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ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF URBANIZATION
6.1 Introduction:
“A beautiful environment generates beautiful minds and beautiful minds lead
to creativity”. As one contemplates the alluring words spoken by Dr. A.P.J.Abdul
Kalam, it instantaneously makes one believe and treat ‘creativity’ as the birthplace for
several indispensable questions responsible for many scientific discoveries enriching
human societies. The recent studies show that in most of the developing countries
including India, concern for environment is widely expressed. The “Environment”
comprises all entities, living and non-living, natural or manmade, external to oneself,
and their interrelationships, which provide value, now or perhaps in the future, to
humankind. Environmental concerns relate to their degradation through actions of
humans. We the human species and all our activities are also an integral part of the
dynamic environment. Our biological survival is totally dependent upon the stability
of our surroundings which is nothing but a complex set of processes in dynamic
equilibrium. Hence automatically all our developmental activities if they are to be
beneficial and sustainable must be anchored on the environmental and ecological
precepts.
One of the greatest challenges of the present century is to tackle the problem
of rapid urbanization. The rapid rate of urbanization and development has led to
increasing environmental degradation. This increase has been rapid since the middle
of the 19th century which has affected the quality of environment. As per 2001 Census
27.8 per cent of India’s population (286 million) lives in urban areas, thereby showing
more than tenfold increase in total urban population from 1901 to 2001. According to
the UN-HABITAT 2006 Annual Report, in regard to future trends, it is estimated 93
per cent of urban growth will occur in Asia and Africa and mainly two Asian
Countries, India and China. By 2050 over 6 billion people, two thirds of humanity,
will be living in towns and cities.1 Urbanization is associated with higher incomes,
improved health, higher literacy, improved quality of life and other benefits. Yet
along with benefits comes environmental and social ills. Urbanization affects the
environment in many ways: its relation with discharge of pollutants and generation of
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solid/liquid/gaseous wastes, secondly, its relation with the depletion of natural
resources and its relation with the social costs of population explosion, pollution,
poverty and sustainable development.
Waste generation has witnessed an increasing trend parallel to the
development of industrialization, urbanization and rapid growth of population. The
problem has become one of the primary urban environmental issues. Enormous
amount of waste is generated daily and its management is a huge task. Similarly, the
rapid increase in urbanization combines with desperate poverty to deplete and pollute
local resource basis on which the livelihood of the present and future generation
depends. Apart from these, India has major environmental problems related to
industrialization also. In the pursuit for faster industrialization, the environmental
factors have not been given serious consideration in the formulation of industrial
policies. The cavalier attitude towards environmental degradation and adoption of
environmentally less friendly technologies has resulted in air and water pollution and
has made most of our major rivers impure and filthy. While the major industries are
responsible for macro-environmental problems, the unchecked growth of informal
manufacturing sector in most of urban centres has spoiled the micro-environments.
“Nature has enough to satisfy everyone’s need but has not enough to satisfy man’s greed. Sadly our over-expanding greed has put us in such precarious situation. Will we realise it? The policy of industrialization had helped rich to become richer and poor become poorer. The disparity has widened. It is the democratic system followed in the country which has forced our policy-makers to think of growth for all. That is why we are hearing plans for inclusive growth. Industrialization is not without price. All these have a direct bearing on environmental pollution leading to climatic change. We are all witness to the deleterious effects of climate change. The whole world is now anxious to repair the damage”.
Mahatma Gandhi
Protection of the environment has to be a central part of any substantial
inclusive growth strategy. This aspect of development is especially important in the
Eleventh Plan when consciousness of the dangers of environmental degradation has
increased greatly. Population growth, urbanization, and anthropogenic development
employing energy-intensive technologies have resulted in injecting a heavy load of
pollutants into the environment. More recently, the issue assumed special importance
because of the accumulation of evidence of global warming and the associate climate
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change that it is likely to bring. Thus, these consequences on quality of environment
are not easily dealt with. The lack of knowledge is a problem.
Therefore, environmental issues should not be viewed from a sectoral
perspective or regarded as an add-on on consideration, because they form an integral
part of all human activities. The national government’s overriding concern for balance
of payments to the exclusion of all their considerations has led to the neglect of
environmental issues, greatly endangering the societal well-being. There is an urgent
need to include to concept “environmental burden” in international trade and
commerce.
Similarly, sustainability criteria should become a touch stone for evaluating
developmental projects along with techno-economic feasibility. A wide range of
policy choices is available for protecting and improving environment. A judicious
blend of short-term and long-term policies would be required to integrate
environmental concern with developmental activities for attaining sustainable
development.
This chapter is divided into five sections: the second section include
Generation of solid/liquid/gaseous wastes and their characteristics. The third section
deals with various global environmental concerns; fourth section throw light on Waste
Minimization Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste Management Approach: the
fifth and the final section deals with Social costs of population explosion, pollution,
poverty and sustainable development and their various aspects.
6.2 Generation of Solid/Liquid/Gaseous Wastes
A. Solid Waste Generation
Solid wastes consist of the discards of households, dead animals, industrial and
agricultural wastes and other large wastes like debris from construction site,
automobiles, furniture etc. A typical classification of solid waste includes:
1. Garbage: putrescible (decomposable) wastes from food slaughter houses,
canning freezing industries and market refuse.
2. Rubbish: Non-putrescible wastes like paper, wood, cloth, rubber, leather etc.
Which are all combustible. It also includes non-combustible like metals, glass,
ceramics, stone etc.
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3. Ashes: Like fly ash from thermal plants, residues of incineration of solid wastes
by municipal bodies or industries.
4. Hospital Refuse: Cotton, plaster, needles and operation theatre wastes.
5. Large Wastes: Debris from construction site, old furniture, automobiles.
6. Dead animals: Households, veterinary hospitals and zoo.
7. Sewage treatment process solids or sludge.
8. Industrial solid wastes: chemicals, paints, sand etc.
9. Agricultural Wastes: Farm animal manure, crop residue etc.
10. Mining Wastes: Tailings, slag heaps.2
In Indian cities, the waste is generally not weighed. It is measured by volume
to determine the quantity of waste disposed off. Some studies have shown that the
waste generation rates are low in small towns whereas they are high in cities over 20
lakh population. The range is between 200 gms per capita per day and 500 gms per
capita per day3. Table 6.1, describes the average municipal solid waste production
from 0.21 to 0.50 Kg per capita per day in India. The present urban population is
expected 341 million in 2010. The waste quantities are expected to increase from 46
million tons in 2001 to 65 million tons in 20104. It is also reported that per capita per
day production will increase to 0.7 kg in 2050.
Table 6.1: Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Cities
Population Range Average Per Capita
(Millions) Value Kg/Capita/Day
0.1-0.5 0.21
0.5-1.0 0.25
1.0-2.0 0.27
2.0-5.0 0.35
>5 0.5
Source: NEERI Strategy paper on SWM in India February 1996
Cities with 100,000 plus population contribute 72.5 per cent of the waste
generated in the country as compared to other 3955 urban centres that produce only
17.5 per cent of the total waste (Table 6.2).
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Table 6.2: Waste Generation in Class 1 Cities with Population
above 100,000
Note: Mega cities are above 4 million population and metro cities (also known as million plus cities) are the same as the identified cities under the proposed JNNURM. Class 1 cities with population in the 100,000 to 1 million range are 388 in number.
Source: MOUD (2005)
A (I) Characteristics of waste
Table 6.3: represents the municipal solid waste characteristic during last three
decades in the country. From the analysis of the table it could be concluded that the
waste characteristics are expected to change due to urbanization, increased
commercialization and standard of living.
Table 6.3: Characteristics of Municipal solid Waste
S.No COMPONENT WET WEIGHT IN INDIA %
1971-72* 1996** 2005***
1 Paper 4.14 2.91-6.43 8.13
2 Plastics 0.69 0.28-0.78 9.22
3 Metals 0.5 0.32-0.80 0.5
4 Glass 0.4 0.35-0.94 1.01
5 Inert 3.83 44-54 25.16
6 Ash and Fine Earth 49.2 30-40 --
7 Compostable Matter 41.24 31-57 40-60
8 Calorific Value 800-1100 <1500 800-1000
9 C/N Ratio 20-30 20-30 20-40
Note: *Bhide & Suderesan, 1983, **Manual on MSW, NEERI, 1996,
***http://www.cpcb.nic.in
Source: CPHEEO Manual on MSW Management
Types of Cities Tonnes/day % of Total Garbage
The 7 mega cities 21,100 18.35
the 28 metro cities 19,643 17.08
the 388 class 1 towns 42,635 37.07
Total 83,378 72.5
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The present trend indicates that the paper and plastics content will increase
while the organic content will decrease. The ash and earth content is also expected to
decrease mainly due to an increase in the paved surface. Although, the organic
content is expected to decrease, the material will still be amenable to biodegradation
and the calorific value will continue to be unsuitable for incineration. In keeping with
the present practices and estimates of waste generation, around 90 per cent of the
generated wastes are land filled requiring around 1200 hectare of land every year with
an average depth of 3 m. Due to rapid urbanization, prevailing land use regulation and
completing demands for available land, it is desirable that adequate land be earmarked
at the planning stage itself for solid waste disposal. The larger quantities of solid
waste and higher degree of urbanization will necessitate better management involving
a higher level of expenditure on manpower and equipment.
