doses from 0.1 to 96 kilorads. Animals exposed to doses of 0.1 to 10 kilorads received a dose rate cf 15.1 kiloraus/hr.

Doses greater than 10 kilorads produced sterilization (Tabie 5.6). The 10-kilorad dose produced sterilization in at least half of the organisms, and reproduction was negligible in the remainder. In the 0.1-to-10-kilorad dose range, both the age at which reproduction began and the rate of young produced (number per day) at one week were negatively correlated with dose (r = -0.867 and r = -0.889, d.f. = 4, respectively). At two weeks, young production in the 0.1- to 3-kilorad groups surpassed the controls, and thereafter no significant pattern based on individual birth rate was observed.

The total number of young produced is controlled by individual birth rate, number of reproducing indi-

2800

2400 a. s Q o2000 a: o § H30f) ~ 9 O K Ul a 1 z o

1200

600

4O0 - »

OftML-CWQ 73-1244H 1

DOSE(lu • CON ©0.1 O0.3 A I • 3 • 10

i

vd) TROL

— *

DOSE(lu • CON ©0.1 O0.3 A I • 3 • 10

•

! 0

il K> 20 V ) 40 90 TIME POST-IRRADIATION (doys)

60 70

Pig. 5.4. Cumulative number of young produced per treat­ment group. Normalized to 20 individuals per group.

42

significantly different from controls at doses >3 kilo­rads (P < 0.05). Statistically significant differences in individual birth rate were not obseived at doses <3 kilorads.

In groups exposed to <3 kilorads. reproduction continued in many cases into ihe last day of life. The cumulative birth rate continued to increase until the animal? perished.

The acute dose of 10 kilorads delivered to Dapi'ua rrsgna 's close to a sterilization dose and is similar to the mean value required to sterilize Daphnia pulex with chronic irradiation,9 10.5 kR (10.3 kilorads). An acute dose of 3 kilorads reduced life expectancy in Daphnia magna to approximately the same fraction of the control value (75%) as a dose rate of 75.9 R/hr did in Daphnia pulex. The estimated mean accumulated dose to organisms which received this dose rate was 25 kLorads. The total number of young was reduced to 6S> of the control value at an acute dose of 3 kilorads, while the corresponding individual average productivity was not significantly diffeicrt from the controls. In Daphnia pulex the birth rate was reduced to 5% of the control value at an exposure rate of 75.9 R/hr.

Acute radiation exposure (at levels below those which produce gonad sterilization) to a parthenogenetic Daph­nia population reduces the production of young by a different mechanism than does chronic irradiation. Reduced life-span rather than reduced individual fecun­dity is the primary cause of this effect at relatively low doses (1 to 3 kilorads). Further, unless major species-specific differences cause the responses of Daphnia magna and Daphnia pulex, acute irradiation is con­siderably more effective in life-span shortening (on a per rad basis) than is chronic irradiation. Both modes of exposure appear to be nearly as effective in gonad sterilization. Daphnia exposed to chronic irradiation become sterile when the total dose accumulated is approximately 10.5 kilorads. The number of young produccu fs: individual during a lifetime is a function both of gonaial productivity Ti.u reproductive life-span. The net effeel on organism productivity is apparently re. re affected by the age at which sterilization occurs under a chronic exposure regime than by effects either on gonadal productivity or on total life-span. Non-sterilizing acute doses reduce life-span to a greater degree initially than they reduce gonadal productivity. As the sterilizing uose is approached, the effec; on gonadal productivity becomes more significant than does the effect on life-span.

TOXICANT FORMATION IN CONDENSER COOLING SYSTEMS

Chlorinated Organic Constituents in Water

By using a coupled 3 t >CI tracer-high-resolution anion exchange chromatographic technique, over 60 stable chlorine-contair.ing organic constituents have be?n de­tected and separated fom chlorinated secondary efflu­ents from a domestic sanitary sewage treatment plant. With typical chlorination conditions employed at sew-ag<. -'-eatmeiit plants, approximately 17c of the chlorine dosage reads with organic constituents in the effluents to form stable chlorine-containing organic compounds (TaHe 5.7). Seventeen of these constituents have been tentatively identified by correspondence of elution volumes with those determined for reference standards (Table 5.7). S-Chlorouraci! and 4-chloroiesorcinol were selected for initial biotoxicity studies because they were present at higher concentrations (relative to the other constituents) and because they were representative of different chemical species.

To utilize high-resolution chromatography tor exami­nation of relatively unpolluted waters, the sample concentration procedure had to be modified. Because the organic constituents found in waters are usually

Table S.7. Tentative identifications and concentrations of chlorine-containing constituents in chlorinated effluents

of sewage treatment plants

Concentration of Tentative identification oiganic compound

(Mg/'irer)

5-Chlorouracil3 4.3 5-Chlorouridine 1.7 8-Chlorocaffeine 1.7 6-Chloroguanine 0.9 8-Chloro.xanthine 1.5 2-Chlorobenzoic acid 0.26, o Chlorosalicylic acid 0.24 4-Chloromandelic acid 1.1 2-Chlorophenol 1.7 4-Chloropn^nyIacetic acid 0.38 4-Chlorc ben zoic acid 1.1 4-CIiiorophe it 1 0.69 3-Thloroben^«ic acid 0.62 3-Chlorophenol 0.51 4-Chlororcsorcinol" 1.2 3-Chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid 1.3 4-ChJoro-3-methylphenol 1.5

9. J. S. Marshall, Ecology, *3, 598 -607 (1962). "Selected for initial biotoxicity studies.

43

fable 5.8. laithi sampling sues for the measurement of the molecular organic contaminants in nature! waters

Geographical location Physical location Reasons for selection

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Watts Bar Reservoir, Kingston. Tennessee

Fort Loudoun Lake, Knoxville, Tennessee

Mississippi River. Memphis, Tennessee South Fork of Holston River, Kingsport, Tennessee

Walker Branch Watershed

Cooling water inlet" to TV A steam plant

USN and MC Reserve Training Center

Lake Marion, South Carolina Santee Dam

Cooling water intake12

of Alien Steam Rant Just above junction with North Fork

Well characterized ecologically and relatively undisturbed Reasonably unpolluted water routinely chlorinated for anti-fouling purposes

Downstream from major city sewage treatment pl&nt

Example of waters with high natural organic content Nation's major watershed and site of samples taken for other studies

Downstream from large industrial organic chemical plant

"Inlets chosen to provide base line for later studies of effects of chlorination.

present at low concentrations, they are generally concentrated by low-temperature distillation and freeze-drying prior to chromatography. Samples of highly polluted waters such as effluents from sewage treatment plants are usually concentrated at least 1000-fold. However, samples of relatively clean waters (e.g., Watts Bar Lake) may be concentrated by factors of 10,000 or more. To avoid loss of organic constit­uents at these higher concentrations, the concentration procedure was modified to include a pretreatment with weak cation exchange resin to remove the bulk of the inorganic cations (e.g., calcium, magnesium, and so­dium) prior to low-temperature distillation and freeze-drying. The modified concentration procedure has been routinely used with relatively low losses of the soluble organic components for concentration of a variety of water types.

Six sampling sites have been selected to permit examination of several water types and determination of types and concentrations of organic constituents present in the waters (Table 5.8). Analytical chroma­tographic separations have been made on samples from each site. Preparative separations have been made on Lake Marion and Fort Loudoun Lake samples and are scheduled for the remaining samples. The organic residues will be analyzed to identify the organic constituents.1 J Determination of identities and concen-

10. R. L. JoUey, C. D. Scott, W. W. Pitt, Jr., and M. D. McBride, "Determination of Trace Organic Contaminants in Natural Waters by High-Resolution Liquid Chromatography," Proceedings of the First NSF Trace Contaminants Confe mce (in press).

irations of organics in these waters will assist in understanding and prediction of chlorination effects in cooling waters at power plants. Examination of waters near sites of several power plants using tht coupled 3 6 CI tracer high-resolution anion exchange chroma tographic technique is scheduled in the near future.

Effects of 5-Chlorouracil and 4-ChlororesoicinoJ on Hatchability

of Fish Eggs

Although chlorine has been routinely used as a biocide in condensers to maintain the efficiency of power plants, little interest has been given either the reaction products arising from chlorination or *He effects of these products on biota. This research was designed to determine the toxic effects of two stable chlorine-containing organics on hatchability of carp (Cyprinus carpio) eggs. The egg stage if considered a sensitive period of the life history of fish and, conse­quently, a good indication of effects at low concentra­tions of test chemicals. Tests were run ">n both wat;r-hardened and non-water-harder.ed eggs. For each chemical, tesN were run at two temperatures (21 ar.d 26°C) with nine concentrations (ranging fron^ 0.001 to 10 mg/liter) plus controls.

Comparison of the relative toxicity of the two chemicals on non-water-harriened eggs at the two temperatures (Table 5.9) indi' ates similar toxicity, with concentrations of 0.001 mg/'iter significantly lowering hatchability in all but the 26°C 5-chlorouracil tesi medium. There appears to be an area at the midrange of

44

concentrations (M).C* mg/liter) where no significant effect on hatchability was seen. Whether this resulted from some physical or physiological relationship be­tween toxicant levels «nd eggs or oossibly from some fungicidal activity of the chemical is not known. This does not detract from the result? since the eggs exposed to 0.001 mg/liter exhibited a significant reduction of hatchability. This level (0.001 mg/liter) cannot be taken as the lower limit for detecting effects, since lower concentrations were not tested.

Eggs that were water-nardcied before exposure to the toxicants were more resistint to the toxicants than were non-water-hardened eggs (Table 5.9). There were no toxic effects except at concentrations 5*0.1 mg/liter of 4-chlororesorcinol. No toxic effects of 5-chlorouracil within the concentration range tested were seen in water-hardened eggs at 21°C, whereas at 26°C hatch-ability was significantly lowered at concentrations >S mg/liter.

Table 5.9. Percent hatch of caip eggs Both non-water-hardened (NWH) and water-hardened

(WH) eggs were ttdtured n various concentrations of 4-chIororesorcinol or

S-chlorouracil at 21 or 26°C

Percent hatch Concentration ,\o _ o

(ppm) NWH WF NWH WH

4-CMoiOfeaorcinoi 0.000 (control) 85.1 99.0 35.9 99.4 0.001 73.6* 99.6 735" 99.2 0.005 77.4" 99.3 80.9" 99.7 0.010 80.6 98.3 79.4" 99.2 0.350 77.5* 99.8 835 99.2 0.100 84.7 965" *>3.8" 99.3 0.500 81.1 97.0" 56.0" 96.4" 1.000 79.1 97.3 78.0" 99.6 5.000 74.7 s 96.7* 74.0" 94.2"

10.000 64.6" 96.1 f l 57.7" 87.1"

5-CMorouracl

0.000 (control) 85.1 99.0 85.9 99.4 0.001 76.9* 99.1 83.0 99.8 0.005 74.3" 100.0 765" 99.1 0.010 80.1 99.2 77.6" 99.6 0.050 83.2 100.0 74.6" 99.6 0.100 73.3" 98.3 79.0" 99.8 0500 78.5" 99.7 795" 99.8 1.000 72.4* 100.0 82.4 98.8 5.000 74.8" 100.0 78.2" 965"

10.000 77.8* 100.0 785" 96.8"

"P^OJOS.

Both 5-chlorouracii ind 4-chlororesorcinol signifi­cantly decrease the hatchability of non-water-hardened carp eggs when tested in concentratioi s as low as 0.001 mg/liter (lower concentrations not tested). Exposure to the toxicants during the water-hardening process mere closely approximates natural conditions than does the experiment on water-hardened eggs. Since most of the previous research on toxicity of chlorine fails to account for these stable chlorine-containing com­pounds, results of this research are important not only as the first source of data on toxicity of specific stable chlorine-containing organics, but as an indication that such compounds, which are formed in reactions of chlorine with organic matter in natural water, need to be considered in future tests of chlorine toxicity.

Response of Zooptankton to Stable CWorine-Coatsining Organks

Zooplankton play a critical role in energy flow in grazing food chains of aquatic ecosystems. Their rapid turnover times (as low as four days) provide the potential for the rapid transfer of energy through this trophic !evel. A decrease in productivity of zooplankton can result in a decrease in energy flow through grazing food ch*ir.:;. Research reported here examined the effects of 5-chlorouracil and 4-chlororesorcinol on the zooplankter Daphnia magna. These chemicals were chosen because of their relatively high concentrations in treated effluents, and in the case of chloiouracil, because of its position as a pyrrolidine analog and the potential for its incorporation into genetic material. The parameters cho.ten were survivorship, maturation, and fecundity.

Figure 5.5 shows the L C S 0 data for various concen­trations of 5-chlorouracil and 4-chlororesorcinol. Al­though there is a dose-response ct:rve for 4-chloro­resorcinol, it does not appear to have any effect on survivorship at or below 0.1 ppm. The relatively oarallel LC 5 0 points for all concentrations of 5-chlorouracil reveal a lack of effect on survivorship at any concentra­tion tested. When onset of reproductive maturity was estimated, however, an inverse relationship was seen between the onset of production of young and the concentrafon of the chemical. A similar inverse rela­tionship occurred between total number of young produced and dose. The final parameter investigated was survivorship of progeny in chemicals until repro­ductive maturity. Survivorship of control animals ranged from 40 to 90% with a mean of 70%, whereas survivorship rangeo from 0 to 20% with a mean of 7% in the chemicals.

45

Although evaluation of LC S 0 data revealed no effects on survivorship of zooplankton by 5-chlorouracil at any concentration tested or 4-chIororesorcinol at concentra­tions <0.1 ppm, onset of reproduction, number of young produced, and survivorship of young were affected at all concentrations tested. These results suggest that these chemicals could reduce energy flow

through grazing food chains by decreasing production of zooplankton. These data show die necessity of utilizing more demographic population parameters than simple survivorship in toxicity tests, since those data suggested little or no effect resulting from either of the two chemicals tested.

KK) 0RNL-DWG 7 3 - 9 6 8 9

KK) J

50 50 1 4 i i Y <

20 t a t i 4 <

20 o <

20

f

o o 5 _J o 5 _J o en £ 2 o

<• en £ 2 o

1

<>

> 1 czz

0.5 0.5 • 4-CHLAmunc.3um,iWJi_ - * D _ C n LAmvunm,ii_ •

0.2 0.2

i 0.01 0.1 1

CONCENTRATION (ppm) 10 20

Fig. 5.5. LC S b feta points for Dapkma magna at 21°C The vertical axis gives the days to mortality of 50% of test animals, and the horizontal axis is the concentrations of the chemicals.

Part III. Ecosystem Analysis Program

D. E. Rekhle

6. Terrestrial Radionuclide Cycling and Effects

S. H. Anderson2

H. H. Andrews3

B. Bingham4

£. A. Bondietti1

F. S. Brinkley1

B. E. Dinger1

G.J.Dodson1

S. Draggan1

P. Dreyer5

R.C.Dahlman1

C. W. Francis' M. Hoglund3

G. Kennington6

R.Levy7

I K.Mann R. K. McConathy1

J.C.Randolph1

D. E. Reichle1

M. H. Shanks1

D. Shimshi7

J.D.Story1

C. E. Styron3

F.G.Taylor A. Tringali4

L. Tucker R. i. Van Hook1

R.Wexler8

M.Witkamp

Routine or accidental release of radioactive sub­stances from components of the nuclear fuel cycle to the environment requires information on the movement of nuclides in ecosystems and associated radiation effects on organisms. Research is designed to investigate the mobility of fission and waste products in terrestrial environments. A second objective is to relate nuclide concentrations to effects on biotic populations. A third objective is to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the retention or mobility of nuclides in ecosystems.

1. Dual capacity. 2. Great Lakes Colleges Association Participant, Kenyon

College. 3. Consultant. 4. NSF Undergraduate Research Participant. 5. ORAU Summer Student Trainee. 6. ORAU University Participant, University of Wyoming. 7. Afim guest, Volcanj Institute for Agricultural Research,

Dayan, Israel. 8. ORAU Undergraduate Research Participant, Emory Uni-

Elucidation of transfers of radionuclides in soil, plant, and animal components of forest and grassland eco­systems is a principal strategy of radionuclide cycling research. Pathways of movement are identified, and the processes of concentration, dispersion, or fixation by components of ecosystems are determined. Investiga­tion of radionuclide interception and transport in soil, plant, and animal components in conjunction with studies on the response of organisms and populations to assimilated radioactive substances is the approach used to assess the circulation and effect of hazardous substances in terrestrial ecosystems. Research on food-chain processes focuses on the fac*o.s affecting rates of nuclide transfer through pathways leading to man. Progress continues on relating responses of plant and animal populations exposed to chronic low-intensity gamma irradi ttion fields.

Research on radionuclide cycling and effects on ecosystems directly aids the assessment of impact related to hazardous substances (environmental impact statements). In particular, the dynamic processes of

46

47

accumulation, elimination, and concentration or dis­crimination are investigated for individuals and popula-t jns of ecosystems. Contributions have aided the interpretation of nuclide mobility from waste seeps at the Oak Ridge AEC reservation. Research on mecha­nisms of radionuclide transfer complements studies of fundamental biogeochemical cycles (!BP and Walker Branch Watershed projects).

SOIL CHEMISTRY

Research OR the chemistry of radionuclides in soils Involves: (1) a study of the basic mechanisms of sorption and desorption of strontium by oxisolic clays from th; southeastern United States and tropical Jamaica, (2) application of a simple bioassay technique for determining nuclide uptake coefficients by plants from soils, and (3) discovery that EDTA is in part responsible for 6 0 C o mobility in seepage from waste disposal trenches on the AEC Oak Ridge reservation.

Adsorption-Desorption of Strontium by Oxisok

Adsorption mechanisms of radiostrontium to soils have been investigated to determine exchangeable and nonexchangeable radiostrontium in neutral to calcar­eous sofls. Several mechanisms have been proposed: (1) reaction products (e.g., SrC03, SrS0 4, and strontium phosphates) are fonned in these soils, resulting in nonexchaiigeable radiostrontium. As much as 40% of the total 9 0 Sr present in the acid plow layer of some soils from the coastal plain of North Carolina was in a nonexchangeable form.9 (2) Nonexchangeable reten­tion by acid soils under the influence of the soil organic fraction was considered another mechanism.1 ° Extrac­tion with normal Sn^NOa^ for long periods implied that fixation was a diffusion process. We have con­sidered a third mechanism - that strontium fixation in these acid soils might be a result of diffusion of radiostrontium into interlayer regions of pedogenic chlorite or vermiculite containing gibbsite or brucite "islands" heterogeneously located in the interlayer region of the clay mineral. These islands would impede movement of cations into the interlayer region. Thus, the mechanism of movement of radiostrontium into and out of these interlayers would be a surface diffusion process.

Clay fractions from the surface and subsurface hori­zons of three soils containing appreciable quantities of

9. H. J. Roberts and R. G. Menzcl, / Agr. Food Chem. % 95-98(1961).

10. A. W. Taylor, Soil ScL 106,440 -4? (1968).

pedogenic chlorite from the AEC reservation at Oak Ridge, two surface sofls from Georgia, and four surface sofls from Jamaica were used in the experiment. The Georgia soils contained predominantly kaolinite in the day fraction, while the soils from Jamaica contained kaolinite, chlorite, vermiculite, and nx>ntmorillonite heavily coated with iron sesquioxides. Chemical treat­ments were used to (1) emove some of the gibbsite and brucite 'islands" from the interlay* r regions of pedo­genic chlorite (NaOAc, pH 5 at 80°C), (2) remove soil organic matter (H2 Oj in NaOAc, pH 5), and (3) remove amorphous coatings and crystals of iron oxides (Na-dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate). Removal of the outer gibbsite and brucite "islands" should enhance strontium movement further into the; interlayer regions of the day crystal and subsequently "fix" greater amounts of strontium. Adsorption of strontium to clays in which the organic matter or iron sesquixoides have been removed should delineate which component is responsi­ble for strontium fixation. Strontium-85 in 20 ml of distilled water was added to sodium-saturated clays and stored at room temperature for cne year before the soils were desorbed with Ca(N03)2.

The chemical treatments affected S 5 S r adsorption to all ORNL soils in a similar manner, namely, no treatment dramatically increased " sSr adsorption, but removal of soil organic matter and iron sesquioxides appreciably Icwered * 5Sr adsrrption (Table 6.1). Less than 10% of the adsorbed strontium remained on the clays in any of the treatments following the Ca(N03)2 washings. These data indicate that interlayer penetra­tion of radiostrontium m pedogenic chlorites is not a mechanism by which significant quantities of radio­strontium are held in a nonexchangeable form.

Botn soils from Georgia responded in an identical manner, namely, removal of soil organic matter greatly increased * sSr adsorption, and adsorbed 8 5 S r was difficult to remove with Ca(N0 3) 1 washings. Removal of soil organic matter by treatment with H^Oj appar­ently activated nonexchangeable strontium adsorption in these clays. The H 2 0 2 treatment possibly exposed and activated iron sesquioxides for nonexchangeable * sSr adsorption, because iron sesquioxide removal drastically lowered * sSr adsorption {Kd, 1 and <1). For the Jamaican clays, removal of organic matter with Hj0 2 enhanced nonexchangeable strontium adsorption even when iron sesquioxides, were removed following the H 2 0 2 treatment (Taoie 6.1). Wher. the iron sesquioxides were removed but organic matter was present, decreased adsorption and less retention after desorption with Ca(N03>2 were observed.

48

Table 6.1. of*sSron tlMe ani days

Adsorption Pu cent of adsorbed S 5 S r not extracted

TtttMaM* Adsorption After three 20-ml Followed by two 20-ml

V washes with 0.01 Af washes with CafNO,h lJaTCaCNOsh

Enwty alt h m (Oak Ridge)

Curcot 34 8.5 7.0 AnwptmwAJ 57 33 2.7 Ot&mcMtitsi 26 7.9 5.1 Pafsac-ioxides 41 2.7 1.6 0<K»» ^ nmtter £«d 16 6.9 4.0

F* vatoioxides

Gael (Georgia)

A^orffeaasAI 5 1.8 9.7 Cfccmieartter 68 67 60 Fe tact*ioxides 1 <1J <IJS OtgaAv matter and 0.8 <2J <TS

F e * # jftMuics

S-34(Jaa«Mca)

Aiaorr^ott; Ai 52 13 12 ftgurc .iwrter 68 81 63 Fe seaf^xjdes 22 0.7 <0.1 Organic matter and 65 67 46

Fe sesqoioxides

'Adsorption tteftrted by the distribution coefficient (Kd), which is the fraction of * sSr adsorbed per gram divided (v ! » fraction la solution (ml).

Thus, treatment with H 2C* wrongly activates non-exchangeable 8 S S r adsorption. Ihe data also suggest mat removal of soil organic matter exposes sites on these clays for * s Sr adsorption. The activated chemical state of the remaining trace levels of sesquioxide following incomplete extraction by dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate may partially explain the mechanism of strontium adsorption and retention. Removal of soil organic matter appears to be the key factor; therefore, this hypothesis is being tested in experiments where soil organic matter is removed with other oxidizing agents (NaOCl). The research wiU examine the hypothesis that the day sites of oxisols which complex organic matter ate tine same sites involved in adsorption and retention of strontium.

of , 3 7 C » b y Aspergillus tiger

Soil contaminated with ' 3 7 C $ (4S65 dis iron' 1 g" 1) was sampled below burial ground 4 and tested in the laboratory for , 3 7 C s fixation and biological availa­bility. The tendency of micaceous minerals in Oak Ridge soils to strongly fix cesium was confirmed by the

fact that only 10% of the ' 3 7 C s in this soil exchanged with stable cesium (1 M CsN0 3 ) after 120 hr of equilibration. Biological availabihty was studied using the Aspergillus niger11 method of estimating available potassium in soils. The principle of this test is that the soil fungus will "exhaust" the soil of available potas­sium and approximate that which is available to plants. To determine the effect of potassium a>rtendments on 1 3 7 Cs uptake, potassium was added at two levels, 0.1% and ! .0% (soil basis). The results (Table 6.2) show that potassium increases fungal growth, especially at the 0.1% level of amendment. At 1% potassium, the ' 3 7 C s concentration in the mycelium was reduced by 50%; potassium is apparently competing for uptake - an observation corjistent with literature evidence of the competitive inhibition by potassium on biological up­take of alkali earth cations.' 2

11. A. Henoch, E. Troog, and E. B. Fred, Soil Set 35, 259-77(1933).

12. A. Rothstein, pp. 23-29, in Cellular Functions of Membrane Transport, «d. by J. Hoffman, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1964.

49

Tabk6~2. Exhaustive extraction of l-1Ctbr Atpergmm miter in lefatina to nnt •*•*•• amadamts

Glucose and supplemental mineral salts are provided to maximize mycelial growth

Soil added Potassium Percent ' 3 7 Cs extracted Mycelial wekht ! 3 7C» (do/mm par gma of pet flask (g) added(%) pet gram of soil" (gperflasfcT mycefeun)

2.5 0 0.53 0.45 $4 0.1 1.20 1.17 47 1.0 0.73 1.42 24

5.0 0 0.90 0.76 54 0.1 1.46 1.27 53 1.0 0.77 1.43 25

*CesRun-137 in mycelium (each flask) divided by pans of sol in flask. 6 Ash-free basis.

Aspergillus niger was also used to evaluate the biological availability of l 3 7 C s . The biological concen­tration factor ( 1 3 7 C s in fungus per unit l 3 7 C s in soil) for growth in 2.5 and S.O g of soil (no potassium amendment) was 1.2 X 10~ 2 , which is remarkably similar (2.6 to 3.2 X 10~ 2) to that previously observed from continuous cropping of White Oak Lake scfl by millet. 1 3 The use of Aspergillus as a bioassay organism is being tested with other radionuclides because such a technique represents a rapid and convenient method of estimating phni uptake coefficients needed in models of radionuclide movement and assessment of hazard to man.

Cobalt-60-EDTA Complex in Waste Pit Seepage Water

Cobalt-60 is leaking from trench 7, formerly used for disposal of intermediate-level wastes, at the Oak Ridge burial grounds. The seepage rate is correlated with precipitation, and the *°Co activity of the seepage water ranges from 400 to 500 dis mm"1 m l - 1 . Cobalt-60 in the surface soil near the main seepage area ranges from 100,000 to 700,000 dis/min per gram of soil. An investigation of the seepage water containing *°Co revealed that the radioactivity was associated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), a common complexing agent which has been widely used for cleanup of equipment and decontamination of labora­tory facilities The concentration of EDTA in the seepage water was approximately 10~ 3 M. The persist­ence (nonbiodegradabihty) of EDTA in waste and in

13. S. 1. Anerbach et al., Environmental Sciences Dk. Aram, frogr. Rep. Sept SO. 1972, ORNL4848, p. 2.

the biotk environment adds a new dimension to the cycling of radionuclides in terrestrial ecosystems tr­eatise the substance nay foiai numerous complexes with hazardous eLments (fission products, tiansuranics) and enhance their mobility. Investigations on the cycling of FlXTA-complexed substances are continuing with principal focus on treatment which cun either neuti?lize the mobility of EDTA or enhance its biodegradability.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF COOLING TOWER DRIFT

Cooling towers are often used as an alternative for dissipating heat generated during the production of electric power. The thermal effect on adjacent terres­trial communities usually is negligible. Direct and cumulative effects of dissolved substances in drift from cooling towers are under study. Cooling tower effects research has focused on (1) accumulation of chromium in plants and soil in the enirons of mechanical-draft towers, (2) effects of salt (NaCl) on vegetation follow­ing applications of simulated brackish water to five species, and (3) response of tobacco to chromium in drift from a mechanical-draft tower.

Accumulation of Cktoaahm from Cooling Tower Drift in the Tenestrial Environment

Heat dissipated by cooling towers at the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant (ORGDP) is comparable to a 500- to 1000-MW electric generating plant. The towers have been in operation since die mid-1940's, with chromate treatment of makeup water beginning in

50

1957. The effects of algjcides and corrosion-inhibiting chemicals transported in the cooling tower drift are being investigated in the environs of the ORGDP facility. This research is part of an t Uenshre study on environment^ aspects of cooling tower operation. From a field investigation, the concentrations of chro­mium and zinc have been determined in adjacent forests *nd grassland. The data show chromium accumulation from 17 years of drift deposition, but only negligible increases of zinc over background levels were found. Documentation of chromium and zinc concentrations in vegetation and soii in relation to the operating history of ORGDP is providing valuable data for estimating the magnitude -f environmental impact from cooling towers at other nuclear facilities.

Vegetation and soil samp'es were collected from five radial transects along the axis of the mean winJ direction (northeast) with plot locations extending beyond 1 mile from the cooling towers. The area sampled was restricted to the AEC reservation. Vegeta­tion and soils were also collected from a control site located on Chestnut Ridge, remote from drift, for base-line or background determinations.

Concentrations of chromium in vegetation (micro­grams per gram of dry weight) were highest adjacent to the cooling tower, decreasing exponentially with dis­tance. Maximum concentrations 15 m from the towers

ranged from 339 to 644 pg/g for grass and litter, respectively (Fig. 6.1). A slight increase in concentra­tion in each component was noted at 300 m, sub­sequently decreasing to near-background levels (1 jtg/g) at 1800 m. Chromium levels in litter are a factor of 2 above those of grasses and forbs.

Soils were divided into increments of 0 to 1 and 0 to 5 cm depths and were analyzed for available chromium. Concentrations decreased rapidly, reaching near-background levels of 0.5 jig/g at 300 m. An unexpected increase in concentration was apparent at 1200 m, subsequently decreasing to background levels at 1800 m from the cooling towers (Fig. 6.2). One factor that may account for the bimodal shape of the curve is the distribution of ground cover of vegetation, primarily Festuca, which occurs to a distance of 450 m from the cooling towers. Dense tussocks of grass coupled with an accumulation of litter evidently increase retention of chromium in the vegetation component at 300 m (Fig. 6.1). The increased accumulation in grass may decrease m* vement to the soil. In contrast, grass is sparse from 900 to 1500 m, and the areas of bare soil may directly intercept drift, thus accounting for the increased chromium concentration (Fig. 6.2) observed in soil.

Additional research is in progress to distinguish the fraction of chromium in vegetation which is attribut­able to aerial deposition and retention on foliage from

•000

500

125 250 T : £

500 DISTANCE (meters)

1000

ORNL-MG 7V963W2

1500

= t \— =n= -+-— • — GRASS —-*-— FCRB — o — LITTER

o 2000 3000 4000 DISTANCE FROM COOLING TOWER (ft)

eooo

Fif. 6.1. Chromium concentration* in vegetation, illustrating the transfer of an increased quantity of the trace dement from cooling nwer drift to the terrestrial environment. Background concentrations for the components range from 0.6 to 2.0 ppm.

51

Oftm-OVC 73-12306

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1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 DISTANCE FROM COOLING TOWER (ft)

6000 7000

Fig. 6.2. auonuan concentration m soil, extracted ia anunonnun acetate adjusted to pH 4.8. Vetrtatioc cover between 1000 and 2000 ft is dense fescue; exposed soils occur from 3000 to 5000 ft. Background levels, denoted by the horizontal tines, from 0.4 to 0.6 ppm.

the fraction assimilated from sofl via root uptake. Additional soil analyses are also in progress to identify the soil fraction (silt, clay, etc.) that fixes the trace element.

Effects of Salt (Nad) from Simulated Cooling Tower Drift on Vegetation

For a given installation, especially where the concen­tration of solids in circulating water is high, there exists a potential for foliar damage due to atmospheric concentrations of salts. However, natural precipitation and moisture from drift usually combine to transport a major fraction of total effluent to the soil. The potential impact of cooling tower salts upon terrestrial vegetation can be essentially considered as irrigation of

surrounding areas with saline or brackish water. The problem is a general lack of quantitative mfonnauoa regarding the relative salt tolerances of forest species. A study was designed to provide data on the impact of short-term exposure to salt (NaCl) deposition equiva­lent to that which might occur ne«r an installation using brackish water for makeup.

Five species were tested for response to NaCl applica­tions: yellow poplar, redbud, red oak, white oak, and soybeans. During an initial nine-week period, Nad solution was applied to the three treatment groups of each species at rates equivalent to 3.37 X 10s kg km" 1

month-' (I), 8.92 X 103 kg km" 7 month'1 (II), and 5.8 X 10* kg km" 2 month'1 (III). A fourth group of trees was maintained as control. Biweekly irrigation with tap water served to maintain sois near field

52

OMR.-INM 73 -1*307

CONTROL

200

YELLOW POPLAR

0 RED BUD

g§J RED OAK

(~1 WHITE OAK

BB SOYBEAN

TREATMENT 1 TREATMENT 2 TREATMENT 3

Fnj.6.3. Net pfcttosyatnem rate* » d act pkotofyvdMas of treated plants 30*C leaf temperature and P.S5 cal an ~* min~! (0.3 to 3.0 ft) ngfat intensity.

as percent of coatxoL Rates measured at

capacity. At weekly intervals throughout the experi­ment, the salt content and pH were determined from sofl and leachate samples. No visible symptoms of salt damage were evident after nine weeks of salt applica­tions. At this time, salt additions were increased [equivalent to 3.80 X 10 3 kg km' 2 month'1 (I), 1.90 X 10* kg km' 2 month 1 (II), and 1.90X 10 s kg km' 2

month'1 (HI)], and salt was added routinely with irrigation water for six weeks.

Following termination of salt applications, replicate samples of five species were selected for CO? exchange measurements of net photosynthesis rates (Fig. 6.3). Species in group I, exposed to cumulative salt levels1 4

equivalent to 3.42 X 10 3 kg km' 2 month'1 (31 lb/acre), besides redbud and soybean from group II, show levels of net photosynthesis in excess of controls, implying an effect. Small amounts of chloride are known to stimulate growth in some species.15 Only redbud and soybean exposed to cumulative salt applica­tions equivalent to 1.22 X 104 kg km' 2 month'1 (109 lb/acre) showed continued enhancement of photo­synthesis. Visual examination revealed chlorosis and yellowing in older foliage of red oak, white oak, and soybean. Sever* tip burn and browning of up to 50% of

14. Salt lend based on: ((total ssJt appned)/(3.3 months' dotation of experiment)) (cr aversion factor to express as kg/km2).

15. F. M. Eaton, chap, tin Diagnostic Criteria for Plants and Soils, ed. by H. D Chapman, Univ. of Calif. Press, 1966.

emergent foliage occurred in yellow poplar. Cumulative applications equivalent to 1.03 X 10 s kg km' 2

month'1 (919 lb/acre) (III) resulted in marked depres­sion of CO) assimilation in all species. Foliage of all plants exhibited severe tip bum, yellowing, and brown­ing. Extensive defoliation occurred in yellow poplar, with new growth turning brown immediately after emergence.

Due to the possible cumulative effects of relatively low salt applications over long time intervals, caution should be exercised in extrapolating the ecological implications of these results. Nonetheless, considering that seedlings are, in general, much more sensitive to salt effects than mature trees, several generalizations can be made. With photosynthetic performance as an indicator of growth, and incorporating obvious visual symptoms of salt damage, it would appear that chronic salt deposition in the range of 3 X 10* to 9 X 103 kg km' 2 month'1 (27 to 80 lb/acre) poses little threat to these plant species. Cumulative applications in excess of 1.2 X 10* kg km' 2 month'1 (107 lb/acre) will probably cause foliar damzge and some reduction in grcvih of yellow poplar and oaks. Hants growing in areas exposed to Nad deposition on the order of 1 X 10s kg km' 2 month'1 (892 lb/acre) would differ severe damage and probably would not survive. Although addition?! investigation is warranted on the responses of plants to long-term exposures to deposits of drift salts, the preliminary information obtained

53

from these tests can be used to identify potential for damage to native and agricultural communities sub­jected to cooling tower drift.

Responses of Tobacco to Chromium in Cooling Tower Drift

The effects of chromium from cooling tower drifi on biota are unknown. Tobacco, Nicjtiana tabacum, was exposed to drift from Csk Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant cooling towers to assess the effect of aerosols containing chromium on plant growth. Tobacco was selected because it is reported to be sensitive to elevated levels of chromium ( C r 0 4

2 ) . 1 4 Three-month-oid tobacco plants (Kentucky Burky 21 -ariety) in a 2:1 soil-vermiculite medium were placed at four locations along the axis of the most frequent wind directions (southwest and northeast). Forty potted plants were

16. B. D. Soane and H. D. Saunders, Soi ScL 88,322 (19S9).

400

placed at each distance (IS, 200, 600, and 1400 m) from the cooling towers. Control plants were located remote from drift on Chestnut Ridge. Four plants were harvested at one-week intervals from each location, and in addition to chromium concentration, total plant jtomass, leaf biomass, leaf area, and general vigor were determined. Leaf size proved to be the most sensitive parameter for assessing effects on growth.

All plants accumufeced chromium above die back­ground levels within one week (Fig. 6.4), and the concentraticn in plants IS m from the cooling towers was approximately 30 times background concentration. These plant* attained a maximum foliar concentration of 237 ± 18 ppm after five weeks. Accumulation but lower maximum concentrations of chromium occurred in plants at 200, 600, and 1400 m (Fig. 6.4). The decrease in concentration after week S was related to a 40% reduction in the chromate of cooling tower makeup water. Decrease in the chromium level in

0RNL-OSG 73-12308

TIM

Fit. 6.4. InterceptiM of duosaium by tobacco plants exposed t< (Cr) in ppm. Standard errors are within 10% of mean values. Concent (standard error).

=? K> ^ 1 » •

mi L200m ^ * <

^ . J >

^ " ^ *~* I *•"• ' l y b o o m i

1400 m>

b^1

1400 m> 1400 m>

3 4 5 TIME (weeks)

8

Fit. 6.4. Interception of duosniam by tobacco plants exposed to cooting tower drift Data points are mean foliar concentrations (Cr) in ppm. Standard errors are within 10% of mean values. Concentration in controls, indicated by the dash line (—), is 3.10 * 0.15 (standard error).

54

makeup water was reflected by reduced concentration of chromium La tobacco plants at each distance and further illustrates the sensitivity of tobacco plants as receptors of airborne contaminants from industrial sources.

The effect of increased quantities of chromium is illustrated by the 75% reduction ir leaf size of plants at IS- and 200-m distance compared with controls and those located at distances of 600 and 1400 n. {p<g. 6.5). The difference was statistically significant (/*< 0.01), and these data constitute ihe first reported effects on plant growth from a chemical in cooling tower drift. The effects were manifested at chromium concentra­tions <10 ppm in foliage. This observation is consistent with the report that 5 ppm was toxic when the chromium was supplied to tobacco in nutrient cul­ture.1 6 Similar effects would not be expected with

OWL- OMG 7 3 - W4Y9

v'tg. 6.5. Effects of increased chromni<n concentrations on leaf size in tobacco exposed to cooling tower drift. Note the similarity in leaf area of plants ai each distance one week post exposure as contrasted to leaf size at weak 7. Leaf size of plants 600 and 1400 m from the tower was four times greater than foliage at 15 and 200 m.

other native and agronomic plants at equivalent concen­trations of chromium because tobacco appears to be one of the most sensitive of all plants to trace concentrations of chromium.

DYNAMICS OF CORA?", ZINC, AND CESIUM IN MICROCOSMS AND RADIOACTIVE SEEPS

Kinetics of Mineraiizarjon and bnmobiJzarJon of Co, Zn, and Cs in Microcosms

Previous microcosm studies with tracer nuclides have provided information on transfer of nutrient elements in natural terrestrial and aquatic systems. Recent experiments were prompted by the need for informa­tion on fc-jisfer of cobalt and zinc around waste pit seeps and the influence of organic substances and microflora on this transfer. Microcosm studies showed that in the presence of readily decomposable soluble organic matter (glucose), twice as much *°Co appeared in the leachate compared with the quantity remaining in sand (Fig. 6.6). In *He presence of less decomposable insoluble organic matter (cellulose), from five to ten times more nuclide remained in the sand upon leaching than when organic substances were absent. Thus organic-substances by themselves may increase or decrease nuclide mobility, even in the absence of decomposer organisms.

Microbes reduced nuclide leaching by immobilization. After ten days, 75% of the cobalt and 85% of the zinc were immobilized in soil with glucose as the energy source (Fig. 6.66). Cellulose additions almost doubled net immobilization of cobalt in comparison with sand containing no organics, in which only 15% of both cobalt and zinc was retained by the microflora. Thus, soluble organics may increase nuclide movement in soil when the microflora is inactive, as during the winter or dry spells. Under conditions favorable for microbial development, soluble organics decrease nuclide leaching because they stimulate microbial immobilization of nuclides.

