environmental sanitation environmental protection and control

Environmental Sanitation

1 Environmental Sanitation | Syed Jeelani Basha Asst Prof.

EPC 4 unit

Environmental Sanitation: Environmental Sanitation Methods for Hostels and Hotels,

Hospitals, Swimming pools and public bathing places, social gatherings (melas and fares),

Schools and Institutions, Rural Sanitation-low cost waste disposal methods.

Sanitation

Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with

the hazards of wastes as well as the treatment and proper disposal of sewage or wastewater. Hazards

can be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause

health problems include human and animal excreta, solid wastes, domestic wastewater (sewage

or greywater) industrial wastes and agricultural wastes. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using

engineering solutions (e.g., sanitary sewers, sewage treatment, surface runoff management, solid

waste management, excreta management), simple technologies (e.g., pit latrines, dry toilets, urine-

diverting dry toilets, septic tanks), or even simply by behaviour changes in personal hygiene practices,

such as hand washing with soap.

"Environmental sanitation" means the art and science of applying sanitary, biological, chemical and

physical science principles and knowledge to improve and control the environment and factors therein

for the protection of the health and welfare of the public.

Activities aimed at improving or maintaining the standard of basic environmental conditions affecting

the well-being of people.

These conditions include

1. Clean and safe water supply,

2. Clean and safe ambient air,

3. Efficient and safe animal, human, and industrial waste disposal,

4. Protection of food from biological and chemical contaminants, and

5. Adequate housing in clean and safe surroundings.

Environmental Sanitation Methods for Hostels

It is essential for hostels to maintain a high standard of hygiene and sanitation because these places

are a popular and affordable choice of housing for many foreigners seeking educational or

employment opportunities in cities and urban areas. In a communal living environment, any lapses in

hygiene can easily result in rapid spread of infectious diseases.

In this respect, managements of hostels are encouraged to put in place systems to ensure a good

standard of hygiene and sanitation.

The salient operational processes to achieve high standards of cleanliness and hygiene are outlined

below.

1. Cleaning and Maintenance of Premises and Facilities

Clean and disinfect the following daily:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greywater

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_sewer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoff

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_latrines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_toilets

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine-diverting_dry_toilet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine-diverting_dry_toilet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tank

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_washing



Surfaces with frequent human contact

Common areas/rooms used frequently by students and staff

2. Housekeeping/Refuse Management

Have an assigned team of workers to do cleaning and housekeeping daily.

Designate a cooking area for students/workers, where necessary.

Provide enough refuse bins lined with plastic bags and tight covers in the living quarters and

canteen areas. The bins must be covered at all times.

Dispose of all food waste and other refuse in refuse bins daily. Clean up any refuse spillage

immediately.

Clean/disinfect all refuse/litter bins within the premises/compound daily.

Remove refuse from the bin centre daily.

Wash and disinfect the bin centre daily. All bulk bins must be kept within the bin centre and

be properly covered.

Have a programme for cleaning drains and cutting overgrown vegetation.

3. Sanitary Pipes

Ensure that all sanitary pipes and fittings are in good working condition. Attend to leakages

immediately.

4. Pest Control Programme

Engage a registered pest control operator to carry out regular pest control works.

Look for signs of pest infestation such as rodent droppings/burrows and cockroach droppings.

Check for stagnant water which can breed mosquitoes and destroy all potential breeding

habitats.

Ensure no stray animals/crows in the premises.

5. Toilets

Have a proper schedule for maintenance of toilets and carry out the following:

Check to ensure all toilet facilities are in good working order at all times

Keep toilets clean and the floor dry at all times

Clean and sanitize toilet bowls, urinals and wash hand basins

Clean mirrors, door-knobs and any other surfaces where there is contact with users

Spot-clean walls, ledges, vents and partitions where dirty

Check for any leakage in the sanitary pipes, especially at the joints. Any leaks or defects

should be rectified immediately

Use an inspection card to monitor the daily maintenance of the toilet.

Schedule more frequent cleaning during peak hours.

6. Personal Hygiene

Hostel managements/operators are also encouraged to educate their students, staff and workers:

To observe good personal hygiene and toilet practices (e.g. wash hands with soap and water

before and after meals and after visiting toilet).

Not to feed strays/crows.

Keep the living environment tidy and litter-free.

Spit, cough or sneeze into tissue and throw the soiled tissue into litter bin.

Do not share personal items (e.g. toothbrush, clothes).

If ill, report to the hall masters/supervisors and stay away from fellow residents.

Give feedback to hall masters/supervisors about dirty places or unhygienic practices in

hostels.



Environmental Sanitation Methods for Hotels

Good housekeeping is the foundation of good infection prevention. The general cleanliness and

hygiene of a facility are vital to the health and safety of guests, staff, and visitors. Pleasant work

environment contributes to staff members' satisfaction, making them to be more productive. A more

pleasant environment improves guest satisfaction and can increase guest’s use of services and

frequent visits.

Housekeeping department holds the responsibility of cleaning, maintenance and admirable upkeep of

the hotel. The main functions of housekeeping are overall cleanliness, bed making, ensuring

maintenance of the building and its infrastructure, laundry, linen management, pest control. All this

ensure the ambience and promotes a congenial environment. The basic function of the housekeeping

is explained briefly:

1. Cleaning Rooms and Public Areas

Housekeeping department cleans the rooms and toilets and wash basins in the room. Apart from

cleaning the guest rooms, housekeeping department is also responsible for cleaning floor, terraces,

elevators, elevator lobbies, corridors of guest floors, floor linen closets, mop and janitor’s closets,

service lobbies and service stairways, function rooms, shopping arcade, cabanas, bars, dining rooms,

offices, uniform rooms, tailor rooms, upholstery, shops, store rooms and swimming pools. To be

concise, the housekeeping department is responsible for the total cleanliness of a hotel.

2. Bed Making A guest requires a comfortable bed to take rest, relax and enjoy. A bed that is well-

made will provide the required comfort. Bed making is a skill that requires to be developed by the

housekeeper, as it not only provides comfort to the guest, but also adds to the pleasant ambience of a

guest’s room. Guests should not be able to tell if anyone has slept in the room, so a clean environment

and perfect bed making is major consideration of this department.

3. Linen Management

One of the important jobs of the Housekeeping Department is clothes and linen management. This

involves all functions from purchase of linen to laundering, storage, supplies and to condemnation. In

a hotel different types of clothes and linen are used such as the bed sheets, pillow covers, napkins,

towels, hand towels, table covers, curtains, cushion covers etc. All of these require regular

maintenance.

4. Laundry Services

It is the job of the Housekeeping Department to ensure clean and hygienic washing of all the linen

items, and then distributing them to different areas of the hotel. The relationship between the

housekeeping and laundry is significant for the smooth functioning of housekeeping services. One of

the supporting roles of the laundry is to provide valet services to house guests.

5. Pest Control

Pest Control is another major job of the Housekeeping Department. No matter how clean one keeps

the surroundings, one cannot avoid the ―uninvited guests‖ – the pests. It is not only embarrassing but

also speaks badly of a hotel where one sees rats, cockroaches, and lizards running around. Therefore,

pest control is one of the primary responsibilities of the housekeeping department.