• Plastic Waste
It is noteworthy that the quantum of waste is ever increasing due to the increase in
population, developmental activities, changes in life style, and socio-economic
conditions. Plastics waste constitutes a significant portion of the total municipal solid
waste (MSW). It is estimated that approximately ten thousand tonnes per day (TPD)
of plastic waste is generated i.e. 9 per cent of 1.20 lakhs TPD of MSW in India. The
plastic waste includes two major categories of plastics; (1) Thermoplastics and (2)
Thermoset plastics. Thermoplastics constitute 80 per cent and Thermoset constitutes
approximately 20 per cent of total postconsumer plastic waste generated in India.
Thermoplastics are recyclable plastics and include Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET),
Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE), Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC), High Density Poly
Ethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), etc. Thermoset plastics
contain alkyd, epoxy, ester, melamine formaldehyde, phenolic formaldehyde, silicon,
urea formaldehyde, polyurethane, metalized and multilayer plastics etc.
• Hazardous Waste
The hazardous waste generated in the country is about 4.4 million tonnes, out of
which 38.3 per cent is recyclable, 4.3 per cent is incinerable and the remaining 57.4
per cent is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve states of the country (including
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan)
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account for 87 of total waste generation. The top five waste generating states are
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal.
• Electronic Waste (e-waste)
The growth of e-waste has significant environmental, economic and social impact.
The increase of electrical and electronic products, consumption rates and higher
obsolescence rates lead to higher generation of e-waste. The increasing obsolescence
rate of electronic products also adds to the huge import of used electronics products.
The e-waste inventory based on the obsolescence rate in India for the year 2005 has
been estimated to be 1, 46,180 tonnes, and is expected to exceed 8, 00,000 tonnes by
2012. There is no large scale organized e-waste recycling facility in India, whereas
there are two small e-waste dismantling facilities functioning in Chennai and
Bangalore, while most of the e-waste recycling units are operating in the un-organized
sector.5
B. Liquid Waste Generation
With increasing urbanization, industrialization and their growing amount of
wastes, huge quantities of waste water enters rivers and canals and have over-taxed
their natural recycling capabilities. Of the many problems associated with increasing
wastes, the problem of fresh water pollution in India came to the forefront towards the
beginning of 1970’s with the domestic sewage and industrial waste discharges being
the most critical sources of pollution in cities. This resulted in the promulgation of the
water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and establishment of the
National Water Quality Network in 1979. The Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) has established National Water Quality Monitoring Network comprising
1429 monitoring stations in 27 states and 6 in Union Territories on various water
bodies across the country. The monitoring is undertaken on monthly or quarterly basis
in surface waters and on half yearly basis in case of ground water. The monitoring
network covers 293 Rivers, 94 Lakes, 9 Tanks, 41 Ponds, 8 Creeks, 23 Canals, 18
Drains and 411 Wells. Presently the inland water quality-monitoring network is
operated under a three-tier programme i.e. Global Environmental Monitoring System
(GEMS), Monitoring of Indian National Aquatic Resources System and Yamuna
Action Plan.
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B (I) Water Pollution
The sources of water pollution include point and non-point sources like
discharges from industries and storm water respectively. While pollution from point
sources can be controlled, it is difficult to control pollution from non-point sources
such as agriculture run-off, leaching from waste disposal sites and storm water.6 The
infiltration of rainfall into landfill, together with the biochemical and chemical
breakdown of the wastes, produces a leachate which is high in suspended solids and
of varying organic and inorganic content. All household and most industrial wastes
will produce leachate. If the leachate enters surface or groundwater before sufficient
dilution has occurred, serious pollution incidents can occur. In surface waters,
leachate high in organic material and reduced metals will cause severe oxygen
depletion and result in fish-kills. Leachate high in non biodegradable synthetic
organic compounds is a particular threat: through bioaccumulation, concentrations of
these substances may increase to toxic levels and endanger animal and human life.
If leachate enters groundwater or shallow aquifers, the problems are more
intractable. Dilution and removal of leachate is much slower in groundwater than in
surface water and it may render the groundwater non-potable for the foreseeable
future. Contamination of groundwater is a serious problem of immediate concern.
B (II) River Water Pollution
90 percent of wastewater discharged daily in developing countries is
untreated, contributing to the deaths of some 2.2 million people a year from diarrheal
diseases caused by unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene. At least 1.8 million
children younger than 5 die every year from water-born diseases. Fully 80 per cent of
urban waste in India ends up in the country’s rivers, and unchecked urban growth
across the country combined with poor government oversight means the problem is
only getting worse. A growing numbers of water bodies in India are unfit for human
use, and in the River Ganga, holy to countries 82 per cent Hindu majority, is dying
slowly due to unchecked pollution.
Much of the river pollution problem in India comes from untreated sewage.
The water quality data of rivers Ganga, Yamuna, Sabarmati, Mahi, Tapi, Narmada,
Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarni, Subarnrekha,
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Brahmaputra, Satluj and Beas is computed statistically to obtain information on
polluted stretches. The water quality of major rivers varied widely with respect to DO,
BOD, total Coliform and faecal Coliform. The level of DO is observed more than 4
mg/l in river Narmada, Mahanadi, Brahmini, Baitarni, Subarnrekha, Beas and
Chambal throughout the year whereas, the lowest values (in mg/l) were observed in
stretches as river Kali East (0.1), Ganga (0.3), Yamuna (0.3), Krishna (0.4),
Amlakhedi (0.4), Sabarmati (0.7), Ghaggar (0.8), Brahmaputra (1.1), Tapi (1.2),
Satluj (1.6), Godavari (2.4), Mahi (2.7), Kaveri (3.3), Pennar (2.3) and at few
locations downstream of urban settlements due to discharge of untreated/partially
treated municipal wastewater, which is responsible for high oxygen demand. Very
high values of BOD were observed in rivers Amlakhedi (947 mg/l), Sabarmati (380
mg/L), Kali East (165 mg/l) followed by Satluj (64 mg/l), Yamuna (40mg/l), Tapi (36
mg/l), Ghaggar (28 mg/l), Chambal (24 mg/l), Godavari (15mg/l), Ganga (14.4 mg/l),
Cauvery (9 mg/l), Krishna (9 mg/l) and Brahmani (7 mg/l). The relatively low values
of BOD were measured in river(s) Mahi, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Pennar, Mahanadi,
Baitarni and Beas. In respect of total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) and faecal Coliform
numbers (MPN/100 ml), river Yamuna is leading with highest count of 1.1x109 and
6.2x107 respectively followed by, Sabarmati (4.6x105 and 2.4x105), Ganga (4.5x106
and 7x105), Brahmaputra (2.4x105 and 2.4x105), Cauvery (5x104 and 1.7x104),
Brahmani (2.8x104 and 1.3 x 104), Satluj (2x105 and 9x104), Krishana (1.24 x 105
and 2.8 x 103), Mahanadi (9.2x104 and 2.4 x 104), Baitarni (9.2x104 and 3.5 x 103),
Ghaggar (1.7 x 105 and 9x104), Tapi (5x105), and Godavari (2.2 x 105 and 5.5 x 104)
at certain locations. The river Mahi, Subenarrekha, Pennar and Narmada are relatively
clean rivers as the number of total Coliform and faecal Coliform count are relatively
less than 2400 MPN/100 ml and 700 MPN/100 ml respectively.7
Some of the polluted river stretches; their Observations in terms of Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) and Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) are summarised in Table
6.4. It has been observed that almost all rivers are polluted with respect to Bio-
Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), one of the most important indicators of water
quality.
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Table 6.4: List of Polluted River Stretches in terms of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Concentrations at various points located at Interstate Boundaries
S.No. River Location Duration of
Observations
year
BOD (mg/l) DO (mg/l)
1. Yamuna Paonata Sahib (H.P.)
2005-08 1 3.64 1.26 6.6 10.6 8.7
Sonipat Baghpat Road,
Haryana
2005-08 1 5 2.55 6.1 8.2 7.13
Palla, (Delhi) 2005-08 1 6 2.84 5.5 10.7 7.9 Asgarpur
Village (U.P.) 2005-08 6 50 30 0 0 0
Dak Patthar (Uttarakhand)
2005-08 1 2 1.16 9.01 10.2 8.9
Buriya U/S Jagadhari (Haryana)
2005-08 1 2 1.28 7 10.5 8.27
Mohena Palwal Road
(Haryana)
2005-08 8 37 21 0 12.1 3.2
Shergarh (U.P.)
2005-07 2 10 4.84 6.6 18.6 10.3
2. Ganga Tarighat, Ghazipur
(U.P.)