Results obtained with sand as the soil medium were confirmed using natural soil and nondecomposing leaves of Impatiem hi/lore, the dominant herba­ceous plant of the radioactive seep at trench 7. When leached at the rate of locsl precipitation (about 2.5 cm/week), the leaves lost 25% of their 6 0 Co in one month, whereas decomposing leaves lost aJmo«t 30%. Microbial mineralization increased 6 0 Co release by approximately one-fifth (Fig. 6.7A). In contrast, the combination of leaves and 2.5 cm of soil lost five times more 6 0 Co in the absence than in the presence of active

55

100 OftNi- Owe 7 3 - «230»

? 80

o UJ

ACH 60

UJ - j

o 40

20

io) ^*-~~"~'—*

> GLUCOSE

SALTS

io) ^*-~~"~'—*

> GLUCOSE

SALTS

/ ^

> GLUCOSE

SALTS

r \ CELLULOSE

l/A^~ '//

10 15 TIME (days)

20 25

Fig. 6.6. Mineralization and vumokSSutiam of cot«.t m sand. («) Low or *°Co from sand cultures with sab sohitiom (no organics) and with glucose or ceUutosc added during 20 days in the absence of an active microflora, (b) ImmoHization of **Co in salt cultures for same treatments as in a but in the presence of an active microflora.

microflora (Fig. 6.76). Here, even though the decom­posing leaves lost more 6 0 C o than the nondecomposmg, subsequent immobilization of the °°Co by microflora thriving on soluble organics from the leaves effectively prevented leaching of 6 0 C o through the soil.

The net effect of simultaneous mineralization and immobilization depends on decomposability of the organic substrate and the environmental conditions which favor microbial activity. The decomposer micro­flora forms a feedback mechanism resulting hi con­trolled release and conservation of elements in the detritus to soil solution and root pathway. Mic/ocosm experiments provided background information on kinetics of radi contaminants which, in turn, helps to understand and predict nuclide movement around waste pit seeps in the Oak Ridge reservation.

Distribution of Radionuclides in Seeps

Distribution of 6 0 C o in bioia and soil was determined in a *°Co inventory of the waste seep at trench 7.

Aboveground radiation was charted as a first indication of nuclide distribution in soil. Highest concentrations along the branch between the seep and White Oak Creek indicate surface transfer by water and possibly eroded sediment during high flow rate. Surface; radia­tion was highly correlated (r = 0.98) with the 6 0 C o content of the top 2.5 cm of soil. Vertical distribution of 6 0 C o in soil showed transport to a 40-crii depth. Distributions of ' °Co in the dominant plant (hnpatkns biflora) and in the upper 2.5 cm of the sofl were positively correlated (r = 0.79). impatient can thus be one indicator of 3oil content of *°Co, but plant concentrations (wt/wt) were seven times less than those in soil, indicating a discrimination n»ther than bioac-cumulation. Impetiens contained collectively less than 1% of all 6 0 C o in the seep area. A radioassay of increment cores taken from frees around the seep showed even lower concentrations of 6 0 C o than in Impatiens. The cores also indicated the presence of 6 0 C o in the area for as long as 20 years. The greatest amount of 6 0 Co in a single tree was about 42/LtCi, but

56

ORNL-OWG 73-125*0

X)

20 h-

10

NET MICR08IAL MINERALIZATION

o°

K) 15 20 25 TIME (days)

30

10 15 TIME '.(toys)

Ffc.6.7. Leadn^of cobntt from leaf litter and soi. (a) Loss of *°Co from leaf litter of Impmtiem during 30 days of periodic teaching in toe absence (3*Q and presence (25"Q of an active microflora, (b) Loss of 6 0 Co from Imjmtiera leaf litter on 2.S cm of field sofl during 20 days of periodic leaching in the absence (3°Q and presence (25°Q of an active microflora.

afl trees together contained less 6 0 C o than the Impatiens ground cover. Thus, the major factor for '°Co distribution is flow of wster. Seasonal uptake and release of *°Co by biota affeci only about 1% of the *°Co in *he seep area.

FOOD-CHAIN DYNAMICS

Biological Accwx olarion and Elimination of 1 3 7 Csaid 6 0 CoinQisa§

Most nuclear facilities have large buffer areas planted with various grasses or shrubs. These areas are ideal habitats f w numerous small mammals and birds includ­

ing quafl - populations which can be harvested and consumed by man. Quafl will feed on mast along the edge of forests, on fruits and seeds in the open field, and on insects living in the field and wooded areas. This study was designed to determine the bioaccumulation and retention of the fission products l 3 7 C s and 6 0 C o as a function of different food types.

The experiment was initiated with one-week-old chicks exposed to a contaminated food source for 90 days. The four food sources included water, seed plus water, seed, and crickets. Seeds were tagged by soaking them in an isotope solution, and crickets were allowed to feed on ' 3 7 Cs- and 6 0 Co tagged food before being fed to quail. Biological accumulation of 1 3 7 C s (Fig. 6.8) proceeded at a similar rate (200 dis min'1 g~'

57

day"1) for water and seed sources. Accumulation from crickets proceeded at a rate of 5000 dis muT1 g~' day' 1 , primarily because the concentration of' 3 7 Cs in crickets was an order of magnitude higher than the other cesium sources. Accumulation from water alone occurred at a slower :ate (SOdismuT1 g"1 day - 1 ) . At the end of each feeding period, the contaminated food

or water was removed, and biological half-lives were determined. Biological half-lives of' 3 7 C s ia relation to food source were: water, 11 days, seed plus water, 14 days; seed, 6 days, and crickets, 7 days.

Cobalt-60 accumulation by quail (Fig. 6.9) was more dissimilar among food types than ' 3 7 Cs because of its low digestive assimilation. Accumulation rates of **Co

0MH-0M7)- t tO«4 OK Ti-UO«3

£ >• a 3 •

UJ _l o z

w2

1R j , i 1 , 1 1R 1 , 1

ED ~^ 5* —1\-~ - 3r^t

M _ J '—~ —

=t I ' r

i ' T — t — • i

\ _L i I ._

«r

5 -

! -1 i H ... « !

>e«. ancta ETS-H 1 ETS-

— ,

i

i r

H K) 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0

TIME (days)

F*6.8. qui for torn food types.

acanrntfatioa and letcatioa of , 3 7 C s m F * 6.9. B.otofical qui for foar food types.

of ••Cofci

58

m quail from water, seed, and crickets were 22,26, and 3000 ub muT1 g M day'1 respectively. The data for **Co accumulation from seed plus water were too variable to determine an uptake rate. Variability in whole-body *°Co concentrations for all food sources is a result of the gut contents of cobalt at the time of counting. Elimination of *°Co from quail followed the pattern for : 3 7 C s except the biological half-lives were longer: for water, 27 days; for seed plus water, 16 days; for seed, 10 days; and for crickets, 13 days. Average whole-body concentration ratios in quail, based on all four contamination sources (water, seed, seed plus water, and cricket) were 0.27 for 1 3 7 C s and 0.18 for "Co. However, water plus seed resulted in a ratio of 2.4 for both 1 3 7 C s and *°Co. The ratios demonstrate the increased.availability of these radionuclides from the food source consisting of a combination of liquid and soBd constituents. Thus, a quafl population ex­posed to an accidental release of , 3 7 C s and *°Co would accumulate these radionuclide*, and for ingestion of both contaminated water and food they would concentrate these materials to levels which exceed the quantity in foods. The body burden would be related to length of exposure, age of animals, concentration in environment, and the food source for the animals.

RADIATION EFFECTS

Responses of Arthropod Populations from In Situ Exposure to a Field Radiation Source

The addition of small quantities of radioactivity from civilian nuclear sources to the biosphere requires sophis­ticated studies of dose-effect relationships in the range of chronic low-intensity exposures. Arthropod popula­tion responses to an in situ radiation source are being evaluated for exposure to dose rates which are at least an order of magnitude lower than those of previous experiments. Sampling of the arthropod communities began in 19CS four months prior to application of a fallout simulant and continued twice a month during the first year and monthly during the succeeding three years. Seventy-five arthropod taxa have been sorted from samples collected at each site.

Although arthropod population response was still variable three to four years after fallout application (dose rates 13 to 2.4 rads/day), the density of individ­uals was consistently less in the contaminated areas (Table 63). Four taxa had significantly reduced popula­tion densities in the contaminated enclosure during the second summer (1970), but three of the four recovered by the third summer (1971). By the middle of the

fourth summer (1972), four taxa recovered, and only one additional taxon exhibited reduced density. At the 5% level of probability, however, one would expect to find significant differences for 4 out of 75 arthropod taxa each year merely by chance. Therefore, the number of arthropod taxa showing seasonal differences in population density in the contaminated enclosure is not considered to be statistically significant.

Although low-level irradiation of uthropod popula­tions induced no appreciable change in species composi­tion, possible effects on the community structure could occur. When arthropod taxa are grouped into larger taxonomic categories (e.g., beetles) or into trophic categories (primary or secondary consumers) and when these groups are evaluated by diversity index tech­niques, responses of irradiated arthropods are signifi­cantly different from controls. Trends are presently being evaluated using an "index of dissimilarity" to refine further the significance of arthropod population response in relation to low dose rates of gamma and beta radiation. If the significantly different trends continue, a radiation effect on insect populations will be demonstrated following exposure to an in situ source at a relatively low dose rate. Such observations will represent the first reported record of ecosystem effects at dose rates in the range of 2 to 13 rads/day.

SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION

Development of new techniques and the application of unique concepts to the solution of scientific ques­tions are important spin-offs from radionuclide cycling research. The new methodologies aid the investigation of radionuclide mobility in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, and new techniques aid the general investigative efforts ii; the scientific community. Ex­amples of technique development and application are: (1) the use of the electron microprobe to determine element concentrations in soil microcommunities and (2) new methods for determining the energy require­ment for locomotor activity of small mammals.

Microprobe Analysis of Soil Microbes

Microbes are important modulators of the element cycling process during decomposition and of mineral transformation' involving the uptake, immobilization, and transport of elements in the soil system. X-ray energy detection and microprobe analysis techniques have been developed to determine concentrations of elements in soil microcommunities. Quantification of elements in microbes and their substrates is a major goal

59

Table 43 .

Taxon

Carabi -. t (ground beetles)

Phabcridae (shining flo beetles)

Simubjdae(bbckfnesoj buffalo gnats)

Kolim bifkh (fcafbopper)

Foduridae (springtaib)

Suanthuridae (springtaDs)

Trombicu&dae (harvest mites)

Aphididae (aphids, plant Bee)

Thysanoptera (thrips)

ted pet than m coatroi | 1970. Density was not

1971 cr la iiiHmmwn 1972

Density was 84% less in con (P«.0.01,dJ. = 5) in significantly different in Density in contaminated pen was 76ft Ins than in control (P < 0.05, AS. = 6) in snnuner 197a In *mam 1971 nndsnnuner 1972. density of confrimwiird popnJition control popwlation Density was 34% less in contaminated pen than in control i (P< 0.05, i f . = 6) in snnuner 1970. In snnwner 1971 and i 1972, density of contanunated popwbrjon was central Density was 12% less in contaminated pen than in control (P < 0.05, Af. = 6) in snnnncr 1970 and 80% lent (P < 0.05, dJ. = 6). Dung andsnnuner 1972 there was no difference m density of popnhtions Density in contanunated pen was 18% less than control pen (P < 0.05. d\f.» 6) in sarmner 197!. Density was not different in midsummer 1972

1971

Density in awtanunated pen (P < 0.05, i f . = 5) in comparable with control Density declined 72% in contaminated pen <P < OJ05, dX. - 5) m summer 1971. Density in contaminated pen was coi in midsnmmrr 1972

mer 1971 (P < 0.05, dX = 6). 1972,bnt(

Disappeared from contaminated pen during sn Reappeared in contaminated pen in midsnmmc was 90% kss than control (P <0.0S,dX = 5) Densit) dedined 85% is contaminated pen (P<0-05,dX = 5) mi 1972

of this research. A scanning electron microscope and microprobe analysis system determines concentration of elements (from boron to uranium) from character­istic x-ray images and secondary electron images. The system can detect element concentrations in excess of 1% (10,000 ppm) of total elements, and the detection sensitivity of microprobe analysis (~10~ 1 6 ) compares favorably with that of radioassay techniques.

The microprobe has been used to study element concentrations and distributions related to microbial immobilization and mineralization of radioelements in microcosms. In situ analyses have disclosed several elements of special interest to mineral cycling studies (Fig. 6.10). Cobalt-60 occurred in a detectable concen­tration in fungal spores but was not detectable in the hypha, sporangiophore, or substrate. The semiquantita­tive data (Fig. 6.10) indicate binaccurnulation of 6 0 C o in spores relative to the sand substrate. Such accumula­tion of a radionuclide is in sharp contrast to conven­

tional patterns of plant uptake; dss rinaiaarjon rather man accumulation is Aeniore common process.

Research is continuing on die design of reference standards applicable to biological material. Several techniques to improve the observability of microbial specimens have also been developed or modified. A shadowing technique employing chromium was found to improve specimen conductivity. A tissue conduct­ance technique17 for examining uncoated specimens has been adapted for use with soil microbes. Specimen structure and the spatial relationships between microbe and substrate have been enhanced through the use of critical point phenomena1 s and low-temperature speci­men shadowing with a metal plasma generator. Studies

17. Electron MkrtKCopy In Nthology Proceedtntt, HI Re­search Imitate, Chicago, 1973.

18. T. F. Anderson, Trtns. N.Y. Acad. Set 13, 130-34 (1951).

60

CaJL-OW 73-t23H

id*

W 5

S*NO

Si P S K Co

aie m progress which use these techniques to microbes in aquatic systems and to develop appropriate reference standards for the quantification of mineral uptake in components of microcosms.

Energy Coat of Locomotor Activity of!

An automated gas analysts system possessing high sensitivity and the capacity to measure CO* and 07 at

discrete intervals over relatively long periods has been developed for determining daily metabolic rate (DMR) of small mammals under almost natural field condi­tions. In addition to estimating DMR by gas analysis alone, this system is used hi conjunction with the l V * 0 isotope method for monitoring free-ranging energy metabolism. The rationale of the 03 * *0 method is based upon the premise that the oxygen of respiratory COi is in isotonic equilibrium with the oxygen of the body water. The hydrogen of the body water is lost mainly in water, while the oxygenis lost both in water and in the CO3 produced in respiration. Therefore, the turnover rate of body water oxygen is significantly higher than that of hydrogen, and the difference in the two turnover rates is proportional to the CO, produced. The two turnover rates are deter­mined by labeling these two components of the body water with stable isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium) and oxygen (' s O): the isotonic turnover rate is calculated from the change in specific activity of initial and final blood water samples. The " V ' O is injected into experimental animals, of which some are placed in metabolism chambers and others are released in a live-trapping area after tagging with the isotopes. After a day, final blood samples are taken from die animals in the metabolism chamber and from the recaptured free-ranging animals from die trapping area. Individual dairy metabolic rates, calculated from gas exchange cata, are being used tocahbrafe the I V ' O method as well as measure DMR under natural tempeiatuie and radiation condition*, but where locomotor activity b restricted. Compaiison of metabolic rates for laboratory and free-ranging animals permits an estimate of die energy cost of locomotor activity. A canbration experi­ment has been completed, but comparison of results awaits ipcctiometric determination of ' * 0 .

7. Plutonium Research and Applied Studies D.E.Rekfak

E. A. BondietU1 S. A. Reynolds2

R-CDaidman1 O. M. Seabnd1

L. D. Eyman1 Tsuneo Tamura1

E. R. Eastwood1 J. R. TrabaOca1

The. report represents the beginning of a new pro­grammatic aiw of research on the fate and effects of actjnide elements in aquatic and terrestrial environ­ments. Research is directed particularly toward defining environmental source terms for the nuclear power industry and evaluating pathways of movement, resi­dence times, and secondary reaction products which affect the mobility of these hazardous elements along food chains leading to man. Increasing quantities of plutonium wul be used to fuel reactors to produce electrical oower, and at least 10,000 metric tons of Plutonium wffl be recycled annually by the year 2000.3

Consequently, our mitial research activities have focused upon this important element.

Routine releases of radioactive materials from fad reprocessing and fabrication faculties are important stages of the nuclear fad cycle where smaO quantities of phitonium could be released to the eavaoamert. New research has been initiated to provide data on the mobrtity and transport of platoaaan aad other ac-tmides in environments associated with nadear power production facilities of the hamid eastern United States. Work continues in the SOBS group as a part of a comprehensive environmental studies program of ptu-toaium being conducted by the Nevada Applied Ecology Group at the Nevada Test Site (NTS). This program has as its ultimate objectives the determination of the plutonium hazard existing sA the NTS and recommendations for necessary cleanup of particular areas.

In a collaborative program with the Rocky Flats Plant, soil samples are being segregated as was done

1. Dud capacity. 2. Analytical Cfcnafeoy DivWoa. 3. VS. Atomic Eangy Companion, Nude* Power

1973-2000, WASH-1139 (1972).

with NTS sous. We suggested that the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) supply calibrated solutions of 2 S *Pu to be used for simultaneous evaluation of recovery and counting efficiency in pratonatm analysis. However, NBS and HASL have chosea to ase ***?• for this purpose, and a preparation of that nuclide wal be received here. Sous sad vegetable matter of known plutonium content are being obtained from the Inter­national Atomic Energy Agency, from NBS, aad from C. W. Sal (AEC, Idaho), aad ASTfci D-19 has dis­tributed samples for a "round robin" oa nhilraiiaai ia water.

We receive strong analytical support from the Ana­lytical Qkeaastry Division aad have established cen­tralized laboratory facilities for plutoaram mcaiau meat m eavaouaeatal samples, cxtractjoa tectanqaes, countmg iastramealation, and isotonic tracers arc available in low-fcvd alpha laboratories provided by the

rcqanTmcats ot oeiecfjOB ot lowievcisoi ptasoaaaam coflajnex envBuasneniai mamces.

tllTTOMlM BEHAVIOR M HIMD ENvm)Mons OF EASTERN UNITED STATES

The great majority of our scanty information on the behavior of plutonium in the environment is limited to data obtained from hazard evaluation surveys in arid western United States. Yet the projected development of the nuclear power industry indicates a substantial investment of nuclear power technologies in the humid eastern United States with a majority of the nation's population. In the upper Mississippi River basin, it is anticipated that nine reprocessing plants will be needed to handle the requirements of the nuclear industry by

61

62

the year 2000 in that region alone. Five reprocessing plants probably wnl be needed for die TVA region. An equivalent number of factHies wiB also be needed to nbricate fuels to provide 1200 GW (nndear) antici­pated by the year 2000. 4

As a mnfTfffm-*, this project has been started to obtain information on the fate and mobility of ph» tonium in biologically rich ecosystems of the eastern United States (e^ , the Oak Ridge ABC Reservation, site of the first demonstration LMFBR plant, the TVA region, aui ihe upper Mississippi Valley). The research is dfugnrd to answer questions about the general avaMabuity of phjtonium to organisms in these environ­ments. WiB ciu*«niun; from PuOi microspheres become isolated in soils and sediments so mat phitonhtm burdens in mac wfll not increase? WiD microsphere desolation and biological avanabflity be enhanced in add environments of forest litter and soils? Wffl ptatonrum mobility be enhanced in soil and water environments by excretion or decomposition products from bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates? How is pra-toniuiu distributed between water and sediment phases of aquatic systems? WiB prolific root systems and aworiatfd exudates of perennial grasses increase plu-touiuni uptake?

Experiments to answer these questions waH use FuO? nucrospheres and reaction products as a sourcs because the oxide form is used predominantly in fuel elements. The objectives are to determine the magnitude and rate of dhaolutjon of PuOj microspheres foBowing incuba­tion in forest litter. A test of forced soIubmzUion (or chelation) of the microspheres by pure cultures of naturdty occurring soil fungi (Aspergiba mgtr and Hemknomd* tondoidem) h a variation of this experi­ment. In another experiment, we wfll determine the dntribution coefficient and dynamics of plutonium in aqueous-sediment phases of aquatic microcosms. This research wiB determine uptake coefficients for plu­tonium assimilation by aquatic plants and animals. Uptake coefficients fill also be determined for peren­nial forage grasses, which are common in southeastern United States.

Thorium, in addition to being a tetravalent actimde and an important dement of the nuclear fuel cycle, is naturally present hi soils (1 to 2 ppm). Geochemical evidence involving an analysis of uranium-thorium parent-daughter relationship suggests mat, while natural UfVI) often becomes enriched ir. surface soil horizons

4. U.S. Atomic Energy Comnrnskm, The Year 2000 Study, WASH-1209 (1973).

possibly due to btoeeocbemical cycling, Th(iV) tends to accumulate in st*bsurface horizons due to downward migration and day fixation. Therefore, attention should be given to thorium as a possMe geochenucal model for man-made tetravalent actinides in predicting their long-term behavior in the environment. Initial laboratory studies presently being conducted have shown that compkxing Kgands m soil orgaak matter fhurak adds) react with some of the coordination sites of ThtTV), affecting its hydrotytic behavior. Adsorptjon-desotption experiments have also verified strong adsorption reac­tions betwero ThflV) colloids and caldum-saturated days and humic adds.

AH our experiments wiB use sods, sediments, and species endenm. to sites where nuclear faciities are located in eastern United States. Sous and sediments have already been obtained from die Savannah River region, the site for the first commercial reprocessing faculty. Arrangements have been made to obtain amiar materials from Morris, IDmois, and New York State, vhere other reprocessing faculties are located. Research wifl be related to the spedfk •nviiomnent where the LMFBR demonstratioa plant wiB be sited on the Oak Ridge Reservation. We expect that in situ environ­mental research in naralW with the first fearibaUty testing of the breeder reactor wnl resolve questions of concern about potential phrtoniurn hazards related to the nuclear fud cycle.

CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF PLUTONIUM IN ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIALS

An investigation has been initiated on methodology for determmation of plutonium in environmental ma­terials such as sod, water, and biotogicai matter. A substantial literature search was made on analytical methods for plutonium and its environmental behavior. Local analytical techniques were reviewed, and appa­ratus for other approaches was obtained, notably for a versatile sofvent-extraction-liquid-sctntiliation alpha-counting melnod.5 The prototype apparatus had inade­quate energy resolution, and improvements are sched­uled. Conventional equipment is adequately available, involving alpha counting and spectrometry for low-levd samples and gamma spectrometry and activation analy­sis for moderate plutonium levels, if required.

5. W. J. McDowell, D. T. Farm, and M. R. BDinp, Plutonium and/or Uranium Analysis in Environmental Samples: A Combined Sobent Extraction-Liquid ScmtttUttkm Method (to be published).

63

Samples of different chemical composition and lewis of pfatonium require various chemical separations prior to measurement Gross alpha or gamma may suffice in some cases, simple extractions in others, and fusion or leaching followed by elaborate separations in others. Piopetues and handhng of PuOj particles haw been survsyed in anticipation of work with ecological

and techniques for assay have been selected, is being given on faculties to be installed m

3508, particularly with respect to sdety and for working in <tmtamment. "Cold" facfi-

for nououtine ladioaaalytical studies have been nrnMing 4500, because the expected low

levels of plutouium in -Tmrrrrr of water materials make analyses m Bunmng 3508

It was denned to have a substitute for pluloninm to permit exploratory work outside containment. A review of the radiocfemkal brhavior of saao^r elements fed to thnihuu s a satisfactory analog, and " 4 T h is a satisfactory tracer. However, nae possmmty of forma­tion of PuflU) by disproportionation or by reduction

<'^f^mT" was relevant to i to the Envifonmental llarsidt Group for

se in •mnrhnj. Pmtuninui 237 is a isotopic tracer and emns x avoidmg convexities of i in situ measurements. Its properties and methods of

have been reviewed m anticspetion of a supply. Solutions of a , * r v sad "»Pu

nitrates have been obtained for studies of "soluble"

VCJnmmWANDChARACTEtaZATlONOf PLUTOrWUM IK SOILS FROM THE

NEVADA TEST STTE

This study b part of the coordinated efforts of the sous group, through the Nevada Applied Ecology Group, whose major lesponsmmty is the mventory of plutonium at the Nevada Test Site. Since sol pteouium is the . jurce term hi tesuspension and serves s a reseivoh for uptake by plants and since soi is a part of

beyond inventory is necessary. The objectives of this phase of the study are: (1) to identify and characterize liutonmm at the sols of NTS; (2) to deime differences hi the behavior of ii»i!:.mm » the aiea as fetated to sol types, dbtance from ana nature of the detonation dsvice, and ££*rent farms of funliawnm; and (3) to i * t s a * e the potential monnirnt of the into the soi and/or off the site cf <

scattering the pmtc plutonium in the surface was primariy in dm i-t to fine sand n m (5 to 250 n). Typical« of plutonium am 7.1. Typkaly, the sons are sandy hi texture very lew day content. In the sample shown m Table 7.1, the highest concentration of plutonmm is m the

<«*»13) iTcrtSte

Total Mi = 2458 * 3 1 0 4 B mm - 1 , - 1

Size fraction 0>4nun) <%)

Activity infraction

( d n o d B ' g 1 )

Activity is sal

(titmmr* g-») to sol

>2O0O 5.0 2000-840 7.4 44 3 0.1 840-250 27.3 44 12 0.5 250-125 24.6 60 15 0.6 125-53 20.7 2,944 610 23.2 53-20 6.6 18,712 1235 47.0 20-5 4.5 14,804 666 25.3 5-2 1.4 4,336 61 2.3

<2 1.6 1,680 27 1.0 Total 99.1 2629 100.0

64

T * l t 7.2. of P * * M M extracted by I

C m fl* Neva* Tat Sue

'. HNO3

HNO3 Tool «& •*!-» »-» ) (dff •» -« J "»)

ftaccntagjt of

activity in {uiudcs —

<53 v <125 K

Muxoflot 2230 ?45S 91 76 99 Deurt fatcaKBt 21*0 2725 90 36 82 B k m » d 1780 2747 65 16 55

coarse sit (53 to 20 u) fraction, and this size contributes 47% of the soil activity.

Seaples used in this phase of the study were taken from areas which showed shmbr levels of plutonium activity based on a field survey instrument. Thus, to find that plutonium in all three samples was in the

of medium-sized particles is not surprising. These uggest that plutonium size distribution would

be a function of dwlamc from ground zero; that is, closer to ground zero the particles would be larger, and farther away from ground zero the particiss would be smaller than those found in these samples. Samples representing different distances from ground zero have been taken for further analysis.

liaihianHj nflTuliiaami

One aspect of characterizing the phitonium is to detennme, if possMe, differences in the teachability. Considerable effort has been expended by many labora­tories on extraction techniques, primarily to test completeness of extraction from sous. Extraction tech­niques range from complete fusion of soils by sodium carbonate to less destructive nitric acid extractions. The trrhnwpr used in these smples for total extraction involves the use of hydrofluoric acid and aqua regia. Evaluations, by other laboratories have shown that complete extraction is achieved with these "safety shot" samples. One of the techniques which was shown not to remove all the plutorium was a 30-min extrac­tion using ? M HNO3.* However, after considering the results obtained subsequently on replicate samples as well as on different particle sizes, the reason for the incomplete removal by the 30-min extraction with 8 M HNO3 was suggested.

6. S. I. Auerboch et al„ Environmental Scvnces Dh. Anmi. Progr. Rep. Sept. SO, 1972, ORNL4848.

The HNO3 extraction results are shown in Table 12 and are compared with the HF-HNO3-HCI results, which are labeled "total." When the percentage leached by the nitric add treatment is cotnpared with the percentage cf the plutoaiura in particles less than either 53 or 125 JI, a direct relationship is seen. The higher the amount of plutonium in the finer sizes, the higher the surface "Tea avamaMe for extraction and, hence, the higher the extraction with BM HN0 3 . In the rmcroplot sample. 76% of the phitorrium is in the <53-n size; the nitric acid extracted 91% of the total. In the blow sand sample, only 16% of the plutonium was in the <S3-u-size particles; the nitric acid extraction gave the lowest value (65%).

These results suggest that 8 M HNO, may be a useful "son4 test** extractant for plutonium. By correlating the amount in plant* growing on the test site with this extractant, one might be able to predict the potential uptake by plants by the "soil test." It should be mentioned that the extraction was for 30 mm at 93°C. Since over 90% extraction was achieved when 76% of the plutonium was in particles <S3 JI, the extraction conr -ons appear to be too rigorous Results from lower temperature or weaker acid may be more indicative of potential availability; investigations of the effect of temperature and acid strength will be con­ducted as more information is gained on the distribu­tion of plutonium in different samples of soils.

Form of the Pfutoniuin in Nevada Test She Sols

To better define the form of the plutonium in the soils of the Nevada Test Site, especially since most of the plutonium occurred in the silt and sand-size fractions, selected size samples were subjected to density gradient separation to segregate minerals according to specific gravity differences. The results of the segregation and the plutonium associated with the different fractions are shown for the 20-to-5-f* and <2-u

65

size fractions of the mkroplot sample (Table 7.3). In the 20-!o-S*i size, the bulk of the soil particles had densities <2.8 g/cm3 but contained only jbout 15% of the plutonium. The high content of plutonium in the heavy fraction indicates that the plutonium exists as the oxide with density of over 10 g/cm3. In the day size, however, the bulk of the particles are <2.2 g/cm3, and the plutonium is associated with these particles. This distribution suggests that the plutonium is adsorbed on the clays, probably as a hydrous polymeric form of the oxide.

Further studies were performed by scanning electron microscopy to identify the plutosiura particles in the heavy fraction of the 20-to-5-#i size. X-ray fluorescence analysis rt-vealed that plutonium was below the limit of detection. Present in measurable quantities were iron, calcium, and silicon with minor amounts of titanium, aluminum, chromium, manganese, and mJuA. Plans are under way to concentrate ptutorium even further by using a solution with a higher density than 2.8 g/cm3.

Tank 73. • 2U4D-5-M Mod <2-*» factions

of nokxot** nfl (net 13)

Band No.

Density Amount (g/cm3) (*)

Activity

20-«O-5-M faction 1 2 3 4

<1.8 2.4 2.3-2J 32.2 2^-2.8 59.6

>2-8 5.8

<2-*i faction

0.2 5.3 9 3

85.2

1 2 3 4

<i.8 1.0 2.1 -2J2 97.4 Z2-2J 13

>2.8 03

0.4 98.6 0.8 02

8. Toxic Materials in the Environment

C. P. Allen S. H. Anderson2

A. W. Andren C. F. Baes III B. G. Blaylock1

E. A. Bondietii1

J. N. Brantley F. S. Brinkley1

E. H. Curtis3

R I. Van Hook1

G. J. Dodson1

E. R. Eastwood1

C. W. Francis1

R. A. Gok'stein1

N. A. Griffith1

B. A. Halsall W. F. Harris1

G. S. Henderson1

C.Levy

C. Matti4

R. M. Perhac5

S. Perryman6

D. E. Reichle1

S. Rush 7

F. H. Sweeton T. Tamura1

J. P. Witherspoon1

A. J. Yates6

The Toxic Materials in the Environment project is concerned with sources, levels, fate, and pathways of trace elements in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This project is the ecological part of a larger and more comprehensive program of Ecology and Analysis of Trace Contaminants (EATC) supponed at ORNL by die NSF/RANN. The EATC program is Laboratory-wide, including personnel from seven ORNL Divisions. The ecological research on toxic materials in the environment may be categorized into three areas: sediments and soils research, biological transport re­search, and environmental reconnaissance and cycling. Our emphasis -a primarily on biological forms, distri­bution, a>id availability of heavy metals in water, soils and sediments, and food chains. Our second year's progress in these areas is reported.

TRACE-£LEMENT CHARACTERIZATION IN RIVER SEDIMENTS

In a collaborative effort with Dr. T. Kneip of New York University8 we have been characterizing trace-

1. Dual capacity. 2. Consultant - K^nyon College. 3. ORAU Predoctoral Fellow - Northwestern University. 4. Graduate student - University of Tennessee. 5. Consultant - University of Tennessee. 6. O'-tAU Summer Trainee. 7. Sun.mer Research Participant. 8 NSF/RANN grant to New York University, "Cadmium n

Aquatic Ecosystem: Distribution and Effects."

element composition of sedirn ntts from Fouiidry Cove, New York, which receives an effluent containing Cd, Ni, and Zn from a nickel-cadmium battery manu­facturer. Our objective is to identify amounts, forms, and availability (solubility) of these trace elements from contaminated sediments in the immediate vicinity of the battery plant effluent outfall. Analysis of trace elements in solids from these sediments (Table 8 ') revealed high concentrations of Cd, Ni, Cc, and Ca in both samples, while zinc concentrations were not abnormally high. Sample NYl was obtained 90 m downstream from the effluent outfall; sample NY2 at the outfall. The fact that the Cd, Ni, Co, and Ca are all much higher in NY2 than in NYl suggests 'hat all four came from one source. The amount of organic matter in the sediments, estimated by loss on ignition at 550°C or by K 2 Cr0 4 oxidation, was found to be between 15 and 20%, with NYl higher than NY2. Total and soluble (interstitial water and equilibrium

Table 8.1. Analysis of solids (ppm metal in solid by atomic absorption)

Sample" Cd Ni Co Zn Ca

NYl

NY2

1,930 39,400

780 29,900

75

1420 330 330

7,138 68,600

dNYl obtained 90 m downstream from effluent outfall; NY2 obtained at outfall.

66

67

Table 8.2. Total and soluble carbonates in NYl and NY2 sediinents

_ Aqueot's C°3 m (meq/liter) solids (%)

NYl 0.3 7.5 7.4 NY2 13.2 16.5 12.0

aNYl obtained 90 in downstream from eifluent outfall; NY2 obtained at outfall.

Estimated by electrical conductivity.

solutions) carbonate analyses (Table 8.2) showed that NY2 is higher than NYl in total and solution-phase carbonates. With the NYl sample, solution-phase concentrations of salts and carbonates are quite similar, indicating that HC03~ is the principal anion present. This sample had a pH of 7.6, whiie NY2 was 8.2.

The labile pool of Cd2* was found to be 1.3% of the cadmium in NY2 and 74% in NYl. Even though there was about 20 times as much cadmium in NY2, almost three times as much cadmium was exchangeable in NYl. This exchangeable cadmium is expected to be that adsorbed on surfaces and the nonexchangeible to be inside solid compounds of cadmium, such as CdC03, or, for example, in roots or microbes. Oxidation of organic matter in the two sediment samples with NaOCl "t pH 9.6 released 89% of the cadmium from NYl, while only 3% was solubilized from NY2. The use of NaOCl as an organic matter oxidant is less destructive toward iron oxides, carbonates, and layer silicates than H 2 0i treatment9 and might be of some advantage in distinguishing between adsorption of trace metals en oxide surfaces and organic ligands.

The sediment samples were separated through a sucrose gradient by centrifugation, followed by a further separation into density fractions across a gradi­ent of 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane (TBE), Jthanol, and polyvinylpyrro! J-»ne (PVP). 1 0 ' 1 1 The results of these separations ano iemental analyses of the different fractions (Table 8.3) illustrate several trends. X-ray

9. L. M. Laukulich and J. H. Wiens, Soil ScL Soc. Amer. Proc. 34,755(1970).

10. C. W. Francis and T. Tamura, Proc. Third Nat. Symp. Radioecolofff AEGCONF-710501-P1, p. 140(1971).

11. C. W. Trancis and T. Tamura, Soi' ScL Soc Amer. Proc 3f, 372 (1972).

diffraction patterns of the bottom bands showed CaC03 crystals in both NYl and NY2 and indicated the presence of CdC03 in NY2. The cadmium concen­tration in ;he NY2 sample tended to increase with particle size, while that in NYl tended to be higher in the inten.iedia'e size range. Similarly, die calcium concentration in NY2 increased with particle size, while in NYl it did not. The nickel concentration in both samples showed no strong distribution trend with particle size. Much of the cadmium was lost on treating the NYl samples, for the sums of the concentrations in the bands are all much less than the original concen­tration (1930 ppm). Only 5% of the cadmium remain­ing in the NYl sample is in fractions with densities above 2.S g/cm3, compared with about 90% of the NY2 sample. The calcium concentrations in NYl tend to be approximately constant, but they tend to increase significantly with increasing denary in the NY2 sam­ples, with perhaps a slight decrease in the most dense fractions. The nickel in NYl decreases significantly with density, while in NY2 it tends to increase, although in a somewhat erratic way.

The results of our studies thus tar indicate that cadmium present in high concentration in the NY2 sample is in the form of CdC0 3. Exchange studies show that the NYl sample has a higher concentration of readily exchangeable cadmium than does NY2. Both samples hold the cadmium strongly and furnish only about 10 ppb to a solution at a pH of about 8.0. In the case of the NY2 sample, the concentration of cadmium is controlled by the solubility of CdC03. This concen­tration weld remain constant (assuming constant pH and constant concentration of total carbonates in solution) during any process thav removes cadmium until all the solid CdC03 has been dissolved. In the case of NYl, gradual removal of cadmium would presum­ably result in a constantly decreasing equilibrium concentration of cadmium in solution, since the cad­mium is held largely in an adsorbed state. We are working on the solubility of cadmium in these sedi­ments to determine the form of cadmium present (i.e., CdC03) and the amount of "free" Cd2* in the interstitial water. These factors will be important in determining the availability of cadmium to food chains.

CADMIUM ADS0RPTION-DESORPTI0N TO CLAY MATERIALS

In many soils the clay fraction controls the ad­sorption characteristics of the soil. The day fraction may contain one or a number of clay minerals whose

68

Table 8.3. Metal distribatioa i and after deastty

Size fraction

(mn)

Density (f/cm3)

Weijht fraction

(%)

Metal concentration (ppm) Cd Ca Ni

NY!

sat <184 0.2 NA NA NA (2-44) 1.84-2.10 128 495 11,600 1,180

2.10-2.5 45.5 386 7,900 631 >2.5 17.3 95 10.800 238

Sand <1.36 29.0 911 13,300 860 (>44) 1.86-2.17 32.5 499 13,500 920

2.17-2.54 2.8 NA NA NA >2.54 22.3

NY2aedM

92 10,300 138

sat <1.85 2 4 7,600 25,000 27,000 (2-44) 1.85-2.16 12 7 15,000 25,000 31,000

2.16-2.59 47.8 27,000 40,000 22,000 2.59-2.81 23.9 28,000 90,000 8,000 >2.81 8.2 117,000 144,000 19,000

Very fine <1.7 4.5 11.000 26,000 15,000 sand 1.71-1.80 ! 1 40,000 28,000 14,000 (44-250) 1.80-199 7.7 20,000 36,000 28,i)00

1.99-2.43 21.6 48,000 82,000 62,000 2.43-2.77 47.7 45,000 217,000 44,000 >2.77 14.4 170,000 148,000 77,000

Sand <1.92 18.5 11,000 31,000 15,000 1.93-2.11 2.8 20,000 108,000 31,000 2.11-2.41 19.7 45,000 90,000 40,000 2.41-2.66 49.2 31,000 274,000 20,000 >2.66 4.8 171,000 210,000 43,000

NY1 obtained 90 m downstream from effluent outfall; NY2 obtained at outfall.

adsorption capacities vary greatly. Considerable re­search has been carried out defining qualitatively as well as quantitatively the clay mineralogy of soils. In most instances, soil clays are compared, in a mineralogical sense, with reference clay minerals; however, the adsorption characteristics of soil clays may vary greatly from their reference clay mineral analogs. This is particularly true in regard to adsorption of trace contaminants. In soil, clays are often coated with organic matter and sesquioxides of iron and aluminum, which also possess inherent adsorption characteristics. Likewise, the dominant saturating cation may influence trace contaminant adsorption. In order to ascertain the influence of various saturating cations and sesquioxides of iron and aluminum en cadmium adsorption to a reference clay, the following experiments were per­formed.

Monoionic forms of N'a, Ca, Al, and Fe montmoril-lonite were prepared by successive washings with 1 N chloride solutions. Excess salt was washed from the clay with distilled water. Coatings of aluminum and iron hydroxides were formed on Ca-montmorillonite in the manner described by Levy and Tamura.12 Ten milli­liters of 0.01 ^/Ca(N03)2 containing * 0 9 Cd (~0.5 ppb cadmium) was equilibrated 24 hr with 100 mg of each clay. The suspensions were then centrifuged, and the clay pellet was counted. The quantity of l 0 9 C d retained by the clays was expressed as the percentage 1 0 9 C d added (Fig. 8.1). The aluminum and iron hydroxide-coated montmoriUonites adsorbed the largest quantity of l 0 9 C d . These coatings are amorphous iron and aluminum sesquioxides, and their strong adsorption

12 R. Levy and T. Tamura, Israel J. Chem. (in press).

69

ORNL-0W6 73-8SS9ft

No - MONTMORILLONITE Ca-MONTMORILLONITE ALUMINUM HYDROXIDE COATED CO - MONTMORILLONITE IRON HYDROXIDE COATED Ca - MONTMORILLON ITE Al - MONTMORiLLONITE

DISTRIBUTION COEFF,CIENT (K4), DEFINED AS FRACTION OF L 0 9 CD ADSORBED PER GRAM DIVIDED BY THE FRACTION IN SOLUTION (ML).