Important Hygiene procedures

Hygiene procedures are essential in living rooms, kitchen operations and cookery, housekeeping,

laundry and food service.



Hygiene procedures include regular hand washing, wearing of appropriate and clean clothing, as well

as ensuring personal hygiene is of an excellent standard.

These procedures assist the safe and hygienic handling of food and beverages and avoid cross-

contamination in food preparation areas and storage.

Other Hygiene tasks, including waste disposal, sanitation and cleaning procedures and the safe

handling and disposal of linen and laundry, must follow correct procedures.

Always use cleaning materials, clothes and equipment to avoid transferring microorganisms.

Safe storage of food and beverages are essential and specific guidelines are set down for temperature

control and storage of all foods in the preparation and storage areas in the hospitality industry. Frozen,

dry storage and fresh ingredients have their individual requirements.

Safe garbage disposal is also very important in maintaining good hygiene.

Cleaning involves scraping, rinsing, washing and rinsing again to removes all traces of soap.

Sanitizing involves sterilizing an area using antibacterial spray/wipes or sanitizing product after

cleaning.

Sanitizers are available from chemical suppliers. Bleach is the basis of most sanitizing products. Heat

is also a sanitizer when water or oven temperatures exceed 75°C. In commercial situations,

dishwashers are set at specific temperatures to ensure utensils are free from bacteria.

Sewage collection and disposal systems transport sewage through cities and other inhabited areas to

sewage treatment plants to protect public health and prevent disease. Sewage is treated to control

water pollution before discharge to surface waters

Environmental Sanitation Methods for Hospitals Hospitals and health centres have special requirements for sanitation as they may have to deal with

patients who are infected with diseases such as cholera; typhoid and hepatitis A etc., Staff caring for

these patients are exposed to a higher risk of infection than the general public, as are other patients

who may be weak and unable to fight infection.

Management of health-care waste is an integral part of hospital hygiene and infection control. Health-

care waste should be considered as a reservoir of pathogenic microorganisms, which can cause

contamination and give rise to infection. If waste is inadequately managed, these microorganisms can

be transmitted by direct contact, in the air, or by a variety of vectors. Infectious waste contributes in

this way to the risk of nosocomial infections, putting the health of hospital personnel, and patients, at

risk.

Nosocomial infections: known also as hospital-acquired infections, hospital-associated infections, and

hospital infections are infections that are not present in the patient at the time of admission to hospital

but develop during the course of the stay in hospital. There are two forms:



Endogenous infection, self-infection, or auto-infection. The causative agent of the infection is

present in the patient at the time of admission to hospital but there are no signs of infection.

The infection develops during the stay in hospital as a result of the patient’s altered resistance.

Cross-contamination followed by cross-infection. During the stay in hospital the patient

comes into contact with new infective agents, becomes contaminated, and subsequently

develops an infection.

Essentials of the standard precautions to be used in the care of all patients

A. Hand washing

• Wash hands after touching blood, secretions, excretions and contaminated items, whether or not

gloves are worn. Wash hands immediately after gloves are removed, between patient contacts.

• Use a plain soap for routine hand washing.

• Use an antimicrobial agent for specific circumstances.

B. Gloves

• Wear gloves when touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, and contaminated items. Put

on clean gloves just before touching mucous membranes and non-intact skin.

C. Mask, eye protection, face shield

• Wear a mask and eye protection or a face shield during procedures and patient care activities that are

likely to generate splashes or sprays of blood, body fluids, secretions, and excretions.

D. Gown

• Wear a gown during procedures and patient-care activities that are likely to generate splashes or

sprays of blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions.

E. Patient-care equipment

• Ensure that reusable equipment is not used for the care of another patient until it has been cleaned

and reprocessed appropriately.

F. Environmental control

• Ensure that the hospital has adequate procedures for the routine care, cleaning, and disinfection of

environmental surfaces.

G. Linen

• Handle used linen, soiled with blood, body fluids, secretions, and excretions in a manner that

prevents skin and mucous membrane exposures, and that avoids transfer of microorganisms to other

patients and environments.

H. Occupational health and blood borne pathogens

• Take care to prevent injuries when using needles, scalpels, and other sharp instruments or devices.

• Use ventilation devices as an alternative to mouth-to-mouth resuscitation methods.

I. Place of care of the patient

• Place a patient who contaminates the environment or who does not assist in maintaining appropriate

hygiene in an isolated (or separate) room.



J. Toilets

• Toilets facilities should be thoroughly cleaned several times during the day.

Environmental Sanitation Methods for Swimming pools and public bathing

places:

Swimming pool sanitation is the process of ensuring healthy conditions in swimming pools, hot tubs,

plunge pools, and similar recreational water venues. Proper sanitation is needed to maintain the visual

clarity of water and to prevent the transmission of infectious waterborne diseases.

Sanitation methods include a water filter to remove pollutants, disinfection to kill infectious

microorganisms, swimmer hygiene to minimize the introduction of contaminants into pool water, and

regular testing of pool water, including chlorine and pH levels.

Swimming pool contaminants are introduced from environmental sources and swimmers. Affecting

primarily outdoor swimming pools, environmental contaminants include windblown dirt and debris,

incoming water from unsanitary sources, rain containing microscopic algae spores and droppings

from birds possibly harbouring disease-causing pathogens.

Indoor pools are less susceptible to environmental contaminants. Contaminants introduced by

swimmers can dramatically influence the operation of indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Sources

include micro-organisms from infected swimmers and body oils including sweat, cosmetics, suntan

lotion, urine, saliva and fecal matter. In addition, the interaction between disinfectants and pool water

contaminants can produce a mixture of chloramines and other disinfection by-products.

Pathogenic contaminants are of greatest concern in swimming pools as they have been associated with

numerous recreational water illnesses (RWIs). Public health pathogens can be present in swimming

pools as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi. Diarrhea is the most commonly reported illness

associated with pathogenic contaminants, while other diseases associated with untreated pools are

Cryptosporidiosis and Giardiasis. Other illnesses commonly occurring in poorly maintained

swimming pools include otitis externa, commonly called swimmers ear, skin rashes and respiratory

infections.

Systems and disinfection methods

Chlorine and bromine methods

Conventional halogen-based oxidizers such as chlorine and bromine are convenient and economical

primary sanitizers for swimming pools and provide a residual level of sanitizer that remains in the

water. Chlorine-releasing compounds are the most popular and frequently used in swimming pools

whereas bromine-releasing compounds have found heightened popularity in spas and hot tubs.

Both are members of the halogen group with demonstrated ability to destroy and deactivate a wide

range of potentially dangerous bacteria and viruses in swimming pools and spas. Both exhibit three

essential elements as ideal first-line-of-defense sanitizers for swimming pools and spas: they are fast-

acting and enduring, they are effective algaecides, and they oxidize undesired contaminants.