2005-08 1 6 3.2 6.9 8.72 7.95
Sultanpur (Uttrakhand)
2005-08 1 2 1.42 6.8 12 8.90
Bijnor Deoband Road
(U.P.)
2005-08 1 4 1.85 7 9 8
3. Sutlej Nangal (H.P.) 2006-08 1 2 1.33 6 8.7 1.66 4.
Krishna Khurundward Kohlapur
(Maharashtra)
2005-08 <1 5 1.7 5.4 11.5 8.4
Deodurg (Karnataka)
2005-08 <1 2 0.61 7 7.8 7.8
5. Damodar Sindri (Jharkhand)
2005-09 1 3 2.16 6.9 8.2 7.48
Dishergharh (West Bengal)
2005-09 1 3 2.17 6.5 8.2 7.38
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6. Cauvery Satyagala Bridge, Narsipur
(Karnataka)
2005-08 <1 2 0.92 6.9 8.6 7.56
7. Godavari Basra Kavalguda,
(Maharashtra)
2005-08 1 3 2.03 4 568 192.9
8. Sabarmati Khedbrahma (Gujarat)
2005-07 1 1 1.1 6.7 10.5 8.6
9. Tapi Prakasha (Maharashtra)
2006-08 <1 8 4.03 7.0 8.8 7.63
Nizhar (Gujarat)
2006-08 1 1.5 1.25 7.1 8.1 7.6
Ajnand (Maharashtra)
2006-08 <1 3 2.03 7.1 14.5 9.93
10. Subarnarekha Bheragora (Jharkhand)
2005-09 1 3 2 6.8 8.5 7.58
Gopibhallavpur (West Bengal)
2005-09 2 3 2.25 6.4 8.5 7.57
Lakhannath (Orissa)
2005-09 2 2 2 6.8 8.2 7.5
11. Narmada Navagam (Gujarat)
2006-08 <1 2 1.4 4.8 9 7.06
12. Kosi Dadyal Bridge (U.P.)
2008 2 2 2 7.4 7.4 7.4
13. Sone Chopan, (D/S before
Reservoir Rihand), (U.P.)
2005-08 1 3 1.77 5.5 5.58 5.4
Deora (U/S before
Reservoir Rihand), (M.P.)
2005-08 <1 3 1.18 5.74 8.3 7.02
Source: CPCB Annual Report, 2008-09
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Table 6.5: Trend of Water Supply, Waste Water Generation and Treatment in
Class I Cities/Class II Towns (1978-79 to 2003-04)
Parameters Class I Cities Class II Towns
1978-79
1989-90
1994-95
2003-04 1978-79 1989-90 1994-95 2003-04
Number 142 212 299 423 190 241 345 498
Population (millions)
60 102 128 187 12.8 20.7 23.6 37.5
Water supply (mld)
8,638 15,191 20,607 29782 1533 1622 1936 3035
Water supply (lpcd)
144 149 161 160 120 78 82 81
Waste Water
Generated (mld)
7,007 12,145 16,662 23826 1226 1280 1650 2428
Waste water
Generation (lpcd)
117 119 130 127 96 62 70 65
Waste water treated
(mld)
2,756
(39%)
2,485
(20.5%)
4,037
(24%)
6955
(29%)
67
(5.44%)
27
(2.12%)
62
(3.73%)
89
(3.67%)
Waste water
Untreated (mld)
4,251
(61%)
9,660
(79.5%)
12,625
(76%)
16871
(71%)
1160
(94.56%)
1252
(97.88%)
1588
(96.27%)
2339
(96.33%)
Source: 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Vol 2, Planning Commission, GOI
Note: mld-Mega litre per day
lpcd-Litres per Capita per Day
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) realised the gravity of water
quality deterioration in water bodies and instituted studies on the wastewater
management in India with changing urban pattern during last three decades and
highlighted the need for urban wastewater management. The studies on watersheds
for assessment of water quality and wastewater management formed the basis for
River Action Plans on many of rivers and their tributaries. The trend of water supply
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and wastewater generation and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II towns is
summarised in Table 6.5. The comparison of water supply, wastewater generation
and treatment in Class I Cities and Class II Towns during 1978-79, 1989-90, 1994-95
and 2003-04 is given. Data collected in these studies indicates that the wastewater
generation has increased three fold i.e. from 8233 million litres per day (mld) in 1978-
79 to 26254 mld in 2003-04 putting together the figures of both categories of urban
centres. Although, the treatment capacity has also increased by two and half times
from 2823 mld in 1978-79 to 7044 mld in 2003-04 but the gap of untreated volume
has increased drastically.
Table 6.6 represent the data on wastewater generation and treatment in Class I
cities and Class II towns in India during 2003-04. The data is compiled for each State
and Union Territory and the ranking of States (worked out on the basis of discharge of
untreated wastewater). Table 6.7 shows projected population and wastewater
generation in India. It is clear from the table that based on the projected population for
the year 2051 the wastewater generation is going to be 132253 mld and the urban
population projection for the year 2051 is likely to be of the magnitude of 1093
million when about 50 per cent population will live in cities however this shows that
waste water generation shows an increasing trend and is positively related to rise in
urban population. As the water availability is going to reduce due to increase in
population the wastewater generation in any urban centre is going to be the source of
water supply for the downstream located urban centres. In view of such situation there
is a need to attain 100 per cent wastewater treatment with more stringent standard.
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Table 6.6: Ranking of States based on discharge of untreated wastewater in Class I cities and Class II towns - 2003-04
Rank States Waste water Generated
(mld)
Waste water Treatment
(mld)
Discharge of untreated waste
water
1 Maharashtra 5247 653 4594
2 West Bengal 2363 385 1978
3 Delhi 3663 2230 1433
4 Bihar (incl. Jharkhand)
1524 135 1389
5 Uttar Pradesh (incl. Uttaranchal)
2563 1215 1348
6 Andhra Pradesh 1421 208 1213
7 Rajasthan 1180 27 1153
8 Gujarat 1911 807 1104
9 Madhya Pradesh (incl. Chhattisgarh)
1296 241 1055
10 Tamil Nadu 1223 338 885
11 Karnataka 1158 397 761
12 Punjab 689 5 684
13 Kerala 479 0 479
14 Orissa 418 0 418
15 Assam 248 0 248
16 Chandigarh 304 91 213
17 Haryana 369 309 60
18 Pondicherry 40 0 40
19 Meghalaya 34 0 34
20 Manipur 27 0 27
21 Tripura 25 0 25
22 Goa 22 0 22
23 Nagaland 22 0 22
24 Himachal Pradesh 15 3 12
25 Andaman 9 0 9
26 Mizoram 4 0 4
Total 26254 7044 19210 Source: 11th Five Year Plan (2007-12), Planning Commission, GOI
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Table 6.7: Projected Population and Respectively Wastewater Generation in India
Year Urban
Population (Million)
Litres/Capita/Day (lpcd)
Gross Wastewater Generation (mld)
1977-78 60 116 7007
1989-90 102 119 12145
1994-95 128 130 16662
2001 285 - -
2011 373 - -
2021 488 121 (Assumed) 59048 (Projected)
2031 638 121 (Assumed) 77198 (Projected)
2041 835 121 (Assumed) 101035 (Projected)
2051 1093 121 (Assumed) 132253 (Projected) Source: Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India.
C. Gaseous Waste Generation
The decomposition of waste into chemicals constituent is a common source of
local environmental pollution which contaminates air and water systems. A major
environmental concern is gas release by decomposing garbage. Methane is a by-
product of the anaerobic respiration of bacteria, and these bacteria thrive in landfills
with high amounts of moisture. Methane concentrations can reach up to 50 per cent of
the composition of landfill gas at maximum anaerobic decomposition. In the absence
of proper methane venting and/or flaring, the gas seeps into porous soil surrounding
the waste and eventually migrates into basements and homes, posing an explosion
risk. Carbon dioxide is a second predominant gas emitted by landfills; although less
reactive, build up in nearby homes could be a cause of asphyxiation.
A second problem with these gasses is their contribution to the so-called
greenhouse gasses (GHGs) which are blamed for global warming. Both gases are
major constituents of the world’s problem GHGs; however while carbon dioxide is
readily absorbed for use in photosynthesis; methane is less easily broken down, and is
considered 20 times more potent as a GHG.8
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C (I) Air Pollution
Air pollution in India has been aggravated over the years by developments that
typically occur as economies become industrialised: growing cities, increasing traffic,
and higher levels of energy consumption. Although, industrial emissions are
significant but vehicular pollution is the single most important source of air pollution
(around 70 per cent). Since 1960’s the number of motor vehicles is increasing at rate
faster than the population. It is estimated that there were 50 million cars all over the
world in 1950, which have risen to 600 million in 2002. By 2020 it will be touching 1
billion mark. Vehicle production in India is increasing at the rate of 15-20 per cent per
year. As per a recent media report (T.O.I.), Delhi is adding 963 vehicles on its road
every day while Bangalore is adding 500 vehicles. The story is no different in other
metros or tier-II and tier-III cities9.