EQUILIBRIUM Kf IN 0.01 *

Co(N0 3 ) 2

59 104

614

222 33 43

1 2 3 4 5 6 NUMBER OF WASHES -0.01 At Ca(N0 3 ) 2

Ffc.8.1. Percent l 0 9 C d lO^IAfCKNOah

characteristics indicate crystalline sesquioxides also strongly adsorb cadmium. For example, the coated montmorillonites adsorbed more than twice the amount of 1 0 9 C d adsorbed by the sodium form, a form considered easily replaceable. Following separation by centrifugation, the crystalline sesquioxides were found to strongly adsorb and retain cadmium. However, the adsorption capacity of these sesquioxides is probably small, as this density fraction constitutes <4% of the clay fraction by weight. The iron- and aluminum-saturated montmorillonites adsorbed much less 1 0 9 C d than the other clays. The initial pH in the saturating solution (aluminum and iron chlorides) in these treat­ments was belcw 5.2. After dialysis of excess salts, pH appeared not to be a factor in observed differences

between treatments. Cadmium-109 desofption with 10-ml aliquots of 0.01 M CaCNO,), revealed tha: desorprion from the aluminum and iron hydroxide-coated moctmorilkmites was slightly less rapid dun desorption from the other days.

These results illustrate die importance of comidenng competing adsorbers when evaluating adsorption-desorption of trace elements to natural day minerals. The results from tests with reference da)' minerals, while they do point in the right direction, may not be applicable to natural ma^riab. The iron and ahiminmn sesquioxides, because of their high adsorption of trtve elements, could easily be the dominant soil component governing adsorption in soils of low organic matter content (e.g., southeastern United States).

70

ktFBCTS OF TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION ON METHYLMERCURY

UPTAKE IN FISH

The functional relationship between water tempera­ture and mtthyhnercury concentrations on the kinetics of direct uptake of methylmercury by bluegill (Lipoma macroctums) has been evaluated because of the contro­versy over direct uptake vs food-chain uptake of this organo-metaDic compound in natural waters.13. The objective of this tesearch was to develop a mathematical model which could be used in predicting accumulation of methyhnercury in fish populations. Briefly, bluegfll populations were exposed to four water temperatures (9, 21,28, and 33°C) and four methylmercury concen­trations (0.2, 0.S, 5, and SO ppb), and methylmercury uptake was determined by radioassay through time of " 3 H g , which was administered as CH 3

2 0 3HgCl. A detailed description of experimental procedures is given elsewhere.14

An empirical model having the form of a rectangular hyperbola was found to best describe the data for each fish and each group of fish. The model gives the concentration of methylmercury in the fish, Y, as a function of time, t. Model parameters A, B, and C are functions of the temperature (T) and methylmercury concentration (c) in the water:

Y{:)=A(c. 7) + „ ' „ , (I)

where A is the y-ixis intercept, B describes the slope or uptake rate (the smaller B, the greater the slope), C describes the curvature of the data plot and the asymptotic value (the closer C approaches zero, the straighter the curve and the greater the asymptotic value).

Methykaercury uptake increased with increasing temperatures and then dropped off (Fig. 8.2). Uptake was higher for a given concentration (0.S ppb) at 28°C than it was at 33°C. This relationship is similar to the efficiency of growth curve for poikilotherms at similar temperatures. Increasing concentrations of methyl-mercury in the water caused corresponding increases in whole-body methytmercury content in bluegill (Fig. 83). Equilibrium concentrations (intake balancing out­put) were not attained in these fish at any of the methylmercury treatment concentration*. In all in-

13. A. Jeraek* et al., Oikos 22,403 (1971). 14. E. H. Guts, doctoral dissertation, Northwestern Umvci-

*jr, 1973.

(MM.-MG 1-T»*I (pan 1.6 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 ; 1

i •

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TIME (V)

Fig. 8.2. The effect of water teaapentare oa the aptake of CH3HfCl in fasted Macpfe at 0.5 ppb CH3HgCL Values shown are mean: with a standard error of the mean for 60 fish.

0RNi.-r<1»G 73-6108

l l . l . i i . i..l 1 i. . i t L ...I i i i i . L i i . i .. , . 0 100 200 300 4 0 0 500 6 0 0

TIME (hr)

Fit. 8.3. The effect of CH3HgO coaceatratioa in water on the aptake of CH3HfCl by feted MsegMb at 9*C. Values shown are means with one staiy!ard error of the mean for 60 fish.

stances, the whole-body methylnvercury levels were still increasing after 25 days of exposure.

Factors other than temperature and concentration which affected the uptake of CH3HgCl in bluegill were size, season, disease, and general state of health.

71

Preliminary studies determined that the whole-body methylmercury concentrations in nonfasting bruegOl and catfish were 2 to 3 times as large as those in fasting fish. Food types and amounts of consumption may also affect methylmercury uptake. Disease and poor nutri­tional conditions decreased the rate of CH3

2*3HgCl uptake. Smaller fish had a higher uptake rate of CH 3

3 0 3HgCl than larger fish. Both whole-body and skin concentrations of methylmercury were higher in smaller bluegOl than in larger bluegill.

The empirical model can be used to estimate die direct uptake of methylmercury by obtaining values for parameters A, B, and C. Evaluation of parameter A revealed that it can be assumed to be zero unless paut exposure is known. Quadratic and graphical analyses indicate that parameter B (the uptake rate) is very meaningful in estimating CH3HgCl uptake and that the uptake curve is relatively insensitive to C. Uptake predictions based on parameter estimates were in good agreement when compared with independent data.

FOREST STAND BUDGETS AND nNrUT/OUIPUT BUDGETS OF TRACE BXEMENIS IN WALKER

BRANCH WATERSHED

for

Preliminary budgets of Pb, Cd, and Zn pkted for forest organic matter pooh (living O, and Oj litter fractions) on Walker Branca Water shed. These budgets are baaed on concentration data tree species which account for 88% of the composition. Extant data on forest oq were used to express trace element pools par watershed area. Examination of deferences forest types (pne, oak-hickory, chest** oak, yellow poplar) is incomplete. The abnwgiomd pools Table 8.4 are based on the mean binmin for watershed and Pb, Cd, and Zn concentratioos wKjgated by the species contribution to forest stand

s of

the

IS. W. F. Haas ct aL, IUFIO hoc, Vi Aagast 1973 (at pteat).

B-C,

Table 8.4. •aaaets of I V C4, aad Za for 1

Biomass (X 103 kg/hectare)

Pb ((/hectare)

Cd ((/hectare)

Za ((/hectare)

Foliage 4.35 16.7 0.9 69.4 Branch 26.40 74.4 4.1 144.4 Bole 91.60 116.4 11.0 38X0 Stump* 16.8 21.3 2.0 70.0

Lateral roots (g/m2)

<0.5-cm-diaro C S- to 2-0-cm-diam Pb Cd Zn

>24<aa-diaai i s Cd Zn

< rotal Pb Cd Zn

C S- to 2-0-cm-diam Pb Cd Zn

>24<aa-diaai i s Cd Zn Pb Cd Za

Pine 58 3.4 316 11 1.7 88 5.3 0.6 31 75 5.7 435 Chestnut oak 73 4.5 189 20 19 88 S.6 0.7 37 98 7.1 314 Oak-hickory 198 2.6 277 46 1.8 110 11.2 1.1 43 255 54 331 Yellow poplar 95 5.8 466 17 0.8 77 7.4 1.0 43 119 7.6 586 Mean 106 4.1 312 24 1.6 91 7.4 0.9 3&5 137 6.5 416

Utter organic matt

Forest type C*i organic matter (X 103 kg/hectare)

0 | leaf(g/hectare) Pb Cd Zn

Oj organic matter (X 10* kg/hectare)

O? leaf (g/hectare) Pb Cd Za

Pine 109 338 2.8 610 15.7 580 9A 926 Chestnut oak 7.0 189 2.9 294 18.4 938 14.9 2024 Oak-hickory 8.7 217 5.4 418 18.1 633 34 2262 Yellow poplar 66 204 5.3 382 7.5 315 7.5 975 Mean 8.3 237 4.1 426 14.9 616 8.9 1S46

"Pool estimate based on weighted bole values.

72

Trace-element amounts in lateral roots are based on a mean lateral root biomass pool of 16.S X ' 0 3

kg/hectare, which is apportioned 20% in >2.0<m-diam roots, 33% m OS- to 2.0-cm-diam roots, and 48% in <D.S-aa-diam roots. The observed variation among forest types emphasizes the need to examine forest type deferences. Element pools vary by a factor of 2 around the mean of afl forest types. The variation reflects the wtMknowu differential accumulation among species.1 * Of particular interest is the apparent accumulation of trace dementi bdowfround. Belowground organic matter (mcmding stump) represents 27% of the living forest btomaas but contains 43% of the total lead in vrgeution, 3S% of the total cadmium, and 45% of the

Latter organic matter budgets (Table 8.4) feck the contribution of mien wood and bole materia! analyses are incomplete). Woody litter accounts for from 32% (yefiow poplar) to 49% (chestnut oak) of the total litter organic matter. The variation in litter trace-element pools reflects forest type differences in organic matter pool size (e.g., Pb in Oi titter), as well as a wide range of concentrations (e.g., Cd and Zn in 0 | litter). Of the total pools of Pb, Cd, and Zn in living vegetation and Oi leaf and O, litter components, litter fractions account for 70% of the Pb and 65% of the Zn but only 35% of the Cd. litter organic matter components included in this summary account for 13% of the total organic matter.

The results obtained indicate the variability to be expected, both in terms of concentration and standing pool, during establishment of base-line trace-element levels in biotic materials as weD as analysis of landscape transport and accumulation. The dominant role of litter in trace-element accumulation wnT be examined further with respect to physiological processes responsible as well as the impact of accumulation to levels toxic to microbial processes which are important for the iriinwiilintioii of essential as weO as toxic dements.

The accumulation of trace dements in fitter suggests that these components may be of greater value in that fay would reflect immediate inputs from atmospheric sources and atterfaB, whie potential vegetative uptake is buffered by slower turnover of trace materials through the litter components.

la addition to the preliminary trace-element standing poo! detennmations, we have begun to construct an annual trace-dement input/output budget for water-

1*. It I. Van Hook et aL, hoc. 1st AMMMI NSF Trace rmiliiiiiiili Confcraace, Oak Wage, Teaa.. August 1973 (in

borne materials through Walker Branch Watershed. The objectives of this work are: (1) Determination of the total atmospheric input of several trace dements into the watershed. These will include Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, Pb, Se, Co, V, Cr, Sb, Ni, and Ti. The sampling scheme will include regular collection of rainwater and aerosols. (2) Evaluation of throughfall of rain and aerosols for estimating the amount of dements caught by the forest canopy during different seasons. (3) Determination of trace-element content in the dissolved and particulate traction of the two streams that drain the watershed. (4) Construction of input/output bal­ances using these annual data.

This report presents preliminary concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in rain and stream water from the Walker Branch Watershed. Data for aerosols and stream particulate matter are not yet available. In addition, an elemental mass balance has been con­structed for the months of June and July 1973. The variability of trace-metal input to this system is illustrated in Table 8.5, which shows the total amount of each metal that is deposited by wet precipitation on the watershed each month. The input due to each branch of the watershed also is included. Data on rates of element input indicate total amount of input is independent of precipitation. Table 8.6 shows the removal of the metals from the watershed by the two streams from June and July 1973. The table also

Tafcte&S. Trace-efcaatatinpttoV/afcer Snack vratetshed m grams pet M H A

Trace-element input (a/month) Month "•

Cd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn

Total w«m rail (97.5 hectare)

imt 408 67 1400 200 2000 July 205 266 860 530 1850 6120 Aagwt 194 461 1300 310 6650 September 602 399 2720 220 8230

East Standi

Jane 247 40.6 840 120 1210 My 124 161 520 320 1120 3710 Aafust 118 279 780 190 4030 September 365 242 1650 130 4990

Jane 160 26 550 80 790 July 81 105 340 210 730 2410 Aagmt 77 182 510 (20 2620 September 237 157 1070 90 3240

73

Table8.6. liambaftmo • for wlectMl trace demerits for J

" * " * July 1973 mWdkei t Branch Watonilwid

Element Total dement in precipitation (g)

Amount removed by streams (i)

Per cent removed

June July June July June July

Cd 408 205 36 <14.6 88 <7.1 Cr 67 266 2P 46.6 41.6 ns Cu 1400 860 56 291 4.0 3.4 Ni 200 530 22.4 11.1 112 2.1 Pb 1850 <28 <14.6 0.8 Zn 2000 6120 771 382 38.6 6.2

illustrates a budget for die same months. Copper and lead are absorbed very efficiently in the system, whereas zinc and chromium are passed through more readily. Since die concentration of the elements in dissolved form in the two streams is very constant, their removal seems to be strictly dependent upon die amount of water discharge each month. However, a complete evaluation of metal input and output cannot be made until dry fallout and suspended sediment data are obtained.

9. Walker Branch Watershed: A Study of Terrestrial and Aquatic System Interaction

R. M. Anderson1

S. H. Anderson3

C.Barr3

C.Comiskey3

R.M.Cwhman R.Dueser4

G. S- Henderson1

J.W.Ehvood1

C.Gard5

T.Grizzard W. F. Harris1

A. E. Hunley J.M.Kelly3

O.C.Miilhps* W.J.Selvidge J.D.Sheppard7

RRShugart 1

J. L. Thompson1

D.E.Todd1

The primary objective of the Walker Branch Water­shed project is quantification of biogeochemical cycles of a forested landscape. Last year's annual report* presented an expanded discussion of this objective and outlined the involvement of the International Biological Program and the Ecology and Analysis of Trace Contaminants program on the watershed. It also pre­sented details of most of the hydrologjc, terrestrial, and aquatic studies being cond-jcted on the catchment. Brief summaries of representative progress in these studies and the results of a problem-solving application of the research on Walker Branch are presented in the foDowing sections.

HYDROLOGIC STUDIES

Water Balance

The annual water balance has been summarized for the period from January 1969 through December 1972 (Table 9.1). Average precipitation was 135.8 cm/year, and the average discharge from the watershed as

9.1. for the 19*910 1972

1. 2. Coonritaat, Keayon Cofltce. 3. ORAUPiedoctocaIF«*ow,UnhenicyofTe 4. Gfadonte ttodeat, Uoivciiily of Midaipii. 5. Ctatpvte-Sciences DiviRon, ORNL. 6. Plaat sad E'|MpnBnt Division, ORNL. 7. lUactorDmann.ORNL. 8. S. I. Aaerbacn et aL, Ewrlnmmenut Sciences Dh>. Aram.

Fh>gr. Rep. Sept. SO, 1972, ORNL4848, pp. 9-19.

Year Ficiiuitatioii, P (aa/reu)

Streaai flow, 5 (an/rear)

Netippat, / -5 (caVrexr)

1969 123.4 44.6 78.8 1970 125.1 79.7 45.4 1971 136.9 67.9 69.0 1972 157.6 89.7 67.9

AVGHMJB 135.8 70.5 653

streamflow was 703 cm/year. The net input of water, defined as the difference between precipitation and streamflow, averaged 65 J cm/year. The net input for some time period may be accounted for by

P-S=E + T+M + L,

where

P = precipitation, S - streamflow, E - water of evaporation, T = water of transpiration,

A/ = the net change in the inventory of stored water, and

L = leakage.

74

75

If this equation is evaluated over long time intervals, for example, from the spring of 1969 through Decem­ber 1972, groundwater storage is similar and A/ = 0. By using empirical equations,' evaporation, £, was esti­mated to average 163 cm/year. Experimentation has shown a 2-cm/year loss due to leakage. Therefore, by difference, transpiration is calculated to average 4S.0 cm/year. The average annual biomass production from 1967 to 1970 was 7622 kg/hectare for the dominant oak-hickory forest type on the catchment.10 Based on this growth estnute and annual transpiration of 45 cm, approximately 590 g of water was required to produce 1 g of dry biomass.

InfhKsce of Storva Events on Water Discharge

Since water is the principal carrier for material transport through the watershed, storm events are of particular importance to studies of biogeochtmical cycles. Based on average dairy streamflow data for the period 1969 through 1972, a flow duration curve was constructed for Walker Branch Watershed (see Fig. 9.1) which shows the percentage of time that a given average dairy streamflow was equaled or exceeded. The influence of daily streamflow on the total water discharge from the catchment it given in Fig. 9.2.

With the exception of the rare events (mean dairy flow rate greater than ~10 ft3 /sec, or 0.28 m3/sec), both curves are consistent with the log normal distribu­tion function,

/ • "

1 >/2ff In og

exp / i nS

~W5 m^Y

v/21110, / _

where Sg is the geometric mean of the daily stream-flows and og is the geometric standard deviation. A characteristic of the log normal distribution is that the standard deviation is the same for both curves, ag = 3. From 1969 to 1972 (Fig. 9.1), 50% of the days the streamflow equaled or exceeded Sg = 0.456 ft3 /sec (0.013 m3/set), and 50% of the total catchment discharge (Fig. 9.2) was accounted for by dairy stream-flows equal to or exceeding Sg - 1M ft3/sec (0.044 m3/sec).

Figures 9.1 and 9.2 clearly show the influence of storm events on the water balance of the catchment.

9. J. D. Hebey iM J. K. Patric, Witter Reaow. Res. 1,193 (1965).

10. S. I. AuerDrx* et aL, Ecological Sciences Dh. Atom, rtogr. Rep. Sept. SO, 1971. ORNL4759, pp. 30-48.

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Scaadi Wi t f * ! * - , 19t9 to 1972.

76

For example, only 2% of the time (approximately seven days a year) did the daily streamflow equal or exceed 4 ft3/sec (0.11 m3/sec). However, these streamflow events accounted for 20% of the total water discharge from the catchment. Although 50% of the time the streamflow was 0.456 ft3/sec (0.013 m3/sec) or less, these events accounted for only 14% of the total water discharge.

Characterization of Base-Flow Aquifers Based on Spring Chemistry and Temperature

Two basic types of carbonate aquifers have been defined by hydrologists based on temporal variation in physical and chemical parameters of spring water: (1) diffuse-flow springs, in which water flows through joints, fractures, bedding planes, and other small inter­connected openings measured in centimeters or less and which exhibit little variations in temperature or chem­istry, and (2) conduit-flow springs, in which water flows through a well-integrated system of conduits measured in centimeters to meters and which exhibit large variation in chemistry and respond rapidly to fluctua­tions in discharge. Temporal variation in water hardness has been used as an index of the type of aquifer feeding springs in calcite and dolomite terrain, with diffuse-flow aquifers exhibiting a coefficient of variation, (s/X)

X 100, for hardness of <10%, whereas conduit-flow aquifers exhibit a coefficient of variation for hardness >10%.

The observed variations in water chemistry between the east and west fork of Walker Branch were eluci­dated by monitoring the main springs on the east and the west fork for pH, alkalinity, hardness (Ca2* + Mg2*), and temperature. The low variation in both hardness and temperature in the west fork spring (Fig. 9.3) indicates that the aquifer feeding that spring is of the diffuse-flow type, in which residence time and contact with dotomitic bedrock are longer, resulting in a greater and more constant hardness. The coefficient of varia­tion for hardness in the west spring was 7.5%, compared with 43.1% for the east spring. The variation in hardness of the east spring (Fig. 9.3) indicates it is fed by a conduit-flow aquifer, in which water flows through larger openings, residence time is short, and contact time with the dolondtic bedrock is minimal. Average hardness of the west spring, fed by a diffuse aquifer, averages 1.9 times higher than the east spring. The seasonal pattern in water hardness in the east spring suggests that a dilution-concentration mechanism regu­lates hardness in the spring as a result of lower residence time in the aquifer during winter and spring, when flow rates are high, causing a reduction in the concentration of spring water with respect to dolomite.

OANl-MK 73-12377

A M J J A S 0 N 0 J F M A M J J A S O

Ffc. 9.3. Tempofal variation ia haidnew (Ca pins Mgi and temperature in the main springs on the east and west fork of Walker Branch Watershed.

m-t ^ : M 4 t « M f H U a M i * f f W W f ' M 1

77

Although the temporal variation in temperature is less than that for hardness, the coefficient of temperature variation on the east fork is greater than that on the west fork, the values being 10.4 and 2.0% respectively. Water temperature in the east spring follows the expected seasonal pattern, with the maximum in summer and minimum in winter, whereas temperatures in the west spring exhibit no seasonal variation. These temperature data tend to support the hypothesis that residence time of water in the east spring is much shorter than that in the west spring.

ELEMENT INPUT/OUTPUT RELATIONSHIPS

Seasonal Patterns of Deposition and Discharge

Annual potassium deposition on Walker Branch Watershed averages S.2 kg/hectare, while discharge in streamflow averages S.7 kg per hectare per year. As shown in Fig. 9.4, deposition is relatively uniform throughout the year on a long-term basis but may vary considerably within any one year depending on precipi­tation distribution and patterns of dry particulate deposition. In contrast, potassium loss from the catch­ment occurs primarily during winter and spring, when soils are near field capacity and streamflow is high. Thus, potassium discharge is controlled by the hydro-logic cycle. Similar seasonal patterns exist for the other elements being measured on the watershed except that the annual net input/output relationships differ. Fur

calcium and magnesium, output greatly exceeds input, due to weathering of the dolomitic bedrock. Nitrogen and phosphorus are accumulating in terrestrial compo­nents of the ecosystem, and discharge is less than deposition.

Influence of Storm Events on Element Disckafge

Periods of high streamflow are important in determin­ing element discharge, and it is important to assess losses during individual storms in order to quantify interactions between the terrestrial an J aquatic systems. The importance of storms on potassium discharge is illustrated in Fig. 9.5. Potassium concentration in strsamflow (circles) is shown in relation to streamflow (solid line) for an intense summer thunderstorm (33 cm of rain in 1.5 hr) and a less intense winter storm (2.S cm of rain in 4 hr). During the summer storm, potassium concentration remained relatively constant in spite of a fivefold increase in streamflow. In contrast, potassium concentration doubled during the early period of the winter storm before gradually returning to base-line concentrations. The increase in concentration during the November rain was due to senescent foliage and is an example of the influence of the terrestrial system on stream chemistry. During the storm, water leached potassium from the foliage above the stream channel, and this resulted in the elevated potassium concentrations observed in streamflow. Concentration patterns behave differently for the other elements

OME.-0V6 73-2310ft

1969 1970 1971 1971

Fit. 9.4. Scar sal distribution of potassium depoatkM, low in streamflow, aad act Walker Branch Watershed at four-week interrab from 1969 through 1972.

or low (depcsHsoa km) for

78

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AUGUST 9.1972

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0 013

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0 0 0 5

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Fig. 9.5. Relationships between potassium concentration (puna) n streaaiflow and discharfe rate (m 3 /sec) of streamflow for two stomas oa Walker Branch Watershed.

under study and indicate the variety of processes regulating element cycling within the landscape. The amount of elements discharged (concent ation times flow rate times time) increases during storms for all elements, and concentration changes only mediate the magnitude and tirrmg of the increased discharge.

TERRESTRIAL STUDIES

Nutrient Dynamics of the Chestnut Oak Forest Type and Associated Soils

Quantification of nutrient cycles at landscape levels requires detailed knowledge of the heterogeneity of nutrient pools and fluxes of the component parts of that system. Characterization of seasonal differences of major nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg) as a function of various soil and site characteristics was initiated this year. Analyses of these data are in progress and will be related to nutrient dynasties of a single forest species (chestnut oak) dominant on Walker Branch Watershed.

Table 9.2. Mean annual total nitrogen content (seasonal values) of two soils and nitrogen content of

associated chestnut oak leaves puor to abscission (October)

Soil series Horizon Total nitrogen (%)

Nitrogen in leaves (%}

Claiborne

Fullerton

A B| B 2

A

B 2

0.3230 0.1293 0.0770

0.0908 0.0357 0.0296

1.348

0.S98

Mineral distributions within the soil profiles will be correlated with soil physical and chemical properties (reaction, amount of organic matter, particle size composition, etc.).

M'neral content of the soils of Walker Branch Watershed differs significantly between soil types (Table 9.2). These differences are related to factors involving slope position, organic matter (vegetative input), and available inorganic nutrients. The Claiborne series represents rhodic paleudults in an alluvial posi­tion. Therefore it maintains a higher available moisture supply and likely receives nutrients and organic matter from the uplands. Fullerton soils (typic paleudults) occupy the drier upland sites on Walker Branch Watershed. Initial analyses indicate vegetative nitrogen content i; correlated with the amount of total nitrogen in the soil profiles (Table 9.2).

Deciduous Forest Nutrient Cycles

Considerable research has been conducted during the past three years to quantify the biogeochemical cycles for nutrient elements within Walker Branch Watershed. Results of this research are presented in Fig. 9.6 for nitrogen. Most of the nitrogen (87%) in the terrestrial system is incorporated in mineral soil horizons. The remaining nitrogen in the system is primarily in vegetation and the forest floor. Annual nitrogen fluxes are shown on the left-hand side of Fig. 9.6. Lateral root turnover is more impoitant than other mechanisms for cycling nitrogen from vegetation to soil, followed in decreasing magnitude of annual flux by leaf tall, foliar leaching, and tree mortality. The 56-kg/hectare annual root nitrogen turnovei includes roo* mortality only and does not consider exudation. The lack of quantitative information on this inaccessible underground compo­nent of ecosystems has led many investigators to the

79

ORML-OWG 73-7107R

DEC DUOUS FOREST N.TROGEN CYCLE

VEGETATION ACCUMULATION BOLE-BRANCH 68

STUMP I 7 LATERAL ROOTS 6.0

ANNUAL FLUXES (ng ha ' yr"')

ATMOSPHERIC INPUTS (RAIN SCAVENGED)

TOTAL -H 13.0 N0 3 -N 4.0 NH4-N 5.3 .

r < VEGETATION MORTALITY _ . #»fl«V* S»fe* BOLE-BRANCH 3.4

LEAF FALL I T * * « » ~2 STUMP 0.2 34 ' ? 4 U r « ^ ^

FOLIAR^ LITTER ?N»»LFACHiNG

DECOMPCSltlON *&£&*** MINERALIZATION

Jj ROOT TURNOVER 5 6 3

.-11 El FMENT POOLS (kg ho"1)

FOLIAGE; LITTER 0 ,

WOOD 5 6 TWIG 12

LEAVES 98

A BOLE-BRANCH ^ " l / " 2 8 4

I STUMP' 31

LITTER 0,, 155

:SCHL(60cm DEPTH) TOTAL-N 5080

NO3-N 3

w 'LATERAL ROOTS

104 J: u NH|-N 75

«/

. . ! !?'ilrV'!j*rS

' ^ nil =? "i =r Gli

- . _ • = - - - : ^ % *> %

SYSTEM LOSSES (HgO) TOTAL-N 3.1

% OUTPUT HO3-N 0 4 NH4-N t.l

Fig. 9.6. Representation of the aitrofen cycle on Walker Branch Watershed. Nitrogen pools in ecosystem components are shown on the nghi (in kilograms per hectare), while annual trammers are on the left (in kilograms per nectar; per year).

conclusion that litter fall is the most important nitrogen cyciing mechanism. This may be true for tropical rain foreMs and subtropical deciduous forests, which return more than 200 kg of nitrogen per hectare annually in litter fall,1' but it does not appear to be the case in temperate deciduous forests.

Litter fall is the second most important return, accounting for ~37 kg/hectare annually. Of this return, 91% occurs as leaves and reproductive parts,, while the remaining 9% is bole and branch fall due to whole-tree mortality. Foliar leaching contributed another 4.4 kg/hectare transfer from vegetation to soil. Nitrogen retained in vegetation was estimated to be 14.5 kg/hec­tare, of which bole-branch, stump, and lateral root components accounted for 47, 12, and 41% respec­tively. Nitrogen release from forest litter (Ci and 0 2

horizons) decomposition was estimated to be 48 kg/hectare. When nitrogen loss from the watershed is expressed as a percentage of total flux in the system

11. L. E. Rodin ana N. I. Bazikvich, pp. 241-55 in Production and Mineral Cycling in Terrestrial Vegetation (English transl. ed. by G. E. Fogg), Oliver and Boyd, London, 1967.

(uptake plus mineralizaticn), it reveab this temperate deciduous forest ecosystem is very frugal with its nitrogen capital, with only 1.9% normally being lost.

Small Mammal Densities and Community Composition

Quantitative estimates of community composition, population structure, and density are essential to studies of small mammal ecological segregation, second­ary production, and possible control functions in element cycling. One way to obtain this information for a heterogeneous but well-described landscape is through frequent sampling of the population, ufing available site descriptions to characterize and locate replicate sample sites. Assuming that the individuals observed on a site during a trapped period constitute an accurate census for that site, the average of the replicate sites provides a reasonable estimate of community and popu­lation characteristics.

Nine 0.36-hectare live-trapping grids, esch 7 X 7 traps on a lC-m interval, were established on sites representa­tive of the three upland forest types on Walker Branch Watershed, three grids each for oak hickory (OH), chestnut oak (CO), ?nd pine. All grids were trapped

80

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O Ptromyscus Itucopus A Tamias striates a Ochrotomys nuttolli • Glaucomys volans A Blorno brtvicouda a Mus musculus

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TRAPPING PERIOD

Fij. 9.7. Number of iadiridaab observed (f ± Ss) and number of deaths per fowst type per tupping period for six species on Walts* Bunch Watershed, February to September 1973. Number of deuas is -totted above the mean.

81

simultaneously for two to four days and nights every two weeks from February through April and every three weeks from May through September. Trapped animals were marked for permanent individual identifi­cation and v>ere released at the capture site.

The six species observed and the cumulative numbers of individuals captured were: Peromyscus leucopus (7 Pi, Tamias striatus (14), Ochrotomys nuttaUi (9), Marina brevicauda (7), Glaucomys volans (2), and Mus musculus (1). Five species were captured on OH sites, two on CO, and four on pine. There was apparent preference, on a gross level, of pine over the two deciduous types by O. nuttaUi and of OH and pine over CO by B. brevicauda.

Figure 9.7 summarizes by forest type and trapping period the number of individuals observed and the number of deaths for each species. B. brevicauda, G votvans, andM. muscubis were captured infrequently; P. leucopus and O. nuttalti were captured throughout the study. T. striatus, observed to be active from April through September, was captured from May through August. Trap mortality was substantial for four species. t leucopus, T. striatus, O. nuttaUi, and B. brevicauda. Trap mortality accounts for a large proportion of the winter-spring decline of P. leucopus but does not explain the summer decline of O. nuttaUi or the early fali decline of T. striatus. There were no conspicuous trends in the fluctuations of P. leucopus following the decline, although there was dose synchrony of fluctua-tkms among forest types.

The number of P. tecuopw observed per grid per trapping f«rkxl was sgnifiranity higher on OH sites (x = 2.8) tUn on either CO (1.7) or pine (1.4) (Duncan's new multiple-range test, pp <0.05). The mean for T. striatus was higher on OH (0.8) than on either CO (03) or pine (0.4), but these differences were not statistically significant. Multiplication by 3 scales the average 0.36-hectare grid density for a subunit, and the stand­ard error of the mean, up to an estimate of per hectare density for that subunit. These estimates from the grand means for the two most common species are: P. leucopus, 8.4 ± 0.77 individuals pei hectare on OH, 5.1 ± 0.85 CO, 4.2 ± 0.69 pine; and T. struma, 2.4 ± 0.69 OH, 0.9 ± 030 CO, 1.2 ± 0.47 pine. Similar calculations could be made for monthly or seasonal densities.

AQUATIC STUDIES

Primary Consumer Grazmg Rates

One of the dominant primary consumers in the streams draining Walker Branch Watershed is the mail

Goniobasis cktvaeforrms, which grazes on periphyton and detritus in the stream. Feeding experiments con­ducted over a range of temperatures from 10 to 19J°C in the laboratory showed that the dairy grazing rate- of Goniobasis on periphyton was approximately 2.4 mg of organic matter per day per snail and ranged from 1.7 to 50 mg per day per snail. The average density of Goniobasis in Walker Branch exceeds 700 per square meter and in pool areas can be over 2000 per square meter. By assuming that periphyton is the only food for Goniobasis and by using 700 per square meter as an average density, the annual grazing rate on periphyton would be over 600 g of organic matter per square meter. Annual production rates of periphyton in Walker Branch are estimated to be approximately 8 g of organic matter per square meter.1 2 Thus, periphyton must supply a relatively small percentage of the food supply for Goniobasis. The primary food source for this species appears to be leaf detritus from the tenestiiai

Feeding experiments using tuhp poplar (Uriodendron ndipifera) leaves tagged with , 4 4 C e and 1 4 C were conducted to estimate the ingestion rale and asnmita-tion of detritus by mis species. Tuhp poplar leaves which had been tagged with 1 4 C glucose while still on die tree were crushed, leached in spring water, and tagged with , 4 4 C e . Twenty snaOs from each of ten an* classes were placed in spring water at 12°C, the labeled detritus was then added, and snais were allowed to feed on the detritus for 1 hr. Snais were then removed from the labeled food, rinsed, and assayed mdmduafiy for l 4 4 C e . Snais excluded from the detritus with a screened container were used to correct for absorption of i 4 4 C e directly from the water. Hourly ingestion rates were computed from the formula: Ingestion rate (g of detritus per snail per hour)- ( 1 4 4 Ce counts/mm per snauj/( , 4 4Ce counts/mm per gram of detritus). Feces were collected from the experimental animals following the single feeding, and assimilation ef­ficiencies,

counts/min' 4 4 C e (food)/counts/min' 4 C (food) counu/min' 4 4 C e (fece*)/counts/min ' 4 C (feces)

X100,

were calculated using the method described by Calow aad Fletcher.'3 The average assimilation efficiency for

12. J. W. Ehrood and D. J. Neaon, (Mot 23, 295-303 (1972).

13. P. Calow and C. R. Fletcher, Oecohgla 9, 155-70 (1972).

82

Tablt 93 . C ni—iiiiiii rate tofkaf detrifeJs(UraodfeiN*oii tutipiferm) by the s—g Gomiokam dnmfonmt at 12.C/C

Site (ash-free dry weight) <g * 1 S.E.)

Ingestion rate (g organic matter per day per gram of Site (ash-free dry weight)

<g * 1 S.E.) organic matter in snail • 1 S£.)

00)063 10.0020 3.178 t 0.058 0.011610.0013 0.112 ±0.052 0.0158 2 0.0012 0.09*: t 0.041 0.0201 ± 0.0015 0.098 * C.035 0.0248 ± 0.0013 0.098 ± 0.024 0.0293 ± 0.0015 0.176 ± 0.054 0.0339 ± 0.0015 0.073 ± 0.025 0.0388 ± 0.0015 0.112 ±0.060 0.0430 ± 0.0012 0.074 ± 0.035 0.0585 10.0063 0.103 ± 0.024

carbon in detritus was 475% (± 6.8 = 1 standard error). Consumption rates of detritus ranged from 0.073 to 0.178 g of organic matter consumed per day per gram (ash-free dry weight) of snail, with a weighted mean for afl size classes of 0.114 g per day per gram of snail (Table 93) . Using the average density of snails in the bedrock and cascade areas of Walker Branch of approxi­mately 700 snaBs per square meter (20 g ash-free dry weight of snail per square meter) and the mean weighted consumption rate of detritus, the annual consumption of detritus by Gomobam would be in excess of 800 g of organic matter per square meter per annum. Assuming that assimilation efficiency of carbon and organic matter is approximately equal, the net aarimflation of detritus by Goniobaai is estimated to be 380 g of organic matter per square meter per year.

Detiitus standing crops in Walker Branch ire rela­tively high throughout the year, with the maximum in fad after leaf fall occurs (Fig, 9.8). Although winter

SCO CMH.-0H6 73-1062

storms transport detritus out of the streams, wind blow continues to replace much of it. Although the real importance of shredding and assimilating detritus by Goniobasis in relation to the detrital inputs cannot be determined until the turnover rate of detritus in the stream is known, it does appear that this species processes and assimilates a significant quantity of the detrital inputs that enter the stream and may enhance the microbial decomposition of detritus as a result of decreasing the detritial particle sizes through shredding.

Stream Carbon Cycling

During the past year, studies were initiated on the stream system, with the goals being (1) elucidation of aspects of, and development of a mathematical model for, the cycling of organic carbon, (2) determination of the amount of biotic control in element cycling, and (3) quantification of fluxes which are determined by transport from the terrestrial to the aquatic system. The heterotiophic character of Walker Brarch was discussed in the previous section. Ihe stream ecosystem is dependent on the terrestrial portion of the watershed for its food base. The phonological and physiological dynamics of the forest community not only determine the importance of autochthonous vs aOochthonou?14

sources as the aquatic energy base but even determine the amount, quality, and temporal flow pattern of the water that delineates the stream system.

Measurements of organic carbon inputs to, output from, and dynamics within the stream system are being

Fit. 9A. Standing detrital crops on tk. stream bottom of the •wmt fork of Wafcer Braac* Watershed. Data presented are

t ( i 1 standard error) of ten samples.

14. Autochthonous refers to carbon (energy) which is fixed within the stream system (U\, conversion of C02 to organic O, whereas allochthonous refer* io carbon which was accumulated in the terrestrial portion of the ecosystem and subsequently transported to the stream.

83

0.06

007

_ 0.06

"I" 0.05 * 3 o.04 Z 2 0.03 i -</>

0.02

aoi

o

ONNL-MG 75-«WB

/DISSOLVED ORGANIC CAR60N

0600 1200 1800 MAY 8.1973

2400

TMElkr)

Fig. 9.9. Rebtkmjfcips between tesotved Walker Brandt Watcnhed.

carbo*

0600 1200 WOO MAY 9.1973

<«"•)

O 2400

I

( • 3 / « * l

made in this study. Outputs aie separated into particu­late and dissolved forms of organic carbon. Preliminary data on changes in dissolved organic carbon concentra­tions in the stream during rainstorms are presented in Fig. 9.9. Base-flow concentrations range between 0.1 and 0.4 ppm but increase dramatically during the early stages of a storm before decreasing rapidly !o base-flow concentrations. For the storm shown in Fig >.9, rain fell at approximately 0500 and 1900 hr, and for voih of these periods, dissolved organic carbon concentrations increased about sixfold. Concentrations of organic carbon in rain which has passed through the forest canopy (throughfafl) range from 5 to IS ppm and account for most of the observed increases in streim concentrations. Although data on particulate carbon transport have not been summarized completely, pre­liminary indication* are that this mode of transport K dominant for materials such as many trace elements and phosphorus, which are organically bound and present only in very low concentrations in the dissolved form.

RESEARCH APPLICATIONS

Evaluation of Land Disposal of Nitrate Effluent

Results from watershed ecosystem research can be applied to assess the feasibility of various ecosystem manipulations. These feasibility s'udies can provide a basis for evaluating economic considerations as well as environmental effects. The value of existing watershed and other element cycling studies to applied problems rests in the data and knowledge concerning system

function «nd procedures for its measurement. This knowledge of system behavior allows design and imple­mentation of experiments which concentrate effort on ecosystem components and processes which are most likely to be altered by die manipulatjon in question. Data from ecosystem studies allow reduction of the sampling necessary at test sites for components and transfers which do act have large spatial variabiity or a.e of minor importance in total ecosystem function. The net result of these arjptkatiom is a rednctkm m the time needed to respond to a particular problem and an experimental design which concentrates on measttre-roent of critical parameters.

Date and experience gained in qu&utifying natural nitrogen cycles on Walker Branch Watershed were used to design and implement a reasmflity study for land disposal of hjgh-mtrate industrial effluents. Effluent (containing 12,500 ppm nitrate) was spray irrigated to 0.04-hectare plots of mixed deciduous forest at rates of 50, 125, and 200 kg of nitrate nitrogen per hectare. Summer application was selected to iiinuiiie rapid leaching of nitrate. Forest biomass on the plots was estimated using aCometric relationships between tree diameter and weight cf tree components which were validated for Walker Branch Watershed. Litter and soi sampling was simUar to that used on the watershed and was conducted before and after effluent application. Soil solution samples were collected at a depth of 75 cm using ceramic cup water samplers (ryshneters).