Swimming pools can be disinfected with a variety of chlorine-releasing compounds. The most basic

of these compounds is molecular chlorine (Cl2); however, its application is primarily in large

commercial public swimming pools. Inorganic forms of chlorine releasing compounds frequently

used in residential and public swimming pools include sodium hypochlorite calcium hypochlorite and

lithium hypochlorite. Chlorine residuals from Cl2 and inorganic chlorine-releasing compounds break

down rapidly in sunlight. To extend their disinfectant usefulness and persistence in outdoor settings,

swimming pools treated with one or more of the inorganic forms of chlorine-releasing compounds can

be supplemented with cyanuric acid—a granular stabilizing agent capable of extending the active

chlorine residual half-life (t½) by four to sixfold. Chlorinated isocyanurates, a family of organic

chlorine-releasing compounds, are stabilized to prevent UV degradation due to the presence of

cyanurate as part of their chemical backbone.

Chlorine reacting with urea in urine and other nitrogencontaining wastes from bathers can produce

chloramines. Chloramines typically occur when an insufficient amount of chlorine is used to disinfect

a contaminated pool.

Chloramines are generally responsible for the noxious, irritating smell prominently occurring in

indoor pool settings.

A common way to remove chloramines is to ―superchlorinate‖ (commonly called ―shocking‖) the

pool with a high dose of inorganic chlorine sufficient to deliver 10 ppm chlorine. Regular

superchlorination (every two weeks in summer) helps to eliminate these unpleasant odors in the pool.

Levels of chloramines and other volatile compounds in water can be minimized by reducing

contaminants that lead to their formation (e.g., urea, creatinine, amino acids and personal care

products) as well as by use of non-chlorine ―shock oxidizers‖ such as potassium peroxymonosulfate.

Medium pressure UV technology is used to control the level of chloramines in indoor pools. It is also

used as a secondary form of disinfection to address chlorine tolerant pathogens. A properly sized and

maintained UV system should remove the need to shock for chloramines, although shocking would

still be used to address a fecal accident in the pool. UV will not replace chlorine, but is used to control

the level of chloramines, which are responsible for the odor, irritation, and enhanced corrosion at an

indoor pool.

2 Copper ion system

Copper ion systems use a low voltage current across copper bars (solid copper, or a mixture of copper

and zinc or silver) to free copper ions into the flow of pool water to kill organisms such as algae in the

water and provide a ―residual‖ in the water. Alternative systems also use titanium plates to produce

oxygen in the water to help degrade organic compounds.

Private pool filtration

1 Water pumps

An electrically operated water pump is the prime motivator in recirculating the water from the pool.

Water is forced through a filter and then returned to the pool.

Using a water pump by itself is often not sufficient to completely sanitize a pool. Commercial and

public pool pumps usually run 24 hours a day for the entire operating season of the pool. Residential

pool pumps are typical run for 4 hours per day in winter (when the pool is not in use) and up to 24

hours in summer. To save electricity costs, most pools run water pumps for between 6 hours and 12

hours in summer with the pump being controlled by an electronic timer.



Most pool pumps available today incorporate a small filter basket as the last effort to avoid leaf or

hair contamination reaching the close-tolerance impeller section of the pump.

2 Filtration units

2.1 Sand

A pressure-fed sand filter is typically placed in line immediately after the water pump. The filter

typically contains a medium such as graded sand (called '14/24 Filter Media' in the UK system of

grading the size of sand by sifting through a fine brass-wire mesh of 14 to the inch (5.5 per

centimeter) to 24 to the inch (9.5 per cm)). A pressure fed sand filter is termed a 'High Rate' sand

filter, and will generally filter turbid water of particulates no less than 10 micrometers in size.The

rapid sand filter type are periodically 'back washed' as contaminants reduce water flow and increase

back pressure. Indicated by a pressure gauge on the pressure side of the filter reaching into the 'red

line' area, the pool owner is alerted to the need to 'backwash' the unit. The sand in the filter will

typically last five to seven years before all the ―rough edges‖ are worn off and the more tightly packed

sand no longer works as intended. Recommended filtration for public/commercial pools are 1 ton sand

per 100,000 liters water (10 ounces avdp. per cubic foot of water) [7.48 US or 6.23 UK gallons].

PRIVATE POOL FILTRATION

2.2 Diatomaceous earth

Some filters use diatomaceous earth to help filter out contaminants.

Commonly referred to as 'D.E.' filters, they exhibit superior filtration capabilities. Often a D.E. filter

will trap waterborne contaminants as small as 1 micrometer in size. D.E. filters are banned in some

states, as they must be emptied out periodically and the contaminated media flushed down the sewer,

causing a problem in some districts’ sewage systems.

2.3 Cartridge filters

Other filter media that have been introduced to the residential swimming pool market since 1970

include sand particles and paper type cartridge filters of 50 to 150 square feet (14 m2) filter area

arranged in a tightly packed 12‖ diameter x 24‖ long (300 mm x 600 mm) accordionlike circular

cartridge. These units can be 'daisy-chained' together to collectively filter almost any size home pool.

The cartridges are typically cleaned by removal from the filter body and hosing-off down a sewer

connection. They are popular where backwashed water from a sand filter is not allowed to be

discharged or goes into the aquifer.

2.4 Automated pool cleaners

Automated pool cleaners more commonly known as ―Automatic pool cleaners‖ and in particular

electric, robotic pool cleaners provide an extra measure of filtration, and in fact like the handheld

vacuums can microfilter a pool, which a sand filter without flocculation or coagulalents is unable to

accomplish

2.5 Other systems



Saline chlorination units, electronic oxidation systems, ionization systems, microbe disinfection with

ultra-violet lamp systems, and ―Tri-Chlor Feeders‖ are other independent or auxiliary systems for

swimming pool sanitation.

2.6 Consecutive dilution

A pool filtration system as described (above) is termed a ―consecutive dilution‖ system, as a constant

and consecutive stream of fresh, chlorinated, and filtered water is being continually returned to the

pool as part of a process that could ultimately result in a pool with 100% newly introduced fresh water

over a period of time. Of course this goal is never achieved, as there is also a constant stream of new

contaminants entering the pool as subsequent sections of this article will indicate.

Pool recirculation

The final link in the pool recirculation system: 'skimmer pump-filter-returns’ are the water returns.

1 Heaters

Other equipment which may be optioned in the recirculation system includes pool water heaters. They

can be heat pumps, natural gas or propane gas heaters, electric heaters, wood burning heaters, or solar

hot water panel heaters - increasingly used in the sustainable design of pools.

2 Other equipment

Diversions to electronic oxidation systems, ionization systems, microbe disinfection with ultra-violet

lamp systems, and ―Tri-Chlor Feeders‖ are other auxiliary systems for Swimming pool sanitation; as

well as solar panels; are in most cases required to be placed after the filtration equipment, and are the

last items before the water is returned to the pool.

Environmental Sanitation Methods for social gatherings (festival, melas

and fares (fair)):

The maintenance of sanitation of fairs (melas) and religious festivals in India is very important and is

a complicated task. During bathing festival people congregate by thousands along the banks of sacred

rivers, which afford sufficient opportunity for pollution of Water and spread of diseases.

Secondly, pilgrims reach the place half starved, not used to any discipline and are also not in a mood

to co-operate with the health authorities. This results in low resistance and increased spread of

infection. Congregation of people in the melas is responsible for spread of diseases by the

contamination of food and water.

How to carry out these measures

Since different fairs vary greatly in size and character, it is not possible to formulate fixed rules which

apply to all places under all conditions. So sanitary measures called for must depend upon the local

condition.