Table 6.8 shows the rapid growth of automobiles in India, in various sectors
during 1951 to 2006. The table reveals that personalised mode (constituting mainly
two wheelers and cars) accounted for more than four-fifth of the motor vehicles in the
country compared to their share of little over three-fifth in 1950. Further break up of
motor vehicle population reflects preponderance of two wheelers with a share of more
than 72 per cent in total vehicle population, followed by passenger cars at 13 per cent
and other vehicles (a heterogeneous category which includes 3 wheelers (LMV
Passengers), trailers, tractors, etc.) around 9 per cent. In contrast to personalized
mode, the share of buses in total registered vehicles has declined from 11.1 per cent in
1951 to 1.1 per cent during 2006. Also, the share of goods vehicle at about 5 per cent
in vehicle population is modest in comparison to the size of the economy. The share
of buses in the vehicle population at about 1 per cent possibly indicates the slow
growth in public transport. The major share is contributed by metropolitan cities in all
registered vehicles in the country. The problem has been further compounded by
steady increase in urban population (from approximately 17 percent to 28 percent
during 1951-2001) and larger concentration of vehicles in these urban cities specially
in four major metros namely, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata which account for
more than 15 percent of the total vehicular population of the whole country, whereas,
more than 40 other metropolitan cities (with human population more than 1million)
accounted for 35 percent of the vehicular population of the country. Further, 25
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percent of the total energy (of which 98 percent comes from oil) is consumed by road
sector only. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70
percent of CO, 50 percent of HC, 30-40 percent of NOx, 30 percent of SPM and 10
percent of SO2
of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two third is
contributed by two wheelers alone. These high level of pollutants are mainly
responsible for respiratory and other air pollution related ailments including lung
cancer, asthma etc., which is significantly higher than the national average.10
Table 6.8: Composition of Vehicle Population in Percentage of total
Year 2 Wheelers
Cars, Jeeps etc.
Buses Goods Vehicle
Others Total (Million)
1951 8.8 52 11.1 26.8 1.3 0.31 1961 13.2 46.6 8.6 25.3 6.3 0.66 1971 30.9 36.6 5 18.4 9.1 1.86 1981 48.6 21.5 3 10.3 16.6 5.39 1991 66.4 13.8 1.5 6.3 11.9 21.37
2001 70.1 12.8 1.2 5.4 10.5 54.99 2004 71.4 13 1.1 5.2 9.4 72.72 2005 72.1 12.7 1.1 4.9 9.1 81.5 2006 (P)
72.2 12.9 1.1 4.9 8.8 89.61
Note: Others include Tractors, Trailers, 3 Wheelers & etc. (P): Provisional
Source: Road Transport Year Book 2006-07, MoRTH
Fig: 6.1
Source: As table 6.8
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These cause the problem of air pollution, as a result of exhaust gases and
particulate matter. As per a recent study by IIT, Chennai, 70 per cent air pollutants are
from automobile emission in the mega city of Chennai. Some of these exhaust gases
like CO2 is a major greenhouse gas while Carbon Monoxide, NOx and hydrocarbons
are major health hazards for the people on road as vehicle emit within the breathing
zone of people. The increase of automobiles is major concern for air quality in the
Indian cities. Release of dust, smoke and chemically hazardous gases lead to poor air
quality near the industrial sites. Dust from mines specially coal and asbestoses when
inhaled by the workers produce chest related diseases. Dust from brick clines, fly ash
from coal fired thermal power plants cover large areas in the neighbouring towns and
cities. Thus, this is clearly an area of concern in global environmental issues.
In order to determine the air quality status and trends assess health hazards,
disseminate air quality data, and to control and regulate pollution, the CPCB (Central
Pollution Control Board) initiated a nationwide framework of NAAQM (National
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring) in 1984 with 28 stations at 7 cities. Presently, the
network has 290 monitoring stations in 92 cities and towns throughout the country.
The pollutants being monitored are mainly SPM (suspended particulate
matter), SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and NOx (oxides of nitrogen). SPM is one of the most
critical pollutants in terms of its on air quality and is also the most common pollutant
across all sectors. As against to the maximum permissible limits laid down by CPCB
for annual average concentration of SPM in ambient air - 70 mg/m3 in sensitive areas,
140 mg/m3 in residential areas and 360 mg/m3 in industrial areas, it is clearly evident
that the SPM levels are high in most of the cities in India. Table 6.9 reveals air
pollution scenario in different cities and lead us to the conclusion that almost all cities
shows a high level of air pollution and as a result public policies to address these
problems are in place, but no city has been able to satisfactorily contain them.
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Table 6.9: Air Pollution Scenario in different Cities
(Concentrations in Microgramme Per Cubic Metre)
City Population thousands
(2005)
Particulate Matter (2002)
SPM (2001)
RSPM (2001)
SO2 (1995-2001)
NO2 (1995-2005)
Ahmedabad 5171 98 220 198 30 21
Bangalore 6532 53 106 87 - -
Kolkata 14299 145 239 102 49 34
Chennai 6915 44 82 66 15 17
Delhi 15334 177 311 180 24 41
Hyderabad 6145 48 115 77 12 17
Kanpur 3040 128 570 202 15 14
Lucknow 2589 129 341 173 26 25
Mumbai 18336 74 243 81 33 39
Nagpur 2359 65 277 83 6 13
Pune 4485 55 245 115 - - Source: World Bank World Development Indicators (WDI), 2006.
6.3: Global Environmental Concerns
One of the most important characteristics of this environmental degradation is
that it affects all mankind on a global scale without regard to any particular country,
region, or race. Some of the environmental issues of global significance are listed
below:-
A. Greenhouse effects
The green house effect is increasing because of human activities.
Unfortunately, every major source of energy, except nuclear power emits carbon
dioxide. Land and water are heated by the solar energy. After being heated, land and
water radiates back to the atmosphere. This outgoing heat may be blocked by carbon
dioxide and water vapour present in the air. This trapped energy causes heating of the
earth, which is known as greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide and many trace gases
released as by-products of human activities are currently accumulating in the
atmosphere. The most important green house gases (GHG) in terms of past and
current contribution to air pollution are shown in the Table 6.10 and Fig.2. Table 6.11
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and Fig.3 shows sectoral contribution of GHG emission. From table 6.10 it is clear
that Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a prime gas responsible for greenhouse effect
contributing nearly 49 per cent and table 6.11 shows that highest sector which
contributes to GHG emission is energy 61 per cent.
Table 6.10: Contribution of GHG to Atmosphere
Green house Gases Contribution of GHG (%) Carbon dioxide 49
Methane 18 Chloro flouro Carbons 14
Nitrous Oxide 06 Others 13 Total 100
Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.19
Table 6.11: Sectoral Contribution of GHG Emission
Sector Contribution of GHG (%) Energy 61
Agricultural Sector 28 Industrial 08
Urban Wastage 02 Others 01 total 100
Source: University News 48(25) June 21-27, 2010 p.p.50
Fig: 6.2:
Source: as Table 6.10
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Fig: 6.3
Source: as Table 6.11
B. Global Warming
It is one of the serious environmental problems of today. The increased level
of carbon dioxide due to green house effect has led to an increase in the temperature
of the earth. This is called global warming. Precise predictions about global warming
are difficult but the best model studies indicate that in the coming years the
temperature of earth may rise to such a level that it would be enough to melt the polar
icecaps, which can increase the sea level and also increase the chances of floods.
Table 6.12 reveals Co2 emission in the world. So far as the Co2 emissions in India are
concerned, India stands at fifth position in terms of total Co2 emission. But in terms of
per capita emissions of Co2 India’s rank is 113th. The per 1000 people Co2 emission in
US is 19.48 thousand metric tons, which is highest in the world. In comparison to this,
the per 1000 people Co2 emissions in India is only 0.93 thousand metric tons.
However, according to the energy information administration, after China and the US,
among major polluters India is expected to have significant growth of emissions over
the next 20 years. Emerging economies such as China and India will have the largest
growth in Co2 emissions over the next 20 years.
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Table 6.12: CO2 Emission in the World (2003) (Thousands Metric Tons of Carbon)
Rank Countries Total Co2 Emissions
Per capita Co2 emissions (per 1000 peoples)
1 US 5,761,050 19.48
2 China 3,473,600 2.65
3 Russia 1,540,360 10.74
4 Japan 1,224,740 9.61
5 India 1,007,980 0.93
6 Germany 8,37,425 10.15
7 U.K. 5,58,225 9.23
8 Canada 5,21,404 15.89
9 Italy 4,46,596 7.69
10 Mexico 3,85,075 3.62
World Total
22,829,463.2 4.2
Source: World Resource Institute
C. Ozone Depletion
Ozone, a deep blue gas, made up of chemically bounded oxygen atoms, is a
minor constituent of the earth’s atmosphere. It protects the land by absorbing 99 per
cent of quantity of emission of ultra-violet sun rays.