Leaching losses of nitrate (one criterion for attesting disposal efficiency) increased for only one sampling date, mid-October immediately following soil moisture recharge, and this concentration was 3.5 ppm of nitrate

84

nitrogen. Thus, nitrate leaching was judged to be within acceptable limits for all application rates. Decomposi­tion of the forest floor was another criterion for aaessing the disposal method. In control plots the C/N ratio was approximately 23, and litter decay averaged 450 g/m2 The addition of SO kg of nitrogen per hectare decreased the C/N ratio to about 20.5 but did not increase decotfpositiGn. At the rates of 125 and 200 kg of nitrate nitrogen per hectare the C/N ratio was reduced to 17.6 and 15.3, respectively, and decay »ates increased to 700-'/SO g/m~. Our oreliminzry conclu­sion using litter decay as a criterion was that as long as the forest floor C/N ratio remained above 20, the forest system could annually absorb an addition of 50 kg of nitrate nitrogen per hectare.

Chronic addition of nitrate might gradually lower the C/N ratio below 20 and thus cause accelerated litter decay. To evaluate this potential long-term response, linear mathematical simulation models were con­structed for both carbon and nitrogen and for both the control and 50-kg/heciare addition situations. Extant data from Waflrci Branch on throughfall, litter fall, vegetation production and mortality, and system inputs and losses were used to parameterize the model, while litter, soil, and vegetation values were those for the study site. Carbon and nitrogen models were run concurrently, and a forest floor C/N ratio was calcu­lated. The results of the simulation are presented in Fig. 9.10 for the hardwood site (bottom) and a pine stand (top) sanOar to those found on Walker Branch Water­shed. According to the simulation the hardwood site could withstand a three-year chronic i&put of 50 kg of nitrate nitrogen per hectare befc? the C/N ratio leached 20. If the additions we« then stopped the forest rather rapidiy began to reattain a higher C/N ratio. In the pine stand the additions could continue for five or six years before the C/N ratio was reduced to a value (C/N = 24) which might be accompanied by accelerated decomposition. The pine stand, because of its greater organic matter content and higher C/N ratio m the forest floor, could withstand a longer period of nitrate addition.

32 ORNL-0WG 73-2555

l I I I •— _NOJRPj£ATION RNE_i __

4-CHRONIC IRRIGATION-PINE

V \ * /

/

NO IRRIGATION-HARDWOOD

z 22 o CD X < o

20

18

\ CHRONIC IRRIGATION-HARDWOOD N v t i H

/

4 6 TIME (years)

8 10

Fit. 9.10. Remits of anthemtkal aMdel soMbtioa of the effects of an annal addition of SO kg of nitrate nitrogen per hectare oa fotest floor carbon to nitrogen ratio. Results arc presented for pine (top) and hardwood (bottom) systems.

As a result of this stuuy, industrial managers were able to conduct an economic evaluation of land disposal of high-nitrate effluents. Their conclusion was that land disposal offered an excellent alternative in case ui-plant recycling ard denitnfication techniques failed. Land disposal of all effluent was rejected on the basis of the high cost associated with distribution to the larger area required for disposal of a large effluent volume.

10. International Biological Program: Oak Ridge Site

R. M. Anderson1

B. S. Ausmus2

J. J. Beauchamp3

B. Burnett4

T.Cox 2

E.E.C.Clebsch s

B. E. Dinger1

G. J. Dodson1

N. T. Edwards1

J. Ferris*

W. F. Harris*

R. A. Goldstein1

C. Card1

G. S. Henderson1

B. A. Hutchison7

J. B. Mankin3

D. R. Matt7

J. F. McBrayer2

R. K. McConathy R.V. O'Neal1

R. O. Petty*

D. E Rekhle 1

M.H. Shanks' H. H. Shugart1

J.Stauring4

R.H. Strand1

J. L. Thompson1

D.E.TotM E.C. Williams*

Activities this year involved completion of many field research efforts and initiation of synthesis activities of site and biome results. Several staff members partici­pated in international IBP activities and interbiome symposia. Many of these synthesis activities focused on ecosystem simulation models. These models are an advanced synthesis of our knowledge about ecosystems and show promise of being an effective tool for assessment of environmental responses beyond present assessment capabilities. Our participation in the IBP as an intensive research site has promoted the develop­ment of whole ecosystem data bases, greater under­standing of ecological processes, and construction of simulation models. These activities, coupled with or ling involvement in applied environmental research,

ovide a unique opportunity to incorporate basic

1. Dual capacity. 2. IBP Research Assistant - Graduate Program in Ecology,

f Iniversity of Tennessee. 3. Computer Sciences Division. 4. ORAU-NSF Undergraduate Research Participant. j>. Consultant, University of Tennessee. 6. IBP Collaborating Scientist, Purdue University, Lafayette,

Ind. 7. Air Resources, Atmospheric Turbulence Diffusion Labora­

tory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

8. IBP Collaborating Scientist, Wabash College, Crawfords-viOe, Ind.

ecological research results in areas requiring evaluation of complex ecosystem interactions and quantificatkm of indirect environmental efferts of modern tech­nology.

Mathematical models at afl scales of environmental complexity are being developed to aid in design and coordination of research projects, as an analytical tool to study behavior of intact systems and to permit predictions of system response to perturbation. Empha­sis is being placet? on more general models with wider applicability as our understanding of ecosystem com­ponents and processes evolves. The** models are based upon two basic "carrier systems" - btomass (carbon) and watei. Examples of models developed and their application are included in this summary. A major component of our overall program is the management of large numeric data bases. The formatting, collation, routine statistical analysis, retrieval, and interfacing with models are responsibilities of numeric data man­agement working with site personnel. Accomplishments in this area are summarized with "Environmental Information/'Sect. 12.

FOREST ENERGETICS AND PHYSIOLOGiCAL PROCESSES

Forest Energy Balance Research

Study of the abiotic energy balance of ? deciduous forest has been designed and carried out in two

85

86

In the first stage, the distribution of solar radiation within the forest was measured in all seasons of the year and during all phenological phases of the forest. Data from this portion of the study have been reduced, edited, and summarized, and analyses of these data are under way. The second stage of this research program consisted of expansion of the instrument net in the forest, adding sensors which allowed determination of the complete abiotic energy balance of the forest. Data collection for this study stage is now in process, and data reduction and editing are under way.

Past study by Trapp* in a mature red beech forest and by Baumgartner1 ° in young pine and young beech stands has shown that the vertical attenuation of solar radiation is most pronounced in the overstory canopy, with only slight decreases in radiation below that level. Results from our study for fully leafed forest comu-fans are similar when total radiation is considered. However, distinct differences appear when the direct beam and diffuse components are considered sepa­rately. As in Trapp's and in Baumgartner's results, both components are strongly attenuated as rhey penetrate the overstory canopy, with the direct beam radiation experiencing somewhat greater extinction than the diffuse. In the secondary canopy between 3 and 16 m elevation, these components are attenuated only slightly. In the shrub layer between 0 and 3 m, however, the diffuse component is rather strongly reduced, whiie die direct beam radiation experiences enry shgbt further extinction.

We abo find that both the penetration rate and the absolute amounts of solar radiation penetrating this forest to any level decrease with increasing doudines*. This is in contrast to the results of studies by Brecheen11 and by Ovington and Madgwick,12 who found that greater quantities of radiation reached the forest floor on overcast days than on dear days.

Statistical analyses of solar radiation data collected throughout the year indicate that the space ani time variation in radiation received increases with elevation in the forest at any time of year and under all cloud conditions. Variation induced by forest structure is maximum in the fully leafed forest and minimum in the leafless winter forest. Cloud conditions also affect the

9. E. lnpp,Meteoroi Z. Bioklm. BeibL 5,153 (1938). 10. A. Baumprtner, Forstwas. ZentralbL 74,59 (1955). 11. K. C. Brecheen, Jhsmmmkm of Shortwave Radiation

through a Forest Canopy, Coop. Snow Investigations, Ccrpi of Eastern, VS. Army Res. Note SPDGC 627-51 (1951).

12. /. O. Ovington and H. A. I. Madgwick, Forestry 28,141 (1955).

space and time variation of adiation in the forest, with highest space variation present on doud-free days and highest time variation on partly cloudy days, when the radiation incident upon the forest is highly variable. Greatest space variation occurs under all forest pheno­logical phases and under ail but compktdy overcast skies during the midday period.

As early as 1911, Ramaan13 recognized that the simple determiuation of mean radiation within a forest was less than meaningful because of the asymmetry of the flux density distribution found there. The distri­bution of flux densities is. our forest in June 19?2 is dc&sstdy ncn-Gaussisn (Fig. 10.1i. The kuriusb of the distributions decreases and their skewness increases with bright above the forest floor. Thus, the mean radiant flux density becomes an increasingly poor indicator of radiation climate with increasing elevation in the forest.

Energy Budget for the Lmioiminm Forest

The standing pool of energy in the Lihodendron forest was calculated from calorific equivalents and the biomass of the various vegetative components of the system. Annual total energy fixed by photosynthesis was calculated from annual biomass increments and average calorific equivalents of various vegetative com­ponents. Catorifk equivaients ranged from 4345 cai/g in mayapple to 5200 cal/g m reproductive parts of tulip poplar. The standing pool of energy was 79,050 kcal/m3, with 59% in tulip poplar boles and less than 0.1% in reproductive parts of all vegetation. The total amount of energy fixed annually was 1.88 X 10* kcal/m2, with 44.8% allocated to lateral roots, 213% to leaves, 153% to boles, 7.0% to branches, 5.8% to reproductive parts, 2.1% to stumps and central roots, and 3.5% to herbs and shrubs (Fig. 10.2). Fifty percent of the fixed energy was used in maintenance respira­tion, 35% went to decomposers (primarily fungi and bacteria), and 2% was consumed by invertebrates (primarily root-feeding nematodes). New structural tissue and stored food reserves (net biomass increment) represent only 13% (2537 kcal/m2) of the total energy fixed annually.

Metabolism of Forest Woody Components

In constructing an ecosystem carbon balance, respira-tional loss by nongreen woody tissues is a difficult component to quantit) without significant investments

13, E. Hantaan, Attg. Font- Jogdztg. 87,401 (1911).

87

om.-o*c 75-12S*e

of aaeasaeemestf levels identified in dus fkane are 0.1 at for she forest floor. 3 m for awdcaaony. I t as tor neper canopy, and 32 • *"— iTr r r T-"-*"rTrT *—rt TITnT~hrjfrr t~*r Am f i lm fiM lirn (innriir in ranirt) nr f i n i fat half di j i ( 1 — in In sohr noon or solar nooa to s—set) of • • • I m a p t n l aamwtaatnt are nuiadrd here.

Fh> 10J. Energy storage and transfer in the Uriodemkon forest lesaarch site at OKNL. Calorific equivaknts (calories per gam of tissue), determined seasonally with an adiabatic calorimeter, were avenged and multiplied tHnes weigh* (weight km via respiration, consumers, etc.). Difference calculations were used in a few cases where weight data were missing. Gross animal energy accumulation (kilocalories per square meter) in the various vegetation types and components is represented by the width (see scale) of thj boxes labeled leaves, blanches, etc. Energy lost through respiration am? to decomposers and consumers is represented by arrows; the amount of energy is represented by the width of the arrow base.

88

CMMH.-0W6 ? J - - 2 2 « 3

• 2

z

16 zo

~!

•i=*^i' ^ - = K

1 : ! r _

- o CURRENT YEAR GROWTH - • BRANCHES - 1 yr ANO OLDER /ft

, 4 0 1.-

FEB MAR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV OEC

Ffe. 10-3. "ifttnmd pattens of icspeatmi qaotieat and carbon dioxide efflox for cmneat year and mdec twigs and various Data expressed as rates (mean; mean ± 1 standard dev&tkn) measured at 25" C.

in equipment and an extensive monitoring program. Therefore, it is not surprising that few data1 4 exist which are applicable to an analysis of carbon flux from stem and or inch material. The present investigation was, therefor;, designed to detennine CO? exchange rates and to provide informatior regarding seasonal aspects of carbon metabolism within bole and branch components of the species commcn to the Oak Ridge site. One phase of the study Involved laboratory analysis of oxygen and carbon dioxide flux, using manonv;tr'.c techniques (Fig. 10.3). Respiration quotients (RO = moles C0 2 efflux/moles 0 2 con­sumed) and carbon dioxide efflux for current year (broken curves) and older (solid curves) twigs, as determined for a one-year period beginning in March 1972, have been calculated. During spring 1973, a series of Plexiglas chambers were constructed for in situ C0 2

flux, and data were obtained on average CQ2 concentra­tions in air at 25°C (Fig. 10.3, bold symbols).

Comparison of respiration quotients and C0 2 flux measurements in older branches (Fig. 10.3, solid curves) reveals that during midwinter to late spring and again

14. D. E. Rekhle et a)., Carbon in the Biosphere. AEC-CONF 720510 (in prew).

from mid-June to mid-August, reduced C0 2 releases are characterized by RQ's less than unity. This implies that stored fats or cellular proteins are being utilized to maintain energy requirements during these periods. Respiration quotients approaching values typical for carbohydrate metabolism (i.e., ~1.0) are associated with C0 2 efflux peaks during April and May and again in mid-September.

Older branches (Fig. 10.3, solid curve) have increased C0 2 efflux during spring, becoming much lower in summer and rising slightly again in fall, prior to the onset of dormancy. Current-year twigs (broken curve) are extremely active during summer, with fluctuations in C0 2 efflux paralleling tfiose observed in older branches. Metabolic fluctuations apparent during the growing season (May to September) are highly corre­lated with rainfall, showing tiie dependence of active growth upon moisture availability.

Carbon dioxide fluxes per unit of bark surface in various diameter selections (Fig. 10.3, bold symbols) exhibit a single peak in early June. This pattern of metabolic behavior is representative of a singular flush of new growth, with wood formation declining by midsummer. The approximate one-month shift apparent in maximum metabolic activity of in situ

89

trunk surfaces as compared with C0 2 flux in older twigs may be due in part to climatic differences unique to the 1973 season, as well as to general growth patterns in new stem tissue.

SUMMARY OF PLANT-RELATED BELOWGROUND PROCESSES

Biomass, Production, and Aaaus! Root Turnover

Analysis of the seasonal dynamics of root biomass was completed in the Uriodendron forest research area. The lateral biemass pec! cf the yellow pc-jlar forest showed considerable seasonal variation in th? smaller root size classes (Fig. 10.4). Small roots are charac­terized by a peak in late winter (March), a minimum in mid-May, a second peak in mid-September, and a minimum in early winter (December and January). This pattern appears to be consistent among successive years. Based on svnmation of differences of seasonal maxi­mum and minimum biomass estimates, net root biomass production was 9000 kg/hectare, with a net annual turnover (translocation and sloughing) of equal magni­tude. This value of net annual small root production is 2.8 times larger than mean annual aboveground wood production determined for the study area from allo-metric equations and periodic (1965—70) diameter at breast height inventory.15

Other experimental data on ecosystem carbon metab­olism for the Laiodendron forest study area corrob­orate the existence of a large annual belowground allocation of carbon. Estimated net photosynthetic influx and soil-litter carbon efflux yield an amount of unaccounted carbon input to soil equivalent to 7500 kg of organic matter per hectare. 1 4' , 6 For the same dominant species, Liriodendron tulipifera, l4C-sucrose tracer field studies indicate a vernal allocation of root-associated labile carbon aboveground ot approxi­mately 1500 kg of organic matter per hectare.17 The biomass pool of roots more than 0.5 cm in diameter appears to remain stable at 7000 to 9000 kg/hectare (Fig. 10.4).

The large fluxes of belowground organic matter, even with only preliminary conclusions about geographical

15. P. Solans, D. E. Rekhle, and J. S. Olson, Organic Matter Budget and Model for a Southern Liriodendron Forest, ORNL-IBP-73-2 (1973).

16. W. F. Harris et al„ Symp. Proc. IBP V General Assembly, National Acad. Sci„ Washington (in press).

17. H. H. Shugsrt et ah, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Memo Rep. 73-62.

extent, have far-reaching implications for hypotheses concerning the- strategies of forsst ecosystems for resource allocation and how these strategies might be interwoven with the coevolution of ecosystem com­ponents. The evolution of forest ecosystems that expend 50% of their annual photosynthate production belowground obviously is probably not without selec­tive advantage to the long-term survival of the system. For example, how does energy expenditure below­ground influence the tolerance of tree species to shading or other stresses which decrease production or the potential for production? How large is the extent to which root processes stabilize forest bngeochemkai cycles, and how have climatic regimes, sod processes, and properties operated in the natural selection proc­esses leading to this apparent stability? Subsequent analyses of forest ecosystems will focus on these and related questions.

Consumption of Root Material

Estimated root organic matter input to the soil is 7500 kg per hectare per year. Roots provide the major energy source for decomposer metabolic activities via two pathways: as living components supporting an herbivore food chain and as detritus becoming primary substrates for microbial catabolisri. Two dominant groups of soil invertebrates preferentially feed on plant roots: cicada larvae and phytophagous nematodes. The extremely long larval stage of the cicada suggests significant consumption of plant roots by this group.1 * Typical population densities range from three to seven individuals per square meter. The total number of nematodes in undisturbed deciduous forest sou's, more than 1.0 X 106 per square meter,19 is great relative to other soil fauna. The fact that approximately 40% of the total nematode population is composed of root-feeding species suggests their potential effects on host root activities.

Five aspects of the root-invertebrate consumer inter­actions with implications as to their subsequent impact on forest productivity and elemental cycling have been examined:19 (1) identification of root-feeding inverte­brate groups, (2) determination of root and root consumer standing crops through the year, (3) seasonal changes in calorific equivalence and elemental concen­trations (C, N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca, and Na) in roots and

18. M. Lloyd and H. S. Dybas, Evolution 20,466 (1966). 19. B. S. Ausmus et al., Symp, Proa, The Belowground

Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant-Associated Processes, US4EP (in prep.).

90

<r i-

3 o z < Q: o o o tr

1000 900 800 700 6P0 JOO

400 300 200 100 0

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

0RNL-3WC 73-7f68R

, LIRIOOENORON FOREST - ROOT BIOMASS OYNAMICS j. < 0.5 cm 01 AM ' r

-41 - - + • -

325

LJ

-I

__4

+ A = 5 8 0 -

- A = 5 0 O <• i .

4 t .

- A = 4 0 0

! I (ff)

> 0.5 cm DIAM

° 1973 • 1972 * 1971 1 » FOOLED DATA

I . i

(6)

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SCPT OCT NOV DEC

Fig. 10.4. Seasonal distribution of lateral root biomass in a Lirioden&on forest, (a) Roots less than 0.5 cm in diameter; (b) roots 0.5 cm or more in diameter. Root biomass production and turnover were calculated from differences in pool size through the year. Bionuss for roots 0.5 cm or more in diameter were calculated as the average weighted by the distribution of biomass estimates from core data combined over three-month periods.

root consumers, (4) ingestion rates of root consumers, and (5) calculation of annual energy and elemental fluxes for the roots and root consumers. Based on these data, the effects of invertebrate root herbivory on root processes and elemental cycling were examined in a deciduous forest ecosystem. Among the 28 families of mesofauna examined by McBrayer and Reichle, 2 0 none were found tc use plant roots as a primary food source. Earthworms ingest amorphous detritus particles, litter fractions, and soil particles;2' however, the food source of enchytraeids is mainly bacteria or fungi, and inges­tion of recognizable plant tissues is unlikely. 3 2 Among soil .rthropods, the only group feeding on roots is cicada larvae, which feed on roots throughout their immature life stages. 1 8 Eighteen genera of phytoph­agous nematodes occur in the soil of our deciduous

20. J. F. McBrayer and D. E. Reichle. Oikos 22, 381 (1971). 21. D. E. Reichle et al., p. 340 in Radionuclides in

Ecosystems, Proc. 3rd National Symposium, AEC-CONF-710501-P2O973).

22. F. B. O'Connor, p. 261 in Methods oj Study in Sou Ecology, ed. by J. Phillipson, UNESCO, Switzerland, 1970.

forest. 2 3 Therefore, cicadas and nematodes are identi­fied as the important root consumer invertebrates, and discussions have thus been limited to these groups.

Cicada (Magicicada septendecim) population size, estimated at the time of emergence, averaged 6.3 individuals per square meter. Average larval dry weight was estimated at 75 tng; average standing crop was calculated to be 0.47 g/m 2 . Based on body size relationships,24 cicada larvae consumed 5% of their body weight per day. The average annual root con­sumption by cicadid larvae was 8.61 g/m 2 , or 1.1% of the average root pool. Cicadas respired approximately 6.5 g/m 2 , which represented 75% of the total flux from roots to cicadas. Standing crops of phytophagous nematodes were closely correlated (r 2 = 0.85) with standing crops of <0.5-cm-diam .oots, showing peaks in spring and fall. Total nematode populations averaged between 2 and 4 million individuals per square meter, with phytophagous nematodes composing approxi-

23. J. M. Ferris, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Menu, Hep. 72-166.

24. D. E. Reichle, Ecology 49,538 (1968).

91

mately 50% of this value. Nematode ingestion rattt> averaged 23.0% of the live body weight per day. Nematodes consumed 63.8 g of root per square meter per year, or 8.5% of the average root poo*. Of the flux from roots to nematodes, approximately 85%, 51.2 g per square meter per year, is lost in maintenance respiration. Cicada larvae and phytophagous nematodes sustained by plant roots consume approximately 10% of the mean annual root rarbon pool.

Comparison of Below- vs Aboveground Transfer of Nitrogen to Sr»8

A primary objective of the research on root processes in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome (U.S.-1BP) is to determine the influence of belowground processes on biogeochemical cycles. Studies on forest roots have examined the dynamics of various root size classes rather than root systems of component species. The seasonal accumulation and turnover of root biomass pools (less than 0.5 cm in diameter) appear to be a dominant feature in the role of roots in forest nutrient cycling (Fig. 10.4). The importance of root exudation and leaching processes in biogeochemical cycling varies among major forested regions.25 Work completed this year indicates that return to the soil of inorganic salts, as well as organic components, by exudation and leaching processes of temperate species may be. substantial.26'27

Annual return of nitrogen to trv soil by root death and decay alone in the Liriodendron forest was 1.5 times the combined aboveground nitrogen inputs (Table 10.1). Of the total (above- and belowground) returns to the soil, root processes accounted for the return of 70% of the organic matter and 62% of the nitrogen. Another 10% of the root element pools of nitrogen was transferred through consumer pools. Therefore, com­bined losses belowground by mortality <md consump­tion totaled 85 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year.

The maintenance, growth, and turnover of root biomass and of nutrient pools represent lar e invest­ments of photosynthate. The Liriodendrot: forest utilizes approximately 50% of its net annua! photo-synthate in growth and maintenance respiration o\ belowground structuie. There presently is no basis for comparison of the energy expenditure between the

25. P. H. Nye,Plant Soil 13, 333 (196'). 26. T. L. Cox, Ph.D. thesis, University of Tennessee, Knox-

ville (1973). 27. T. L. Cox et al., Symp. Proc., The Belo.vground

Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant Associated Processes, US-1BP (in prep.).

Table 10.1. Summary of nitrogen inputs to the litter and soi from above- and betowgroond sources in die Liriodendron

forest study area

Biomass Nitrogen (kg/hectare) (kg/hectare)

Abovegroand* Dryfall-wetfall 7.2 Canopy leaching 2.3 Utter fall 3,310 42.2 Total aboveground ret urn 3,310 51.7

isdowground Root turnover Death and decay 6,750 76 Consumption 725 8.7 Exudation-ieac?-' 6

Total belowground return 7,475 84.7

Total Total return to soil 10,785 136.4

flAboveground data fictn N. T. Edwards and M. H. Shank;, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Memo Report 72-149 (1972).

observed forest root behavior and that which would be incurred if a "constant" pool of root; was maintained. However, based on our results, we propose that the strategy of observed root behavior in temperate forests is one which optimizes the energy expenditure of roots with climatic patterns and the maintenance of soil element pools.

In temperate forest systems, the apparent strategy that occurs during terrestrial ecosystem development is one of increasing conservatism with respect to nutrient losses from the system.28 The mechanism leading to conservation of nitrogen appears to be root sloughing. Biomass and nitrogen , cumulation occur during periods favorable for growth (summer) or just preceding growih (late winter); the latter growth occurs at the expense ct stored photosynthate. During periods unfavorable for growth (fall and winter) or when energy demands are high (spring and early summer canopy development), root biomass is sloughed, thus reducing the total energy demand on the temperate forest systems. The nitrogen contained in the sloughed organic matter is not lost immediately but instead becomes a part of the soil detritus. Microbial mineralization and immobilization retard loss of nitrogen from the system by maintaining it as organic nitrogen. Other data ind. .ate the turnover time of soil nitrogen in deciduous forests to be in excess of 1OC0 years.

28. E. V. Odum, Science 164,262 (i969).

92

Table 102. Distribution of > 4 CrJiie months post inoculation Most of the I 4 C remaining in pine and tulip poplar was in the bole, whereas in oak most of the l 4 C was in the branches. Average I 4 C residence time in each tree assumed an h tial tag equal to that measured one week post inoculation

1 4 C distribution (%) Average Species residence

Branch Bole Roots time (months)

Liriodmdron tulipifera 2.7 95.8 1.5 9.0 Pinmechimta 8.2 91.0 0.8 11.0 Quercm rubra 8&0 8.0 4 0 6.5

The cyclic pattern of photosynthate accumulation in a deciduous forest and the sustained productivity of the deciduous forest, which would be in part dependent on available nitrogen, are closely coupled through the activities of soil microbes on a large, systematically replenished nitrogen-rich substrate. Continual mainte­nance of living roots could impose energy limitations on decomposer organisms by eliminating the periodic input flux of nitrogen-rich root organic matter, since this flux represents 70% of the total detrital input.

Storage and Turnover of Labile Materials

Analysis of carbon cycling in te« atrial ecosystems, such as the Liriodendron forest study at Oak Ridge,1 4

requires an understanding of carbon fluxes for all components of the ecosystem. One conclusion of our analysis was that net ecosystem production (net pri­mary production minus heterotrophic respiration) was small relative to net primary production. Thus, net ecosystem production would appear to be sensitive to small changes in net primary production such as might occur as the result of insect defoliation or subtle effects of other environmental stresses on primary processes (e.g., photosynthesis and autotrophic respiration). A knowledge of the amount and seasonal dynamics of reserve carbohydrates in deciduous forests thus appears to be a critical parameter.

Three trees were inoculated via stem injection with 1.65 mCi of l4C-labeled sucrose (1.9 /iCi/mkromole) on October 31, 1972. Species inoculated wei3 an

(diameter at breast height) red oak (Quercus rubra), a 16-cm shortieaf pine (Pinus echinata), and a 12-cm tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). Root, bole, twig, and leaf samples were collected for radio-assay at approximately monthly intervals beginning one week post inoculation. All trees have been harvested one year post inoculation to permit calculation of a , 4 C budget.

Similar patterns of M C distribution were observed in the 1972 tagged tulip poplar and pine, but with «*ven higher percentages found in bole branches than ob­served previously (Table 10.2). Based o n ' 4 C activity in the June collection of tulip poplar samples and total tree biomass (alloiiietricalry determined from the diameter at breast height) 95.8% of the 1 4 C activity was in the bole, 2.7% in the brancnes and leaves, and 1.5% in the roots. The oak had a higher percentage of , 4 C in the branches (88%j, with only 8% in the bole and 4.0% in the roots. The average , 4 C residence time (1/X, where X is the biological decay coefficient) was 11 months in pine, 9 months in tulip poplar, and 6.5 months in oak. The residence times assumed an initial 1 4 C tag based on counts of samples collected one week after inoculation.

Efflux of C0 2 from roots of trees tagged in 1972 was monitored for 24-hr periods at monthly intervals beginning one week after inoculation. The seasonal pattern of 1 4 C 0 2 efflux from the roots (Fig. 10.5) was similar from December to June to the seasonal pattern of total soil C 0 2 evolution reported by Edwards and Sollins2 9 for t\e same site. The relatively high rates of l 4 C 0 2 loss from roots of all three trees one week after tagging probably reflects a rapid cataboMsm of the ,4C-labeied sugar before being converted to a more stable form, such as starch. This initial loss of I 4 C 0 2

from the roots was almost twice as high for the oak as for the tulip poplar (Fig. 10.5), reflecting a faster movement of l 4 C in the more physiologically active oak at the time of inoculation. The drop in activity in December and through the rest of winter reflects temperaivre effect on respiration rates. The gradual increase in , 4 C 0 2 efflux in early spring is a tempera­ture response and possibly represents release of I 4 C 0 2

from carbohydrates wh ch had be^n stored during the

29. N. T. Edwards and H. Solum, Ecology 54,406 (1973).

93

ORNL-MG 75-8735

X O j EFFLUX FROM ROOTS *> OAK

__.© TUUP POPLAR _ * PINE

\j n u «l r ii A M j J A S

Fig. 10.5. Efface of 1 4 C 0 2 6om roots of thiee tie* species which were inoculated with 1.66 n G of "Csncroseia October 1972. Points represent mean (n = 2) daily I 4 C 0 2 evolution rates measured by inverting plastic chambers over the soQ around the base of each tree and passing chamber air through a series of bottles containing OS N KOH.

winter as more stable carbohydrates such as starch, then being converted back to sugar as needed for mainte­nance respiration. There are two rate processes domi­nating the l4C-labeled carbohydrate reserves. This pattern of rapid initial loss of 1 4 C followed by a slower loss of , 4 C indicates a rapidly catabolized pool of carbohydrates (into which the ,4C-labeled sucrose appears to have been initially introduced). This pool appears to be coupled to a more stable carbohydrate pool (e.g., starch) that constitutes the carbohydrate reserve of the tree with turnover times varying from six to nine months.

The peak of , 4 C 0 2 efflux from the roots of tulip poplar in June may reflect an increase In decay of sloughed roots (less than 0,5 cm in iiameter). A computer simulation of root processes17 indicated that fnuch of the midsummer root mass is dead. As these dead roots are decomposed, the carbohydrates are converted rapidly to C0 2 and H 2 0 . The significant drop in , 4 C 0 2 efflux in July and August may reflect depletion of i4C-labded decomposing roots, also sug­gested by simulation results. These data have demon­strated the rapid turnover of storage materials in autotrophs as well as subsequent decomposer activity. The advantage of labeling directly with sucrose (or other organic compounds) lies in the capability of following the fate of particular biochemical moieties from a single source and the ability to label photo-synthate pools of forest trees in situ without the expense and logistical problems encountered with I 4 C 0 2 labeling.

ECOSYSTEM PROCESS MODEL DEVELOPMENT

A General Model Structure for Efcmrat Cycling m Forests

In ecosystem mode'mg there are two broad classes of interdependent information requirements, namely, the structure and parameters of a model of some system. Comparison of parameters of system models with different underlying structures (in this case, state variables and system interconnections) has limited utility (see Sect. 11 for examples of models drawn from the same parameter constraints but with varying struc­tures). To reduce this problem, a standard model structure for evaluating element cycles was developed (Fig. 10.6). The model emphasizes interrelationships of plant-soil-water (solution) interactions and ;*. a highly connected system model. Tin example bfow docu­ments an application of this model structure to an analytical problem concerned with the stability of an ecosystem control-feedback system based on the cal­cium kinetics in forests over annual time scales.

Stability properties of biogeocheraical cycles are being analyzed using data on biomass, mass transfers, and ecosystem inputs (dry fall, wet fall) for the intensively studied Liriodendron forest, for which a 29-compartment model for the movement of calcium has been developed. The model consists of a system of 29 ordinary linear differential equations, with each equation representing the change in state variables such as calcium (kilograms per hectare) in sofl water, canopy leaves, forest litter, and herbaceous plants. The model is parameterized to represent the forest system at its present operating point, and analyses on the model presumably provide information on the forest's re­sponse either over short time intervals or to small perturbations to the system.

The model *as analyzed using a modified version cf the SFR-3 computer code 3 0 to obtain die response of a hypothetical control system that monitors the flux of calcium out of the ecosystem and uses this information to alter the system input. The stability chiiacteristks and modal response of this control system are dia­grammed on a standard Nyqu^t pict (Fig. 10.7). The Nyquist trajectory of this system indicates that such a control system is stable (absolute stability - the system's response to an impulse input 0 as t -*• «•) as indicated by the fact that the Nyquist path of the

30. T. W. Kerhn and J. L. Lucius, The SFR-3 Code Calculates the Frequency Response of a Multivariate System, ORNL-fM-1575 (1966).

94

OfML-OWG 73-2873R

BULK PGECIR

27.4

Fig. 10.6. Compartment contents and material flows for calcium model- The values inside the boxes (compartments) represent the mean mass of calcium (in kilograms per hectare) in the c< mpartments as calculated from field data. The values on the anows represent the flux of calcium (in kilograms per hectare per year). Two-headed arrows indicate fluxes of calcium in both directions, and the value is for the net anaual flux (in kilograms per hectare per year). Only the compartments for the canopy vegetation are shown for clarity; the model structure for the other vegetative layers is similar.

system does not pass through or enclose the point (1, -180°). Indeed, the system has stability properties that would be considered desirable for control systems in general. The system has high relative stability. Amplifi­cation and time delays in the control system, within a reasonable range, do not cause the system Nyquist path to pass through the instability point (1, -180°). The system feedback properties respond over perturbation frequencies of 50 to 200 years. This is evidenced by the ranges of frequencies that are observable on the system trajectory (F15. 10.7).

For the calcium model (and to the extent that it represents the real system), emergent system properties due to internal feedbacks in the system do not become important unless one is considering long-term (50- to 200-year) perturbations. Perturbations on the system at more frequent intervals should be assessed according to

effects on component parts of the ecosystem, as the system-feedback attributes do not emerge at this time scale.

Watershed Level Simulation Model of Tree Biomass Dynamics

A deterministic model (Fig. 10.8), SERENDIPITY,3' which simulates tree biomass dynamics of a forested watershed on a year-to-year basis, has been developed. The model is conceived on the basis of measurable forest processes influencing change in biomass. SERENDIPITY was developed for application to a closed-canopy forest, and modification would be re-

31. R. A. Goldstein and W. F. Harris, p. 691 in Proc. 1973 Summer Simulation Conf. (1973).

95

OJMN.-0W6 73-7071

150

180

330

240 270 300

Fig. 10.7. Nyquist plot of the stability characteristics of the calcHun-feedback control syrteaa. The angle on the polar plot corresponds to the phase shift (delay) of output associated with different input frequencies (input = sin (urf)). The distance from the origin is the ratio of the input amplitude to the output amplitude at a given frequency. The point (1, -180*) is an instability; u> is in radians per year.

ABOVEGROUND LIVE

r - BIRTH

i-PRODUCTION

I . SMALL • OUTGROWTH -

PRODUCTION

MEDIUM

MORTALITY

ORNL-OWG 73-2597

PRODUCTION

__L_ • OUTGROWTH-

MORTALITY

LARGE

MORTALITY

A80VEGR0UND STANDWGDEAD SMALL

/ TREE FALL * AND MICROBIAL ACTIVITY

8 _i <n z 4

MEDIUM

. / T R E E FALL * AND MCROBlAL ACTIVITY

O

u o _ l <n z < o:

LARGE

f TREE FALL AND

MICROBIAL ACTIVITY

TOOTS TOTAL

MORTALITY

Fig. 10.8. Schematic diagram depicting compartments and transfers of nonfoliaf biomass for SERENDIPITY.

96

quired for application to other stages of forest develop­ment. The model uses data from vegetational surveys and increment core measurements for Walker Branch Watershed. Trees are divided into three size classes: 1.3 to 8.8, 8.9 to 23.8, and over 23.8 cm in diameter zt breast height.

Simulations of forest growth using SERENDIPITY have considered the forests on the watershed as a homogeneous unit composed of three diameter classes. Initial conditions and parameter values were calculated to approximate an "average" forest stand on the study area. The total net annual aboveground biomass accu­mulation averaged over the first three years of simula­tion differs by 8.8% from a measured value determined for stands having the same initial biomass as the simulation. This is considered to be good agreement in light of the variation between species and stands and the amount of averaging required to calculate model parameters. The parameters were estimated inde­pendently of the measured net biomass accumulation used to evaluate the model.

The model has recently been expanded to include three foliage compartments, small and large roots in place of total roots, two fruit compartments, large dead roots, fallen twigs, fallen boles, Oi litter, O2 litter, and soil organic matter. The expanded model is at present being coupled to the calcium cycling model (Fig. 10.6).

DecoiuMwition Model Devdufiintirt

Decomposer organisms immobilize and eventually release nutrient elements for volatilization, leaching, plant root uptake, or immobilization by decomposers. The nutrient element pool, then, is conserved within the rooting zone at the cost of maintaining the decomposer community. By-products of microbial catabohsm, such as humic acids, not only provide a recalcitrant detrital pool but also contribute to soil cation exchange capacity. The microbial community fluctuates around a biomass level dominated by inactive storage tissue, with active catabolic cell growth regu­lated by abiotic variables, substrate quality, and faunal consumption.

A stand level decomposition process model was constructed using data on detrital inputs, decomposer community dynamics, and detrital catabolism and turnover. 3 2 , 3 3 The model serves to (1) summarize and

32. B. S. Ausmus, Ph.D. thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxviue (1973).

33. I. F. McBrayer, PhD. thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxvule (1973).

integrate data sets, (2) analyze relative importance of fluxes estimated among decomposer community members, (3) analyze the substrate quality determining detrital turnover from above- and belowground sources, and (4) test hypotheses concerning interactions of decomposer groups and the effects of the costs and controls of decomposition processes on total system functioning.

The model was implemented using the 1BM/CSMP and was run with a daily time step and the fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration method. Detrital inputs (aboveground and belowgroiuid) were apportioned among four primary substrate compartments based on their substrate quality (calorific equivalence, elemental concentrations, and biochemical type). 3 4 Microbial groups were classified into four functional groups based on their activity on the respective biochemical types. Faunal groups were fungivores, detritivores, grazers, and predators. Belowground, one herbivore, phytophagous nematodes, exploits living plant roots for the decom­poser community.20

In order to simplify the model and extend its applicability to other sites, the functional groups of microbes were combined into a single compa'tment within each module and faunal groups into a second (cryptozoan and microbial dynamics were separately modeleJ). The simplified stand decomposition model contains 14 compartments, 7 in each module (see Fig. 10.9). The two modules were similar in construction and constrained using energetics data collected in the laboratory. The model was further constrained by in situ measures of C0 2 efflux rates which were appor­tioned through the year among the decomposer groups and roots.3 5

Aboveground detrital inputs were dominated by autumnal leaf fall, but significant inputs of leaves, branches, and reproductive parts occurred throughout the yt-ar. Belowground inputs (almost totally roots less than 0.S cm in diameter sloughed in spring and fall) accounted for 67% of total annual detrital inputs. Turnover rates of litter were estimated to average 1.2 years. The most sensitive litter module flux was the lignin to microbe flux. Bslowground turnover rates approximated 0.6 year. The most sensitive soil module flux was the carbohydrate-microbe flux. Substrate quality exerts strong control of detrital turnover tin.es.

34. Biochemical composition of substrate is defined in t rms of percentage soluble carbohydrates, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin.

35. D. E. Reichle et al„ Proc. 5th Int. Congr. Soil Zool, Prague, Czechoslovakia (in press).

97

The model indicates that loss of aboveground detrital inputs would affect the decomposer community and thereby the detrital elemental pool after three years. Loss of belowground inputs would immediately affect the community, causing a first-year reduction of 80% in decomposer biomass. Loss of litter fauna increased modeled substrate turnover rates by 10 to 20%. Belowground fauna have a much smaller effect (2 to 5%

increase in substrate turnover time). This finding is consistent with laboratory observations of mite popula­tions increasing lignin decomposition rates more than less recalcitrant compounds and increasing average microbial biomass with damped population fluctuations through time. The greatest effects of the microbial-faunal interactions were on recalcitrant substrates.

0 M . - D T . 73-S24S

SC SOLUBLE CARBOHYDRATES H HEMCEU.ULOSE C CELLULOSE L LlGMN A ABOVEGROUNO B BELOWGR0UNO

F, - - F e OETRITAL INPUT FUNCTIONS C0NSTRAMED BY OETRITAL TYPE AND LITTER FALL DATA

F 9 HERBIVORY ON ROOTS R, -•• R 4 RESPIRATORY RATES CONSTRAMEO BY

MEASURED HETEROTROPHIC COa EFFLUX Dj LITTER OETRITAL POOL D. SOIL DETRITAL POOL

M MCHOBcS F FAUNA A LITTER s SON.