1. Some persons or a body should be held responsible for the organization and control of fairs or

melas.



2. The number of people (approximately) likely to be present in the melas is taken into account.

3. A plan of works should be prepared.

4 .The area of the mela should be divided into isolated plots and each such plot placed in charge of

one or more sanitary officers who should see that latrines are kept clean, that the lodging houses are

free from sickness and kept in proper order.

5. The number of carts, sweepers, scavengers and inspectors necessary should be calculated

beforehand on the basis of the number of people attending the mela.

6. All lodging houses should be registered, and a fixed number of lodgers should be accommodated.

7. Rules should be drawn up for the number of persons accommodated, cleanliness of the premises,

and protection of water supply, for both the staff and pilgrims. This should be enforced

Majority of people attending the pilgrim centres travel by train. It is necessary that proper medical

arrangements should be made by the railway authorities and there should be arrangement for medical

inspection in important stations, so that patients suffering from infectious diseases may be removed

without delay. The Public Health Authorities of adjoining states and Railway Health Authorities

should meet before the fair and draw up a scheme for concerted action.

Advantages of getting the pilgrims vaccinated and inoculated should be borne in mind. A preliminary

work should be done by drawing up a regular plan of work previously by constituting a responsible

mela committee. Long before the opening of the mela, the pilgrims should be advised by posters and

news paper advertisements.

The objects of mela sanitation are to maintain good sanitation of the mela ground to protect the health

of the people coming to the mela. This is also possible by making satisfactory sanitary arrangements

in the mela and also protecting the health of the people who came for the trade. It is better if the

people are inoculated one week before they come to the mela ground. The expected number of

pilgrims may be obtained from the previous years' records.

Requirements for Mela Sanitation

A. BEFORE THE MELA STARTS:

1. Size -If it is a permanent place of pilgrimage like Tarakeswar or Hardwar, where there are

permanent inhabitants, extra space for the additional people has to be found out. Mela site should be

leveled and cleansed. The area should be planned for roads, shops and temporary sheds for the

accommodation of the people. The whole area should be lighted during night. There should be good

should be lighted during night. There should be good approach road.

2. Accommodation -Temporary sheds to be constructed

3. Water supply -Piped water from the reservoirs with taps or tube wells.

4. Food supply -Shops with whole-some food should be started.

5. Temporary latrines -One seat for 1000 people and trenching for the disposal.



6. Health office -A.D.H.S., D.H.O. should be staying in the mela area.

7. Temporary hospital -For infectious diseases in particular.

8. Police station -Law and order to be maintained by the Police.

9. Publicity office -to inform people about the arrangements made so that they may avail them

10. Appointment of sweepers -1 for 1000 people coming.

B. DURING THE MELA:

1. Supply of protected water -regular disinfection of water source.

2. Maintaining cleanliness of the mela ground by scavengers.

3. Disposal of refuse and human excreta.

4. Immunization of the people -Protection of the shop-keepers.

5. First aid centres in the different zones of the mela ground.

6. Isolation and treatment of the sick in the hospital.

7. Law and order -Watch over the anti-social elements.

8. Encourage people to leave the mela area as soon as possible.

C. AFTER THE MELA IS OVER:

1.Cleaning the area –particularly in a permanent place of pilgrimage by disposal of refuse of all

types.

2. Transfer of the sick: if any to the nearest hospital for complete treatment.

The following points should particularly be attended before the mela starts :

1. Accommodation:

After selection of the site the whole area should be cleared of jungles and vegetations and divided into

plots. Each plot should be kept under the supervision of a Sanitary Inspector with a conservancy

squad who will be responsible for all sanitary measures for that area. There must be a provision of

police patrol to enforce all sanitary measures in general. The place should be carefully marked out and

provision should be made for the accommodation of police. Hospital, water-supply, residential blocks

and latrines.

All shallow depressions and pools should be filled up or fenced in, so that people cannot use them.

2. Medical and Sanitary Arrangements

Every fair shall be under the charge of the Medical Officer of Health. Each block should be placed

under the charge of a Sanitary Inspector who will inspect daily the area under him and report the

occurrence of any suspicious case of illness. Arrangements must also be made for receiving daily

report from sweepers in charge of latrines. Any infectious case should at once be removed to the

temporary hospital thus isolating the patients. The first aid treatment centres should be opened in

different sections of mela with out-doors treatment centre and medical inspection room. Anti-cholera

and smallpox vaccination should be given to the pilgrims and shop-keepers.



3. Water supply:

Deep tube-well should be sunk. This should be considered as ideal for the absence of filtered water-

supply. Existing tanks and wells, if any, should be treated with bleaching powder daily and new wells

must be dug. All well water should be disinfected with bleaching powder before opening of mela. If

there are existing tanks, a few should be reserved for supply of drinking water.

The problem of water-supply should be made easier. By arranging big galvanized iron tanks (400

gallons) with taps at selected places irregularly filled with purified water in different sections of the

mela by pipes. Water-supply in regard to Mela Sanitation is very important. Since pilgrims are

commonly affected by water-borne diseases like cholera and dysentery.

4. Conservancy:

Trench latrine, measuring 40" x 12" x 18" deep should be dug -one seat for every 1000 persons, with

partitions made of bamboo. After evacuation of stool it is to be covered by the user with the excavated

earth. A trench can have 12 seats in a row with bamboo partitions. Mobile screens to be placed in

front of and behind the trench. Disinfectants like bleaching powder should be given on the sides. One

sweeper for every 1000 persons should be appointed.

5. Food Supply

Arrangement should be made for supply of pure and wholesome food at, a reasonable price. Sanitary

Inspectors should examine the milk, fish and other foods and see that these are kept clean. All

prepared foods should be kept covered.

6. Publicity and Propaganda:

This should be done in the mela grounds by loud speakers, shows on picture, posters etc., advising the

pilgrims to follow hygienic principles. Pilgrims should also be advised by posters, news appears and

advertisements about necessity of taking of precautionary and preventive measures long before the

opening of mela.

7. Lighting arrangements during night are also necessary.

Environmental Sanitation Methods for Schools and Institutions:

1.0 Introduction

Environmental Sanitation in schools is generally poor as most schools lack potable water and

adequate waste disposal facilities. Most schools are poorly lit, overcrowded without proper ventilation

and are sited in areas that are noisy and hazardous due to road and human traffic. School buildings

especially the public ones are often dilapidated, mouldy, and are usually in unkempt environment

overgrown with weeds. Many food vendors who provide meals and snacks for school children are

often unregistered and without proper medical certificate of fitness and the meals and snacks they

provide may also be unwholesome.

2.0 AIM



To provide an optimal sanitary environment which is safe and conducive for physical, mental and

emotional health of the school community in order for the child to achieve maximum benefits from

educational programmes.

3.0 OBJECTIVES

3.1 To promote conditions at schools as well as the practices of school staff and children that shall

prevent sanitation related diseases.

3.2 To bring about positive changes in hygiene behaviour of school children and through these

children, in the community at large.