It has been discovered that the protective ozone layer is getting progressively
eroded due to the impact of increasing human activities. The major cause of the
depletion of the ozone layer is the world-wide emission of man-made compounds
called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in the refrigeration, aerosol spray and in
many other items of daily use. CFCs are, by and large, chemically inert, having no
direct effect on humans or other living organisms. CFCs escaped into the atmosphere
ultimately find their way into stratosphere where they’ break down ozone molecules
involving complex chemical reactions.
D. Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a combination of two words ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’ and it
refers to the variety of life on earth, and its biological diversity. These include
millions of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain, and the
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intricate ecosystems of which they are a part. Biodiversity is essential for sustainable
development, but finding sustainable ways of living is essential for the conservation
of biodiversity. Large scale development projects such as industrial plants or
hydroelectric projects have contributed substantially to the loss of biodiversity rich
areas. At least 10 per cent of its recorded flora, and possibly a large fraction of its
wild fauna, is threatened. Many may be on the verge of extinction. In last few
decades, India has lost at least 50 per cent of its forests, polluted over 70 percent of its
water bodies, built cultivated or otherwise encroached upon its grasslands, and
degraded many coastal areas. More than 150 of the known species of medicinal plants
in India have already become extinct due to unsustainable methods of harvesting.
India’s domesticated biodiversity is also under threat. Hundreds of crop varieties have
disappeared and even their genes have not been preserved.
6.4: Waste Minimisation Policy: The Need for An Integrated Waste
Management Approach
In order to handle growing volumes of waste, the proper policies need to be
enacted and implemented. Integrated solid waste management is defined as the
selection and application of appropriate techniques, technologies and management
programmes to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals. This
approach consists of a hierarchical and coordinated set of actions that reduces
pollution, seeks to maximize recovery of reusable and recyclable materials, and
protects human health and the environment. Integrated waste management aims to be
socially desirable, economically viable, and environmentally sound. Integrated waste
management comprises of the following parameters;
(A) Waste Prevention/Reduction
Waste prevention/reduction is given the highest priority in integrated waste
management. This is a preventive action that seeks to reduce the amount of waste that
individuals, businesses, and other organizations generate. It is now well recognised
that sustainable development can only be achieved if society in general, and industry
in particular, produces ‘more with less’ i.e. more goods and services with less use of
the world’s resources (raw materials and energy) and less pollution and waste.
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Society, as a whole, would benefit from a successful implementation of a waste
prevention programme.
(B) Re-use
Once the waste prevention programme has been implemented, the next
priority in an integrated waste management approach is promoting the re-use of
products and materials. Re-use consists of the recovery of items to be used again,
perhaps after some cleaning and refurbishing. Re-using materials and products saves
energy and water, reduces pollution, and lessens society’s consumption of natural
resources compared with the use of single-application products and materials.
(C) Recycling
After the re-use of materials and products, recycling comes next in the
integrated waste management hierarchy. Recycling is the recovery of materials for
melting them, repulping them, and reincorporating them as raw materials. It is
technically feasible to recycle a large amount of materials, such as plastics, wood,
metals, glass, textiles, paper, cardboard, rubber, ceramics, and leather. Besides
technical feasibility and knowhow, demand determines the types and amounts of
materials that are recycled in a particular region. Areas with a diversified economy
and industrial base usually demand more different types of raw materials that can be
recycled.
Recycling can render social, economic, and environmental benefits. Factories
that consume recyclable materials can be built for a fraction of the cost of building
plants that consume virgin materials. Recycling saves energy and water, and generates
less pollution than obtaining virgin raw materials, which translates into lower
operating costs. Recycling also reduces the amount of waste that needs to be
collected, transported, and disposed of, and extends the life of disposal facilities,
which saves money for the municipalities. Recycling can result in a more competitive
economy and a cleaner environment, and can contribute to a more sustainable
development.
In the developing world, municipalities usually lack recycling programmes.
That does not mean, however, that recycling does not exist. Informal recycling is
common throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Scavengers carry out the bulk
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of recycling of municipal waste. Scavengers salvage recyclable materials on the
streets, before collection crews arrive, at communal refuse dumpsters and illegal open
dumps, as well as at municipal open dumps and landfills.
Scavenging provides an income to unemployed individuals, recent migrants
who have been unable to find employment in the formal sector, women, children, and
elderly individuals. Many scavengers can be considered as a vulnerable section of the
population. Due to their daily contact with garbage and their often ragged appearance,
scavengers are typically associated with dirt and squalor, and are considered as
undesirables – and sometimes even as criminals.
Despite the stereotypical view of scavengers as being marginal and the poorest
of the poor, a growing amount of evidence demonstrates that that is often not the case.
Scavenging supplies raw materials to industry and, therefore, has strong linkages with
the formal sector. In some cases, these linkages have existed for centuries, such as in
the paper industry. Paper was invented by the Chinese and, up until the nineteenth
century, it was made mainly of cotton and linen rags. Scavengers or ‘rag pickers’
recovered rags from residents and sold them to paper mills, which then recycled them.
In the nineteenth century, the paper industry switched from rags to wood pulp as its
main raw material. In developing countries today, scavengers still play an important
role in supplying wastepaper to the paper mills. Thus, the rag-pickers of the past and
the wastepaper collectors of today have never been a marginal occupation.
Scavenging can also save foreign currency by reducing imports of raw materials.
Alternatively, if industrial demand is stronger in a neighbouring country, scavenging
can become a source of foreign currency by exporting the materials recovered by
scavengers.
The structural causes of scavenging are under-development, poverty,
unemployment, and the lack of a safety net for the poor, as well as industrial demand
for inexpensive raw materials. These factors are likely to continue to exist in many
developing countries. Therefore, a public policy that supports scavenging activities
would be humane, as well as make social, economic, and environmental sense.11
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(D) Composting
Composting is a technology known in India since times immemorial.
Composting is the decomposition of organic matter by microorganism in warm,
moist, aerobic and anaerobic environment. Farmers have been using compost made
out of cow dung and other agro-waste. The compost made out of urban heterogeneous
waste is found to be of higher nutrient value as compared to the compost made out of
cow dung and agro-waste. Composting of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is,
therefore, the most simple and cost effective technology for treating the organic
fraction of MSW. Full-scale commercially viable composting technology is already
demonstrated in India and is in use in several cities and towns. Its application to farm
land, tea gardens, fruit orchards or its use as soil conditioner in parks, gardens,
agricultural lands, etc., is however, limited on account of poor marketing.
Main advantages of composting include improvement in soil texture and
augmenting of micronutrient deficiencies. It also increases moisture-holding capacity
of the soil and helps in maintaining soil health. Moreover, it is an age-old established
concept for recycling nutrients to the soil. It does not require large capital investment,
compared to other waste treatment options. When composting is conducted under
controlled conditions, it does not generate odours and does not attract flies or other
animals. Composting recycles nutrients by returning them to the soil.
(E) Incineration
This method, commonly used in developed countries is most suitable for high
calorific value waste with a large component of paper, plastic, packaging material,
pathological wastes, etc. It can reduce waste volumes by over 90 per cent and convert
waste to innocuous material, with energy recovery. The method is relatively hygienic,
noiseless, and odourless, and land requirements are minimal. The plant can be located
within city limits, reducing the cost of waste transportation. This method, however, is
least suitable for disposal of chlorinated waste and aqueous/high moisture content/low
calorific value waste as supplementary fuel may be needed to sustain combustion,
adversely affecting net energy recovery.
The plant requires large capital and entails substantial operation and
maintenance costs. Skilled personnel are required for plant operation and
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maintenance. Emission of particulates, SOx, NOx, chlorinated compounds in air and
toxic metals in particulates concentrated in the ash have raised concerns.
(F) Sanitary landfilling
Sanitary landfills are the ultimate means of disposal of all types of residual,
residential, commercial and institutional waste as well as unutilized municipal solid
waste from waste processing facilities and other types of inorganic waste and inert
that cannot be reused or recycled in the foreseeable future.
Its main advantage is that it is the least cost option for waste disposal and has
the potential for the recovery of landfill gas as a source of energy, with net
environmental gains if organic wastes are landfilled. The gas after necessary cleaning
can be utilized for power generation or as domestic fuel for direct thermal
applications. Sanitary landfills can also include other pollution control measures, such
as collection and treatment of leachate, and venting or flaring of methane. Highly
skilled personnel are not required to operate a sanitary landfill.
Major limitation of this method is the costly transportation of waste to far
away landfill sites. Down gradient surface water can be polluted by surface run-off in
the absence of proper drainage systems and groundwater aquifers may get
contaminated by polluted leachate in the absence of a proper leachate collection and
treatment system. An inefficient gas recovery process emits two major green house
gases, carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere. It requires large land area. At
times the cost of pre-treatment to upgrade the gas quality and leachate treatment may
be significant. There is a risk of spontaneous ignition/explosion due to possible build
up of methane concentrations in air within the landfill or surrounding enclosures if
proper gas ventilation is not constructed.