Fig. 10.9. DECOMP I; the stand level decomposition process model developed for the Uriodendron forest. The linear mode! was implemented using the IBM/CSMP and an IBM 360/91 computer. Two submodules, litter and soil, allow introduction of detrital inputs aboveground and belowground as soluble carbohydrates, hemicelluloses, celluloses, and lignins. Litter and soil r icrobial and faunal populations have been combined into one litter and one soil compartment each. Values within boxes are in kilocalohes per square meter; arrows are kilocalories per square meter per day.

Part IV. Division Extension Activities

R. L. Burgess

11. Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, U.S.-IBP R. L. Burgess

R. S. Booth1 J. Kercher2

D. DeAngelis2

N. Ferguson F. G. GofT R. A. Goldstein W. C. Johnson C. Kelsey3

J. B. Mankin, Jr. 4

R. V. O'Neill R. K. Schreiber D. M. Sharpe H. H. Shugart, Jr. D. West3

The Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome is a major research effort within the U.S. International Biological Program (IBP). The Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory manages and coordi­nates this luge scientific program, which integrates many investigators and institutions in the eastern United State.?. Research into various ecosystem proc­esses is coordinated across the biome region at five major sices: one terrestrial (Triangle, North Carolina), two aquatic (Lake George, New York, and Lake Wingra, Wisconsin), and two terrestrial and land/water inter­action sites (Coweeta, North Carolina, and Oak kidge, Tennessee). The Biome is involved in sophisticated research into primary and secondary biotic production, decomposition, mineral cycling, &nd abiotic environ­mental parameters.

In addition to the management component, Biome headquarters consists of a large mathematical modeling

1. Instrumentation and Controls Division. 2. Presidential intern. 3. IBP research assistant, Graduate Program in Ecology,

University of Tennessee. 4. Computer Sciences Division.

and analysis group, a Biome and Regional Analysis program, and a Biome Information Center (see Chap. 12). Highlights of the year included presentation of a symposium, "Advances in Integrated Research — Ex­perimentation and Modeling in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome," at the AAAS meetings in Washington, D.C., in December 1972. In addition, Biome sciences gathered for the Second Annual Information Meeting at Duke University in March and participated in the AIBS (American Institute of Biological Sciences) meetings at the University of Massachusetts in June. Biome scien­tists have also been extremely active this past year in various aspects of interbiome and international syn­theses emerging from the IBP.

ANALYSIS AND MODELING

In cooperation with the University of California at San Diego and the Department of Transportation, an effort was made to ascertain the effects of a supersonic transport (SST) fleet on deciduous forest ecosystems. Projected climatic effects were run on the terrestrial energy model and the atmosphere-soil-plant water cycle models developed by the Division. The models show

98

99

that decreasing temperature, radiation, and precipi­tation had an adverse effect on bole and root growth. There was a projected 35% decrease in net primary production after 16 years in the most severe case (Fig. 11.1). This effect might be partially modified by the effects of decreased water stress. The climatic changes had a more severe effect on a consumer population, rapidly eliminating the population in the most severe case. Short-term effects on decomposition were slight on an annual basis, but shifts in seasonal pattern were severe. The seasonal changes might well result in a serious perturbation of the mineral cycling of the ecosystem. While less than conclusive because of the preliminary nature of the study and inadequacies of the model, our results indicated that the most severe climate alterations projected could indeed result in serious effects on the forest ecosystem.

A model for the biomass dynamics of a fish popula­tion has been developed in cooperation with modelers and fishery biologists at the University of Wisconsin. The model attempts a mechanistic description of all variables affecting population growth rates. The model has been implemented with data gathered at the Lake Wingra research site for the local bluegill population. Following initial testing of the model, it was utilized to examine the potential effects of thermal effluents on a fish population. The results of the simulation (Fig.

ORNL-OWS 74-432 (« IO 8 ) I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 2 4 6 8 K) 12 14 16 TIME (pars)

Fig. 11.1. Effect oa bole growth of dtd&*mn« uces bom operating an SST fleet over the contn«eatal Uniied States. Estimates were made by inserting projected climatic changes in the Terrestrial Ecosystem Energy Model. Case 1: OVC reduc­tion in temperature and 1% reduction in radiation, windspeed, and precipitation. Case 2: 2°C reduction in average tempera­ture, 2% reduction in solar radiation, and 5% reduction in wind speed and precipitation.

ORNL-OWC 74-433

1

J \ \ ! /' V A \ i f < \

i • i /

> / x / ^ - / • K ) T 0 30"C ^ - /

i* K)*C

O 180 360 WO 72C TIME (days)

Fig. 11.2. Biomass dynamics of a Mnrgffl popaeatioa aader-goiag thermal stress. The three stress conditions indicate a 3°C and 10°C increase over ambient throughout the year and a 10°C increment throughout the year (except during the summer months) so that the ambient temperature of the water never rises above 30*C.

11.2) indicate that up to 10°C increases in lake temperature would disturb seasonal growth patterns but would not cause elimination of the population as long as the temperature was never permitted to rise above 30°C. If the temperature is maintained at 10°C above ambient and permitted to rise above 30°C during the summer months, the stress on the population becomes acute and might well result in elimination of the bluegill population.

In connection with synthesis activities of the Inter­national Biological Program, an opportunity has arisen to examine the role of consumer organisms in ecological systems. The result has been several hypotheses about the role of animal populations. For example, review of available information on the role of soil arthropods in nutrient cycling suggests the following hypothesis (Fig. 11.3). A large pool of nutrients exists as dead organic material. The nutrients are released from the bound state by various physical and biological processes and are carried into the free soil water. From this state they may be taken up into plant roots and incorporated into the organic matter once again. Nutrients in the soil water also interact with the organo-clay complex by ion exchange. Soil arthropods play several roles in these interactions, affecting the rate of release of the nutri­ents, increasing soil water space by burrowing, and increasing the humic content of the organo-clay com-

100

OHHL-OmQ 7W-434

PRECIPITATION

DEAD ORGANIC MATTEU

/ I I

HUMIFICATION I I \ \ \

» i±

PLANT ROOTS

ORGAN IC/tLAY COMPLEX

V 4.

FREE SOIL

WATER

<?

& <t

LEACH I JG

LEACHING

Fig. 11.3. Diagram of soil-plant nutrient relationships. The possible role of soil arthropods is indicated by the dashed arrows. The arthropods function to contial rate processes that affect nutrient availability for plant growth. These effects primarily operate through interactions with microflora.

plex through interactions with microflora. The demand for nutrient* by plant roots varies during the year, depending on the demands of plant growth. The amount of nutrients actually dissolved in free soil water at a point in tune would be quite small and inadequate to meet plant demands during periods of growth. Therefore, nutrients must be taken from the organo-clay complex to supply the demand. The magnitude of the organo-clay nutrient pool might therefore be critical at periods of peak demand. The major mechanism for replenisliing the organo-clay pool would be the release of nutrients from the dead organic matter. The release would have to occur at a i«te commensurate with the ability of the organo-clay complex to adsorb the released nutrients. If release were too slow, the organo-clay complex wou'ti not be able to build a sufficiently large pool to r eet plant demands. If release were too rapid, much of the released nutrient might be lost through leaching.

The major role played by soil arthropods may be regulation of the rate of release of nutrients from the dead organic pool. If release occurred only through physical processes, the rate would be much too slow. Microbial activity would ter d to bind nutrients into the living tissue during periods of favorable temperature and moisture and then release pulses of nutrients when conditions deterioratec. it is possible that, under such circumstances, large quantities of nutrients would be released rapidly and would exceed the ability of the

organo-clay complex to adsorb the nutrients. The arthropods would tend to reduce the peak releases by microflora hy grazing while simultaneously encouraging microbial activity at a lower but more uniform level.

The conclusions to be drawn from this hypothesis affect he manner in which we view the role of arthropods in ecosystem function. The actual quantities of material passing through the arthropods and the magnitude of the arthropod populations themselves appear to be of importance only insofar as they affect the rates of release of the nutrients. It may be that the primary role of the arthropods is to regulate the rates of microbial activity.

The Division modeling staff, in cooperation with aquatic biologists at the University of Wisconsin, has developed a model for the production of a rooted aquatic macrophyte, Myriophyllum spicatum L. The formulation of the model is dependent on such plant processes as photosynthesis, respiration, acclimation, excretion, sloughing of leaves, and shoot mortality. The model is constructed to consider variations in these growth-related processes and associated environmental parameters with depth. The model has been imple­mented and used to study the growth dynamics of Myriophyllwn in Lake Wingra, Wisconsin (Fig. 11.4). The model faithfully represents the growth of the plant from the bottom sediments in spring to growth in the top 10 cm of the water occurring in July. The sloughing of leaves in late May and the decline of the vegetative parts of the plant in the fall are also represented well. The model has been particularly useful in explaining the sloughing of older leaves s»t the base of the shoot. As the leaf area index increases on plant parts higher in the water column, the lower leaves no longer receive sufficient light, and the ratio of photosynthesis to respiration decreases. As a result, there is an increasing cost to the organism to maintain these leaves, and they are sloughed to avoid the metabolic cost of main­tenance.

A new nonlinear formulation to represent transfer of material or energy from one trophic level to another has been developed. The formulation is an improvement over many previous models since it includes additional information on the dependence of feeding rate on the density of the consumer population. The new formula­tion has been subjected to equilibrium and stability analyses in an effort to understand its mathematical implications as a component of complex ecosystem models. The analyses led to several ecological implica­tions such as the observation that increases in maximum feeding rate may, under certain circumstances, result in decreases in consumer populations (Fig. 11.5). Up to a

101

OHC-OWG M - 4 3 5

APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT

Fig. 11.4. Output from a model for production of a submergent roacrophyte in Lake Wingra, Wisconsin, showing the biomass at each of ten depth classes: For example, i = 1 for a depth of 0 to 10 cm, i = 2 from 10 to 20 cm, etc, tor a total depth of 100 cm.

in in < 2 o CD

2

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1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

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10

Fig. H i . Output from a nonlinear trophic interaction model showing equilibrium biomasf of the combined food source and the consumer population as a function of maximum feeding rate on the food source. Above an optimal feeding level, further increases in maximum feeding rate result in a decrease in the consumer population.

given Ievei, increases in maximum feeding rate result in increases in the consumer population, as might be expected. Beyond a point, however, further increases cause very serious depletions in the food populations, JC] and x2, and the nonlinear feedback relationship results in a decrease in consumer populations. Other analyses indicate that increasing the complexity of the food chain leads to increased stability over a wider range of parameter values, providing insight into the relationship between stability and diversity.

The Eastern Deciduous Forest Bioms has not at­tempted to develop a single large model to consider all possible questions about the functioning of ecosystems. Emphasis rather has been on construction of small-scale models to describe dynamics of important processes occurring within the forest system. Participants in the program are generally agreed that high-quality process models will advance the science of ecology while total system models which represent the system poorly are of little value. The overall objectives of the modeling program therefore have been to develop a complete spectium of process models covering all significant processes. From this array it woulu then be possible to assemble specific models uniquely designed to address specific questions.

With this viewpoint in mind, the resources of site and central modeling teams have been concerned with day-by-day interplay between models and field and laboratory research. At this point in time it appears that the initial task is near completion. With few exceptions,

102

Table 11.1. Models dwUoptd • the E m m Deciduous Forest Bkwic, U.S.-IBP Individual modds hive been constructed by the Drmion modeling staff, but many are the products cf modeling teams at research sites coordinated from Bioro* h±s<tauarters. Those developed, in part or in whole, by the ORNL staff are indicated by in asterisk.

PROCESS MODELS

Abiotic Steady-state stand energy Dynamic stand energy* SoC-pbnt-atmosphere Sotf-hUer-atmosphere

Terrestrial primary production Leaf photosynthesis Steady^tate photosynthesis* Canopy photosynthesis Biomass distribution Foliage distribution Branch and stem growth Stand primary production* Succession* Land-use dynamics*

Tetrest^1 secondary production

Papulation dynamics Insect consumption* Stochastic population model* Food chain kinetics* Terrestrial consumers*

Temstrial Decomposition

Earthworm litter decomposition* Nutrients in arthropods Arthropods in white pine Sol microinmtebrates* Soil fungal decomposition* Terrestrial decomposition*

Hydrology Soil water infiltration* Water balance in soils PROSPER* Lake George hydrology Lake level

Lake circulation Seiche movement Mixing model Sedimentation

Aquatic primary production Thytopbiivton Macrophytes*

Aquatic secondary production Benthos* ZoopJankton* Fish biomass*

Aquatic decomposition DecotnpositL>«*

Aquatic nutrients Nitrogen Phosphorus

SUBSYSTEM MODELS

Phytoplankton-zooplankto.n kinetics Terrestrial tee growth Aquatic biomass model DDT transport* Aleut ecosystem*

ECOSYSTcM MODELS

Terrestrial ecosystem energy* Energy dynamics* Terrr -rial nutrient cycling* Carbon flux in forest stands* Watershed vegetation* Hydrologic transport model* Comprehensive lake ecosystem analyzer*

a complete spectmm of iritial process models has been completed (Table 11.1) and is currently being utilized in the major task of synthesis of data during the final year of the IBP. In conjunction with synthesis, a continuing effort to test and improve the available models will be implemented.

BIOME AND REGIONAL ANALYSIS

Research in Biome and Regional Ecology has been focused in three major areas: primary productivity,

succession, and geoecology. Related to the primary pre 'activity research is work being conducted at the University of North Carolina on phenology.

The geoecology project includes vegetation ordination and species-range analysis Ordination research has been concerned mainly with development of methods that can be applied to forest Service inventory data on a region-by-reglon basis. Ordination methods now in existence produce distorted results.5

5. J. M, A. Swan,Ecology 51, 89-102 (1970).

1C3

Various indices of species association have been examined by using fabricated data to repiest.it simpli­fied vegetational grad. nits. From these simplified "defining cases," we have established that the most appropriate index of interspecific association for ordi­nation is maximum affinity, defined as the number cf joint occurrences between the two species being con­sidered divided by the number of occurrences of the least common of the two species. We have tested and compared several other indices, including Pearson's correlation, Cole's index of association, tetrachoric correlation, index of similarity (2w/A + B), mean affiiity, and joint information.

Primary productivity has been studied at the Biorr.e scale along lines established in the productivity profile studies of 1971 and has been developed to consider the phenology of productivity and the dynamics of biomass accumulation and depletion in a region. Further work has been done on such energetics of ecosystems in a study of the productivity of marshland, which was contrasted with the energetics of nearby agricultural systems.6 The efficiency of net primary production (energy stored in organic matter/solar and technologic energy input) for marshland in one Wisconsin county was 1.34%, which is 0.38% higher than that county's average agricultural productivity. Such contrasts indi­cate the flaw «r generally accepted ideas that managed ecosystems (e.g., crops) are more efficient energy converters than natural ecosystems under the same climatic conditions, while underscoring the relatively low proportion of the total energy input that is stored in plant tissues in any ecosystem. Further studies of marshland productivity are planned, and samples of emergent plants of marshlands along a north-south transect have been collected with a view to establishing trends in production efficiency in relation V: climatic gradients.

The productivity of the commercial forests of the Tennessee Valley was studied further by developing a donor-dependent model representing the forest area in each of 14 biomass classes (0 < class 1 < 4 0 . . . 520 < class 14 < 560 metric tons of aboveground woody biomass per hectare) using continuous forest inventory records of tfe Tennessee Valley Authority.7 Temporal trends in totA regional growth, mortality, and timber remcal were Ipmined in relation to three alternative harvest strategies in which: (1) harvest coefficients were fixed at current\te» 2nd the amount of felled biomass

6. G. Cottam et ai., t^FB memo report 72-142 (1973). 7. D. M. Sharpe and 3'. \. r -.!-n«/>n, EDFB memo report

73-23 (1973;.

(million meiric tons per year) was allowed to vary through time, (2) harvest coefficients we rj allowed to vary to arrive at a constant harvest, and (3) coefficients were varied to produce a 1% per year increase in the biomass cut. Under strategy 1 the mode) calculated an equilibrium liarvest rate analogous *o the potential timber harvest computed by some management agencies for this region. The variation through time of the forest area in four groupings of biomass classes is shown in Fig. 11.6. The simulation mode! incorporating strategy 1 indicated a reveiial in the present Lend toward

ORNL-OWG 73-8193R

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Fig. 11.6. Time behavior of forest area allocated to forest! in four ranges of aboveground woody bionuus for harvest rates that are assumed to be nonvarying, steadily increasing, and unconstrained.

104

85 , . . . . , . . . , 5 I 0 0

Rf. 11.7. Taut behavior of each forest type daring a 250-year simulation of the Piedmoat succession model in the absence of perturbations. Note the abrupt change of scale on the Y axis.

increased area of forests with high biomass (light dashed lines), while a constant harvest (solid lines) and slowly rising harvest (heavy dashed lines) would lead to an inc.eased proportion of the forest area in high biomass classes in the next century. Such a model of the bioinass dynamics has the potential to provide forest managers with a tool to examine how total biomass and the distribution of area within a series of biomass classes change with harvest strategy. It can also be used to assess some of the impacts of varying wood utilization standards (e.g., whole tree utilization) on a region's forests with a view to understanding how one use of forest resources has impacts on other and perhaps competing resource uses.

Succession research has concentrated on the dynamics of regional forest composition by devising a model to simulate changes in the areal extent of major forest types through time. In order to examine how the tixtent of a number of forest types is expected to change within a region, needed information includes: (1) the present extent of each type, (2) the successional or replacement patterns, (3) types of perturbations and base-line rates, and (4) land-use patterns. The first models (Michigan and North Carolina Piedmont models) simulated the intrinsic successional patterns of the tree rpecies in the region with perturbations set equal to zero (Fig. 11.7). That is, the effects of disturbance were ignored. Succession research this year

involved the incorporation of disturbance effects into the existing models in order to make the simulations more realistic. Although these effects were incorporated into both the Piedmont and Michigan models, the resuits from North Carolina8 exemplify our findings. Perturbation data were obtained from the ecological literature and from the Forest Service CFI (Continuous Forest Inventory) plot records

First, the effects of land use were analyzed. Foresta-tion through old field abandonment and deforestation resulting from land-use shifts were shown to have an enormous impact on the mixture of forest types, largely by redirecting the flow of land away from oak-hickory toward pine predominance. The perpetuation of rela­tively ^ire stands of shortleaf and Virginia pine in the region requires continual abandonment of cultivated land. For loblolly pine, both planting and natural regeneration on abandoned land are requisite to its perpetuation as an extensive forest type.

Second, the combined effects of succession, land-use change, harvest, clearing, and planting were examined by incorporating all these effects into one model. The model simulation is shown in Fig. 11.8. The tine behavior extrapolated for loblolly pine indicates a dramatic increase in the acreage of this type during the

8. W. C. Johnson, Proc. 2nd Int. Geobot. Conf., University of Tennessee Press (1974).

105

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600

450

150

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200 240

Fig. 11.8. Time behavior of each upland forest type daring a 250-year srarabtioa of the Fiedmoat succession model, namber of perturbations.

next 100 years. The time behavior curve becomes asymptotic at 1,300,000 acres, nearly three times the area increase during the simulation period, although by only a few percentage points of the total commercial forest areas. The loss of area to the noncommercial forest sector and planting after both clearing and harvest were perturbations of sufficient magnitude to permit only a slow increase in this type through time. All other upland types decreased in area over the period, although none reached ;:ero and most were at equilibrium before the end of the simulation.

Foiest composition models of this type are useful in several ways. First, they are synthetic and serve as a vehicle to bring both ecological and forestry data

together to bear on a problem. Second, the topology of a completed model can help to identify the emergent features of the regional forest system, including the pathways of area flow and the relative rates of movement. Third, the powers of simulation allow the dynamic phase of the model to be used either to simulate the long-term effects of present management strategies or to indicate which management strategies or policy decisions are necessary to obtain a desired mixture of forest types. The simula:ion of proposed treatment effects before they are actually carried out is a more efficient process than adjusting management strategies after the effects become apparent in the landscape.

\

12. Environmental information

C. J. Oen B. N. CoUier H. A. Pfuderer1

N. Ferguson1 C. T. Sanders M. L. Johnson' R. H. Strand1

B. B. McMullin S. Talmage F.M.Martin

The combined efforts of the Ecological Sciences Information Center and the US-IBP Eastern Deciduous Forest Bkxne (EDFB) Information Center have resulted in a wide variety of infonnation resources available to the investigators cf the Environmental Sciences Divi­sion, EDFB, and the Atomic Energy Commission community. This information support has developed as an integrated effort that combines both bibliographic and numeric data. Major progress has occurred this year ir the management of numeric data, resulting in a fully operational system to document, store, and manipulate numeric data. Continued progress is eviden. in the building of bibliographic data bases and in answering requests for services.

NUMERIC INFORMATION

Numeric data management relates to the organization and collection of arrays of numbers for the purpose of coordinating research problems and theory with prob­lem solving and decision-making processes. Numeric information integrated with bibliographic information constitutes a unique and irreplaceable resource for research scientists because of the functions data serve in decision-making processer and system evaluations. The scientific and economic values of numeric data * d their management can be understood when an evalu­ation is made of the monetary costs per research datum as well as the loss to the scientific community when unique data are obliterated.

To store numeric data sets, it is necessary to provide two types of information. The first consists of textual descriptor.., [e.g., authors), title, data set name] that correspond to each numeric data set, and the second is

the numeric data set itself. The textual descriptions provide the conditions pertaining to the data and their collection, the form and accuracy of the values, and other scientifically desirable infonnation. These descrip­tions provide a communication link between potential users of the numeric data and the data bank.

Since access to textual information (i.e., text searches) has become routine, the major concern has shifted to the establishment of a system to create and maintain a numeric data bank. The Numerical and Textual Information System2 (NUTIS) has beer? devel­oped and tested for that purpose. It is amenable to the environmental research programs engaged in problem solving and was developed to meet the following specific criteria:

1. to provide a means for storing, retrieving, and keeping an account of numeric data and provide a current listing of the status of the archival data sets,

2. to provide a system that would be easy to learn to use, versatile, and comfortable,

3. to respond to solicited data management ideas, concepts, and opinions from potential users about system options required to meet their specific needs,

4. to provide efficiency while permitting portability to compatible computer installations,

5. to allow the system to be updated and improved in later versions by careful planning of the task and

1. Dual capacity. 2. R. H. Strand and D. G. Taylor, NUTIS: Numerical and

Textual Information System, version 1.0 (in review), 1973.

106

107

deliberate system implementation in a ipcduiar form,

6. to protect against obliteration or adulteration of the data by providing control of access to the data,

7. to satisfy the basic requirements of data stoiage, cataloging, and retrieval with a minimum expend­iture of time and money.

rhe NUTIS provides the user a versatile means for (1) storage of numeric data in a computer-accessible form; (2) data retrieval from the data storage facility for display on a printer, card punch, or transcription to a computer storage device: (3) data set cataloging and addressing simultaneously with data set storage; (4) maintaining and accessing the directory containing the textual information describing each numeric data set; and (5) control of access to all or portions of the numeric and/or textual data.

The system provides for the storage, without modifi­cation, of numeric data onto a computer storage device and simultaneous insertion of a brief textual description of each data entry into a directory or catalog. The editing, subsetting, and/or analyses of die numeric data are performed by the Statistical Analysis System3

(SAS) or user-specific programs. This provides the user a means for either simple or multivariate statistical processing of fixed-format data (Le., data recorded observation by observation).

The entire process of numeric data management (Fig. 12.1) from data set definition and reformatting through data analysis and interface constitutes a com­plicated series of organizational and procedural steps.

3. A. J. Ban and J. H. Goodnight, Statistical Analysis System (August 1972 version), North Carolina State Student Supply Store, Raleigh, N.C., 1972.

ORNL- OWC 73-12247 TERRESTRIAL

\ AQUATIC

ABIOTIC

Fig. 12.1. Numeric data management activities.

108

This systematic process, when automated, is a time-saving and efficient tool for increasing research pro­ductivity and, with proper planning and use, can lead to improvement in the quality of research.

The first activity in numeric data management con­sists of the definition of the parameters to be char­acterized by the data collection, the restatement of the hypotheses to be tested by the experimental design, the analytical techniques to be used, and the establishment of a computer-compatible data record format. The second step is the collection of the desired data. Quality control or error checking is then applied, essentially screening the data for irregularities or probable errors. The fourth step is storage in a computer-accessible form. This entails some type of formatting, whether entry is through keypunching or by direct computer terminal input.

One of the major challenges in numeric data manage­ment is the storage, retrieval, and cataloging of data sets. In response to this challenge, a numeric data bank has been established within the Environmental Sciences Division as part o( the U.S. International Biological Program, using an existing bibliographic system plus NUTIS to manage the information. Of the 76 data sets (Fig. 12.2) stored to date, one-fourth come from Oak Ridge investigators. The subject matter covers a broad range of basic ecology. About half of the data sets deal with terrestrial systems, one-fourth with aquatic sys­tems, and the rest with abiotic variables that influence ecological systems. Many ecological data concern mea­surement in three bask process areas: primary produc­tion, secondary production, and mineral cycling and decomposition. Figure 12.2 shows the relative volume of data in each of these categories in the data bank. The

ORNL-uXG ' 3 - 1 2 2 4 6

RrSEA^' . i OBJECTIVES AND GOALS 1

DATA SET DEFWOCN

COLLECTION AND COMPUTERIZATION

QUALiTY CONTROL

(TEMPORARY Y ,

OATA ANALYSIS

PERMANENT FILES

)

OATA DISPLAY

RETRIEVAL ANC

MANIPULATION

SIMULATION AND ~1 SYSTEM EVALUATION !

I DECISION PROCESSES

Fig. 12.2. Jubject matter of numerical data sets.

_ . . . - . . - . _ — . , „ , ! , , ! <M».JM»»> w w m w

109

systems and procedures that have been developed and tested under IBP sponsorship are now ready for direct use in the Environmental Sciences Division research.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

In addition to bibliographic descriptions that support numeric data sets, the Division information centers are active in building a variety of bibliographic data bases. Materials for these data bases are selected by Division investigators or information specialists to meet the needs of the projects. All citations are processed through the ORCHIS4 system and reside on disk for searching with ORLOOK,5 a system designed for direct user interaction. Each indexed file uses an open, controlled vocabulary to assure consistent retrieval through key words. All files follow a standardized format6 to make it as efficient as possible for a user to intenogate any of the information files that may be of interest.

Topics in previously built files include ecosystem analysis, biogeochemical ecology, radioecology, and nitrogen measurement in ecosystems. These are avail­able for computer searching, as are the following files that have been developed or expanded during the last year:

Thermal effects. The 1972 literature on thermal effects on aquatic organisms was processed, added to the computer file, and published as a bibliography containing 448 references.7 This material also served as the basis for a review of the 1972 literature for the Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation.* Over 200 references from 1970 have been added, making a total of about 1100 references on thermal effects. The file can be searched for the type of aquatic system (e.g., freshwater, marine, or estuary), by labora-

4. A. A. Brooks, ORCHIS Interim Technical Report -Collected Memos and Cumulative Bibliography, ORNL-TM-3727 (August 1972).

5. V. A. Singletary and A. F. Joseph. ORL&JK: Phase I Project Support Information Retrieval Systen, ORNI-EIS-15 (in press).

6. C. J. Oen et al., Guide to the Generalized Bibliographic Format for the Environmental Information System, ORNL-EIS-71-3 (1972).

7. C. C. Coutant and H. A. Pfuderer, Thermal Effects on Aquatic Organisms - Annotated Bibliography of 1972 Litera­ture, ORNL-EIS-73-28 (June 1973).

8. C. C. Coutant and H. A. Pfuderer, 'Thermal Effects, a Review of the Literature of 1972 on Wastewater and Water Pollution Control," J. Water Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45(6), 1131-i.i69 (1973).

tory or field study, by the specific organisms (using either common or scientific name), and by place and date of fi>Ia studies in aduition to the other scientific key words and bibliographic information (e.g., authors, journals).

Aquatic impacts. This small (125 references) file was initiated to complement the Division work by C. C. Coutant, J. S. Mattice, and C. W. Gehrs in assessing the effects of dredging and chlorination on aquatic orga­nisms. The interest in the effects of power plant chlorine use on aquatic biota is new, and the informa­tion gathered was often from preprints and unpublished material.

Striped bass. This new file concerns the life history, biology, population dynamics, and trophic interactions of striped bass. It supports the critical review of striped bass being written by C. P. Goodyear. Care is token to include numeric data for use in the predictive model of the effects of nuclear power station operations on striped bass populations being developed by W. Van Winkle and C. P. Goodyear. Parameters of particular interest are fecundity, catch data, fishing effort, adult growth curves, mortality, and recruitment.

Environmental phitonium data base. This file of about 2500 references on the environmental aspects of Plutonium and uranium and the ecology of the Nevada Test Site is supported by the Nevada Applied Ecology Group of the AEC Nevada Operations Office. Included are references on redistribution, the analysis of environ­mental samples, movement and fate in various eco­systems, biological effects, and health considerations for man. Two bibliographies have been published9'10

and a third is in press.11 In addition to work incorporating current material, the massive collection (about 500,000 reports) in the AEC Technical Informa­tion Center's vault has been examined, and reports from early nuclear tesis at Nevada and early biological studies of plutonium and uranium were selected for inclusion in the data base.

Radioecology. Parts of the extensive bibliographies compiled by A. W. KJement. Jr., and V. Schultz and

9. Environmental Plutonium Data Base Group, Environ­mental Aspects of Plutonium - a Selected. Annotated bibliog­raphy, ORNL-EIS-72-21 (September 1972).

10. Environmental Plutonium Data Base Group, Environ­mental Aspects of Plutonium and Other Elements - a Selected, Annotated Bibliography, ORNL-EIS-73-21, Suppl. 1 (August 1973).

11. Environmental Plutonium Data Bast Group, Environ­mental Aspect: of Plutonium and Other Elements - a Selected, Annotated Bibliography, ORNL-EIS-73-21, Suppl. 2 (in press).

no

published in several separate volumes by the AEC 1 2

have been input to computer files for easy, efficient access to this collection of material relevant to Division interests. This file is accessed primarily through author names or words in titles.

Modeling. R. V. O'Neill is the editor of this file on mathematical modeling of ecosystems. References in­cluded emphasize the mathematical techniques appli­cable to modeling ecological systems. Since this is a new area of ecology, little effort has been made to survey past literature. Instead, current literature, including many unpublished reports, is selected. To date, over 700 citations have been identified for inclusion in this • « « " *» *%** * / v v i v i v i v u w v i macav** v v v n i / u v i i J i i v u u i i v r i u

groups as EDFB Memo Reports.*3 ~* 6

Decomposition. A file on decomposition is being compiled as a joint project coordinated by B. S. Ausmus. Materials dealing with elemental fluxes,

12. A. W. KJement, Jr., and V. SdiuUz, Terrestrial and Freshwater RatMoeatiogy, a Seiected Bibliography, TID-3910 and Supplements 1-8, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Drvuaoa of Biology and Medicine, Washington, L\ C , 1962-1972.

13. R. V. 0*NeH and N. Ferguson, Modeling Abstracts, voL 1, No. 1, Eastern Deciduous Forest Bknne Memo Report No. 72-37 (June 1972).

14. R. V. O'Neill and N. Ferguson, Modeling Abstracts, vol. 1, No. 2, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biomu Memo Report No. 73-1 (January 1973).

15. R. V. 0*Ncil and N. Ferguson, Modeling Abstracts, vol. 1, No. 3, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biotnc Merio Report No. 73-11 (Jury 1973).

16. R. V. <yneM and N. Ferguson, Modeling Abstracts, vol. 1, No. 4, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Memo Report No. 73-57 (September 1973).

growth dynamics, influences of man, and models as they relate to decomposition are selected. About 800 references have been input, and the first hundred are being published as r Memo Report. 1 7

Abstract journal. The Biome Information Center edits and publishes an abstract journal that describes the reports and numerical dzta sets produced by the Environmental Component of the U.S. International Biological Prog-am. This material is prepared by the participating groups and is forwarded to Oak Ridge for final editing and publication. The vocabulary used for key words is derived from terms in common use by the scientists themselves. Abstracts - U.S. International Bidogkal Program Ecosystem Analysis Studies is dis­tributed quarterly to 1000 investigators, including about 200 foreign scientists.

INFORMATION SERVICE REQUESTS

The 421 service requests received by the Division information centers between October 1, 1972, and September 30, 1973, represent a 70% increase over the number of requests answered during the same period the previous year. Half of these requests were from the Division, an additional one-fourth from other AEC and IBP groups, and the remainder from educational institu­tions, other government agencies, private groups, and individuals.

17. B. S. Ausmus, N. Ferguson, and M. L. Johnson, Rotters' Revelation, vol. 1, No. 1, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Memo Report No. 73-58 (in press).

c>

13. Education

J.P.Wrl

The objective of educational activity is to disseminate the use of advanced methods and tecnniques available at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for studying and controlling problems associated with energy, radioac­tivity, and all other forms of environmental pollutants and chemical cycles. To improve the "quality of man's environment" in the face of environmental degradation from increasing populations requires innovative educa­tion and training activities in basic and applied environ­mental sciences as well as in radiation protection.

Training activities are planned for participation rang­ing from outstanding college undergraduates to senior postdoctoral-level personnel. Undergraduate research project experiences have provided a powerful stimulus and an orientation toward quantitative environmental research in the participant's formative years. Labora­tory graduate participants have an opportunity to become familiar with modern experimental techniques and data analysis, which frequently give them a new outlook on the social relevance of the problems encountered by man's cultural alteration of diverse environments.

EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES

This year, 26 undergraduate students participated in Division activities for periods ranging from 10 to 16 weeks. All of these students completed research proj­ects under the direction of senior staff members. Undergraduate programs and the number of students in each were:

NSF Undergraduate Research Participants 10 ORAU Undergraduate Research Paiticipants 4 Cooperative Curriculum Program 3 ORAU-Great Lakes College Association 5 Pre-coops 4

•poon 1

The research accomplishments of these outstanding college undergraduates are listed under appropriate program areas throughout this report.

Eleven graduate students (ten doctoral and one master's degree candidates) did full-time thesis research in the Division this year. Five of these students (four PhD.'s and one M.S.) completed their theses. Staff members not on'y were involved in an advisory and training capacity but also served on graduate com­mittees at the students' academic institutions.

At the postdoctoral level, five faculty members, four Presidential Interns, and one foreign (IAEA) guest were affiliated with the Division. Three of the visiting faculty assisted senior staff members in the preparation of environmental impact statements; the remainder were involved in research activities.

Six AEC Tiainees affiliated with the Division. These students supplemented their course curricula with on-the-job training in assessing environmental impacts of nuclear facilities.

In addition to an increased level of in-house student and faculty participation this year, six Division staff members held faculty appointments at the University of Tennessee. Many others served as resource people for governmental, educational, and private institutions seeking information or environmental matters. A listing of these activities is given under the "Professional Activities" section of this report.

The various Division interactions with other institu­tions are summarized in Table 13.1.

1. Dual capacity.

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Table 13.1. Overview of matinrtiOBal and m research during the previous 12

cohnboration th period

Institution Relationship to pfogram

Tennessee Valley Authority. Division of Forestry. Fisheries.and Wildlife

Tennessee State Game and Fish Commission Duke University Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute University nf Georgia University of North Carolina Univer*"ty of Wisconsin University of Wyoming Kenyan Coflege Univfesity of Minnesota Saint Andiews Presbyterian College

VS. Forest Service, Ccweett Hydrologk Laboratory

Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Battelle Memorial Institute

University of University of Michigan Univcrsrty of Kenrjcfcy Pttrdue University Wabash College Tennessee Technological University University of Soothern Illinois Northwestern University University of California at Los Angeles USAEC. Drown of BMwedical and

Emvoameatal Research National Science Foundation. Ecosystem

Anary as and RANN Programs Nations! Academy of Sciences-National

Academy of Engineers Department of Defend, Office of Civil

Defense, U.S. Air Force, Corps of Engineers Environmental Protection Agency International Atomic Energy Agency

Stillman College St. John's University Wmthrop College Tougaloo College University of Tennessee Loyola-Marymount College State University of New York Stockton State College University of Chicago Nichols State University Keny on College Tennessee Wedcyan Cotiege Vai»!;»W" Ur.i«irsity Ohio Wesleyan University Den'-on University Hope College Earlham College Emory University Tennessee Technological University Southern University ''anderbut University Stanford University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Rensselaer Polytechnic institute University of Tennessee Vanderbilt University Georgia Institute of Technology

Local environment impact and land-use studies

Fish growth studies Collaborating IBP research sites

Oak Ridge As» .::»'"< Un:veraties faculty participation

Chronic radiation effects on animal coputtioni

Hydrotogk data processing-IB! collaboration

Comparative radiation sensitivity of vciicbc.Us

Graduate student training and research subcontracts

Advisory panels, technical staff assistance, program development

Undergraduate student training

AEC trainees

ESD staf ;eich;ng

14. Forest Management

D. M. Bradbarn

The forest management program on the AEC Oak Ridge Reservation is now in its ninth year of operation. The forest is managed on a multiple-use, sustained-yield basis with two primary objectives - an ecological park for research studies and high-quality timber products. Due to thf excellent study facilities provided by the forest, resiarch by the Environmental Sciences Divi­sion takes priority over timber production.

The regeneration program surpassed all goals set for FY 1973, with a total of 241 acres in compartment 4 ("O" segment) being cleared and planted. A total of 153,500 loblolly pine (Units taeda) were machine planted, and 280 yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipi-ferd), 60 Northern red oak (Quercus rubra), 60 white oak (Quercus alba), 38 chestnut oak (Quercus prinus), and 12 sawtooth oak (Quercus acutissima) were hand planted. The survival rates for the loblolly pine were extremely high, with a 96.0% stand survival and a 96.5% seedling survival. This compares with a 74.6% stand and 80.4% . sedling survival for loblolly piii for the 1972 planting season. Yellow poplar for 1973 had an 82.5% stand and seedling survival, which compares with an 82.1% stand survival and an 88.4% seedling survival for me 1972 season. The lower yellow poplar survival rates in 1973 are due to extensive inundation of the site >y Watts Bar Lake floodwaters. This is also the reason for low survival (less than 10%) of the oaks planted on the same site. The primary reason for higher stand and seedling survival rates in loblolly for 1973 can be attributed to the new mechanical tree planter purchased by Forest Management at a cost of $2100.

The regeneration program for 1974 is centered around ORGDP (K-25) and forest management com­partment 1, with approximately 330 acres to be cleared, harrowed, and planted. A total of 225,000 seedlings will be planted on the 330 acres, with 180,000 loblolly pine, 25,000 yellow poplar, and 20,000 cotton-wood (Populus deltoides). The cottonwood will be planted on the wetter sites along the Clinch River and

E. H. Rosenbalm

Poplar Creek and will require cultivation tl : first two years to release the seedlings from the competing herbaceous vegetation.

The timber type mapping program is now under way, with the TVA-LMFBR industrial site being the first area completed. Compartment type mapping will progress at an accelerated pace once the new computer program is completed fry. the forest inventory system. All basics have been completed for the program, and it is now in the testing stage. All 27 forest management compart­ments and alternates will be type mapped at a scale of 1 in. = 660 ft and inventoried by timber type strata. Once the initial mapping and cruising are completed, the data will be updated every five years. Harvesting decisions will be made easier, since timber descriptions will be by compartments and not on the Reservation as a whole.

Timber stand improvement for FY 1973 included basal injection with 2,4-D and Tordon (picloram). Tordon replaced 2,4-D for basal injection, since it is more effective in controlling hardwood "weed" species. Approximately 20 acres were treated by basal injection, -utu 30 acres of kudzu were sprayed with a mixture of 2 gal of 2,4-D to 100 gal of diesel fuel. Control burning for hardwood control in pine plantations was also begvr- in FY 1973. A total of 600 timbered acres were burned over a six-week period. There were no "out of control fues" nor loss of timber due to the burning. Litter consumption on the fores* floor ranged from 30% to 90% consumption, with honeysuckle being killed back to the forest floor along with most hardwood species under 2 in. in diameter at breast te-ight Tiv: :r«osf ,uccesf,rul bums were those in loblolly tarnations. wi:.H approximately one we k of drying inv*. <*mvera* :*es in the 40 s, and a relative humidity • rortt *0% to 70%. Due to extremely small accumula­tion* of pine needle* ami oth*» i>. ;er on fhe for- .-.c floor, atterr ?ts to control burr, in ?hord «f ,-jvJ Virginia pine stands w.re '.' successful. A nut-: dhii'hmion ptoMem in these s:an«: was also en-..oun:>r»e«j, since n;uch of the

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114

fallen litter was distributed vertically from 5 to 10 ft due to the limbiness of the species and heavy vine growth. The controlled burning goal for FY 1974 has been set at 2000' cres.