3.3 To protect school children from insanitary surroundings and hazards.

3.4 To encourage the provision of sanitary facilities in schools.

3.5 To encourage provision of safe recreational facilities in schools.

3.6. To encourage compliance with stipulated sanitary standards for schools.

4.0 SANITARY FACILITIES

4.1 Water Supply:

i. There shall be adequate supply of safe water for drinking, washing, cleaning and flushing of toilets.

ii. The School, where possible, shall provide and maintain individual boreholes to ensure constant

supply of water.

iii. There shall be adequate wash hand basins with soap and clean towels in strategic places within

school premises.

4.2 Refuse:

i. There shall be provided refuse containers that are covered, rust resistant, water and rodent proof.

ii. The containers shall be adequate in capacity and in sufficient numbers to hold all refuse that

accumulate between collections.

iii. The refuse containers kept within the school premises shall be placed on a smooth surface

(concrete or asphalt), which is graded to prevent pooling of water.

iv. The refuse shall be properly disposed using an appropriate sanitary method.

4.3 Toilet/Bath Facilities:

i. There shall be separate sanitary conveniences for boys and girls, male and female staff.

ii. The School shall have water closet toilets or ventilated improved pit latrines

iii. There shall be at least a toilet for every 30 pupils.

iv. The School shall provide fitted urinals for boys.

v. The School shall provide adequate and separate washrooms for males and females especially in

boarding schools.

4.4 Waste Water Management:

i. There shall be adequate and functional drainage of wastewater, storm water and surface run-offs.

ii. The storm water and surface run-offs may be collected for reuse.



4.5 Food Sanitation:

i. As school meals service is a practical way of supplementing the child’s diet, the service shall be

well regulated to ensure high standard of food sanitation.

ii. School food vendors shall be registered and monitored

iii. The nutritional value of the foods served by food vendors shall be reviewed periodically to ensure

standard caloric values and nutrient content of the foods.

iv. Examination of food handlers in the school meal services shall be carried out to avoid food

poisoning and the spread of food borne diseases. This examination shall consist of pre-employment,

periodic and post-illness medical examinations.

5.0 HYGIENE EDUCATION

5.1 School sanitation will be unsuccessful without a sustained hygiene education, which aims at

making children value health as a desirable asset.

5.2 Content of hygiene education:

5.2.1 Personal hygiene:

i. Hand washing with soap before preparing or handling food

ii. Hand washing with soap after toileting

iii. Hand washing with soap after changing baby’s napkins

iv. Regular bathing

v. Clean finger nails and tidy hair

vi. Cleanliness of uniforms, under wears, socks (no tattered or worn-out clothes)

vii. Cleanliness of School food vendors

viii. Hygiene education of food handlers at the school kitchen on sanitary habits and the need to safe

guard food from contaminants.

5.2.2 Environmental Hygiene:

i. Cleanliness of the school environment including the toilets.

ii. Cleanliness of the school kitchen and areas where food are stored.

iii. Ensure that food and drinking water are kept covered and away from contaminants

iv. Ensure use of sanitary dustbins for refuse collection and storage in and around the classrooms and

hostels

v. Ensure timely disposal of refuse to final disposal site

vi. Ensure proper sewage management

vii. Ensure proper storm and waste water drainage

viii. Adequate control of reared animals at staff residential areas within the school premises

5.3 Methods of hygiene education:

5.3.1 Person to person contact on an individual basis.



i. Between the teacher and student to correct specific unhealthy hygiene behaviour.

5.3.2 Group hygiene education.

i. In the classroom during formal teaching sessions on hygiene behaviour (Subject lessons in

Elementary/Health Science, etc), and other fora;

ii. At seminars, conferences, workshops, etc, targeted at school teachers;

iii. At seminars, conferences, workshops, etc, targeted at parents/guardians of the students.

5.4 Channels/instruments of communication:

5.4.1 Mass media e.g. radio, television, newspaper. These can reach many people at the same time and

provide continued reminders and reinforcements

5.4.2 Use of posters, leaflets and pamphlets. They contain words or pictures, which carry messages

placed in strategic positions where people will see them as they pass by.

5.4.3 Use of displays e.g. billboards, flipcharts, flannel graphs, photographs, films, movies and plays.

Others include drama presentations, projected materials, publications, artwork and demonstrations.

5.4.4 Traditional media, which include role-play, story telling and folk tales, songs, town criers etc.,

6.0 STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING SCHOOL SANITATION

6.1 Advocate for routine sanitary inspection of schools.

6.2 Revise and update school curricula to include sanitation and hygiene education.

6.3 Orientate all teachers and students on the significance of sound School Sanitation and hygiene

education.

6.4 Educate school food vendors on sound hygiene behaviour.

6.5 Examine and medically certify school food vendors/handlers routinely.

6.6 Establish Environmental Sanitation Committees made up of all Stakeholders (pupils/students,

parents, teachers, Government representatives), which shall meet regularly to develop activities aimed

at promoting sound School Sanitation. This Committee shall also implement, monitor, evaluate and

make the necessary adjustments for positive changes.

6.7 Organise school competitions and reward winners

6.8 Foster the establishment of Environmental Sanitation clubs in schools.

7.0 PROCEDURES FOR ROUTINE SCHOOL INSPECTION

7.1 On visiting a school, the first thing an Environmental Health Officer does is to introduce himself

and present his identity card to the Head Teacher or Principal of the school informing him about his

mission. After the introduction, he shall request to be accompanied for the inspection.

7.2 Using the School Sanitation Inspection Forms, all deficiencies and hazards found in the school or

on the school property are noted. At the conclusion of the inspection, the findings and

recommendations are discussed with the staff.



7.3 The procedure for school inspection is systematic, beginning as follows:

7.3.2 INTERNAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOL BUILDING

i) THE FLOOR:

Check for:

i. Cleanliness of the floor and look out for broken or cracked floor.

ii. Evidence of rat infestation (rat holes, runs or droppings).

iii. Evidence of dampness.

ii) WALLS:

Check for:

i. Dilapidated walls.

ii. Cracks, liable to habour vermin

iii. Evidence of dampness on the walls

iv. Overhanging cobwebs.

iii) ROOF AND CEILING:

Check for:

i. Evidence of leaking roof

ii. Cleanliness and presence of cobwebs.

iii. Sagging of the ceiling.

iv) PASSAGES AND STAIRWAYS:

Check for:

i. Objects that are likely to obstruct free movement along passages and stairways.

ii. Adequacy of passages and stairways for emergency evacuation.

iii. Lighting of stairways and passages

iv. Adequacy of the width of stairways and state of repair of handrails

(Stairways shall have a width greater than 1.12 meters and be provided with handrails onboth sides).

v. State of repair of stairway steps.

v) CLASSROOMS:

Check for:

i. Evidence of overcrowding. There shall be a maximum 36 pupils in a standard room of not less than

19.4 square metres.

ii. Adequate ventilation. Look for objects kept in the classrooms in such a manner as to obstruct the

free flow of fresh air.

iii. Adequate lighting

iv. Evidence of two (2) doors in each classroom



v. Evidence of moulds, cracks on walls and floors.

vi) TOILET ACCOMMODATION:

Check for:

i. Adequacy for students’ population and sex composition.

ii. Evidence of crack on walls and floors.

iii. Adequacy of ventilation

iv Evidence of rat runs and pest infestation

v. Adequacy of the drainage system

vi. Evidence of cleanliness, freedom from obnoxious odour

vii Evidence of pipe leakage

viii. Evidence of adequate privacy

ix. Evidence of functionality

vii) BATHROOM ACCOMMODATION:

Check for:

i. Adequacy for students’ population and sex composition.

ii. Evidence of broken soil drain pipes

iii. Adequacy of ventilation

iv. Evidence of broken/cracked floors or walls

v. Adequacy of the drainage system

vi. Evidence of proper door for privacy.

viii) KITCHEN:

Check for:

i. Evidence that number and size of the kitchen is in proportion to the students’ population catered for.

ii. Evidence of cleanliness and tidiness.

iii. Adequacy of ventilation.

iv. Evidence of rat and pest infestation.

v. Evidence of cracked walls or defective floors.

vi. Evidence of smoke nuisance.

vii. Evidence of hanging cobwebs.

ix) WATER SUPPLY:

Check for:

i. Source of water supply.

ii. Adequacy of water.

iii. Quality of water.

iv. Evidence of potential sources of contamination.



v. Adequacy and cleanliness of water containers.

vi. Possible leakages.

vii. Evidence of good drainage system.

x) REFUSE DISPOSAL:

Check for:

i. Availability of sanitary dustbins.

ii. Evidence of rat and pest infestation around dustbins.

iii. Evidence of spillage of waste.

xi) EXCRETA DISPOSAL:

Check for:

i. Evidence of pipe leakage

ii. Evidence of overfilled septic tanks leading to spillage

iii. Evidence of crack on septic tank/VIPL.

iv. Presence of ventilating pipes/opening

v. Distance to source of water

xii) HEALTH POST OR FIRST AID ROOM:

Check for:

i. Availability of a room for the care of an ill or injured student.

ii. Availability of trained personnel.

iii. Availability of first aid supplies.

iv. Evidence of convenient location of toilet and wash hand basin/sink in the room.

Sanitation in Rural Areas

Open Defecation is a huge problem in rural areas.

Though it has reduced but the practice has not completely vanished.

Lack of priority to safe confinement and disposal of human excreta poses significant health

risks manifest in the sanitation challenge facing the nation today.

It is estimated that 1 in every 10 deaths in India in villages, is linked to poor sanitation and

hygiene.

Diarrhea, a preventable disease, is the largest killer

Prevalence of child under-nutrition in India.

Studies shown that the education of children, especially the girl child, is also significantly

impacted by poor sanitation.

Girls are often forced to miss school or even drop out of education due to lack of sanitation

facilities in their schools.



Another impact of poor sanitation and the resultant illnesses is the loss of productivity of the

family members

It is also known that lack of adequate sanitation leads to significant losses for the country.

People in rural areas use toilets inside house, defecate in open fields or use community toilets. In all

these three utmost care must be taken. In our tradition it is mentioned that a small ditch should be

used for defecation and covered by the nearby soil after the use. That way it worked as manure after

decomposition and houses were well away from the excreta. One could freely do so without fear of

being seen by others because population was very less. But in today’s context, increasing population

has put immense pressure on land as a result of which land holding size has become very small. So, it

is almost not feasible to use such ditch concept for everyone in today’s world. So, people just defecate

in open and move on. It is the behaviour which is remained unchanged since last thousands of years.

After so many efforts of many Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), Government agencies and

Educational institutions, people began to adopt practise of using toilets. But mere using toilets, is not

so simple that it can solve the problem of poor sanitation. There are various technical and behavioural

aspects involved with it.

Types of Toilets under Usage

There are lots of designs available of toilets based on need of family and its bearing capacity. The

most commonly used toilets in the rural areas is two-pit pour flush toilets. Besides community toilets,

biogas linked toilets are also used.

Bio gas linked toilets are successful only where large amount of excreta and food waste is available.

But the number of animals per family in villages is becoming very low so animal excreta is less than it

was available on average basis per family to operate biogas smoothly.

RISKS DUE TO IMPROPER EXCRETA MANAGEMENT

Ground Water Contamination

Waste water of toilets and domestic water creates risk of ground water contamination if technical care

is not taken. This may pollute water of hand pumps, wells and tube wells on which major proportion

of population live up on.

E.g. Water logged areas having high water table, must have elevated toilets. This contamination may

occur due to poor sock pit system and poor drainage. Faecal Coliform, Nitrate, Phosphate, Chloride

and Ammonia are some of the common contaminants of ground water due to poor sanitation.

Drinking Water Pollution

Besides above mentioned sources piped drinking waters are also at risk where proper drainage system

is not available. Leakage in drainage water pollutes the piped drinking water when both pipes run

congruently.

Women and children are the most susceptible section of the society due to poor sanitation. In our

tradition, women have to go in the open to defecate where they are vulnerable to various infections

and diseases and in turn this pose threat to other women, men and children. Children are often caught

by diarrhea and insects carry harmful diseases with them. So, unfortunately they become victim and



carrier of the disease. However this will be unfair to say that only women and children carry the

contaminants or diseases but men are likewise contributing to same by in-hygienic practises. For

example, besides open defecation they eat and drink and play with their children without proper hand

wash after activities like ploughing their fields.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES

Government of India has been running many schemes since last many years. Let us analyse these

schemes.

Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP)

Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) was launched in 1986 with the objective of improving

the quality of life of the rural people and also to provide privacy and dignity to women by providing

proper sanitation facilities in rural areas.

Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan and Total Sanitation Campaign

The concept of sanitation was further expanded to include personal hygiene, home sanitation, safe

water, garbage and excreta disposal and waste water disposal with the name ―Total Sanitation

Campaign‖ (TSC) with effect from 1999.

Individual toilets, community sanitation complexes, institutional toilets and solid and liquid waste

water systems are constructed under the scheme. The key feature of this scheme is role of CSOs,

Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) is very important.

Nirmal Gram Puraskar

To add motivation to this scheme, GOI launched an award based Incentive Scheme for fully sanitized

and opendefecation free Gram Panchayats, Blocks, Districts and States called ―Nirmal Gram

Puraskar‖ (NGP) in October 2003.

Till the date many villages have been awarded to bring in motivation among the people specially PRI

functionaries at village level to make NBA a success.

Market Sanitation

Market Research Identify market research expertise

Establish and train the research team

Conduct consumer research

Conduct producer research

Programme aims and

objectives

Develop preliminary marketing mix (Product, Price, Place,

Promotion)

Product identification

and

development

Identify and develop marketable sanitation facilities & services (e.g.

latrine technologies /options, latrine information service, latrine

centre)



Set up supply

mechanism

Identify potential suppliers of latrines & other related services

Assess and develop their capacity to provide desired services

Identify and/or set place(s) where consumers can access the

sanitation services being marketed (eg toilet centres)

Work with the public sector to establish strategy for disposal of

sludge from toilets

Message and material

development

Identify partners with expertise for the design and development of

marketing concepts

Develop marketing concepts and creative design

Pre-test and refine creative design

Develop promotion strategy

Implement promotion

campaign

Produce promotion materials (e.g. posters, flyers, radio jingle,

billboard)

Launch a campaign (e.g. road show, launch event)

Run a promotion campaign for about 3 months

Monitor and feedback Monitor the programme (spread/ response to the campaign, quality

of services provided etc)

Feedback and modify the programme as appropriate

Low cost waste disposal methods

Introduction

A large section of Indian population lives in villages and is mainly engaged in agriculture. They

belong to weaker section of the society. There is a definite trend of rural population migrating to the

urban areas due to lack of employment opportunities, low earnings, insufficient means of transport

and insanitary living conditions. The latter is mainly responsible to repel the educated youth from

working in rural areas. One source of insanitary condition in rural areas is the drainage of waste water

from bathing and cooking areas of dwellings over the kutcha roads and lanes having inadequate

slopes. The situation is further aggravated due to the movements of carts and animals which result in

the creation of pot holes and ditches that gets filled up with dirty stagnant water. The mosquitoes and

flies find good breeding centres in these places and spread diseases.