6.5: Social Costs of Population explosion, viz. Pollution, Poverty and
Sustainable Development
Human beings have, throughout their history, changed their surroundings—
often in ways they neither intended nor desired. Such environmental problems as
depletion of natural resources, air pollution, and exhaustion, pollution of water
supplies, and poverty have arisen at many times and places. Yet for most of history
these problems have had mainly local impacts. What is new today is the vastly greater
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scale of the impact of human activities on the environment, to the point where the
impacts are now global. The rapid population growth, pollution, poverty and
economic development in country are degrading the environment through
uncontrolled growth of urbanization and industrialization, expansion and
intensification of agriculture, and the destruction of natural habitats. The three
fundamental demographic factors of births, deaths and migration produce changes in
population size; composition, distribution and these changes raise a number of
important questions of cause and effect. Population Reference Bureau estimated the
6.14 billion world's population in mid 2001. Contribution of India alone to this
population was estimated to be 1033 millions. It is estimated that the country’s
population will increase to 1.26 billion by the year 2016. The projected population
indicates that India will be a first most populous country in the world and China will
be second in 2050.12 Population growth influences the spatial concentration of people,
industry, commerce, vehicles, energy consumption, water use, waste generation, and
other environmental stresses. The increase of population has been tending towards
alarming situation. India is having 18 percent of the World’s population on 2.4
percent of its land area has great deal of pressure on its all natural resources. If the
world population continues to multiply, the impact on environment could be
devastating.
As the 21st century begins, growing number of people and rising levels of
consumption per capita, poverty, and other required infrastructure are often stressing
their environmental settings beyond sustainable development. Poverty is said to be
both cause and effect of environment degradation. The poor people, who rely on
natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster as they have no
real prospects of gaining access to other types of resources. Poorer people, who
cannot meet their subsistence needs through purchase, are forced to use common
property resources such as forests for food and fuel, pastures for fodder, and ponds
and rivers for water. Clean drinking water facility through taps is available to only 35
percent of urban households and 18 percent of rural households in India. Other
residents use unsafe water sources like wells, ponds and rivers. Population pressure
driven overexploitation of the surface and underground water resources by the poor
has resulted into contamination and exhaustion of the water resources. Urban
population is also using rivers to dispose of untreated sewage and industrial effluent.
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The result is that health of those dependents on untreated water resources is increasing
at risk. In the absence of capital resources, the poor are directly dependent on natural
resources. Moreover degraded environment can accelerate the process of
impoverishment, again because the poor depend directly on natural assets. Although
there has been significant drop in the poverty ratio in the country from 55 percent in
1973 to 27.5 percent in 2004-05. Acceleration in poverty alleviation is imperative to
break this link between poverty and the environment. The poverty and rapid
population growth are found to coexist and thus seems to reinforcing each other.
Though the relationship is complex, population size and growth tend to expand and
accelerate these human impacts on the natural resources and environment. All these in
turn lead to an increase in the pollution levels. However, environmental pollution not
only leads to deteriorating environmental conditions but also have adverse effects on
the sustainable development and health of people. What is more concern, the number
of population rise will increase to such an extent in future that it will cause overall
scarcity for resources.13 Hence, population control must be moved to the top of the
human agenda if posterity should enjoy the fruits of sustainable development.
(a) Population Growth in India
Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major source of
environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the support
systems. Unless the relationship between the multiplying population and the life
support system can be stabilized, development programmes, howsoever, innovative
are not likely to yield desired results. India is the second most populous country in
the world after China. Recently, the population of India has crossed the one billion
mark. According to the Census of India 2001, the population of India on 1st March
2001 was 1027 millions. At the time of independence, the country's population was
342 million. The number has multiplied three-fold in around five decades. Population
growth is generally regarded as the single most important force driving increases in
agricultural demand. While most recent expert assessments are cautiously optimistic
about the ability of global food production to keep up with demand for the next
quarter-century or half-century, food insecurity, associated with poverty, is projected
to persist for hundreds of millions of people. Nonetheless, the Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) concluded (in an assessment prepared for
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the World Food Summit in 1996) that “with regard to poverty alleviation and food
security, the inability to achieve environmentally sound and sustainable food
production is primarily the result of human inaction and indifference rather than
natural or social factors”.14
a (I) India’s Population- The Future
Table 6.13 depicts, projected population characteristics for all-India, 2001-26,
standard run. The standard run results for all-India arise from summing the results for
the 15 major states. However, with the exception of the statistics relating to the
projected population age distributions (and the TFRs and life expectancies which are
population-weighted figures arising from state level input assumptions) the all-India
figures in Table 6.13 have been adjusted to take account of the existence of smaller
states and union territories. Together these states and territories comprised 4.51 per
cent of the population in 2001. And it has been assumed here that this proportion will
rise at the average rate experienced during 1961-2001 until it reaches 5.29 per cent in
2026. According to the standard projection, India’s population will increase from
1027 to 1419 million during 2001-26, a total rise of 38 per cent or 1.3 per cent per
year. The crude birth rate will decline appreciably because of falling total fertility. But
population ageing will mean that there will be little change in crude death rate, despite
improving mortality. Indeed, the total number of deaths will increase steadily, and by
2021-6 the death rate may have started to rise slightly. The population growth rate is
set to decline significantly because of the falling birth rate. However, the projection
implies that it will not be until 2021-6 that the quinquennial growth rate falls below 1
per cent. During 2001-6 the average annual increment to the population (the excess of
births over deaths) will probably be around 17 million; by 2021-6 there will still be an
annual addition of about 11 million.
Despite the assumption of quite masculine sex ratios at birth for some states,
the sex ratio of the total population is projected to decline slightly. This is partly
because of the more favourable levels of overall mortality that are envisaged for
females (compared to males) and partly because of population ageing.
The proportion of the total population aged 0-14 years is set to decline
considerably. During 2001-26 it falls from 34.4 to 23.2 percent. However, the
absolute size of the population aged 0-14 will also fall from about 353 to 329 million.
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So all of the country’s future demographic growth will occur at middle and older
ages. A modest reduction in the annual number of births is projected from around 26
million during 2001-6 to 22 million during 2021-6. The median age of the population
rises appreciably from 22.7 to 31.6 years. The proportion of the population aged 60
years and over rises from about 7 to over 11 per cent.
Table 6.13: Projected population characteristics for all-India, 2001-26,
standard run
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 2026 Population (000s) 1,027,015 1,114,745 1,204,451 1,290,327 1,362,021 1,419,203
Males 531,227 575,816 621,132 664,172 699,706 727,552 Females 495,738 538,929 583,319 626,155 662,315 691,651
Sex ratio (m/f) 1.072 1.068 1.065 1.061 1.056 1.052 Age distribution
% aged 0-14 34.4 31.0 28.8 27.7 25.7 23.2 % aged 15-49 51.7 54.3 55.0 54.4 54.4 54.9 % aged 50-9 6.9 7.5 8.1 9.7 9.7 10.3 % aged 60+ 7.0 7.2 8.1 10.2 10.2 11.6
Median age (years) 22.7 24.0 25.6 29.6 29.6 31.6 Density (per sq.
Km) 324 352 380 430 430 448
2001-6 2006-11 2011-6 2016-21 2021-6 - Births per interval
(millions) 132.68 136.26 133.37 122.46 111.91 -
Deaths per interval (millions)
44.90 46.51 47.46 50.75 54.72 -
Population growth rate (%)
1.64 1.55 1.38 1.08 0.82 -
Crude birth rate (per 1000)
24.8 23.5 21.4 18.5 16.1 -
Crude death rate (per 1000)
8.4 8.0 7.6 7.7 7.9 -
TFR (births per woman)
2.84 2.55 2.33 2.13 1.94 -
Life expectation (males)
63.2 64.6 66.1 66.9 67.6 -
Life expectation (females)
64.8 66.8 66.7 69.7 70.7 -
Note: Except for the statistics relating to age composition and the TFRs and life expectations (which are approximately weighted averages for the state-level assumptions) the figures above have been adjusted to take account of the existence of smaller sates and union territories. The TFRs have been weighted on the projected state female populations aged 15-49. Source: Tim Dyson 2004, (Projection output).
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The population-weighted TFRs and life expectations which emerge from the
assumptions and projections results for all-India suggest that total fertility will be
close to replacement by the quinquennium 2016-21, and below replacement by 2021-
6. However, the all-India Total Fertility Rates (TFR) does not reach 1.8 births during
the period under review. Life expectation for both sexes combined is about 69 years
by 2021-6. The female advantage then will be approximately three years.