Due to mild winters the past two years, the Southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) has a$ain become a problem on the Reservation. A U.S. Forest Service survey on August 27, 1973,reve?'.ed 101 infested spots with 1,757 infested trees, and a brood density of 610 beetles per square foot of bark ruiface. By the end of September the number of infe>ted trees had doubled. Control involves harvesting the infested trees along with a wide buffer strip and piling find burning the tops and trees too small to salvage. Total beetle-infested pulp-wood salvaged by November J, 1973, was 147.32 cords, with 447 trees plus salvaged treetops on 4.9 acres being piled and burned. Beetle activity should decrease with the onset of winter; control activities will continue through the winter months until all infested spots are treated. There is a strong potential for severe Southern pine beetle outbreak during the next y-ar, hence the necessity for strong contro? measures at present.

Annosus root rot became more of a problem on the Reservation during the summer months of 1973. Approximately 30 acres of thinned shortleaf pine in compartment 7 is being clear-cut due to heavy Formes annosus infection accompa lied by secondary infesta­tions of Southern pine bt * ~s, ips engraver beetles (Ips

species), and the black turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus terebrans). After the timber is salvaged, the site will be converted to a different timber species - either loblolly pine or yellow poplar. An even greater problem encountered in shortleaf plantations than annosus root rot is pine pitch canker caused by the fungus Fusarium laiertium forma pinL Presently 60 acres are being clear-cut on the TVA-LMFBR site due to a heavy infestation of pitch canker. The disease was first observed in May and has grown progressively worse over the summer months, with nearly 50% mortality. The orly known treatment is salvage of the infected trees and site replacement with a hardwood On this prrticular site the replacement will be yellow poplar, sweet gum, sycamore, or cottonwood.

The ten-year limber sales contract with n^ngleaf Industries, Ire, was in its fourth year of timber harvesting. Longleaf cut two sawtimber sales on the Reservation totaling 1,485,283 bd ft, with gross reve­nue from these sales amounting to $31,843.01. Cedar sawtimber sold on private bids totaled 56,926 bd ft, grossing $1,697.50. Total pulpwood sales to Anderson County Pulpwooc totaled 3,396.62 cords, grossing $8,048.75. This volume was much higher this year, partly due to salvage of Southern pine beetle pulpwood and pitch canker pulpwood from the TVA-LMFBR site. Total gross revenue for the period amounted to $41,589.26.

Publications. Papers, Lectures, Theses, and Professional Activities PUBLICATIONS

S. I. Auerbacn "Ecology," Science Year. 1974, Fieid Enterprises Educational Corporation, 1973. "The Next 50 Years," Butt. Ecol Soc. Amer. 54(3), 4-9 (1973). "Contributions of Radioecology to AEC Mission Programs," pp. 3-8 in Proceedings of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology, D. J. Nelson (ed.), AEC CONF 710501, Oak Ridge, Ten.lessee.

"Ecology, Ecol^gists, and the U.S.A.," Ecology 53(2), 205-207 (1972).

S. I. Auerbach and R. L. Burgess Progress Report 197C-71. FDFB-IBP-72-3, August 1972. Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Directory, EDFB-IBP-72-1, A'., pp. (February 1972).

S. I. Auerbach, J. B. Mathies, Paul Duraway, and Gary Schneider "Annual Consumption of Cesium-137 and Cobalt-60 Labeled Pine Seeds by Small Mammals in an Oak-Hickory Forest," ORNL-TM 3912,216 pp. (December 1972).

B. S. Ausmus "The Use of the ATP Assay in Terrestrial Decomposition Studies," IBP International Sympcjum: Modem Methods in the Study cf Microbial Ecology, Uppsala, Sweden, June 1972. Bulletin from the Ecolopcal Research Committee (Stockholm) 17,223-34 (1973). ''Decomposer Contributions to Forest Floor Carbon Dioxide Evolution Rates," Bull. Ass. Southeastern Biologists 20(2), 37 (Abstract) (1973). "Luter and Soil Microbial Dynamics in a Deciduous Forest Stand," PhD. dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1973.

B. S. Ausmus, N. Ferguson, and M. L. Johnson A Decomposition ffibliography, Vol. 1(1), EDFB Memo Report No. 73-58 (in press).

B. S. Ausmus, J. M. Ferris, D. E. Reichle, and E. C Willisms The Role of Primary Consumers in Forest Root Processes," The Belowground Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant-Associated Processes, U.S.-IBP Interbiome Symposium (in press).

C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and S. R. Hanna "Radiation Doses from Hypothetical Exposures to Rulison Gas,"Nucl. fechnol. 20(1), 35 (1973).

C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and P. S. Rohwer Contribution of Radon in Natural Gas to the Do;xfrom Airborne Radon Daughters in Homes, ORNL-TM-4154 {April 1973). "Contribution of Radon in Natural Gas to the Dose from Airborne Radon Daughters in Homes," Proceedings of , le Noble Gases Symposium, las Vega? Nevada, September 24-28,1973 (in press).

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F. T. Binford, T. P. Hamrick, G. W. Parker, and T. H. Row "Analyses of Power Reactor Gaseous Waste Systems," pp. 228-77 in Proc. 12th AEC Air Cleaning Conference, CONF-720823, Vol. 1 (January 1973).

B. G. Blaylock 'Accumulated Dose from Tritiated Water and the Frequency of Chromosome Aberrations in Chironomus,"

Proceedings of the Third National Symposium on Roiioecology, D. J. Nelson (ed.), AEC CONF 710501, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, May 10-12,1971 (1973). "Effects on Aquatic Biota of Radioactive Effluents from Nuclear Power Stations," Panel on Radiation Effects on Population Dynamics in Ecosystems, Reyfavik, October 2-5,19/2, 107,575-79 (1973).

B. G. Blaylock ara H. H. Shugart "The Effect of Radiation-Induced Mutations on the Fitness of Drosophila Populations," Geneiics 72, 469-74 (1972).

W. J. Boegly, Jr., and W. L. Griffith "Technology and Economics of Utility Tunnels and Common Trenching," Proceedings of the Seventh Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, pp. 1230-35 (September 1972).

W. J. Boegly. Jr., V. O. Hiynes, E. C. Hise; A. L Compere, and W. L. Griffith "MIUS Technology Evaluation - Solid Waste Collection and Disposal," GRNL-HUD-MIUS-9 (September 1973).

W. J.Boegly, Jr., A. J.Miller, G. Samuels, and L. Breitstein "Technology Evaluation for MIUS," Proceedings of the Eighth Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference (September 1973).

W. J. Boegly, Jr., I. Spiewak, D. G. Thomas, S. A. Reed, W. L. Griffith, A. L. Compere, and H.W.Wright

"MIUS Technology Evaluation - Liquid Wastes - Collection, Treatment, and Disposal," ORNL-HUD-MIUS-16 (draft under review by outside agencies).

W. J. Boegly, Jr., M. R. Young, J. C. Burdick III. and W. A. Drewry A Solid Waste Disposal Plan for a Twenty-Six County Region in Tennessee, University of Tennessee Engineering Experiment Station (December 1972).

Ernest A. Bondietti, J. P. Martin, and Konrad Hader "Phenoloxidase and Autoxidative Model Humic Aria-Type Polymers from Phenols and Other Compounds Synthesized by Soil Fungi," Proceedings, International Symposium on Humic Compounds, Nieuweshtis, Netherlands, May 29-31,1972 (in press).

W. P. Bo. ner, C. W. Francis, and T. Tamura "Application of Zonal Centritugation in Environmental Studies," Proceedings of the 26th Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Conference (m press).

N. E. Bolton, R. I. Van Hook, W. F. Fulkerson, W. S. Lyon, A. W. Andren, J. Carter, and J. F. Emery

Trace Element Measurements at the Coal-Fired Allen Steam Plant, ORNL-NSF-EP-43, report to the NSF/RANN.

R. S. Booth, S. V. Kaye, M. J. Kelly, and P. S. Rohwer A Compendium of Radionuclides Found in Liquid Effluents of Nuclear Power Stations, ORNL-TM-3801 (in review).

117

S. H. Bowen and C. C. Coutant "Thermal Effect on Feeding Competition between Rainbow Trout and Bluegill," Proc. Thud Nat Symp. Radioecol, 1029-33(1973).

R. L. Burgess "Environmental Quality," review, Ecology 53(4), 765-66 (1972). "Effects of Alterations on the Natural Environment," abstract, p. 11 in Man in the Ecosystem, Proceedings of a Conference, Annapolis, Md., M. A. Little and S. M. Friedman (eds.), U.S.-IBP Human Adaptability Component, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 34 pp. (1973). "Power Plants, Transmission Lines, and the North American Environment," pp. 22—24 in Preparation of Environmental Reports for Nuclear Power Plantj, T. W. Philbin and J. V. Halvorsen (eds.), Atomic Industrial Forum program report, vol. 1, No. 2., New York, New York. 1973).

R. L. Burgess (ed.) Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Directory, EDFB-IBP 73-3, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 43 pp. (1973).

R. L. Burgess, W. C. Johnson, and W. R. Keammerer Vegetation of the Missouri River Floodplain in North Dakota, OWRR completion report WI-221-018-73, North Dakota Water Resources Research Institute, Fargo, North Dakota, 162 pp. (1973).

R. L. Burgess and L. H. Kem (eds.) Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, US IBP Progress Report 1971-72, EDFB-iBP 73-5, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 326 pp. (1973).

R. L. Burgess and W. T. Swank "Analysis of Ecosystems in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, U.S. International Biological Program," in Proceedings of VII World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina (in press).

R. Clark, J. Duguid, C. Fox, C. Ottinger, and E. Witkowski Study of Radioactive Contamination at the American Nuclear Company Plant, for the Department of Public Health of the State of Tennessee (Nov. 1,1973).

A. L. Compere, W. L. Griffith, W. J. Boegly, Jr., I. Spiewak, D. G. Thomas, and S. A. Reed MIUS Technology Evaluation - Water Supply and Treatment," ORNL-HUD-MIUS-2I (draft under review by

outside agencies).

G. E. Cosgrove and B. G. Blaylock "Effects of Acute and Chronic Irradiation on Mosquitofish Maintained at 15° and 25°C," Proceedings of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology, D. J. Nelson (ed.), AEC-CONF 710501, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, May 10-12,1971 (1973).

C. C. Coutant "Some Biological Considerations for the Use of Powr Plant Cooling Water in Aquaculture,*' resource publica­tion, U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl. Invest. Fish Contr. 102,103-14(1973). "Evaluating the Ecological Impact of Steam Electric Stations on Aquatic Systems," Proceedings of the Symposium on the National Environmental Policy Act: At the Interface of Law and Environmental Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (December 1972).

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C. C. Coutant and C. D. Becker "Growth of the Columbia River Limpet, Fisherola nuttalh' (Haldeman), in Normal and Reactor-Wanned Water," Proc. Third Nat. Syrnp. Radioecol., 564-68 (1973). "Effect cf Thermal Shock on Vulnerability of Juvenile Salmonids to Predation," J. Fish Res. Bd. Can. 30, 965-73 (1973).

C. C. Coutant, C. 0. Becker, and E. F. Prentice "Ecological Evaluation: Migration of Juvenile Salmon in Relation to Heated Effluents in the Central Columbia River," Proc. Third Nat Symp. Radioecol, 528-36(1973).

C. C. Coutant and H. A. Pfuderer Thermal Effects on Aquatic Organisms. Annotated Bibliography of 1972 Literature, ORNL-EIS-73-28, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee (1973). "Thermal Effects," A Review of the Literature of 1972 on Wastewater and Water Pollution Control, J. Water Polhit. Contr. Fed. 45(6), 1331-69 (1973).

T. L. Cox, W. F. Harris, B. S. Ausmus, and N. T. Edwards "The Role of Roots in Biogeochemical Cycles in Eastern Deciduous Forests," The Belowground Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant-Associated Processes, U.3.-1BP Interbiome Symposium Proceedings (September 1973).

R. C. Dahlman and L. K. Mann "Nitrogen Ion Utilization by Tulip Poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera L.) Saplings," submitted to Forest Science.

R. C. Dahlman, M. T. Mills, and J. S. Olson Ground Level Air Concentrations of Dust Particles Downwind from a Tailings Area During a Typical Windstorm, ORNL-TM-4375 (in press).

R. C. Dahlman, R. N. Mowbray, and L. K. Mann Powerline Revegetation Studies I, ORNL-TM-3780 (in press).

R. C. Dahlman and Y. Tanaka Ecological-Environmental Assessments Related to the Federal Repository, ORNL-TM-3619, 50 pp. (1973).

R. C. Dahlman, Y. Tanaka, and J. Beauchamp "Effects of Simulated Fallout Radiation on Reproductive Capacity of Fescue" Proceedings of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology, AEC CONF 710501. pp. 988-98 (1973).

R. C. Dahlman, S. A. Viss-er, and M. Witkamp

"Flow of Mkrobialh/ Fixed Nitrogen in a Model Ecosystem," Plant and Soil 38,1 - 8 (1973)

D. L. DeAngefc, R. A. Goldstein, and R. V. O'Neill "A Model for Trophic Interaction," submitted to Ecology.

B. E. Dinger Comparative Photosynthetic Efficiency of Four Deciduous Forest Species in Relation to Canopy Environment, U.S.-IBP Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome memo report No. 72-151, 16 pp. (1972).

B. E. Dinger and W. F. Harris (eds.) "Terrestrial Primary Production," Proceedings of Interbiome Workshop in Gaseous Exchange Methodology, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, April 13 14,1972. EDFB-IBP-73-6,184 pp. (1973).

B. E. Dinger and D. T. Patten "Carbon Dioxide Exchange and Transoiration in Species of Echinocereus (Cactaceae) as Related to Their Distribution within the Pinaleno Mountains, Arizona," Oecologia (accepted).

119

B. E. Dinger, K. L. Reed, and £. R. Hammeriy "An Analytical Model for Gas Exchange Studies of Photosynthesis," Photosynthetica (submitted); also U^.-IBP EDFB memo report No. 73-61,21 pp. (1973).

B. E. Dinger, C. J. Richardson, and R. K. McConathy Dynamics of Canopy Leaf Area Development and Chlorophyll Phenology in YeUcw Poplar, U.S.-IBP Eastern Deciduous Forest Bicme memo report No. 72-164,16 pp. (1972).

S. Draggan "Diazinon and Carfoaryi: Effects on the Vegetation of a Soybean Ecosystem," submitted to American Midland Naturalist. "Technique for the Preparation of Soil Microorganisms for Scanning Electron Microscopy, submitted to Journal of Microscopy.

J. Duguid and J. Abel "Finite Element Galerkin Method for Analysis of Flow in Fractured Porous Media," Proceedings of International Symposium on Finite Element Methods in Flow Problems, University of Wales, Swansea, United Kingdom (1974).

J. Duguid and P. C. Y. Lee "Flow in Fractured Porous Media" (in review), to be submitted to Water Resources Research. Flow in Fractured Pcrous Media, research report No. 73-WR-l, Department of Civil Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, N«w Jersey (1973).

N. T. Edwards "A Moving Chamber Design for Accurate Measurements of Soil Respiration Rates/' Oikos, accepted for publication. Prediction of Forest Floor Respiration Rates from Air and Litter Temperatures, ORNL-IBP memo report No. 72-131, OaK Ridge National Laboratory (October 1972).

N. T. Edwards, W. F. Harris, and H. H. Shugart Carbon Cycling in Deciduous Forests, J. K. Marshall (ed.), IBP Interbiome Conference on the Belowground Ecosystem, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colo., September 1973 (in preparation).

N. T. Edwards, W. F. Harris, P. Sollins, B. E. Dinger, and H. H. Shugart "Analysis of Carbon Flow and Productivity in a Temperate Deciduous Forest Ecosystem," Symposium Proceedings of the IBP V General Assembly, Productivity of World Ecosystems, D. fc. Reichle, J. F. Franklin, and D. Goodall (eds.), National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. (in press).

N. T. Edwards and M. H. Shanks Cycling of Elements by Liriodendron: Inputs to the Forest Floor via Wetfall, Dry fall, Canopy Leaching and Litterfall, ORNL-IBP memo report No. 72-149, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (November 1972).

N. T. Edwards and P. Sollins "Continuous Measurement of Carbon Dioxide Evolution from Partitioned Forest Floor Components," Ecology 54(2), 406-12 (1973).

J. W. Elwood and R. A. Goldstein "Effects of Temperature on Food Ingestion Rate and Absorption, Retention, and Equilibrium Burden of Phosphorus in an Aquatic Snail, Goniobasis clavaeformis Lea," Freshwater Biology (submitted).

J. W. Elwood and G. S. Henderson "Hydrologic and Chemical Budgets for Walker Branch Watershed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee," An Introduction to Land-Water Interactions, J. S. O^on (ed.), Springer-Verlag, New York (in press).

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L. D. Eyman and N. R. Kcvern "Cesium-137 and Stable Cesium Distribution in a Hypereutrophic Lake" Limnology and Oceanography (submitted).

N. Ferguson (ed.) Abstracts - U.S. International Biological Program Ecosystem Analysis Studies, vol. II, No. 4, US-IBP-72-3, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 67 pp. (1972). Abstracts - U.S. International Biological Program Ecosystem Analysis Studies, vol. Ill, No 1, US-IBP-73-1, Em'h'ximental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 56 pp. (1973). Abstracts - U.S. International Biological Program Ecosystem Analysis Studies, vol. 111. No. 2, US-IBP-73-2, Environmental Sciences Oivis on, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 79 pp. (1973).

C. W. Francis and S. G. Rush "Factors Affecting Ptent Uptake and Distribution of Cadmium in Plants." Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference on Trace Substances in Environmental Health, June 12-14,1973, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri (in press).

M.Frank "Relative Sensitivity of Different Developmental Stages of Carp to Thermal Stress," Proceedings of Thermal Ecology Symposium, AEC Symposium Series (in press).

C.W.Gchrs wHoizontal Distribution and Abundance of Diaptomus clavipes Schacht in Relation to Potamogeton foliosus iii a Pond and under Experimental Conditions," Limnology and Oceanography (in press). "Vertical Response of Zooplankton to Heated Water," Proceedings of Thermal Ecology Symposium, AEC Symposium Series (in press). "Temperature: A Potential Aid in Analyzing the Reproductive Characteristics of Calanoid Copepod Populations," Progressive Fish and Culturist (in press).

C. W. Gehrs, L. D. Eyman, R. L. Jolley, and J. E. Thompson "Stable Chlorine-Containing Organics: their Effects upon Aquatic Bioia," Science (submitted).

C. W. Gehrs and B. Hardin "Production of Resting Eggs by Diaptomus clavipes Schacht (Copepoda, calanoida)," American Midland Naturalist (in press).

C. W. Gehrs and A. Robertson "Use of Life Tables in Analyzing the Dynamics of Copepod Populations," Ecology (submitted).

C. W. Gehrs, A. Robertson, B. Hardin, and G. Hunt The Culturing and Aspects of the Ecology of the Calanod (Diaptomus clavipes) and a Cyclopoid (Cyclops vemaiis) Copepod, draft final report on Grant 18O50ELT (submitted to EPA).

R. A. Goldstein "Mathematical Properties of Several Population Dynamics Models," book review, Ecology 53, 762-63 (1972). "Where Have All the Big Birds Gone?" book review, Ecology, (in press).

R. A. Goldstein and W. F. Harris "SERENDIPITY - a Watershed Level Simulation Model of Tree Biomass Dynamics," Proceedings of the 1973 Summer Computer Simulation Conference, June 17-19, Montreal, 691-96 (1973).

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R. A. Goldstein and J. B. Mankin "Space-Time Considerations in Modeling the Development of Vegetation," Modeling the Growth of Trees, Proceedings of Workshop on Tree Growth end Modeling, Duke University, Oct. 11-12,1971, EDFB-IBP-72-11, 87-97(1972).

R. A. Goldstein, J. B. Mankin, and R. J. Luxmoore Documentation of PROSPER: A Model of Atmosphere-Soil-Plant Water Flow, International Biological Program-Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome report (in press).

F. G. Goff Report of Zask Force on Monoculture in Agriculture, MS. Department of Agriculture (October 1973). "Ecological Harmony," Restoration Witness (1973). "Sexual Intercourse in Renewal of the Marriage Covenant," Courage (1973).

"Work Unit in Ecology Manual," Herald Publishing House (1973).

F.G. Goff and f.Zedler

"Size-Association Analysis of Forest Successioaal Trends in Wisconsin," EcoL Monogr. 43,79—94 (1973).

C. P. Goodyear "Learned Orientation in the Predator Avoidance Behavior of Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, "Behaviour 45(3, 4) ?191-224(1973).

C. P. Goodyear, C. C. Coutant, and J. R. Trabalka Sources of Potential Biological Damage from Once-TJtrough Cooling Systems of Nuclear Power FtanX, ORNL-TM-4180 (in press).

W. L. Griffith, W. J. Boegly, Jr. R. M. Keller, and D. G. Thomas "Effect of Brine Disposal Cost on Hyperfiltration Plant Optimization "Desalination 11(1), 91 -112(1972). "Tapered Plant Geometry," Desalination 11(1), 129-32(1972).

W. F. Harris "Methods for Measuring Photosynihetic Processes," book review, Ecology 54,709—10 (1973).

W. F. Harris, H. C. Francke, G. S. Henderson and D. E. Todd Disposal of Industrial Nitrate Effluents by Means of Forest Srray Irrigation: Progress Report, ORNL-CF-73-4-22, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

W. F. Harris, R. A. Goldstein, and G. S. Henderson "Analysis of Forest Biomass Pools, Annual Primary Production and Turnover of Biomass for a Mixed Deciduous Forest Watershed," Proceedings Symposium IUFRO Working Party on Forest Biomass, Aug 20-24, 1973, Vancouver, B.C., H. E. Young (ed.), University of Maine Press (in press).

W. F. Harris, R. S. Kinerson, Jr., and N. T. Edwards "Comparison of Belowground Biomass of Natural Deciduous Forests and Loblolly Pine Plantations," The Belowground Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant-Associated Processes, U.S.-IBP Interbiome Symposium Proceedings (submitted). Also available as EDFB memo report No. 73-24 (September 1973).

W. F. Harris and D. E. Reichle "Evaluating Forest Productivity in an Ecosystem Context," pp. 57-68 in Proc. 21st Annual Meeting Agric. Res. Inst, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. (1973).

122 i

,*. .4

i G. S. Henderson and W. F. Harris I* ! "An Ecc^ystsm Approach to Characterization of the Nitrogen Cycle in a Deciduous Forest Watershed,," \ Proceedings of the Fourth North American Forest Soils Conference. Aug. 20-24. 1973. Quebec, Canada (in J press). » * • j G. S. Henderson, John D. Sheppard, Tom Grizzard, and M. T. Heath

"Hydrology of a Forested Catchment* I. Water Balance from 1969 to 1972 on Walker Branch Watershed," submitted for publication.

J. W. Huckabee "Mosses: Sensitive Indicators cf Airborne Mercury Pollution," Atmospheric Environment 7,749-54 (1973).

J. W. Huckabee and B. G. Blay!ock "Transfer of Mercury and Cadmium from the Terrestrial to the Aquatic Ecosystem," Role of Metal Ions in Biological Systems, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, Plenum Press, (in press).

J. W. Huckabee, F. O. Cartan, G. S. Kennington, and F. J. Camenzind "Mercury Concentration in ihe Hair of Coyotes and Rodents in Jackson Hole, Wyoming," Bull Environ. Contamination and Toxicology 9(1), 37-43 (1973).

J. W. Huckabee, Cyrus beldvasn, and Yair Talmi "Mercury Concentrations in Fish from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park," accepted for publication in Science of the Total Environment.

J. W. Huckabee and R. A. Goldstein "The Dynamic Redistribution of Methylmercury in a Pond Ecosystem," Proceedings of the First Annual NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, Aug 7-10,1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee (jn press).

J. W. Huckabee and N. A. Griffith "The Toxicity of Mercury and Selenium to the Eggs of Carp (Cyprinus carpio)" Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (in press).

? B. A. Hutchison, D. R. Matt, S. Y. Shieh, M. Breed, C. J. Payne, and R. C. Claybum i

Annual Report - Spatial and Temporal Variation in the Distribution and Partitioning of Solcr Energy in a | Deciduous Forest Ecosystem, EDFB memo report 72-148 (1972).

B. A. Hutchison and D. R. Matt I Distribution of Solar Radiation within a Deciduous Forest, EDFB memo report 72-170,26 pp.( 1973).

F. C. James and H. H. Shugart

"The Phenology of the Nesting Season of the Robin, Turdus migratorius, in the United States," Condor (in press).

| W.C.Johnson i "A Mathematical Model of Forest Succession and Land-Use for the North Carolina Piedmont," Proceedings of

the 2nd International Geobotany Conference, Knoxville, Tennessee, University of Tennessee Press (in press).

W. C. Johnson and D. West "Death is Part of Dfe in a Memorial Forest," Amer. Forests 79(4), 8,57,58 (1973).

R.L.Jolfcy Chlorination Effects on Organic Constituents in Effluents from Domestic Sanitary Sewage Treatment Plants,

! Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, Graduate Program in Ecology, 340 pp. (1973) (Also ORNL-TM-4290).

- •* - • -*- ^ **-"*"* —* /***»• * fE^~mE9MHm^^^|

123

R. L. Jolley, W. W. Pitt, Jr., and C. D. Scott ''High-Resolution Analyses of Refractory Organic Constituents in Aqueous Waste Effluents,' pp. 247-52 in Realism in Environmental Testing and Control. 1973 Proceedings of the Institute of Environmental Sciences. 19th Annual Technical Meeting, Tne Institute of Environmental Sciences, Mt. Prospect, Illinois (1973).

R. 1.. Jolley, C. D. Scott, W. W. Pitt, Jr., and M. D. MrBride "Determination o' Trace Organic Contaminants in Natural Waters by High-Resolution liquid Chromatography," Proceedings of th; First Annual NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, Aug. 7-10,1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee (in press).

S.V.Kaye "Assessing Potential Radiological Impacts to Aquatic Biota in Response to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) or 1 %9," Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Behuxlor of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provence, France, May 14—18,1973 (in press).

S. V. Kaye and P. S. Rohwer "Radiological Assessment of Nuclear Power Stations," in Advances in Radiation Biology, vol. 5. Academic Press, New York (in press).

M. J. Kelly, P. S. Rohwer, C. J. Barton, and . G. Struxness 'The Relative Risks from Radionuclides Found in Nuclearly Stimulated Natural Gas" Proceedings of the Third International Atomic Energy Agency Peaceful Nuclear Exploshes Panel, Vienna, Austria, Nov. 27-Dec. 1,1972 (in press).

G. G. Killough and P. S. Rohwe r INDOS-Convenational Computer Codes to Implement ICRP-lO-lOA Models for Estimation of Internal Radiation Dose to Man, ORNL-4916 (in press).

J. F. Kitche'1. J. F. Koonce, R. V. O'Neill, H. H. Shugart, J. J. Magnuson, and R. S. Booth "Implementation of a Predator-Prey Biomass Model for Fishes," EDFB memo report 72-118 (1972). "A Model for Fish Population Dynamics," Transactions of the American Fisheries Society (in press).

Rachel Levy and C. W. Francis "Demixing of Cations in Sodium Calcium Montmorillonite," day and Clay Minerals (in press). "Mechanisms of Interlayer Adsorption of Polyvinylpyrrolidone on Montmorillonite," submitted to Soil Science Society of America Proceedings, 1973.

Rachel Levy and T. Tamura "Calcium-Magnesium Exchange in Aluminum Hydroxide-Coated Montmorillonite," Israel Journal of Chemistry (in press).

E. J. Lipke and J. T. Trabalka "LD 5 0 of Fathead Minnows (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque) Exposed to the Gamma Rays of Co-60," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada (notes) (in review) (1973).

C. R. Malone and D. E. Reichle "Chemical Manipulation of Soil Biota in a Fescue Meadow," Soil Biochem. 5,629-39 (1973).

C. Mangum and W. Van Winkle "Responses of Aquatic Invertebrates to Declining Oxygen Conditions," Amer. Zool. 13,529-41 (1973).

J. B. Mankin, H. H. Shugart, and R. I. Van Hook "Comparison of Models of an Old-Field Arthropod Food Chain," Proc. Summer Simulation Conf. 1973, 729-32.

124

J. S. Mattic "Production of * Natural Population of Bithynia tentacukta L. (Gastropoda, mollusca), Ekoi Polska 20, 525-39(1972).

J. S. Mattice and C. C. Cwtant "Review of A.I.F. Topical Conference on Water Quality Problems," Mc/. News 15, 12? 26 (1972)

L R. McKay, S. M. Shaw, and A. L. Brooks "Metaphase Chromosome Aberrations in tl»c Chinese Hamster Liver in vivo Following Either Acute or Fractionated 60Co-Inadiation,"/2fldicrron Research (in press).

B.B.McMullin

Environmental Plutonium Data Base Group, Environmental Aspects of Plutonium and Other Elements - a Selected, Annotated Bibliography, ORNL-EIS-73-21 (suppl. 1) (August 1973), 482 pp. Environmental Plutonium Data Base Group, Environmental Aspect of Plutonium and Other Elements - a Selected, Annotated Bibliography, ORNL-EIS-73-21 (suppl. 2) (in press).

R. E. Moore and C. J. Bartcn Dose Estimations for the Hypothetical Use ofNuclearly Stimulated Natural Gas in the Cherokee Steam Electric Station, Denver, Colorado. ORNL-TM-4026 (October 1973).

R.V. O'Neill "Modeling in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome," Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, B.C. Patten (ed.), wol. 3, Academic Press (in p.ess). Progress in Deciduous Forest Modelinj Program, EDFB memo report 71 -96 (1972). "Mathematical Models in Ecology," Ecology 54(2), 459-60 (1973). "Error Analysis of Ecological Models," pp. 898-908 in Radionuclide Cycling in Ecosystems D. J. Nelson (ed.), USAEC CONF 710501 (1973).

R. V. O'Neill aid N. Ferguson Modeling Abstracts, Vol 1, No. 2, EDFB memo report 73-1 (1973). Modeling Abstracts, Vol 1. No. 3, EDFB memo report 73-11 (1973). Modeling Abstracts, Vet. 1. No. 4, EDFB memo report 73-57 (1973).

R. A. Park, R. V. O'Neill, H. H. Shugart, R. S. Booth, and R. A. Goldstein "A. Gener?Jized Model for Simulating Lake Ecosystems " (submitted to Simulation).

A. S. Quist, J. B. Bates, and G. E. Boyd "Raman Spectra of Vitreous, Polycrystalline, and Molten BeF2 to 630°C, and the Iifrared Spectrum of Vitreous BeF2 at 2S°C," Spectrochim, Acta 28A, 1103(1°72). "Vibrational Spectra of Molten and Aqueous NaC103 and KC103," Chem. Phys. Let:. 16,473 (1972).

A. S. Quist, J. B. Bates, M. H. Brooker, and G. E. Boyd "Raman Spectra of Molten Alkali-Metal Carbonates,"/. Phys. Chem. 76,1565 (1972).

A. S. Quist, J. 3. Bates, L. M. Toth, and G. E. Boyd 'Vibrational Spectra of Crystalline, Molten, and Aqueous K 2 Cr 2 0 7 ," Spectrochim. Acta 29A, 1585 (1973).

125

A. S. Quist, L. M. Toih, and G. E. Boyd "Raman Spectra of Zirconium Filicide Comp'exes in Fluoride Melts and Polycrystalline Solids,"/ JPhys. Chem. 77,1384(1973).

A. S. Quist, A. Wurflinger, and K. Todheide "Die Elektrische Leitfahigkeit Geschmolzent; Alkalinitiate bei Hohen Drucken," Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Otem, 76,652(1972).

J. C. Randolph "The Ecological Energetics of a Homeothermic Predator, the Short-tailed Shrew," Ecology 54,1J6S-87 (1973). "Homeotherm Energetics." boc*. review, Ecology (submitted).

M. Reeves and J. 0. Duguid "A Soil and Ground-Water Pollutant Transport Model," Proceedings of the First NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, ORNL-EATC-5 (in press).

D. E. Reichle "Forest Ecosystem," McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Teciinology (in press).

D. E. R:ichle, D. A. Crossley, Jr., C A. Edwards, J. F. McBrayer, and P. Soilins "Impact of Earthworms on the Up'ake, Turnover, and Distribution of Cesium-137 in Liriodendron Forest Soil," pp. 240-46 in Radionuclides in Ecosystem, ABC CONF 710501 (1973).

D. E. Reichle, B. E. Dinger, N. T. Edwards, W. F. Harris, and P. Sollins ''Carbon Flow and Storage in ?. Forest Ecosystem," Carbon and the Biosphere, Proceedings, Brookhaven Biology Colloquium, AEC CONF 72C510(in press).

D. E. Reichle, R. A. Goldstein, R. I. Van Hook, and G. J. Dodson "Analysis of Insect Consumption in a Forest Canopy," Ecology 54,1076-84 (1973).

D. E. Reichle, J. F. McBrayer, and B. S. Ausmus "Ecological Energetics of Decomposer Invertebrates," Proceedings, Vth International Cong, *ss of Soil Zoology, Prague, Czechoslovakia (in press).

D. E. Reichle and B. C. Moulder "Significance of Spider Predation in the Energy Dynamics of Forest Floor Arthropod Communities," EcoL Monogr. 42,473-98 (1972).

D. E. Reichle, R. V. O'Neill, S. V. Kaye, P. Sollins, and R. S. Booth "Systems Analysis as Applied to Modeling Ecological Processes," Oikos (in press).

D. E. Reichle, R. V. O'Neill, and J. S. Olson International Woodlands Workshop, ORNL-CF-72-10-56 (1972). Modeling Forest Ecosystems, EDFB-IBP memo report 73-7 (1973).

C. J Richardson, B. H. Dinger, and W. F. Harris The Use of Stomatal Pigments, Photopigments, Nitrogen, Water Potential, and Radiu'ion to Estimate Net Photosynthesis in Liriodendron tulipifera/,. - a Physiological Index. EDFB-IBP-72-13 (thesis) (1973).

P. S. Rohwer "Relative Radiological Importance of Environmentally Released Tritium and Krypton-85," Proceedings of IAEA Symposium on Environment Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provence, France, May 1973 (in press).

126

P. S. Rohwer, C. J. Barton, R. E. Moore, and S. V. Kaye "An Evaluation of Nuclear Gas Stimulation in Terms of Potential Radiation Exposure to the Public," Proceedings of the Ihi:d International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association, Washington, D.C, September 9-14,1973 (in press).

P. S. Rohwer, M. J. Kelly, aiJR.S. Booth "Guidance for Limiting Environmental Releases of Tritium," Messenger Graphics, Phoenix (May 1973).

P. i . Ryan "Fngineering Aspect; of Heat Dissipation in Water Bodies," Proceedings of Short Course on Environmental Impact Statements for Nuclear Power Plants, Georgia Institute of Technology, November 1973.

P. J. Ryan and D. R. F. Harleman Analytical and Experimental Study of Transient Cooling Pond Behavior, Technical Report No. 161, Ralph M. Parsons Laboratory for Hydrodynamics and Water Resources, MIT, February 1973. "Transient Cooling Pond Behavior,''' Proceedings of the Conference on Hydraulic Engineering and the Environment, Montana State University, Bozeman, Mont., August 1973. "Cooling Ponds," invited article for Civil Engineering (in preparation).

P. J. Ryan, D. R. F. Harleman, and K. D. Stolzenbach "Surface Heat Loss from Cooling Ponds," submitted to Water Resources Research, 1973.

P. J. Ryan and K. D. Stolzenbach "Infrared Water Temperature Surveys," Proceedings of the 15th Congress, IAHR, Istanbul, Turkey, September 1973.

P. J. Ryan, K. D. Stolzenbach, and R. E. Elder "Remote Sensing of Water Temperatures," Proceedings of Second Conference on Remote Sensing of Earth Resource*, Tullahoma, Tennessee, March 1973.

D. M. Sharpe and W. C. Johnson "Biomass Dynamics of the Commercial Forests of the Tennessee Valley," Proceedings of the IUFRO, Vancouver, British Columbia, University of Maine Press (in press).

H. H. Shugart

"Application of Ecosystems Analysis to Highway Location," The National Environmental Policy Act: At the Interface of Law and Environmental Science, J. Curlin (ed.) (in press). "Is Ecology Non-Markcvian?" (book review) Ecology 54,714-15 (1973).

H. H. Shugart and B. G. Blaylock "The Niche-Variation Hypothesis: An Experimental Study with Drosophla Populations," Amer. Natur. 107, 575-79(1973).

H. H. Shugart, T. R. Crow, and J. M. Hett "Forest Succession Models: A Rationale and Methodology for Modeling Forest Succession Over Large Regions," Forest Sci. 19,203-13(1973).

H. H. Shugart, W. F. Harris, N. T. Edwards, and B. S. Ausmus "Modeling of Belowground Processes Associated with Roots in Deciduous Forest Ecosystems," The Belowground Ecosystem: A Synthesis of Plant-Associated Processes, US-IBP Interbiome Symposium Proceedings (submitted); also available as EDFB memo report No. 73-62 (September 1973).

127

H. H. Shugart and J. M. Hett

"Succession: Similarities of Species Turnover Rates," Science 180, 1379-81 (1973).

H. H. Shugart and D. A. James

"Ecological Succession of Breeding Bird Populations in Northwestern Arkansas," Auk 90,62-77 (1973).

R. H. Strand and H. A. Fribouig "A Computerized Personal Bibliographic keference System," Agron. J. 64,845-47 (1972). "Influence of Seeding Dates and Methods on Establishment of Small-Seeded Legumes," Agron. J. 65,804-807 (1973). "Relationships between Seeding Dates and Some Concomitant Environmental Variables, Seeding Methods, and Establishment of Small-Seeded Legumes," A&otL J. 65,807-!0(!973).

R. H. Strand, H. A. Fribcarg, and J. Vaiksnoras

"The Climate of Tennessee, i. Precipitation Probabilities for West Tennessee," Tennessee Agr. Exp. Sta. Butt. 510(1973).

"The Climate of Tennessee. II. Precipitation Probabilities for Middle Tennessee," Tennessee Agr. Exp. Sta. Butt. 511(1973).

R. H. Strand, H. A Fribourg, J. Vaiksnoras, and J. M. Safley, Jr.

"The Climate of Tennessee. III. Precipitation Probabilities for East Tennessee," Tennessee Agr. Exp. Sta, Butt. 512(1973).

R. H. Strand, H. A. Fribourg, J. Vaiksnoras, and W. V. Sanders Relations between Gamma Function Parameters and Climatic Variation in Tennessee, NOAA tech. memo, Environmental Data Service Series.

L. W. Swift, Jr., W. T. Swank, J. B. Mankin, R. J. Luxmoore, and R. A. Goldstein "Simulation of Evapotranspiration from Mature, Cut, and Regrowing Forest Vegetation," Water Resources Research (in press).

T. Tamura "Sorption Phenomena Significant in Radioactive Waste Disposal," Underground Waste Management and Environmental Implications, Memoir No. 18, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, pp. 318-30(1972).

J. E. Titus, M. S. Adams, P. R. Weiler, R. V. O'Neal, H. H. Shugart, and R. S. Booth Production Model for Myriophyllum spicatum L., EDFB memo report 72-108 (1972).

D. K. Trubey and S. V. Kaye The EXREM III Computer Code for Estimating External Radiation Doses to Populations from Environmental Releases, ORNL-TM-4322 (in press).

H. A. Vanderploeg "Rate of Zinc Uptake by Dover Sole in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Preliminary Model and Analysis,'* pp. 840-48 in Radionuclides in Ecosystems, U.S. Atomic Energy Comn.isMon CONF 710501-P2 (1973). "Dynamics of Zinc-65 Specific Activity in Two Flounder Species on the Outer Continental Shelf Off Central Ocean," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada (under consideration). The Dynamics of65Zn in Benthic Fishes and Their Prey Off Oregon, Ph.D. thesis, Oregon State University, Department of Oceanography, Corvallis, Ore., 104 pp. (1973).

128

H. A. Vanderploeg and W. G. Peaicy "Radioecology of Benthic Fishes Off Oregon," pp. 245-61 in Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (1973).

R I. Van Hook and S. H. Anderson "Uptake and Biological Turnover of Cadmium 109 in Chipping Sparrows, Spizella passerina," Environ. Physiol. 3 (1973).