Some of the village roads are brick paved with drains for waste water disposal. But these have not

served the required purpose due to improper slopes, insufficient maintenance and unpredictable flow

of water. Rural dwellings having their own source of water supply like hand pumps discharge more

water on the streets. Furthermore, the agricultural waste and domestic refuse collect in drains

obstructing the flow of water and ultimately, all these things appear on the streets.

Some of the village panchayats* have suggested individual pits for collection of waste water and its

disposal by intermittent sprinkling on large areas, either in the courtyard or on the streets. The

villagers adopt this practice for some time, but their enthusiasm dies with time.

A few progressive farmers have access to the technical know-how and capacity to invest finance to

make large sized soakage pits filled with brickbats (to dispose off water underground). These are

frequently choked with ash and soil used by the villagers to clean their utensils. This requires cleaning

of the pit and involves considerable expenditure. The high cost of construction and costly

maintenance make it beyond the reach of the poor.



A detailed study of the problem, including the living habits of rural population, was conducted by the

Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. The urban type of underground drainage system was

not found suitable because of the settlement of silt and ash in drains; insufficient quantity of water for

self-cleaning of the drains; high maintenance and running cost. The lack of interest in the maintenance

of community services leads one to conclude that the proposed system should be such that it should

make the individuals responsible to run their own waste water disposal system. At the same time, the

system should be within the economic reach of a villager who can maintain it without outside help.

Keeping in view all these factors, a system has been developed at this Institute to dispose off waste

water in rural areas.

Salient features of this system are given below:



Waste Water Disposal System for Rural Areas

Improved system

The proposed system consists of an ash/silt trap chamber and a bore hole.

The ash silt trap chamber is rectangular in shape having. 7.5 cm t hick wall of burnt

Brick laid in 1:6 cement sand mortar and is constructed near waste water outlets. It is divided into two

compartments b y a 7.5 cm thick wall and is covered with an R .C.C. or reinforced brick lid.

The size s of first and second compartment is made as 45x45x70 cm and 30x45x70 cm respectively.

Triangular ducts 8 x 8 cm in size and 46 cm deep are made in corners to each other in both

compartments, diagonally opposite to inlet. A hole is left in the partition wall 19.0 cm below the top

of the duct portion to provide connection between the two ducts

The second compartment is filled with 4 cm size brick ballast. In the first compartment, heavier

particles of silt and ash, flowing with waste water, settle down, and floating and greasy materials get

trap p ed. The water having only colloidal and suspended particles rises through the d u ct of the first

compartment and flows to the bottom of the second compartment through the duct. The suspended



and colloidal particles get stuck to the brick ballast and only clear water is allowed to flow into the

bore hole for final-disposal underground. When the first compartment gets filled with ash and silt, the

lower mouth of the duct will be closed and water will stop flowing to the second compartment. This

will cause flooding of the first compartment and back-flow of water indicating that the compartment

requires cleaning. The system is reactivated by removing ash and silt from the first compartment.

The bore hole of 30 cm in dia. i s made with the help of auger and this is deep enough to reach the

first layer of san d subject to maximum of 3 m deep. It is also filled with 4 cm size brick aggregates. It

is proposed to construct this system in the courtyard of the house owner so that, in case of choking of

the chamber, he would have it cleaned to avoid nuisance create d by overflowing water.

Unlike the existing soakage systems where the ash and silt directly flow into the soakage pit and cause

choking, the proposed system provides for their retention in ash/silt trap chamber and its subsequent

cleaning, when the water starts overflowing. T he materials required for the construction of one unit

include cement (1/2 bag), Bricks (160 Nos.), 6 mm dia. M.S. bars (3 kg), Brick ballast (0.35 Cubic

mts ), Sand (0.15 Cubic mts), 6 mm size crushed stone (0.02 Cubic mts ), Skilled labour (one man

day) and unskilled labour (2 man days)

Construction Procedure

A pit equal to the outer dimensions (60 x 100 x 66 cm) of the chamber is excavated. A layer of flat

bricks in mud mortar is laid at the bottom of the pit to form floor of the chamber. The walls 7.5 cm

thick in burnt bricks with 1:6 cement sand mortar are built as per the design (Figure 2). This chamber

is divided into two compartments by a wall of 7.5 cm thick. The sizes of the first and the second

compartment are made as 45 x 45 x 70 cm and 30 x 45 x 70 cm respectively. A triangular duct 8 x 8

x 46 cm is made diagonally opposite to the inlet of the first compartment. A similar duct is made

adjacent to the first duct in the second compartment.

A hole is left in partition wall 19.0 cm below the top of the duct portion to provide connection

between the two ducts. All the walls of the chamber are made 11.5 cm above ground level. Two

precast R.C.C. (1 :2:4) covers of 5 cm thickness and 56 x 60 cm and 41 x 60 cm size respectively are

made to cover ash/silt trap chamber. The second compartment is filled with 4 cm size brick ballast.

Bore hole 30 cm in dia. is made with the help of an auger at a minimum distance of 30 cm from the

chamber. It is taken up to the first layer of sand or up to 3 m. depths whichever is less. The bore hole

should be made at least 6 m away from the hand- pump or well. A drain covered with brick is made

51 cm above floor level of chamber to connect bore hole with chamber. Brickwork 11.5 cm thick 30

cm deep is carried out around the circular hole to protect the top from collapsing. The bore hole is

also filled with 4 cm size brick ballast. The top of the bore hole is covered by laying flat brick

plastered with 1:6 cement-sand mortars or with 5 cm thick R.C.C. cover.

Low Cost Sanitation

Poor health in developing countries is largely due to diseases like cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis

and worm infections carried by contaminated food water and ground. Effective sanitation is an

important way of reducing the incidence of such diseases but modern water borne sanitation system is



not possible in many parts of the world, due to its high cost and shortage of water. High cost of

providing sewers for rural as well as urban areas having low density makes them non-acceptable due

to financial constraints. Therefore, it is important to search for appropriate alternatives

In India a large number of people have no latrines or have bucket or dry latrines, especially in rural

areas condition is worse in comparison to these national average and majority of people resort to open

air defecation. Statistics reveal that 120 million people in the world are without adequate water supply

and 1350 million without sanitary facilities in rural areas is 15 percent.

Bore- hole latrines with precast slabs had been tried in India but these suffered from the nuisance of

odour and fly breeding. The pits get filled up soon necessitating a change of site.

The design was improved with addition of concrete pan and water seal trap to cut odour and flies.