While as per census data 2011 (Provisional), the total population of India is
1,210,193,422. The national average for sex ratio shows an increase from 933 in year
2001 to 940 in year 2011. National child sex ratio has declined from 927 in year 2001
to 914 in year 2011. Whereas density increases from 324 per sq. km in 2001 to 382
per sq. km in 2011. 15
Thus, we have today crossed one billion mark and have become the most
dominant animal on this planet. Measures aimed at increased life expectancy have
been partly responsible for this population explosion. The population explosion that is
witnessed today is nothing but a reminder to what Malthus said in 1878: “population,
when unchecked increases in geometrical ratio”. Biologically we may have succeeded
in controlling death rate and contributing to population explosion. But there is a dark
side to our triumph. We live on a finite planet consuming the ‘capital’ of the earth- the
renewable and non-renewable resources. The impact of people on eco-system is
alarming. Both developing and developed economies tax their environment. As
Ehrlich says “while over population in poor nations tend to keep them poverty
stricken, over population in rich nations tend to undermine the life-support capacity of
the entire planet”.16 Hence there is no doubt that the explosion must end. If we fail to
curb our population growth, nature will end it in her own way by killing off a large
portion of humanity.
(b) Pollution
Environmental pollution is a serious and growing hazard in India. Its impact
on human health and well being is both direct, (e.g., inhalation of polluted air and
intake of contaminated water), or indirect, by its impact on the health of
environmental resources (loss of soil fertility, corrosion of structures, death of aquatic
life, etc.). The main factors contributing to urban air quality deterioration are growing
industrialization and increasing vehicular pollution. It has been aggravated by
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developments that typically occur as countries industrialize, growing cities, increasing
traffic, rapid economic development and industrial growth, all of which are closely
associated with higher energy consumption. Industrial pollution is concentrated in
industries like petroleum refineries, textiles, pulp and paper, industrial chemicals, iron
and steel and non-metallic mineral products. Small scale industries especially
foundries, chemical manufacturing and brick making are also significant polluters. In
the power sector, thermal power, which constitutes bulk of the installed capacity for
electricity generation, is an important source of air pollution.
Vehicle traffic is the most important source of pollution in all the mega cities.
The number of vehicles in these cities has increased manifold. This increase has been
characterized by a boom in private transport. Other reasons for high vehicular
pollution are two stroke engines, aged vehicles, Congested traffic, poor roads and
outdated automotive technologies and traffic management system.
Pollution in the coastal zone, resulting in the destruction of valuable living
natural and marine resources, and spoiling of tourist attractions like beaches is now
attracting growing attention. An important impact of climate change and global
warming may be the rise in sea level. The primary effect of sea level rise will be
increased coastal flooding, erosion, storm surges and wave activity.
Thus, we can say that environmental pollution give rise to environmental
degradation and finally environmental degradation is the consequence of rapid
urbanization. This we can proof with the help of a hypothesis:
Table 6.14 (a): State of ambient air quality and Population in 10 metro cities of
India during 1991.
City SO2 NO2 NH3 H2S SPM RSPM Population Ahmedabad 16 7 17 1 285 122 3312216
Mumbai 27 26 51 2 226 91 1259243 Calcutta 62 39 93 4 394 180 11021918 Delhi 33 46 176 1 543 204 8419084
Hyderabad 10 19 10 2 156 56 4344437 Jaipur 8 14 29 2 338 108 1518235 Cochin 11 10 74 1 115 58 1140605 Kanpur 7 13 65 1 380 135 2029889 Chennai 8 13 33 2 101 67 5421985 Nagpur 9 9 70 1 173 82 1664006
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Table 6.14 (b): Correlation Matrix
Note: Units are in 10-6 grammes per cubic meter
Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2000.
Table 6.14 (a) shows, state of ambient air quality and population in 10 metro
cities of India during 1991. Indian cities are among the most polluted in the world. Air
in metropolitan cities has become highly polluted and pollutant concentrations
exceeds limit considered safe by the World Health Organization (WHO). Suspended
particulate levels in Delhi are many times higher than recommended by the World
Health Organisation (WHO). The urban air pollution has grown across India in the
last decade are alarming. Some of the most important air pollutants are residual
suspended particulate matter (RSPM), suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen
dioxides (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lead, sulphur dioxide (SO2) etc. The main
sources of these pollutants are growing industrialization and increasing vehicular
pollution, industrial emissions, automobile exhaust and the burning of fossil fuels kills
thousands and live many more to suffer mainly from respiratory damage, heart and
lung diseases. In the countryside, nitrates from animal waste and chemical fertilizers
pollute the soil and water, and in the cities, the air is contaminated with lead from
vehicle exhaust.
1991 Population SO2 NO2 NH3 H2S SPM RSPM
Population 1
SO2 0.81 1
NO2 0.52 0.74 1
NH3 0.71 0.46 -0.07 1
H2S 0.52 0.69 0.66 0.086 1
SPM 0.69 0.74 0.72 0.208 0.95 1
RSPM 0.80 0.77 0.51 0.608 0.50 0.68 1
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Table 6.15 (a): Emission load and Population in Metropolitan Cities of India in 2001 (TMT; Annual)
City Matter (PM)
NOx HC CO Benzene Butadiene Population
Delhi 14 63 113 293 2.97 0.35 12791458
Mumbai 6 20 54 109 2.15 0.13 16368084
Kolkata 5 22 16 45 0.73 0.05 13216546
Chennai 4 17 44 88 1.89 0.11 6424624
Bangalore 7 27 71 118 2.95 0.15 5686844
Hyderabad 6 15 73 129 2.92 0.15 5533640
Ahmedabad 5 22 31 58 2.95 0.17 4519278
Kanpur 2 6 12 23 1.65 0.13 2690486
Varanasi 1.2 17 29 51 23 0.08 1211749 Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2002, Ministry of Statistic and
Programme Implementation & Annual Report 2002-03, CPCB, Ministry of Environment & Forests, GOI.
Table 6.15 (b): Correlation Matrix
Table 6.15 (a) depicts that growing vehicular stock results in increased
environmental emission. The transport sector contributes a major share of
environmental pollution (nearly around 70 per cent). This is because all metropolitan
cities have been facing consistent rise in vehicular stock and growth in demand for
transportation services. Travel & transportation demands are very high in the case of
mega cities, namely, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai whereas Hyderabad,
Ahmedabad, and Bangalore are also among the mega cities with respect to vehicular
2001 Population Matter (PM) NOx HC CO Benzene Butadiene
Population 1
Matter (PM) 0.92 1
NOx 0.88 0.79 1
HC 0.94 0.90 0.96 1
CO -0.39 -0.10 -0.16 -0.17 1
Benzene 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.89 -0.22 1
Butadiene 0.58 0.47 0.35 0.45 -0.48 0.23 1
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stock. Delhi stands out among these cities with a total vehicular population equal to
the vehicular stock in the other three metros, that is, Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai,
put together. Delhi roads are predominantly occupied by two-wheelers whereas in the
case of Mumbai cars dominate. In Delhi, about 293 metric tonnes of CO are emitted.
With Delhi standing high, Hyderabad is catching up with Bangalore at a very fast rate.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is the major pollutant coming from the transport
sector, contributing almost 90 per cent of the total emission. Hydrocarbons (HC) are
next to CO. Most of the suspended particulate matter (SPM) is due to the
resuspension of dust. Air pollution comes from various natural sources as well as
anthropogenic (regarding mankind as the centre for existence) sources. The major
source of CO and HC has been anthropogenic while for others like SPM the sources
of pollution are natural ones. Another important air quality indicator is NOx, Benzene
and Butadiene.
In fact, it is observed that the growing trend of emission is due to the fact that
the vehicles are used for an extended lifetime without proper maintenance. Poorly
maintained vehicles tend to emit more pollutants than others. Improper inspection and
maintenance (I &M), use of poor quality fuels, poor road conditions, and increased
congestion add to emission. At present, in Delhi, owing to initiatives from various
sectors, some of the above mentioned factors are showing improvement. The rate of
registration of two-wheelers came down to around 50,000 per annum by 2002
although earlier they were being registered at a rate of around 0.1 million per annum.
Considering that old two-wheelers above a certain age get phased out, in Delhi the
total number of two-wheelers plying may actually be reducing.17 As a result, Delhi is
experiencing improved air quality and one of the main reason is use of gaseous fuels,
that is, CNG and LPG. Vehicles using CNG are proved to be economically viable and
environmentally superior. Currently, vehicles run on CNG are prominent in major
metropolitan cities like Delhi and Mumbai only. Improvement in the ambient air in
Delhi is attributed to the conversion of entire bus fleet to CNG. This should set trend
for the other polluting cities like Hyderabad and Bangalore.
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Table 6.16: Ambient Noise Levels in Cities in 2000
Note: Ambient Noise Standards Prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board. All values
are described in Decibels.
Day time: 6:00 am-9:00 am
Night time: 9:00 pm-6:00 am
Source: Compiled from the Statistics released by: Urban Statistics, Handbook 2000,
National Institute of Urban Affairs
Table 6.16 reveals ambient noise levels in various cities. Through the
promulgation of the Comprehensive Air Act of 1986, noise pollution has become an
offence in India. The various prescribed limits for the urban environmental ambient
noise for different sectors by CPCB are mentioned in the table. It is clear from the
table that cities like, Chennai, Calcutta, and Mumbai crosses the prescribed limits
followed high by Bangalore, Hyderabad and Jaipur.