R. I. Van Hook, B. G. Blaylock, E. A. Bondietti, C. W. Francis, D. E. Rekhle, F. H. Sweeton, and J. P. Witherspoon

"Radioisotope Techniques in Delineation of the Environmental behavior of Cadmium," Proceedings of the Symposium on Nuclear Techniques in Comparative Studies of Food and Environnvntal Contamination, Helsinki, Finland, LAEA/SM-175/22, August 1973 (in press).

K. I. Van Hook, W. F. Harm, G. S. Henderson, and D. E. Reichle "Patterns of Trace-Element Distribution in a Forested Watershed," Proceedings of the First Annual NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, Oak Ridge, Tennessee (August 1973).

R. I. Van Hook, B. G. Wixson, W. Fulkerson, P. Lafleur, J. Pierce, W. D. Shults, I. Smith, D. von Lehmden, and D. Worf

"A National Environmental Specimen Banking System (NESBS)," Proceedings of the NAS)'NRC Capon Springs Workshop of the Subcommittee on the Geochemical Environment in Relation to Health and Disease (May 1973).

R. I. Van Hook and A. J. Yates "Cadmium Behavior in a Grassland Arthropod Food Chain," submitted to Ecology.

W. Van Winkle **Cfliary Activity and Oxygen Consumption of Excised Bivalve Gill Tissue," Comp. Biochem. Physiol 42A, 473-85(1972).

W. Van Winkle, D. C. Martin, and M. J. Sebetich "A Home-Range Model for Animals Inhabiting an Ecotone," Ecology 54,205-^09 (1973).

J. P. Witherspoon "Radioecology," in Medical Radiation Biology, ed. by Dalrympie et al., W. B. Saunders Co. (1973). "Evaluating die Environmental Impact of Electrical Power Generation on Terrestrial Systems," Proceedings of a Symposium on Law and the Environment, AAAS Annual Wee ting, Washington, D.C. (in press). "Interception and Retention of Simulated Fallout by Agricultural Plants," pp. 165-72 in Chemical and Radionuclide Food Contamination, M.S.S. Information Corporation, New York (1973).

J. P. Witherspoon, K. E. Cowser, R. S. Booth, B. R. Fish, G. R. Siegel, W. S. Snydc, and W. H. Wilkie "Methods of Estimating Dose to Man from Regional Growth of Nuclear Power," Proceedings of the IAEA Symposium on Environmental Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provence, France, May 1973 (in pre.*).

M. Witkamp "Compatibility of Microbial Measurements," Bull. Ecol Res. Comm. {Stockholm) 17,179- 88 (1973). "Direct and Indirect Counts of Fungi and Bacteria as Indices ot Microbial Mass and Productivity," Soil Science (in press).

129

M. Witkamp and V. A. Merchant "Effects of Light, Temperature, and Soil Fertility on Distribution of Magneaum-54 and Cesium-137 in Producer-Con mer Microcosms,** Proceedings of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology, AEC CO.MF 710501-P1, pp. 204-208 (1973).

M. Witkamp and R. L. Starkey "Some Factors Affecting the Determination of Antibiotics in Soil," Soil Sr 115,376-79 (1973).

M. Witkamp, S. A. Visser, and R. C. Dahlman "Row of Mkrobially fixed Nitrogen in a Model Ecosystem,** Plant and Soil 38,1-8 (1973).

PAPERS

B. S. Ausmws "Decomposer Contributions to Forest Floor Carbon Dioxide Evolution Rates,** Annual Meeting, Assoriatioa of Southeastern Biologists, April 12- k4,1973, Bowling Green, Kentucky. "Estimation of Nutrient Turnover Rates in Sofl and Litter of a Deciduous Forest Stand,** Annual Meeting, American Institute of Biological Sciences, June 12-21,1973, Amherst, Mass. "The Role of Primary Consumers in Forest Root Processes,** Belowground Ecosystem: A Syndiesis of Plant-Associated Processes, U.S.-IBP Interbiome Symposium, Sept. 5-7, i973, Ft. CoUins, Colorado.

B.G.Blayl^ck "Effects on Aquatic Biota of Radioactive Effluents from Nuclear Power Stations,** Panel on Radiation Effects on Population Dynamics in Ecosystems, Reyjavik, Oct. 2—5,1972.

R. L. Burgess "Power Plants, Transmission Lines, and the North American Environment," Atomic Industrial Forum, Monterey, California, Jan. 22-24, 1973. "Systems Analysis in Environmental Research,'* keynote address, North Central Branch, Entomological Society of America, Louisville, Kentucky, Mar. 28-30, 1973. "Effects of Alterations on the Natural Environment," Symposium on Man in the Ecosystem, Annapolis, Maryland, May 23-25, 1973. "The Carbon Cycle in Forest Ecosystems," NSF site review, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, July 16-17,1973. "The International Biological Program," AEC-DBER site review, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Oct. 9-11,1973.

C. C. Coutant "Evaluating the Ecological Impact of Steam Electric Stations on Aquatic Systems," AAAS Symposium on the National Environmental Policy Act: At the Interface of Law and Environmental Science, Washington, D.C., Dec. 28,1972. "Evaluation of Entrapment Effects," Entrainment and Intake Screening Workshop, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, Feb. 5,1973. "Overview of ORNL's Thermal Effects Program," Thermal Ecology Symposium, A»«"«tsi, Georgia, May 3,1973. "effect of Cold Shock on Vulnerability of Juvenile Channel Catfish and Largemouth Bass to Predation," Thermal Ecology Symposium, Augusta, Georgia, May 4, 1973. "Use of a Temperature Sensing Ultrasonic Fish Tag for Field Studies of Thermal Preference and Avoidance," Thermal Ecology Symposium, Augusta, Georgia, May 4, 1973.

130

J. O. Duguid "Fluid Flow in Fractured Porous Media," Symposium on Fractured-Rock Ground Water, American Geophysical Union Conference, San Francisco, 1972.

N. T. Edwards "Prediction of Fcrest Floor Respiration Rates from Air and Litter Temperatures," Annual Meeting, American Institute of Biological Sciences, Amherst, Massachusetts, June 17-22,1973. "Carbon Cycling in Deciduous Forests." IBP Interbiome Conference on the Belowground Ecosystem, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, Sept. 5-7,1973. "Comparison of Belowground Biomass of Natural Deciduous Forests and Loblolly Pine Plantations," IBP Interbiome Conference on the Belowground Ecosystem, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, Sept. 5-7,1973.

L.D. Eyman "Cesium-137 and Stable Cesium Distribution in a Hypereutrophic Lake," Annual Meeting, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah, June 10-14,1973.

N.Ferguson "Environmental Sciences Information Activities," Environmental Sciences Division Annual Meeting, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Mar. 26-27,1973. "Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome Information Center," IBP-NSF site review, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, July 16-17, i973.

C. W. Francis "Clay Mineral Separations by Density Gradient Zonal Centrifugation," 8th Middle Atlantic Regional Meeting of American (Vmical Society, Jan. 15,1973, Washington, D.C. "Columnar Denitrification of Industrial High Nitrate Wastes," Annual Meeting, Soil Sciences Society of America, Las Veg^s, Nevada, Nov.!!- • 16,1973.

M.Frank "Relative Sensitivity of Different Developmental Stage* of Carp to Thermal Stress," Thermal Ecology Symposium, Augusta, Georgia, May 3-5,1973.

C. W. Gehrs "Vertical Response of Zooplankton to Thermally Enriched Surface Water, A Laboratory Investigation," Thermal Ecology Symposium, Augusta, Georgia, May 3-5, 1973.

C. W. Gehrs and B. Hardin "The Effect of Temperature on Reproduction in the Calanoid Copepod Diaptomus clavipes," AAAS Meeting, Washington, D.C., June 17-21, 1973.

C. W. Gehrs and A. Robertson "The Construction of Life Tables for a Copepod Population," Annual Meeting, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah, June 10-14,1973.

F.G.Goff "Succession in Forests," Duke University. "Ecology," Robertsville Junior High School.

R. A. Goldstein, D. L. DeAngelis, J. R Kercher, R. V. O'Neill, and H. H. Shugart "Mathematical Modeling of Forest Ecosystems," Sixth Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, University pf Hawaii, Jan. 9-11,1973.

131

W.L.Griffith 'Technology and Economics of Utility Tunnels," 7th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, San Diego, California, Sept. 25-29,1972.

W. F. Hairis and R. A. Goldstein "Analysis of Forest Biomass Pools, Annual Primary Production, and Turnover of Ettomass for a Mixed Deciduous Forest Watershed," IUFRO Symposium on Forest Biomass, Vancouver, B. C, Aug. 19-25,1973.

W. F. Harris and D. E. Rekhle "Evaluating Forest Productivity in an Ecosystem Context," 21st Annual Meeting, Agricultural Research Institute, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C , Oct. 10-11,1972.

G.S.Hc-derson "An .xosystem Approach to Characterization of the Nitrogen Cyck is » Deciduous Forest Watershed," Fourth North American Forest Sous Conference, Quebec, Canada, Aug. 20-24,1973.

B. A. Hutchison and D. R. Matt "Distribution of Solar Radiation within a Dedduoos Forest," Eleventh Agricultural sad Fbiest Mrtrofoiogy Conference, Duke University, Dmham, North Carohma, Jan. 8,1973.

W. C. Johnson "Regional Succession Modeling," Succession Workshop (Conif. Biome), Pordaoo, Oregon, February 1973. "A Mathematical Model of Forest Succession and Land Use for the Piedmont of North Carolina," Second International Geobotany Conference, KnoxruV, Tennessee, March 1973. "Forest Succession Modeling of Large Regions," TVA, Norris, Tennessee, October 1973. "Value of Modeling Succession in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Home," EDFB Information Meeting, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, March 1973. "Ecology of East Africa," Oak Ridge High School, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, April 1973.

R. L. Joltey, W. W. Pitt, Jr., and C. D. Scott "High-Resolution Analyses of Refractory Organic Constituents in Aqueous Waste Effluents," 19th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Environmental Sciences, Anaheim, California, Apr. 1-5,1973.

R. L. JoUey, C. D. Scott, W. W. Pitt, Jr., and M. D. McBride "Determination of Trace Organic Contaminants in Natural Waters by High-Resolution Liquid Chromatography," First NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Aug. 8-10,1973.

S. V. Kaye "Assessing Potential Radiological Impacts to Aquatic Biota in Response to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969," Symposium on Environmental Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Provence, France, May 14-18,1973. ** Assessing Potential Radiological Impacts to Aquatic Biota," Health Physics Society Annual Meeting, Miami Beach, Florida, June 17-21,1973.

M.J. Kelly,P.S. Rohwe.,f.J Barton, and E.G. Struxness "Relative Risks from Radionuclides Found in Nucleariy Stimulated Natural Gas," Third IAEA Panel on Peaceful Nuclear Explosives, Vienna, Austria, Nov. 27-30,1972.

K. R. Knoerr, T. Sinclair, C. W. Murphy, R. A. Goldstein, J. B. Mankin, H. H. Shugart, and B. A. Hutchison

"Energy Transfers in Forested Ecosystems," AAAS Annual Meeting, Washington, D C , Dec. 26-31,1972.

132

R.V.O'Neffl "Application of Systems Ecology to Environmental Problems," Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, Nov. 15,1972. "Modeling in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Rome," Modeling Symposium, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, Mar. 1,1973. "Progress in Modeling Research,*' IBP Information Meeting, Durham, North Carolina, Mar. 20,1973. "A Model far Meathop Woods,** British Ecological Society Symposium, Liverpool, Apr. ' 1,1973.

D.E.Rekhle "Ecological Eneigctics of Decomposer Invertebrates,** Vth International Congress on Soil Zoology, Prague, Cz*4»ock«r=!s2,Sept. 17-24,1973. "Advances in Ecosystem Science,** Interagency Coordination Committee for IBP, National Academy of Sciences, Jury 26,1973. "How Do We Integrate Man and the Ecosystem?** Joint IBP Conference on Human Adaptability and Environmental Management,** Annapolis, Masytand, May 22-24,1973.

P. S. Rohvrer "Relative fct&ological Importance of Environmentaly Released Tritium and Krypton-85," IAEA Symposium on Eamroameutat Behavior of Radionuclides Released in the Nuclear Industry, Aix-en-Proveace, France, May 14-38,1973.

P. S.Roltwer, C.J. Barton, R.E. Moore, and S.V.Kaye

"An Evaluation of Nuckar Gas Stimulation in Terms of Potential Radiation Exposure to the Public,** Third International Radiological Protection Association Meeting, Washington, D. C , Sept. 9-14,1973.

P. S. &ohv«er and 21. J. Kefly "Relative Radiological Importance of Tritium and Krypton-85 in Nudeariy Stimulated Natural Gas,** Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Health Physics Society, Miami, Beach, Florida, June ! 7-21,1973.

P. J. Ryan and D. R. F. Harkman "Evaporative Losses from an Artificially Heated Water Surface," 54 th Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, April 1973.

H. H. Shugart "Application of Ecosystems Analysis to Highway Location,'* AAAS Symposium, Washington, D. C , Dec. 28, 1972.

H. H. Shugart, R. A. Goldstein, R. V. O'Neill, O. L. DeAngelis, J. B. Mankin, J. R. Kercher, and R S. Boom

"Environment^ Systems Analysis in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome," Workshop on Systems Analysis and Modeling Approaches in Environment Systems, Zakopane, Poland, Sept. 17-22,1973.

Tsuneo Tamura "Characterization of Plutonium Contaminated Soil from the Nevada Test Site," Plutonium Information Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1972. "Calcium-Magnesium Exchange in Aluminum Hydroxide-Coated Montn orillonite," Annual Meeting, American Society of Agronomy, Miami beach, Florida, November 1972.

W. Van Winkle "Oxyconformers and Oxyregulators: An Analytical Approach," Annual Meeting, American Society of Zoologists, Washington, D. C, Dec. 28-30,1972.

133

J. P. Witherspoon "Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Electrical Power Generation on Terrestrial Systems,** Annual Meeting, AAAS, Washington, D. C, December 1972.

LECTURES

S. I. Auerbach "Current Needs and Trends in the Ecological Sciences as Related to National Problems,** Plant Ecology Senunar, Duke University, Jan. 19,1973, Durham, North Carolina.

B. S. Ausmus "Terrestrial Decomposition Studies: Process Approach,** Purdue University, Apr. 3-4 , 1973, Lafayette, Indiana. "Ecosystem Analysis: What Ecology Has Learned Ttat Benefits Society,** Carson-Newman College, Jury 5,1973, Jefferson City, Tennessee.

C. J. Barton Contribution of Radon m Afczatmf Gms to the Dote from Airborne Radon Daughters m Homes, Tawim—wlri Sciences Division Seminar, Aug. 29,1973, ORNL.

B G Bbykxk "Ecology of Mercury and Cadmium m Aquatic Ecosystems," lech Aqua Seminar Series, Tennessee Techno­logical University, Jury 5, 1973, Cookevflfe, Tennessee.

F A. Bondietti "Investigations of the Metal-Binding Ability of Soil and Microbial Hunuc Acids Using Cadmium and Copper Ion Electrode,** Soil Science Society of Amerca Annual Meeting, Nov. 11-16,1973, Madison, Wisconsin. "Characterization of Cadmium and Nickel Contaminated Sediments from Foundry Cove, New York,** First Annual NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, ORNL, Aug. 8-10,1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

C.C.Cou-ant "Water Quality Criteria-1972 and Its Implications for Power Plants,** Annual Meeting, Atomic Industrial Forum, Oct. 4,1972, Washington, D.C. "Gas Bubble Direase of Fish/* Interagency Mating on Reaeration Research, Oct. 25,1972, Norris, Tennessee. "Water Quality Criteria-1972 and Its Implications for Powei Plants,** University of Florida, Jan. 26, 1973, Gainesville, Florida. "Environmental Impacts of Power Plants,*' Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, Nov. 6,1972, Ithaca, New York. "Impacts of Power Plants on Aquatic Organisms," East Tennessee Chapter, Health Physics Society, Apr. 26, 1973. "Thermal Effects,** Summer Training Group, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Jury 25,1973. "Power Plant Aquatic Ecological Effects," Demonstrator Trainee Program, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Aug. 3,1973. "Thermal Effects," Summer Training Group, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Aug. 6,1973.

134

B. E. Dinger "Anatomy of an Impact Statement," University of Tennessee Forest Management Class, uly 9. 1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. "Terrestrial Primary Productivity - Gaseous Exchange Research and Modeling," presentation to National Science Foundation Program Review for the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, Oak Ridge Site, July 16, 1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. "Terrestrial Impacts," Short Course at College of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California; also "Environmental impact Assessment of Nuclear Power Generation," Sept. 10—14, 1973. "Ecological Research at ORNL," field tour and discussion of photosynthesis studies and micrometeorology at ORNL-EDFB intensive study site to Forest Management Class, University of Tennessee, July 9,1973.

J. O. Duguid Sixteen lectures as part of a hydrology course at the Environmental Impact School. The topics included "Precipitation," "Streamflow," "Evaporation and Transpiration," "Groundwater" "Characteristics of the Hydrograph," "Runoff Relations," "Hydrographs of Runoff," "Streamflow Routing," and "Frequency and Duration Studies," March-June 1973, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. "Paleoecclogy and Eskimo Prehistory at Barrow, Alaska," Environmental Sciences Division Seminar, Sept. 26, 1973.

N.T.Edwards "Research at ORNL IBP Field Study Sites," field tour and discussion with Recreation and Wildlife Class, University of Tennessee Foiestry Department, July 9,1973.

J.W.FJwood "Ecology of Stream Ecosystems," Tennessee Technological University, Apr. 18,1973, CookeviUe, Tennessee. "Primary Production in Streams," University of Tennessee, Mar. 13,1973, Knoxville, Tennessee.

L.D. Eyman "Environmental Considerations in the Siting of Nuclear Power Plants," seminar presented to the Union Carbide Environmental Sciences Group at the Tarrytown Technical Center, May 3,1973, New York.

C.W. Francis "Adsorption and Desorption of Polyvinylpyrrolidone on Reference Clay Minerals," Annual Meeting of American Society of Agronomy, Oct. 30-Nov. 2,1972, Miami Beach, Florida. "Clay Mineral Separations by Density Gradient Zonal Centring ;on." Sth Middle Atlantic Regional Meeting of American Chemical Society, Jan. IS, 1973, Washington, DC. "Plant Uptake of Cadmium," seminar to Purdue NSF-RANN Working Group, Purdue University, Apr. 10,1973, Lafayette, Indiana.

P. J. Gillespie '"The Role of uV Environmental Plutonium Data Base in the Program of the Nevada Applied Ecology Group," Nevada Applied Ecology Group's Plutonium Ad Hoc and Steering Committee meeting, Oct. 3,1972, Las Vegas, Nevada.

135

R. A. Goldstein "Ecological Modeling," Vanderbilt University, Apr. 12,1973, Nashville, Tennessee. "Process Models in Ecology," Vanderbilt University, Apr. 19, 1973, Nashville, Tennessee. "Modeling Evapotranspiration," Department of Soil Sciences, University of Wisconsin, Aug. 27,»973, Madison, Wisconsin.

W. F. Harris "Factors Determining Radiosensitivity in Higher Plants," Botany and Plant Pathology Department. Oklahoma State University, Feb. 28,1973, Stillwater, Oklahoma. "Radiation as an Environmental Stress to Plants in Terrestrial Ecosystems," public lecture, Oklahoma State University, Feb. 28,1973, Stillwater, Oklahoma. "Summary of Radiation Effects Research on Higher Plants," Botany Department, University of Oklahoma, Mar. 1,1973, Norman, Oklahoma. "Ecosystem Analysis Research in the Eastern Deciduous Forest BRxne," Botany Department, University of Oklahoma, Mar. 1,1973, Norman, Oklat" -la. "The Structure and Function of Ecosystems," Department of Biology, Tougaloo College, Feb. 9, 1973, Tougaloo, Mississippi. Tour and discussion of research on Walker Branch Watershed for Meharry Learning Resources Center, Nashville, Tennessee, Jan. * 7,1973, and class from Eastern Kentucky University, Sept. 20,1973, Richmond, Kentucky.

J.W.H'Jckabee "The Flash Project," University of Tennessee Science Club, Jan. 5, 1973, Knoxvflk, Tennessee. "Add Rock in the Smoky Mountains: An Unanticipated Impact of Road Construction," 1973 ASLO Annual Meeting, June 1973, Salt Lake Gty. Utah. "Dynamic Redistribution of Methyhnercury in a Pond Ecosystem," First Annual ORNL-NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, ORNL, August 1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

R.V. O'Neill "Four Steps to Modeling Ecological Stability," Oklahoma State University, SbHwater, Oklahoma, Nov. 16, 1972. "Ecosystem Modeling," International Woodlands Workshop, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Aug. 15-16,1972. "Systems Ecology and the U.S. Forest IBP Program, Department of Forestry, Stockholm, Sweden, April 1973. "Forest Ecosystem Modeling," Ecology Institute, Aarhus University, Denmark, Mar. 30,1973. "Mathematical Modeling," Uppsala University, Sweden, April 1973. "Deciduous Forest Modeling,'' Lund University, Sweden, April 1973. "Ecosystem Modeling," University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois, May 26,1973.

D. E. Reichle "Ecological Energetics," 27-Iecture course, Graduate Program in Ecology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee. "Metabolism of Ecosystems," Indiana University, Apr. 24,1973, Bloomington, Indiana. "US. Participation in the International Biological Program," Tech Aqua Biological Station, June 21-23,1973, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee.

P. J. Ryan "Thermal Hydraulics," a series of eight lectures to the ORNL Environmental School, May-June 1973. "Density Currents in a Cooling Pond," seminar on Cooling Lakes, ORNL, May 1973.

136

!i. H. Shugart Theoretical Implications of Niche Qualification," Ecology Program, Uiu/ersity of Indiana, Feb. 13, 1973, Bloomington. Indiana. "Modeling Successicnal Phenomena: Considerations in Time and Space," Ecology ?r.,gram, University of Indiana, Feb. i4,1973, Bloomington, Indiana. "Niche Theory," Zoology Department, University of North Carolina, Oct. 16, 1972, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. '"Succession Models Using Dynamic Ordination: A Rationale," Coniferous Forest Biome (IBP), Feb. 21, 1973, Portland, Oregon.

E. G. Struxness "Present Practice and Current Methodologies for Preparing Environmental Impact Statements," presented at EPA-UMC Environmental Impact Statement Conference, University of Missouri-Columbia, Nov. 8-9, 1972, Kansas City. Missouri.

"NEPA and the Environmental Impact Statement," Colisge of Engineering, University of Florida, Dec. 8,1°72, Gainesville, Florida. "Environmental Aspects of Energy Generation," seminar on Environmental Impact oi Energy, Meharry Medical College, Jan. 11,1973, Nashville, Tennessee. "The Impact of NEPA on Engineering Curricula and the Profession^ Engineer," presented at ASEF Middle Tennessee Chapter meeting, Jan. 18,1973, Nashville, Tennessee "NEPA and the Environmental Impact Statemeni," ORAU Traveling Lecture, Belmont Abbey College, Jan. 22, 1973, Belmont, North Carolina; ORAU Traveling Lecture, Clemson University, Jan. 2.>, 1973, Clemson, South Carolina; seminar presented at Nuclear Engineering Department, Georgia Institute of Technology, Feb. 8, 1973, Atlanta, Georgia. "AEC's Regulatory Functions and Organization in Relation to Environmental Impact Statements," lecture, ORNL Environmental Impact School, Feb. 15,1973. "The Environmental Impact of Energy," lecture, ORAU Teacher-Demonstrator Summer Training Program, July 25,1973. "Environmental Impact Statements," lecture, ORAU Summer Institute iii Applied Ecology, Aug. 1, 1973. "US. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) and the Environmental Impact Statement," 'The Assessment of Impacts and the Preparation of Environmental Impact Statements for Nuclear Power Plants," 'The Evaluation of Thermal, Radioactive, Chemical, Sanitary, and Other Effluents from Light-Water-Cooled Nuclear Power Plants," "Assessment of Radiological Impacts Resulting from Nuclear Power Stations," and 'The Assessment of Environmental Impacts Due to Once-Through and Closed-Cycle Reactor Cooling Systems," lectures presented at Second International Summer School on Radiation Protection, Institute Boris Kidric, Aug. 21-31, 1973, Vinca, Herceg Novi, Yugoslavia. "Assessment of Environmental Impacts from Nuclear Power Reactors," ORAU Traveling Lecture, Eastern Kentucky University, Sept. 14,1973. Richmond, Kentucky. "Radioactive Waste Management and Assessment of Radiological Impacts for Nuclear Power Plants," short course, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Georgia Instiiute of Technology, Nov. 26-30, 1973, Atlanta, Georgia.

Tsuneo Tamura "Soils: Chemical Reactions and Mineralogy," Gr-iat Lakes Associated University students, Y-12 Plant, Oct. 25, 1972, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. "Ul'.imate Disposal of Radioactive Wastes," Great Lakes Associated University students, Y-!2 Plant, Oct. 30, 197^, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. ITiree lectures as part of a hydrology course at the Environmental Impact School. Topics included "Sour* 2s," "Adsorption Reactions," and "Transport of Sediments," ORNL, May 1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

J 137

"Cadmium in Sediments of Foundry Cove, New York," New York University's Laboratory for Environmental Studies, Aug. 27, 1973. Sterling Forest, New York.

R. I. Van Hook "Radioisotope Techniques in Delineation of the Environmental Behavior of Cadmium," presented at Symposium on Nuclear Techniques in Comparative Studie« of Food and Environmental Contamination, August 1973, Helsinki, Finland. "Patterns of Trace-Element Distribution in a Forested Watershed," presented at First Annual NSF Trace Contaminants Conference, ORNL, August 1973, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

W. Van Winkle "Model Building," Introduction to Advanced Systems Ecology Course, Vanderbilt University, Feb. 1, 1973, Nashville, Tennessee. "Modeling Applications," Introduction to Advanced Systems Ecology Course, Vanderbilt University, Apr. 26, 1973, Nashville, Tennessee.

J. P. Witherspoon "Impact of Nuclear Power Plants," Department of Fish and Wildlife Tennessee Technological University, Jan. 25,1973, Cookeville, Tennessee. "Use of Radionuclides in Ecological Studies," Department of Chemistry, Montevallo College, Feb. 2, 1973, Montevallo, Alabama. "Environmental Aspects of Nuclear Power Pants," Department of Biology, John Carroll University, Mar. 22, 1973, Cleveland, Ohio; Department of Biology, Texas Woman's University, Apr. S, 1973, Denton, Texas. "Ecology and the Environmental Crisir," Department of Biology, Belmont College, Apr. 3, 1973, Nashville, Tennessee; Annual Meeting of Area American Chemical Society, Maryville College, Apr. 12, 1973, Maryvilk, Tennessee. "Behavior of Radioactivity in the Environment." guest speaker at Annual Meeting of the North Texas Biological Society, Mountain View College, Apr. 5, 1973, Dallas, Texas. "Environmental Impact of Nuclear Reactr j , " Annual Phi Kappa Sigtua Lecture, Incarnate Word College, Apr. 7, 1973, San Antonio, Texas. "Nuclear Power Plants and Radiation," School of Medicine, Louisiana State University, May 2, 1973, Shreveport, Louisiana. "What is Ecology?" Third Grade Classes, Farragut School, May 17,1073, Knoxville, Tennessee. "Ecological Considerations of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle," Symposium on Ecology, Economics, and Energy, John Carroll University, Oct. 25,1973, Cleveland, Ohio. "Environmental Sciences at ORNL," Students in the Eighth Annual Junior Sciences and Humanities Symposium, March 2, 1973; Environmental Studies Class, Montreat-Anderson College, Montreat, North Carolina, April 7, 1973; Ecology Class, Brentwood Academy, Brentwood, Tennessee, April 30, 1973; Health Physics Fellov u students, May 9, 1973; Ecology Class, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, May 11, 1973; participants of Ecology for Chemistry Teachers Course, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Aug. 2, 1973; science teachers, Roanoke College, Roanoke, Virginia, August 8, 1973; research personnel fromCIBA Company, Charlotte, North Carolina, September 13, 1973; Ecology Class, Tennessee Wesleyan College, Athens, Tennessee, October 17,1973. All lectures were held at ORNL, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

138

THESES

B. S. Ausmus Utter and Soil Microbial Dynamics in a Deciduous Forest Stand, PhD. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

T. L. Cox Production, Mortality and Nutrient Cycling in Uriodendron tutipifera seedlings, Ph.D. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

E. H. Curtis The Influence of Temperature and Methybnercury Chloride Concentrations on the Uptake Rate of MethytmtTcury Chloride in BhiegUl Sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, PhD. thesis, Northwestern University, 1973.

W.L. Griffith Reverse Osmosis Plant Optimization Studies, PhD. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

J. M. Kelly Dynamics of litier Decomposition, Microbiota Populations, and Nutrient Movement Following Nitrogen and Phosphorus Additions to a Deciduous Forest Stmd, PhD. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

C. S. Matti Cycling of t0*Hg and 109Cd in an Old Field Ecosystem during One Growing Season, MS. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

J. F. McPrayer Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling in a Cryptozoan Food Web, PhD. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1973.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

B. S. Ausmus

Member, U.S.-IBP Eastern Deciduous Forest E'iome Working Group on Decomposition and Elemental Cycling. Chairman, EDFB Committee for Organization of Symposium on Terrestrial Decomposition and Elemental Cycling for AIBS, June 1974.

W. J. Boegry, Jr. Member, Task Force on Utilities (AlA5i), Highway Research Board, National Academy of Science, National Academy of Engineering. Associate Professor of Civil Engineering (Environmental Engineering), University of Tennessee, Knoxvillc, Tennessee. Member of thesis advisory committees for M. R. Young (M.S.C.E.), E. E. Shroyer (M.S.C.E.), H. C. Suan (M.S.C.E.), P. R. Washer (M.S.C.E.), and W. L. Griffith (PhD.). Alternate, American Public Works Association Steering Committee on Research Project "Accommodating Utility Plait within the Right-of-way of Urban Streets and Highways."

B. G. Blaylock Lecturer in Zoology and member of graduate faculty, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee. Member, IAEA Panel on tie Radiation Effects on Population Dynamics in Ecosystems. Ph.D. thesis committee member, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois. Member of task g»oup assigned to prepare AiiC environmental impact statements for Vermont Yankee, Fort St. Vrain, San Onofrc 2 & 3, and San Onofre 2 nuclear power reactors.

139

R. L. Burgess Organizer and Chairman, Recent Advances in Integrated Research, Eastern Deciduous Forest Bkme, US.4BP, AAAS Symposium, AAAS meetings, Washington, D.C., Dec. 26-30,1972. Advisor, Desert Biome Information Meeting, Tempe, Arizona, Mar. 14-16, 1973. Member, Membership Committee, Ecological Society of America. Member, Board of Editors, Ecological Society of America. Review Editor, ECOLOGY, Ecological Society of America. Deputy Director, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, U.S.-IBP. Chairman, Committee on Publications, U.S.-IBP. Member, Committee on Ethics znd Professionalism. Ecological Society of America. Instructor, Oak Ridge School on Environmental Inpact.

A. L. Compere Lecturer in Civil Engineering (Enviroi mental Engineering), University of Tennessee, Knovrffle, Tennessee.

C. C. Coutant Member, Research Committee, Water Pollution Control Federation, 1967 ami contmuing. Member, Advisory Council, Electric Power Research Institute, 1973 and continuing. Advisor, Lake Michigan Cooling Water Intake Technical Committee, 1973. Member, American Nuclear Society Standards Subcommittee ANS-18 (Environmental Impacts of IWer Generation), 1973. Adjunct Professor, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina. Cooperator, Tennessee Cooperative Fishery Unit, US. Department of Interior, and Tennessee Technological University, Ccokeville, Tennessee. Recruiter, ORNL Ph.D. Recruiting Program. Member, Graduate Thesis Committee, R. L. Jofley (Ph.D.), University of Tennessee, KnoxviDe, Tennessee. Member, AEC Energy Task Force, Summer 1973.

J. O. Duguid Member of the Association of Engineering Geologists.

J. W. Elwood Judge for environmental projects, Southern Appalachian Science Fair, Knoxvflk, Tennessee, Apr. 5, 1973. Expert witness for AEC Directorate of Licensing at the ASLB hearings for the North Anna Power Station, Fredericksburg, Virginia, May 7—11,1973. Member of Ad Hoc Committee for preparation of a staff guide in the AEC Directorate of Licencing for environ­mental technical specifications for nuclear power plants.

L. D. Eyman Participant, Entrainment-impingement Workshop, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, Feb. 2—4, 1973. Member of task group assigned to prepare AEC environmental impact statements for Arkansas and Vogtle nuclear power plants. Participated in ORNL acceptance reviews of applicants' environmental reports for Fulton and Farley nuclear power plants.

140

N.Ferguson Chairman, Interbiome Information Storage and Retrieval Committee, U.S.-IBP. Chairman, Biome Workshop on Information, Eastern Decidous Forest Bfome Second Annual information Meeting, Durham, North Carolina. Editor, Absyacts, VS. International Biological Program Ecosystem Analysis Program.

C.W. Gears Participated in ORNL acceptance reviews of applicants' environmental reports for Perry and Summit nuclear power plants. Worked on task groups preparing AEC environmental impact statements for Mendocino and Perry nuclear power plants. Reviewed and evaluated "Method for Acute Tests with Fish and Macroinvertebrates Using the Flow-Through Technique** for the Committee on Methods for Toxicity Tests with Aquatic Organisms. Participant, Entrainrnent-Impingement Workshop, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, Feb. 2-4, 1973.

R. A. Goldstein Invited speaker, Sixth Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, University of Hawaii, Jan. 9-11, 1973. Cooperated in the designing and teaching of a course in Mathematical Systems Ecology at Vanderbflt University, spring semester, 1973. Secretary, Crop Ecosystems Simulation G.oup. Compiled and distributed an international directory of researchers involved and interested in the modeling of environmental and ecoiogical systems and phenomena.

W.L.Griffith Member, American Public Works Association Steering Committee on Research Project "Accommodating Utility Plant within the Right-of-Way of Urban Streets and Highways." Alternate, Task Force on Utilities (A1A51), Highway Research Board, National Academy of Science, National Academy of Engineering.

W.F.Harris Member, AIBS Visiting Radiation Biologists Program. Process Coordinator, Terrestrial Primary Production, EDFB, U.S.-IBP. Member, Interbiome Primary Productivity Committee, U.S.-IBP.

G. S. Henderson Process Coordinator, Terrestrial Mineral Cycling, Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, U.S.-IBP. Member, Interbiome Mineral Cycling Committee, U.S.-IBP. Advisor, Timber Harvesting Committee, Southern Pulpwood Association Meeting, Oct. 19, 1972.

S.V.Kaye Participated in preparation of the environmental impact statement for the High-Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor Fuel Refabrication Pilol Plant. Participated in preparation of the environmental impact statement for the LMFBR Program. Member, Review Team, Evaluation of Programs at the Savannah River Plant, sponsored by AEC's Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research, Aiken, South Carolina, Sept. 17-19, 1973. Chairman, Project SOAR (Save Our American Resources), Pellissippi District, Great Smoky Mountain Council, Boy Scouts of America.

141

C. R. Malone Program Chairman, Ecologfca? Society of America, 1972-1973. Member, site visit team t- the National Ecological Research Laboratory (EPA) for the Office of Scientific Personnel, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Sept. 17,1973. Member, Subcommittee on Safety to Man and Environment of the Committee on Pesticides, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1973.

J. S. Mattice Participant, topical conference on Water Quality Considerations: Siting and Operating of Nudear rower Haiti, AIF, Washington, D.C. Participant, Entrainment-Impingement Workshop. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Marytaad, Feb, ?-4 , 1973.

L R. McKay Author of chapters dealing with the radiological aspects of environmental impact assessment for the fotowing statements: 1. "Draft Environmental Statement by the Directorate of Regulatory Standards, United States Atoaric Energy

Commission, Concerning Proposed Rule-Making, 'Exemption from licencing Requnssaeats for T^neajacct and Timepiece Parts that Contain Neptunium-237\"

2. "Draft Environmental Statement by the Directorate of Regulatory Standards, United Strifes Atomic Energy Commission, Concerning Proposed Rule-Making, *ExemprJon from Licensing Requreasents for Haotoidenti-fication Credentials that Contain Promethiam-147\"

R. E. Moore Participated in preparation of the environmental impact statement for the rhgh-Tenaperature Cw Cooled Reactor Fuel Refabrication Pilot Plant. Participated in preparation of the environmental impact statement for the LMFBR Program.

D.J.Nelson Consultant, Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards. Member-at-large, Board of Directors, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography. Member, U.S. National Committee for the International Union for Quaternary Research, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. Consultant, Mobile District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Lecturer in Zoology and member of graduate faculty, University of Tennessee, Knoxvflle, Tennessee.

F. R. O'DonneU Served on ORNL Staff Review Board for AEC Draft Environmental Statement on Catawba Nuclear Station Units 1 and 2. Participated in ORNL acceptance reviews of applicants1 environmental reports for nude*' power plants (Perry, Summit, and Comanche Peak). Member of task group assigned to prepare AEC environmental impact statements for consumer products that contain radionuclides (Timepieces and Timepiece Parts That Contain Np-237, Photoidentification Credentials That Contain Pm-147, Spark Gap irradiators That Contain Co-60, and Static Eliminators and k n Generators That Contain Tritium, Kr-85, or Po-210).

C. J. Oen Member, Women's Advisory Group on Affirmative Action at ORNL.

142

R.v.o?*a Member, U.S.-1BP Interbiome Modeling Committee. Modehng Program CoordinatOT, Eastern Deciduous Forest Borne, U.S.-IBP. Mode£»gir>0£fam Coordinator, Environmental Sciences Division.

D.E.Reichle Lecturer and member of graduate faculty, University of Tennessee Department of Zoology and Graduate Program in Ecology. Cocbakman, htternational Woodlands Coordinating Committee, International Biological Program. American untor, naomotogie. Member, Coordinating Committee, Unrversity of Tennessee Institute of Radiation Biology. Member, PaaH on General Ecology and Ecosystem Analysis, National Science Foundation. Member, Executive Committee, Eastern Deciducus Forest Biome, Analysis of Ecosystem Program, U.S.-IBP. Member, Scope Commission for a Program for Analysis of World Ecosystems (PAWE). Member, Pli—ig Committee for the Productivity Symposium, V IBP General Assembly. Member, ORNLPkD. Recruitment Program. Member, ORNL Graduate Selection Panel.

Gmmnan, Specialists Panel on Appoed Systems Analysts, National Academy of Science.

Member, Science Research Advisory Committee, National Science Foundation.

P.S.Ronwer Participated m preparation of the environmental impact statement for the LMFBR Program. Participated in preparation of the environmental impact statement for the HTGR Fuel Refabrication FUot Plant. Participated in critical review and revision of AEC-DBER Task Group 1 draft report, "Estimation of the Pathological Consequences of fc» posure to Plutonium Compounds." (This document is to be the base Tor a section on phitomum toxicity which is planned for the LMFBR Program Environmental Statement.) Treasurer. East Tennessee Chapter, Health Physics Society.

RH.Sfaugart Lecturer, "Ecosystems," Vanderbflt University, winter semester 1973.

Lecturer, "Systems Ecology (Botany 5510,5520)," University of Tennessee.

R.H. Strand Environmental Sciences Division short course on the use of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) in environmental data processing. Participant, Conference on the Evaluation of EDFB Numeric Data and Information Management Systems, Troy, New York. Analyst for the "Evaluation of After-Shock Effects to Vegetation following Underground Nuclear Detonation on Amchftfca Island" and for the "Determination of Primary Succession Patterns in Disturbed Historical Areas on Amcbitka Island." Lecturer on "Establishment Methodologies for Small-Seeded Legumes in Tennessee" to Plant and Soil Science Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

E. G. Struxness Program Committee Chairman, Health Physics Society, 1968. KRP Committee 4, Task Group Chairman, for editing ICRP report entitled Radiation Protection Evaluations Rehtf**. to Planned and Unplanned Releases of Radioactive Materials into the Environment, \ 973.

143

TsuneoTamura Lecturer in the ORAU Traveling Lecture Program. Member, Committee on Editcatioaal Assistance (Mineralogy) of the American Society of Agronomy.

J.HTrabalka Assisted in the preparation of the environmental impact statements for Shoreham Unit 1, Peach Bottom Units 2 and 3, Limerick Units 1 and 2, and Ginna Unit 1 nuclear power reactors; also assisted in the preparation of die environmental impact statement for the LMFBR Program. Participant, Entrainment-Impingement Workshop, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, Feb. 2-4, 1973.