A number of efforts have been made since 1930, to further improve the design, as a result of which

more than a dozen designs of sanitary latrines have been developed varying from the simplest design

of bore-hole type to the complex design of Electrolux Vacuum System. Their applicability and

acceptance depend on the preferences based on availability of space, local soil conditions and finance.

Each of them has potentiality of its adoption under different circumstances.

However, a design for wider application should be simple, inexpensive in construction and should

provide freedom from odour, unsightly conditions, handling of fresh excreta and its contacts with flies

and animals. It should eliminate chances of contamination of surface soil, and ground water that may

enter springs or wells.

In addition to these basic criteria the following requirements have to be considered while proposing

any excreta disposal system for developing countries:

• Daily operation should require minimum education and guidance to users of all ages.

• Cost of the system should be within the reach of users.

• Construction of the system should be based mainly on the use of local materials and its

maintenances should be possible with semi-skilled labour, available in the areas.

• Requirement of water for transport and treatment should be minimum.

• The system should include the possibility of improvement in future when economic condition of the

users improves.

CBRI’s contribution

This institute has studied different types of designs available for construction of low cost rural and

urban latrines to suggest economically viable and acceptable solutions for developing countries.

Different aspects like size of the super structure, type of latrine pans and water seal, different

specifications for construction of leaching pits including their distance from one another and from

existing buildings have been examined. Following recommendations are made on the basis of these

studies:-

1. Type of Latrine

Hand-flushed water seal latrine seat proposed by Planning Research and Action Institute

(PRAI), Lucknow and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur and

as already adoption by Indian standards institution (ISI), New Delhi is recommended for adoption due

to its low water requirements for flushing and low cost. The design consists of cement

concrete/mosaic pain, known in the market as PRAI type seat, (now available in sanitary were as well

as in F.R.P), P-shaped trap having 20mm water seal, foot rest, and two pipes made of cement concrete

or any other suitable material (covered channel made of brick can also be used) and connected with



two leaching pits. The pipes of bricks channels are connected with seat through a connecting chamber

which permits ease in shifting the connection to the second leaching pit when the first gets filled up

after the stipulated period of 5years.The first pit can be emptied for successive use after a further lapse

of 3 to 5 years and the contents, use as manure.

2. Size of Latrine

Size of 75cm x 90cm is the minimum but it needs strict supervision and control of dimensions while

fixing the pan and foot rest to maintain proper clearances. Fat and tall people feel it a bit congested.

The size of 80cm x 100cm is more appropriate and optimum to satisfy all the persons. Therefore,

80cm x 103cm size is adopted in the enclosed drawings after considering the size of the brick

available in the market.

3. Materials and Construction

Nine different specifications for the construction of latrine, sixteen for lining the leaching pits and

four for pits covers were finalized alter considering the material and skill available in different part of

the country. The materials used include brick concrete, ferro-cement, used bitumen drum, bamboo

mats and earthen rings. Typical designs using brick (due to their availability in most of areas) with

brief specifications are shown in Figure. However, drawings proposing use of other materials can be

made available.

4. Infiltrative Capacity of Soil

It has been observed that the infiltrative capacity rate of percolation of water decreases after first use

of the leaching pit due to deposition of organic matter in between the soil particles. This can be

improved by keeping the pit open to sky for one month after removing the decomposed excreta during

dry weather or scrubbing the wall surfaces and digging the bottom of pit to remove part of the soil.

Studies have also been carried out on water percolation in leaching pits with honey comb brick wall

and with solid brick wall without plaster of pointing; with impervious floor and without floor.

Effect of walls with or without honey comb brick work was found to be insignificant but that of floors

was very high. It is, therefore recommended that the walls of leaching pit should be solid but without

plastering or pointing to make them structurally strong and to avoid caving of soil.

The floor should however, be without any lining except in high subsoil water table areas where it has

to be impervious to reduce change of pollution.

Distance between Leaching Pits

A minimum distance of one meter is recommended between two leaching pits to avoid seepage of

water from one to the other. However, it has been observed that making two leaching pits together

with a common wall is easier to construct.

6. Distance of Leaching Pits from Existing Buildings

When the depth of leaching pit goes 100 cm below the foundation of buildings, the minimum distance

of a leaching pit from existing structure can be 85 cm for clayey sand and 125 cm for sandy clays.

This distance can be adjusted proportionately when the depth of leaching pit below the foundation

varies.

7. Volume of Leaching Pits



The volume of leaching pit has been based on the average value of 44lit.per person per year and a pit

of 1.1cubic meter capacity will therefore; serve five users for about 4year in sandy soil and 6years in

clayey soils.

8. Optimization of Leaching Pit

Two basic shapes i.e., square and circular were studied for structural stability and ease in construction.

It has been found that the size of leaching pit being small, there is no significant difference in the

structural properties of the two. However, construction of a circular pit needs skilled labour and

proper care while the square one is easy to construct for most of the masons.

Other parameters like structural safety of the pit and its cover, handling of the covers by the labour,

absorption characteristics of the soil, working space required by labour during construction and

removal of decomposed excreta and minimum cost of the leaching pit, when considered together, lead

to the conclusion that optimum diameter and depth for circular pit should be 1.07m and 1.22m

respectively for five users for five years. Similarly width and depth for square pits should be 0.92m

and 1.2m respectively.

Pollution Aspect in High Subsoil Water Level Areas

Water discharge along with the excreta gets absorbed underground and has potential danger of mixing

up with subsoil water and thus carrying contamination for long distances. Safe distance to avoid these

chances has been recommended as 2m between the bottom of the pit and subsoil water table but it is

not always possible to maintain this. In many places the subsoil water table is so high as to cause

direct mixing of the water discharge with excreta, with it.

There is a need to avoid such mixing and therefore the design is not suitable for such locations.

It is proposed to make the bottom of the pit impervious by using polythene sheet and filling

45cm thick layer of fine sand around the pit to act as filter to reduce the chances of pollution.

This institute has also developed a low cost alternative to solve the problem to excreta disposal for

areas with very high subsoil water level. It consists of a decomposition tank and two leaching pits.

The night soil is allowed to pass to the leaching pits after it has completely decomposed.

The details of the system can be supplied on demand.

Figure: Leaching Pit for Latrine



Materials & Labours requirement for construction of low cost latrine up to Plinth Level Only

Materials

1. Cement 4-5 bags

2. Sand 0.60 m3



3. 1st class brick 750 nos

4. Stone Aggregate 0.2 m3

12 mm & down gauge

5. Brick Aggregate 40 mm size 0.12 m3

6. M.S. bar 6 mm dia 10.50 kg

7. W.C Seat with trap one set

8. Foot rests one pair

9 Binding Wire 200 gms

Labours (man days)

Skilled

Unskilled

04

08

Materials & Labours requirement for construction of low cost latrine: Complete

Materials

1. Cement 6-7 bags

2. Sand 1 m3

3. 1st class brick 1180 nos

4. Stone Aggregate 0.3 m3

12 mm & down gauge

5. Brick Aggregate 40 mm size 0.12 m3

6. M.S. bar 6 mm dia 13 kg

7. W.C Seat with trap one set

8. Foot rests one pair

9 Binding Wire 200 gms

Labours (man days)

Skilled

Unskilled

08

14