W. Van Winkle Member of task group assigned to prepare AEC environmental impact statements for Indian Point Unit 3 and for Indian Point Unit 1 nuclear power reactors.

J. P. Witherspoon Lecturer in Botany and member of the graduate faculty, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee. Lecturer in the American Institute of Biological Sciences Visiting Radiation Biologists Program. Lecturer in the ORAU Traveling Lecture Program. Member, Executive Board, Camp Fire Girls, Inc., Oak Ridge District.

Environmental Sciences Division Publications

Reprints nay be obtained by circling the desired numbers on the enclosed numbered sheet and mailing the sheet to:

Dr. Stanley I. Auerbach, Director Environmental Sciences Division Building 2001 Oak Ridge National Laboratory P.O. Box X Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830

Publications marked by an asterisk are out of print — none are available.

1. ROHDE, C. J., JR. 1956. A modification of the plaster-charcoal technique for the rearing of mites and other small arthropods. Ecology 37(4)843-44.

2. HOWDEN. H. F. 1957. Investigations on sterility and deformities of Onthophagus (Coteoptera, Scarabaekbe) induced by gamma radiation. Arum. EntomoL Soc. Amer. 50(1): 1-9.

*3. HOWDEN, H. F., and S. I. AUERBACH. 1958. Scn»c effects of gamma radiation on Trogoderma sternale Jayne. Arum. EntomoL Soc. Amer. 51(1).48-51.

*4. LACKEY, J. B. 1958. The suspended microbiota of the Clinch River and adjacent waters, in relation to radioactivity in the summer of 1956. ORNL-2410. 35 pp.

*5. MORGAN, K. Z., and S. I. AUERBACH. 1957. Need for reserving Melton Valley for long range ecological studies. ORNL-CF-57-12-25.9 pp.

*6. AUERBACH, S. 1.1958. The soil ecosystem and radioactive waste disposal to the ground. Ecology 39(3):522-29. 7. WILUAMS, L. G., and R D. SWANSON. 1958. Concentration of cesiuro-137 by algae. Science 127(3291): 187-88. 8. AUERBACH, S. L, D. A. CROSSLEY, JR., and M. D. ENGELMAN. 19S7. Effect* of gamma radiation on coUembob

population growth. Science 126(3274):614. "9. AUERBACH, S. I., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1958. Strontium-90 and cesium-137 uptake by vegetation under natural

conditions, pp. 494-499 in Proc. 2nd Int. Conf. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, vol. 18, Gene/a. Pergamon Press, London. •10 DAVIS, R. J., V. L. SHELDON, and S. I. AUERBACH. 1956. Uthal effects of gamma filiation upon segments of a natural

microbial population./. Bacterial 72(4):505-10. *11. GRAHAM, E. R. 1958. Uptake of waste Sr-90 and Cs-137 by soil and vegetation. Soil Sci. 86(2):91-97. *12. HOWELL, J. C. 1958. Long-raiige ecological study of the Oak Ridge area: I. observations on the summer birds in Melton

Valley. ORNL-CF-58-6-14. 35 pp. 13. WILLIAMS, L. G. 1960. Uptake of cesium-137 by cells and detritus of Eugtena and Chlorelia. Limnol. Oceanogr.

5(3):301-11. 14. AUERBACH, S. 1.. and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1960. A sampling device for soil microarthropods. Acaroiogia 2(3):180-87. 15. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., and K. K. BOHNSACK. 1960. Long-term ecological study in the Oak Ridge area: III. the oribatid

mite fauna in pine litter. Ecology 41(4):785-90. *16. ROHDE, C J. 1959. Studies on the biologies of two mite species, predator and prey, including some effects of gamma

radiation on selected developmental stages. Ecology 40(4).572-79. *17. AUERBACi:, S. I., et al. 1957. Ecological research. In Health Phys. Div. Annu. Progr. Rep. My 31, 1957.

ORNL-2384:10-39. 18. AUERBACH, S. I., et al. 1958. Ecological research. In Health Phys. Div. Annu. Progr. Rep. July 31, 1958.

ORNL-2590:27-52.

144

145

•19. LEE, P. K., and S. I. AUERBACH. 1960. ^termination and evaluation of the radiation field above White Oak Lake bed. ORNL-2755. 64 pp.

20. AUERBACH, S. I., et aL 1959. Ecological research. In Health Pkys. Div. Ann. Proof. Rep. Jutv 31,1959. ORNL-2806:18-54. •21. HOWELL, J. C , and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1959. Long-term ecological study of the Oak Ridge -rea: D. observanonE on the

mammah with special reference to lirtton VaBey ORNL-CF-59-10-126.24 pp. 22. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., and M. E. PRYOR. 1960. The uptake and elimination of cesium-137 by a grasshopper - Ronmlea

microptere. Health Pkys. 4:16-20. •23. PLUMMER, G. L. 1960. Biometric analysis of a growth response of two plant species in a radioactive waste area. ORNL-2903.

10 pp. 24. COTTRELL, W. D. 1960. Radioactivity in silt of the Clinch and Tennessee Riven. ORNL-2847.47 pp. 25. SCHURR, J. M-, and W. N. STAMPER. 1962- A model for the accumulation of strontium and calcium by recently molted

crayfish {Cambarus kmguhis lonaerostris Ort.). LimnoL Oceanogr. 7(4):474-77. •26. OLSON, J. S., et aL 1960. Disi^sution of radioactive isotopes in phms, insects and soils. NucL Saf. l(3):2-9. 27. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., and H. F. HOWDEN. 1961. Insert vegetation relationships m an area contaminated by radioactive

wastes. Ecology 42(2):302-17. 28. WILLARD, W. K. 1960. Avian uptake of fission products from as area contaminated by low-level s&aaac wastes. Science

132(3240): 148-50. •29. SEALANDER, J. A., JR. 1960. Subproject 4.010. The effects of socsopsychological and radiation stress on the serum proteins

of the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus). 30. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR, and J. H. SCHNELL. 1961. Comparative eaanination of Tamtrfwam and radiostrontinm by

grasshoppers. Aim. EntomoL Soc Amer. 54(2):459-61. •31. OLSON; J. S., et aL 1960. Forest studies. In Health Pkys. Da. Aim. Prop. Rep. July 3L 1960. ORNL-2994:l67 -85. 32. CHILDS, H. E., JR. 1960. Subproject 4.011. The effects of chronic hradmtion m nature on v^d snud inaminals m the AIX

controaed area at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 33. DUNAWAY, P. B., and S. V. KAYE. 19C1. Effects of industrial ofl disposal on wild mammals. S. Mammal. 42(4):554-56.

*34. NELSON, D. J. 1960. Biological concentration of radioisotopes from aquatic enviraunento. M « i Saf. 2(1)81-83. 35. HOWELL, J. C. l96Q.Tht bads otzrdkey. Audubon Mag. 62:283-88.

•36. ATYEO. W. T., E. W. BAKER, and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1961. The genus Rephignathus Duges (Acarina, Baphjgnarhidae) m the United States with notes on the OM World species. /4caroto*w 3(1):14-17.

37. DUNAWAY, P. B, and S. V. KAYE. 1961. Studies of smaaVinaminal populations on the radioactive White Oak Lake bed, pp. 167-85 in 7>wt*. 26th North Amer. WOdafe Net Rex Conf., March 6-8 , WidKfe Management Institute.

•38. SHANKS, R. F.,and J. S. OLSON. 1961. Fiut-year breakdown of kaf litter m southern Appalachian forests. Science 134(3473):194-95.

39. HOWDEN, H. F., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1961. Insect species on vegetation of the White Oak Lake bed, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. ORNL-3094.38 pp.

•40. KAYT. S. V., and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1962. Moaccumubtion of radioactive isotopes by herbivorous small mammals. Health Pkys. 7:205-17.

41. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., and M. P. HOGLUND. 1962. A Ktter-bag method for the study of tnicroarthropods inhabitm? leaf litters. Ecology 43(3):571-73.

42. DUNAWAY, P. B., and S. V. KAYE. 1961. Cotton rat mortality during severe winter. / . Mammal 42(2):265-68. •43. MORTON, R. J. (ed.). 1961. Status report no. 1 on Clinch River study. ORNL-3119. 81 pp. •44. OLSON, J. S. 1961. Ecological sampling and roeteofck*icat calculation of taDout on forests near Oak Ridge. ORNL-3181.57

PP-•45. DUNAWAY, P. B., and S. V. KAYE. 1963. Effects of ionizing radiation on nwinmal |>o|NuatBons on tte Wlrite Oak Uke bed,

pp. 333-38 in Schultz, V., and A. W. Kkment (eds.). Ptoc. Firt Natl. Symp. on Radioecology. Remhoid PuW. Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C.

46. KAYE, S. V., and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1963. Estimation of dose rcte and equilibrium state from bionccumnlation of radionuclides by mammals, pp. 107-11 in Schultz, V., and A. W. Ktement (eds.). Proc. First Natl Symp. on Radioecology. Reinhold Publ. Co„ New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C.

47. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR. 1963. Movement and accumulation of radiostrontiutn and radioceshim m insects, pp. 103-5 m Schultz, V., and A. W. Klement (eds.). Proc. First Natl Symp. on Radioecology. Reinhold PubL Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C.

•48. KAYE, S. V. 1961. Movements of harvest mice tagged with gokt-198. / Mammal. 42(3):323-27. •49. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR. 1963. Consumption of vegetation by insects, pp. 427-30 in SchulU, V., and A. W. Kkment (eds.).

Proc. First Natl. Symp. on Radioecology. Reinhold PubL Co., New York and AIBS. Washington, D.C •50. OLSON, J. S. 1963. Analog computer models for movement of isotopes through ecosystems, pp. 121-25 in SchuTtz, V., and

A. W. Kkment (eds.). Proc. First Natl. Symp. on Radioecology. R'inhold PuW. Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C. •51. WITKAMP, M. 1% 1. Influence of radiation from an unshielded reactor on a natural microflora. ORNL-TM-29.9 pp. •52. OLSON, J. S., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1963. Tracer studies of the breakdown of forest litter, pp. 411-16 in Schultz, V.,

and A. W. Kkment (eds.). Proc. First Natl Symp. on Radioecology. Reinbold PuW. Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C.

146

•53. WITHERSPOON, J. P., JR. 1963. Cycling of cesnim-134 in white oak trees on sites of contrasting soil type and moisture. I. 1960 glowing season, pp. '27-32 in Schultz, V., and A. W. Kfcment (eds.). Ptoc. First Natl. Symp. on Radioecology. Remhold PubL Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C

•54. KAYE, S. V. 1961. Laboratory Hfe history of the eastern harvest mouse. Amer. Midi. Satur. 66(2)439-51. 55. NELSON, i>. J. 1963. The strontium and calcium relationships in Clinch and Tennessee River molusks. pp. 203-11 in

Schultz, V., and A. W. Kkment (eds.). Ptoc. First Natl Symp. on Radioecology. Remhokl PubL Co., liew York and AIBS, Washington, D.C

56. AUERBACH, S. I., and J. S. OLSON. 1963. Biological and environmental behavioi of ruthenium and rhodium, pp. 509-19 in Schuitz, V„ and A. W. Kkroent (eds.). Proc. First NatL Symp. on. Radioecology. ReinhoM PubL Co., New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C

•57. NEEL, R. B., and J. S. OLSON. 1962. Use of analog computers for simulating the movement of isotopes in ecological systems. ORNL-3172.11ipp.

58. AUERBACH, S. L, et aL 1961. White Oak Lake bed studies, In Health Phys. Div. Anna. Prop. Rep. July 31. 1961. ORNL-318981-105.

59. NELSON, D. J-, et aL 1961. Clinch River studies. In Health Phys. Div. Anna. Progr. Rep. July 31, 1961. ORNL-3189:129-39.

*60. AUERBACH, S. L 1962. Summary of session, First National Symposium on Radioecology 1961, Cycling in the Tentorial Environment, pp. 318-47 in Radioactive Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests, Proc. of a Conf. held in Germantown, MaryfcuMl, Nov. 15-17,1961 Book 2. TID-7632. USAEC, Washington, DC.

61. AUERBACH, S. I. 1961. Introductory statement. A Umted States scologK^l survey Smited to the biological effects of radiation. In Second Meeting, i.XEA, March 1961. IV. Effect of radiation on ecological system of the biosphere due to atomic inAvJy operation. PL-300I)/SR/11 and PL-300D/SR/19

*62. OLSON, J. S^ et aL 1961. Forest ecology. In Health Phys Div. Annu. Prop. Rep. July 31.1961. ORNL-3189:105- 28. 63. NELSON, P. J., and B. G. BLAYLOCK. 1963. The preliminary investigation of salivary gland chromosomes atChironomus

teutons Fab:, from the Clinch River, pp. 367-72 in Schultz, V., and A. W. Klement (eds.). Proc. First Natl. Symp. on RadioecokHy- Remhold PubL Co.. New York and AIBS, Washington, D.C

•64. AUERBACH, S. I„ et aL U61 . Ecological research. In Health Phys Div. Annu. Progr. Rep. July 31. 1961. ORNL-318981-139.

*65. WITKAMP. IL, and J. L. SHOOPMAN. 1961. Carbon and nitrogen in a pioneer ecosystem of kudzu vine at Copperhill, Tennessee. Unpublished ms., 17 no (see No. 181).

•66. MORTON, R. J. (ed.). 1962. Start? report no. 2 on Clinch River study. ORNL-3202.97 pp. 67. STRANDTMANN, R. W., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1962. A new species of soil-inhabiting mite, Hypoaspia morksi (Acarina,

Ladaptidae)./. Kor. EntomoL Soc 35(1): 180-85. •68. OLSON, J. S. 1963. Energy stoege and the balance of producers and decomposers in ecological systems. Ecology

44(2):322-31. *69. WITKAMP, M. 1963. Microbial popuu dons of leaf litter in relation to environmental conditions and decomposition. Ecology

44(:>):370-77. •70. AUERBACH, S. 1.19€2. Analytical requirements for environmental surveys. Nud. Saf. 3(3):51 -54. •71. WTTKAMP, M., and J. VAN DER DRIFT. 1961. Breakdown of forest litter in relation to environmental factors. Plant Soil

15(4):295-311. •72. NELSON, D. J. 1962. Strontium, strontiurr.-90 and calcium analyses of Clinch and Tennessee River clams. ORNL-TM-270. 22

PP-*73. NELSON, D. J. 1962. Cams as indicators of strontium-90. Science 137(3523).38-39. 74. PLUMMER, G. L. 1962. Growth responses oiHeUanthusannus to internal calciu.n-45. Bot. Gaz. 123(4):272-78.

•75. WITHERSPOON, J. P., JR., S. I. AUERBACH, and J. S. OLSON. 1962. Cycling of cesium-134 in white oak trees on sites of contrasting soil type and moisture. ORNL-3328.143 pp.

•76. DUNAWAY, P. B. 1962. Litter-size record for eastern harvest mouse./. Mammal. 43(3):428-29. 77. LAMMERS, W. T. 1962. Density gradient separation of plankton and clay from river water. Limnol. Oceanog.. 7(2):224-29.

•78. MORTON, R. J. (ed.). 1962. Status report no. 3 on Clinch River study. ORNL-3370. 117 pp. •79. AUERBACH, S. I., et al. 1962. Radiation ecology. In Health Phys. Div. Annu. Progr. Rep. July 31, 1961 ORNL-3347.47-72. •80. OLSON, J. S. 1962. Survey* of environmental radioactivity. Nucl. Saf. 4(l):88-95. •81. AUERBACH, S. I., and V. SCHULTZ. 1962. Onate ecological research of the division of biology and medicine at the Oak

Ridge National Laboratory. TID-16890. •82. DUNAWAY, P. B., and S. V. KAYE. 1964. Cotton rat weights in relation to season, breeding, and environmental radioactive

contamination. Amer. Midi. Natur. 71 (1):14I—55. •83. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR. 1963. Use of radioactive tracers in the study of insect-plant relationships, pp. 43-53 in Proc. Symp.

Radiation and Radioisotopes Applied to Insects of Agricultural Importance, IAEA, Vienna. •84. WITKAMP, M. 1960. Biological uptake by radionuclides. Nucl. Saf. 2(2):65 -69. *85. WTTKAMP, M., and J. S. OLSON. 1963. Breakdown of confined and nonconfined oak litter. Oikos 14:138-47. •86. W7SER, C. W., and D. J. NELSON. 1964. Uptake and elimination of cobalt-60 by crayfish. Amer. Midi. Satur.

72(1): 181 -202. 87. KAYE, S. V. 1965. Use of miniature glass rod dosimetry in radiation ecology. Ecology 46:201-6.

347

*88. OLSON, J. S. 1963. Models for simulating ecotopcai »?skms with the aid of analog and digital computers. Unpubiuke* » t , 12 pp.

*89. MORTON, R. J. (ed.). 1963. Status report no. 4 o*» Oioch Rivtsr study. ORNL-3409. US pp. 90. NELSON, D. J. 1964. Biological vectors and reservoirs of stxontium-90. Nature 2P3(<943):420.

•91. AUERBACH, S. I., et aJ. 1963. Radiation sclogy. In Health Phys. Div. Arum. Progr. Rep. June 30. 1963. ORNL-3492:81-115.

92. PLUMMER, G. L., D. A. CROSS LEY, JR., and D. A . GARDINER. i%5. A growth response of two sedges inhabiting a radioactive waste disposal area. Ecology 46(3):346-48.

93. AUERBACH, S. I., J. S. OLSON, and H. D. WALLEk. 1964. Landscape investigations using cesium-137. Xatire 20!(4921):761-64.

*94. CROSS LEY, D. A.. JR., and M. WITKAMP. 1964. Forest soil mites and mineral cycling. Aearologia 6:138-45. *95. WITKAMP, M., and M. L. FRANK. 1961. First >xar of movement, distribution, and availability of 0 1 3 7 in toe forest floor

under tagged tulip poplars. Radiat. Bot. 4(4):485-95. *96. MARTIN, R. E., S. I. AUERBACH, and D. J. NELSON. 1964. Growth and movement of smaflmoutii buffalo, ictiobus

bubalus (Rafinesque), in Watts Bar resevoir, Tennessee. ORNL-3530.100 pp. *97. TAYLOR, F. G., JR. 1965. Supernumerary incisors in Lynx rufus Schreber. / Manorial. 46(3):507. *98. BLAYLOCK, B. G., S. I. AUERBACH, and D. J. NELSON. 1964. Chromosomal aberrations in a natural population of

Ouronomus tentans exposed to chronic low-level environmental radiation. ORNL-3531. 76 pp. 99. BROWN, G. N. 1964. Cesium in Liriodendron and other woody species: organic bonding srtes. Science 143(3604):368-69.

•100. WHITTAKER, R. H., N. COHEN, and J. S. OLSON. 1963. Net production relations of three tree species at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Ecology 44<4):806-10.

•101. NELSON, D. J. 1964. Interpretation of radionuclide uptake from aquatic environments. NucL Saf. 5(2):196-9S. •102. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR. 1964. Biological eaminatjon of radionuclides. SucL Saf. 5<3):2«i5-*8. •103. OLSON, J. S. 1964. Gross and net production of terrestrial vegetation. J. Ecoi. 52(suppL):99-l 13.

104. NELSON, D. J. 1964. Deposition of strontium in relation to morphology of dam (Unkraidae) shels. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol Verh. 15:893-902.

105. PATTEN, B. C. 1964. The plankton community. Science 144(3618):556-58. •106. KEVERN, N. R. 1964. Strontium and calcium uptake by the green alga, Oocystis eremosphaeha. Science

145(3639): 1445-46. 107. AUERBACH, S. I., et al. 1964. Radiation ecology, in Health Phys. Div. Anna. Progr. Rep. June 30, 1964.

ORNL-3697:65-109. 108. WITHERSPOON, J. P., JR. 1964. Cycling of cesium-134 in white oak trees. EcoL Monogr. 34<4):403-20.

*109. BAKER, E. W., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1964. A new species of mite, Fusoherecia lawrencei, from an artificial tree-hole (Acariiu:Grycyphagidae)./4/r/L Abto/itfur. 16:3-8.

•110. MENHfNICK, E. F. 1964. Design of 9 0 S r sources for ecological studies involving beta irradiation. ORNL-TM-997. 20 pp. •111. PATTEN, B. C. 1964. The systems approach in radiation ecology. ORNL-TM-1008. 22 pp. *112. JOHNSON, R. M. 1964. The herpetofauna of the Oak Ridge area. ORNL-3653. 28 pp. *113. PATTEN, B. C. 1965. Community organization and energy relationstups in plankton. ORNL-3634.58 pp.

114. OLSON, J. S. 1964. Advances in radiation ecology. NucL Saf. 6(1):78-81. 115. COSGROVE, G. E., et al. 1964. Infection of laboratory-reared and wild cotton rats with cat tapr -orm larvae./. Tenn. Acad.

Sci. 39(3j: 140-41. *116. DUNAWAY, P. B., and L. LEWIS. 1%5. Taxonondc relation cf erythrocyte count, mean corpuscular volume, and

body-weight in mammals. Nature 205:481-84. 117. BLAYLOCK, B. G. 1965. A method for preparing salivary-gland chromosomes. Drotophila Info. Sen. 40:97. US. TAYLOR, F. G., JR. 1965. Ni-ckar volume changes in southeastern tree species before spring growth.Radiat. Bot. 5:61-66. 119. BROWN, G. N. 1965. Temperature controlled growth rates and ribonucleic acid characteristics in mimosa epicotyl tissue.

Plant Physiol. 40(3):557-61. •120. DUNAWAY, P. B , and S. V. KAYE. 1962. EffecU of radiation on mammalian population dynamics, pp. 141-51 in Proc

First Int. Conf. on Wildlife Dis., Highvicw, New York, June 24-28. Wildlife Disease Association. •121. VAN DYNE, G. M., and J. L. VAN HORN. 1965. Distance traveled by sheep on winter range, pp. LXX1V-1-LXXIV-6 in

Proc. Western Sect. Am. Soc. Animal Set, vol. 16, Fort Collins, Colorado, July 12-14. * 122. VAN DYNE, G. M. 1965. Probabilistic estimates of range fo^»e intake, pp. LXXVU-1 -LXXVH-6 in Proc. Western Sect. Am.

Soc Animal Set, vol 16, Fort Collins, Colorado, Jury 12-14. •123. LEWIS, L. L., and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1965. Techniques for hematological studies of wild mammals. ORNL-3806. 20 pp.

124. BLAYLOCK, B. G., and J. P. WITHERSPOON, JR. 1965. Environmental factors affecting glass rod dosimetry. Health Phys. 11:549-52.

*125. VAN DYNE, G. M. 1965. A further note on random locations for sample units in circular plots. / Range ttanage. 18<3): 150-51.

126. CHILDS, H. E., JR., and G. E. COSGROVE. 1966. A study of pathological conditions in wild rodents in radioactive areas. Amer. Midi. Ni ur. 76(2):309-24.

127. ROSENTHAL, G. M., JR., D. J. NELSON, and D. A. GARDINER. 1965. Deposition of strontium and calcum in snail shell. M/ure2C7(4992):51-54.

128. NELSON, D. J. 1965. Strontium in calcite: new analysis. PuN. Inst, of Marine Sci., Texas 10:76-79.

148

•129. OTARRELL, T. ?. 1965. The rabbits of Middkton Island, Alaska. J. Mammal. 46(3):525 -27. 130. AUERBACH, S. I., et ai. 1965. Radiat on ecology, ia Health toys. Div. Anna. Progr. Rep. July 31, 1965.

ORNL-3849:45~109. 131. COSGROVE, G. E., and T. P. OTARRELL. 1965. Papillomas and other lesions in the stomachs of pine mice. / . Mammal.

46(3):510-13. 132. BLAYLOCK, B. G. 1965. Chromosomal aberrations in a natural population of Chirononms tentans exposed to chronic

low-level radiation. Evolution 19(3):421-29. 133. WITHERJPOON, J. P., JR., and G. N. BROWN. 1965. Translocation of cesium-137 from parent trees to seedlings ol

Uriodsndron tuapifera. Bot. Gaz. 125(3):181-85. •134. VAN DYNE, G. K., G. F. PAYNE, and O. O. THOMAS. 1965. Chemical composite n of individual range plants from the VS.

range station, Miles City, Montana, from 1955-1960. ORNL-TM-1279. 24 pp. •135. MORTON, R. J. (ed.). 1%5. Status report no. 5 on Clinch River study. ORNL-3721. 149 pp. *136. McMASTER, W. M., and H. D. WALLER. 1965. Geology and soils of White Oak Creek basin, Tennessee. OR.iL-TM-1:03. 35

PP-•137. CURLIN, J. W. 1965. Forest management plan, AEC Oak Ridge Reservation. ORNL-TM-1317.46 pp. *138. VAN DYWE, G. M. 1965. Regress - a multiple regression and correlation program with graphic output for model evaluation.

ORNL-TM-1288.56pp. 139. PAYNE, J. A. 1965. A summer carrion study of the baby pig Sus scrofa Linnaeus. Ecology 46(5):592-602. 140. VAN DYNE, G. M. 1965. Chemical composition and digestibility of piants from annual range and from pure-stand plots. J.

Range Manage. 18(6):332-37. 141. BLAYLOCK, B. G. 1966. Chromosomal polymorphism in irradiated natural populations of Chironomus. Genetics

53(1): 131-36. •142. REICHLE, D. E., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1965. Radiocesium dispersion in a crypiozoan food web. Health Phyr.

11(12): 1375-84. 143. OLSON, J. S. 1965. Equations for cesium transfer in a Urioden&on ibicsi. Health Phys. ll(12}:1385-92.

•144. VAN DYNE, G. M. 1965. Application of some operations research techniques to food chain analysis problems. Health Phys. 11(12):1511-19.

145. WTTHERSPOON, J. P., jR. 1965. Radiation dama^: to forest surrounding an unshielded fast reactor. Health Phys. i i ( i2): 1637-42

146. AUERBACH, S. 1.1965. Radionuclide cycling; current status and future needs. Health Phys. 11(12):1355 -61. •147. PAYNE, J. A., P. B. DfJNAWAY, G. D. MARTIN, and J. D. STORY. 1965. Effects of Cuterebra angustifrons on plasm*

proteins of Peromyscus leuccpus. /. ParasitoL 51(6):1004-8. •148. VAN DYNE, G. M. 1965. Data on chemical and botanical composition of dietary samples grazed by cattle and sheep.

ORNL-TM-1316. 26 pp. 149. OLSON, J. S., G. CRISTGFOUNI, and S. CRISTOFOUNI (eds.). 1966. Oak Ridge, Tennessee, f'ora: I. preliminary

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290. VAN HOOK, R.L, JR., and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. l%9.AssimiUtionaiidbiok)gkal turnover of cesrom-134^ chronium-51 in brown cricket*, Achcta domesdcus (L.). Health Phys. 16(4):463-67.

291. DeSELM, H. R., P. B. WHJTFORD, a*d J. S OLSON. 1969. The barrens of the Oak Ridge area, Tennessee. Amer. Midi. Natur. 81(2):315-30.

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293. OTARRELL, T. P., and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1969. Effects of acute ionizing radiation on incorporation o f ! 3 I IUDR by cotton nts,Sigmo<km hkpidus. Radial. Res. 38(1): 109-24.

294. KELLY, J. M., P. A. OPSTRUP, J. S. OLSON, S I. AUERBACH, and G. M. VAN DYNE. 1969. Models of seasonal primary productivity in eastern Tennessee, FestucamdAndropogon tcosystems (thesis). ORNL-4310. 305 pp.

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299. THOMAS, W. A. 1969. Accumulation am> cycling of cakaum by dogwood trees. EcoL Monogr. 39(2): 101 -20 . •300. AUERBACH. S. I., and S. WARREN. 1969. Medical and ecological effects of nuclear weapons, pp. 126-47 in Wiener, E. P.

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forest soils. Ecology 50(3):395-99. *306. EDWARDS, C. A., D. E. REtCHLE, and D. A. CROSSLEY, JR. 1969. Experimental mamswlation of sol nmrtdmlt

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watershed. Environ. Set TedmoL 3(11): 1195-98. 310. THOMAS, W. A., and D. G. JACOBS. 1969. Curium behavior in plants and sol. Sod Set 108<4):305-7.

*311. PETERS, L. N., J. S. OLSON, and R. M. ANDERSON. 1969. Eight-year mr— iry of nhmtio8 data on l 3 , C s in a Appbchian forest dominated by Lihodendron tuhpifera. ORNL-TM-2737.235 pp.

312. KOLEHMATNEN, S. E., and D. J. NELSON. 1969. The balances of 1 3 7 C s , stable cesium, and the feeding rates of 1 (Lepomis macrochrus Raf.) in White Oak Lake (thesis). ORNL4445.114 pp.

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314. DAHLMAN, R. C , S. L AUERBACH, and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1969. Behavior of• 37Cs4anaed partkaes m a 1 I I H I HaiTim! nrn-nr—iiiirfrn rj-nriff-rrrir Yinn'ifi rim IITfl T imi • • .H i— i.Maili T1 TT. ITffT

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ORNL-444641-162. 321. KOWAL, N. E. 1969. Effect of leaching on pine litter deconyosstion rate. Ecology 50(4):739-40. 322. BLAYLOCK, B. G., and T. J. MITCHELL. 1969. The effect of temperature on the dose feaponse of Gambtam affmss affbm

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•326 WFTKAMP.M. 1969. Evolution of COi from Btter, bumus, and mbsoi of a |unestaad.M(>tfefa»* 9:358-65. 327. REICHLE, D. E., P. B. DUNAWAY, and D. J. NELSON. 1970. Turnover and concentration of ladjooedides in food dawns.

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332. McBRAYER, J. F„ D. E. REICHLE, and S. I. AUERBACH. 1970. Trophic level delineation of forest soil mkrornve/tebra!es (the**). ORNL-TM-2847. 47 pp.

333. THOMAS, W. A. 1969. Pesticides (book review - Chemical fallout: Current Research on Persistent Pesticides). J. Amer. Med. Assoc 210:2095.

334. JOHNSON, W. F., and W. R. MILLER. 1970. Walker Branch Watershed Project proportional water sampler design report and operating manual ORNL-TM-2839. 2! pp.

335. REKHLE, D. E. 1969. Measurement of elemental assimilation by animals from radioisotope retention patterns. Ecology 50(6): 1102-4.

336. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., and R. I. VAN HOOK, JR. 1970. Energy assimilation b* the house cricket, Acheta domesticus, measured with radioactive chromium-Si. Annu. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 63(2):512-15.

337. VAN HOOK, R. I., JR., D. E. REICHLE, and S. I. AUERBACH. 1970. Energy and nutrient dynamics of predator and prey arthropod populations m a grassland ecosystem (thesis). ORNL-4509. 110 pp.

•338. O'NEILL, R. V. 1970. Pathway analysis: a preliminary application of sv»tems ecology to nuclear facility safety evaluation. ORNL-CF-70-3-25. 25 pp.

•339. BASKERVILLE. G. L. 1970. Testing the uniformity of variance in arithmetic and logarithmic units of a Y-variable for classes rf an X-wmNe. ORNI-IBf-70-1. 38pp.

340. WILHM, J, L. 1970. Transfer of radioisotopes between detritus and bentfic macroinvertebrates in laboratory mkroecosys-Xtm. Health Phyi 18(3):277-84.

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Radmt. Ret. 42:331-52. 343. M ALONE, C R., and B. G. BLAYLOCK. 1970. Toxicity of insecticide formulations to carp embryos reared in vitro. / . WW.

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studies. Amer. M& Netur. 83(2):489-95. 345. STANHILL, G. 1970. Some results of helicopter measurements of die albedo of different land surfaces. Sot. Energy

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45(4): 114-15. 361. WTTHERSPOON, J. P., JR., and F. G. TAYLOR, JR. 1970. Interception and retention of a simulated fallout by agricultural

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365. OTARRELL, T. P., and P. B. DUNAWAY. 1969. Cell proliferation as a function of metabolism u three species of native rodents. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 36:811-15.

366. THOMAS, W. A. 1970. Weight aiid calcium losses from decomposing tree leaves on land and in water. J. Appt. Ecoi 7(2):237-41.

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368. KAYE, S. V., and P. S. ROHWER. 1970. Dose-estimation studies related to proposed construction of an Atlantic-Pacific interoceanic canal with nuclear explosives: phase III. ORNL-4579. itS pp.

369. KOLEHMA1NEN, S. E. 1969. Daily feeding rates of bhiegUl determined by a radioisotopic method, pp. 422-30 in Proc. 23rd Arm. Conf. of the Southeastern Assoc, of Game and Fish Comm., 1969.

370. FRANK, M. L., and B. G. BLAYLOCK. 1970. Effects of acute ionizing radiation on carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) embryos (thesis). ORNL-TM-3346. 48 pp.

371. STROCK, W. G., JR. 1970. Forest management plan, A EC Oak Ridge reservation: 1970-1975. ORNL-TM-3175. 28 pp. •372. O'NEILL, R. V. 1970. An introduction to the numerical solution of differential equations in scosystem models.

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379 STANHILL, G. 1969. A simple instrument for the field measurement of turbulent diffusion flax. J. AppL MeteoroL 8(4):509-13.

380. CRISTOFOLIN1, G. 1970. Biomass and productivity of the herb layer in a forest ecosystem. G. BoL Ita/. 104<l):l-34. 3S1. AUERBACH, S. I., D. J. NELSON, S. V. KAYE, D. E. REICHLE, and C C COUTANT. 1971. Ecological foniidVrttkmi in

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382. SHINN, A. F. 1970. The use of mniucipal-waste compost for growing white Dutch clover on calcareous day soi in Tcaar T Compost Sci 11(4):13-15.

383. COUTANT, C. i . 1970. Biological aspects of thermal poHution. I. entnmment and discharge canal effects. CRC Critical Renews m Environmental Control 1(3):341-81.

384. CURLIN, J. W. 1971. Legal systems and ecosystems. Student bewyer Journal 16(4):4-8. 385. AUERBACH, S. I., et aL 1971. Ecological Sciences Division annual progress report for period ending July 31, 197a

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391. ULRIKSON, G. U., and W. G. STOCKDALE. 1971. Survey of thermai research programs sponsored by federal, stale, mi private agencies (1970). ORNL-4645. 56 pp.

392 NELSON, D. J., and S. V. KAYE. 1971. The specific activity concept applied to aqaatic euwyrteau, pp. 735-46 mNuckmr Techniques in Environmental Pollution, Proc IAEA Symp., Vienna, 1971.

•393. O'NEILL, R. V. 1971. A stochastic modd of energy flow mriiedatof comrJartnienUc^anecosyjtea^pp. 1CH-21 m f ^ t i , a P. (ed.). Statistical Ecology, Volume 3: Populations, Ecosystems, and Systems Analysis.

394. BLAYLOCK, B. G., and N. A. GRIFFITH. 1971. Effects of acute jeta and gamma radiation on developing embqrosof carp (Cyprinus carpio), Radkrt. Res. 46:99-104.

395. MANKIN, J. B., and A. A. BROOKS. 1971. Numerical methods for ecosystems analysis. ORNHBP-71-1.99 pp. 396. BLAYLOCK, B. G. 1971. The production of chromosome aberration in Chironomus ripmrius (Diptera: Clnroaoaridae) by

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397. O'NEILL, R. V. 1971. Examples of ecological transfer matrices. ORNL4BP-71-3. 26 pp. 393. GOUT ANT, C. C. 1970. Biological limitations on the use of waste heat in aquacultuie, pp. 51-61 in Proc. Conf. Beneficial

UaesofThermal Discharges, New York State OepL c» Environ. Conser., 19 '0. 399. O'NEILL, R. V. 1971. Systems approaches to die study of forest floor arthropods, pp. 441-47 in Systems Analysis and

Smudtttkm m Ecology, vol. 1. Academic Press, New York. 400. CROSSLEY, D. A., JR., D. E. REICHLE, and C. A. EDWARDS. 1971. Intake and turnover of radioactive cesium by

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406. FUNDERLIC, R. E., and M. F. HEATH. 1971. Linear compartmental analysis of ecosystems. ORNL4BP-7 5-4. 50 pp. 407. SOLUNS, P., and R. M. ANDERSON (eds.). 1971. Dry-weight and other data for trees and woody shrubs of the southeastern

United Stages. ORNL4BP-71-6. 80 pp. 408. GRIGAL, D. F., and J. E. HUBBARD. 1971. SOGGY: an empirical evapotranspiration model for forest soils, pp. 795-800 in

Proc. Summer Computer Simulation Conf., Boston, Mass., J»uy 19-21,1971. 409. FRANCIS, C W., and D. F. GRIGAL. 1971. A rapid and simple procedure using Sr* s for determining cation exchange

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carbon dioxide. ORNL4BP-71-7. 2J pp. 412. MALONE, C R. 1971. Responses of sofl mkiootganisms to non-selective vegetition control in a fescue meadow. Sou" Biol.

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counties. ORNL4BP-71-8. 56 pp. 415. O'NEILL, R. V. 1971. A staple systems model for DDT-DDE movement in the human food chain. ORNL-IBP-71-9.18 pp. 416. COOLEY, J. L., and F. L. 10LLER, JR. 1971. Effects of duotic irradiation on laboratory populations of die aquatic snail

Phymheterostropha. Radiat Res. 47:716-24. *417. GOLDSTEIN, R. A., and D. F. GRIGAL. 1971. Computer programs for the oJination and classification of ecosystems.

ORNL4BP 71-10. 125 pp. 418. BOOTH, R. S., and S. V. KAYE. 1971. A prehnunary systems analysis model of radioactivity tranter to man from deposition

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the tli p—if behavior of radio— elide i released to the envirouuent and implications, pp. 3.3-1 -3.3-18 in Proc. 4th Mi. Conf. on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva. Switzerland. Sept. 6-16,1971.

42a GRIGAL, D. F., and R. A. GOLDSTEIN. 1971. An mtcg;*ted ordaution-cbssulcation analysis of an intensively sampled oak-hickory Umax. J. FcoL 59 481-92.

•421. HETT, J. M., aad O. L. LOUCKS. 1971. Sagar aupfe (Acer mccharum Marsh.) seednag mortality. / EcoL 59:507 -20. 422. VAN HOOK, R. E., JR. 1971. Eaertv and ontrieat dyvamks of sptdeT and Ortbooteran pofw

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552. DiGREGORIO, D., P. B. DUNAWAY, and G. E. COSGROVE. 1973. Effect of acute gamma irradiation on the reproduction of Peromyscus leucopus pp. 1076-81 in Nelson, D. J. (ed.). Radionuclides in ecosystems. Proc. of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology. CONF-710501, USAEC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 1268 pp.

553. ULRIKSON, G. U. 1972 Radiation effects on serum proteins, hematocrits, electrophoretic patterns, and protein components In uic bluegUl (Lepomis macrochirus). pp. 1100-1105 in Nelson, D. J. (ed.). Radionuclides in ecosystems. Proc. of the Third NmiurUfl Symposium on Radioecology. CONF-710501, USAF.C, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 126S pp

554. FRANK, MARILYN L. 1973. Sensitivity of carp (Cyprinus carpio) embryos to acute granma radiation, pp. 1106-1112 in Nelson, D. J. (ed.). Radionuclides in ecosystems. Proc. of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology. CONF-710501, USAEC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 1268 pp.

555. VAN HOOK, R. I., JR. 1973. Gamma radiation profiles for the migratory grasshopper Melanopha sanguinipes (FAB.), pp. 1150-57 in Nelson, D. J. (ed,). Radionuclides in ecosystems. Proc. of the Third National Symposium on Radioecology. CONF-710501, USAEC, Oak RMgc, Tennessee. 1268 pp.

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557. REICHLE, D. E., and N. T. EDWARDS. 1973. IBP - Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome - Oak Ridge site. pp. 151-202 in Reichle, D. E., R. V. O'Neill, J. S. Ofeon, and L. H. Kern (eds.). Modeling forest ecosystems. EDFB-IBP 73-7. 339 pp.

558. HARRIS, W. F., ana D. E. REICHLE. 1973. Evaluating forest productivity in an ecosystem context, pp. 57-68 in Proc Agric. Research h:s!., National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.

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560. AUERBACH, S. 1.1973. The next SO years. BulL Ecol. Soc Amer. 54'3):4-9. 5c i. STY RON, CLARENCE E., and GLADYS DODSON. 1973. Responses of a grassland arthropod community to sanitated

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modeling forest succession over large regions. Forest Set 19(3):203-212.

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