Thus, if we try to find out the interrelationship between Urbanization and
Environmental degradation, we obtained the following results from the above tables
and their analysis:
City Residential Commercial Sensitive Industrial
Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night
Prescribed Standards* 55 45 65 55 50 40 75 70
Bhopal 60 44 75 57 73 42 68 47
Bangalore 59-79 37-59 68-81 46-64 58-74 - 63-86 42-65
Calcutta 76-86 58-76 70-90 57-78 69-89 65-70 75-82 53-70
Chennai 57-84 45-50 74-80 69-71 46-70 47-50 69-76 63-69
Delhi 53-71 - 63-75 - 62-68 - 65-81 -
Dehradun 50 38 70 50 58 42 50 45
Hyderabad 56-73 40-50 67-84 58-73 62-78 51-67 44-77 42-70
Jaipur 46-82 43-78 64-88 51-80 60-75 55-66 59-81 48-78
Kanpur 49-69 39-59 68-82 57-76 47-61 35-57 63-78 57-63
Kochi 70 51 85 56 72 51 70 61
Lucknow 55 50 70 58 50 40 60 58
Mumbai 45-81 45-68 63-81 60-75 58-77 46-66 73-79 56-72
Varanasi 50 40 70 50 55 40 50 50
Visakhapatnam 74 59 85 70 75 57 75 51
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1) From table 6.14 (b) correlation matrix, we find high degree of positive
correlation between state of ambient air quality and population in 10 metro cities
of India during 1991. As the main source of these pollutants is growing
industrialization with unplanned urbanization causing increase in vehicular
pollution, industrial emissions, automobile exhaust and the burning of fossil
fuels.
2) Table 6.15 (b) correlation matrix, also shows high degree of positive correlation
between emission load and population in metropolitan cities of India in 2001. As
the transport sector contributes a major share of environmental pollution (nearly
around 70 per cent). This is because all metropolitan cities have been facing
consistent rise in vehicular stock due to growth in demand for fast and
convenient mode of travel & transportation.
3) Table 6.16 depicts noise levels in various cities which show that noise pollution
crosses the prescribed limits almost in all the cities at the alarming rate as the
population moves to these mega cities in search of employment and better
standard of livings. The additional population and extra vehicles add up to the
burden of noise.
4) Table 6.5, shows the comparison of water supply, wastewater generation and
treatment in Class I Cities and Class II Towns during 1978-79, 1989-90, 1994-
95 and 2003-04. From the analysis of this table, we find that the wastewater
generation has increased three fold i.e. from 8233 million litres per day (mld) in
1978-79 to 26254 mld in 2003-04 putting together the figures of both categories
of urban centres. Although, the treatment capacity has also increased by two and
half times from 2823 mld in 1978-79 to 7044 mld in 2003-04 but the gap of
untreated volume has increased drastically. This may be due to the increase in
mass urban population and lack of proper management/incentives by the
government.
On the basis of above information and analysis of the data, it is being observed
that all air, water and noise pollution has increased in urban areas in India over a
period of time. The major reason for this has been an influx of population due to
availability of job opportunities owing to industrialization in urban areas. The
urbanization itself is defined as an index of transformation from traditional rural
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economies to modern industrial one. It is progressive concentration of population in
urban unit. These facts provide sufficient amount of reasoning to confirm our fifth and
last hypothesis that environmental degradation is the consequence of rapid
urbanization.
(c) Poverty
High poverty levels are synonymous with poor quality of life, deprivation,
malnutrition, illiteracy and low human resource development. Poverty in India can be
defined as a situation only when a section of peoples are unable to satisfy the basic
needs of life.
Percentage of Population below Poverty line-India
Table 6.17
Comparison of Poverty Estimates Based on Mixed Recall Period
1993-94 2004-05
Rural 27.1 21.8
Urban 23.6 21.7
Total 26.1 21.8
Source: 60th Round of NSSO Survey (CSO-Govt. Of India)
Table 6.18
Comparison of Poverty Estimates Based on Uniform Recall Period
1999-2000 200405
Rural 37.3 28.3
Urban 32.4 25.7
Total 36.0 27.05 Source: 60th Round of NSSO Survey (CSO-Govt. Of India)
According to an expert group of Planning Commission, poverty lines in rural
areas are drawn with an intake of 2400 calories in rural areas and 2100 calories in
urban areas. If the person is unable to get that minimum level of calories is considered
as being below poverty line. In the cities people are suffering from acute poverty and
the living conditions is so poor that in one small room all family members are staying
and this is common feature of people who are living below poverty line. The speed of
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population growth and levels of poverty in mega cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata,
Delhi and Hyderabad pose immense infrastructural problems. Though the percentage
of population below poverty line declined during subsequent period but still large
number of population are below poverty line. Chronic poverty is the general
phenomenon of people in urban slums. Existence of mass poverty is a reality in India
and it is included in thirty poorest nations of the world. Poverty is more visible in
mega cities as compared to intermediate cities. The divide within the urban area is
growing rapidly and inequality is more common in urban places.
Satterthwaite (2002)18 lists eight aspects of urban poverty, which are helpful in
considering issues of exclusion and the appropriate range of possible policy
responses, and also how urbanization may relate to each aspect. The different aspects
of urban poverty are;
i. Inadequate income (and thus inadequate consumption of necessities including
food and, often, safe and sufficient water; often problems of indebtedness,
with debt repayments significantly reducing income available for necessities).
ii. Inadequate, unstable or risky asset base (non-material and material including
educational attainment and housing) for individuals, households or
communities.
iii. Inadequate shelter (typically poor quality, overcrowded and insecure).
iv. Inadequate provision of ‘public’ infrastructure (piped water, sanitation,
drainage, roads, footpaths, etc.) which increases the health burden and often
the work burden.
v. Inadequate provision of basic services such as day care/schools/vocational
training, healthcare, emergency services, public transport, communications,
law enforcement.
vi. Limited or no safety net to ensure basic consumption can be maintained when
income falls; also to ensure access to shelter and healthcare when these can no
longer be paid for.
vii. Inadequate protection of poorer groups’ rights through the operation of the
law: including laws and regulations regarding civil and political rights,
occupational health and safety, pollution control environmental health,
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protection from violence and other crimes, protection from discrimination and
exploitation.
viii. Poorer groups’ voicelessness and powerlessness within political systems and
bureaucratic structures, leading to little or no possibility of receiving
entitlements; of organising, making demands and getting a fair response; and
of receiving support for developing their own initiatives. Also, no means of
ensuring accountability from aid agencies, NGOs, public agencies and private
utilities and being able to participate in the definition and implementation of
their urban poverty programmes.
(d) Sustainable Development
There is a growing emphasis on sustainable development all over the world.
This is due to the increase in population and its use and misuse of resource adversely
affect the resiliency of natural ecosystem, because the economic process of production
and consumption draw to a lesser extent on services provided by resource of natural
physical environment. Further development activities in a country like India have
proceeded on a resource intensive path. It has seriously disrupted ecological stability
of life support system. Today many of the problems, which challenge human society,
are socio-ecological in nature. Hence the decisions concerning the use of resources
can’t be made effective without a fundamental understanding of the ways in which
ecosystem processes work. For this, knowledge of sustainable development is needed
to evaluate the consequences of a wide range of human activities and to plan
management of natural and man-made ecosystem in a sustainable manner.
The concept of sustainable development received wider recognition when the
General Assembly of the United Nations approved a World Commission on
Environment and development under the presidentship of G.H. Bruntdland, the
former Prime Minister of Norway. The commission brought out its report under the
title ‘Our common Future’ in 1987 and has discussed the concept of sustainable
development.
The commission has defined sustainable development as “development that meets the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. An analysis of this definition leads to two concepts:
1) The essential needs of the world’s poor, and
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2) The use of technology in meeting the needs should not disturb the environment.
In the attainment of sustainable development, it seems the factor of population
growth cannot be ignored. Increase in population increases the pressure on resources
and checks the rise in living standards in areas where deprivation is widespread.
If one considers the world scenario, the achievements of sustainable
development remains the greatest challenge facing the human race. Today, people
suffer from grossly inadequate access to the resources like education, health services,
infrastructure, land and credit facilities. The essential task of development is to
provide opportunities so that these people and the hundreds of millions who are not
better off can reach their potential.
The Clarion Call in this connection was given by the United Nations
Conference on ‘Human Environment’ held in Stockholm in June 1972. The
conference in its resolution declared that in the developing countries most of the
environmental problems are caused by underdevelopment. Millions continue to live
far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of
adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation.
Thus, any talk of sustainable development, particularly in the developing
countries, is futile unless the key issue of poverty and population explosion is taken
care of.
d (I) Policies for Sustainable Development
The damaging effects of environmental degradation can be reduced by a
judicious choice of economic and environmental policies and environmental
investments. The important policy measures for sustainable development are as
follows:
1) Reducing Poverty:
Reduction of poverty should be the foremost priority of the Government. It
should select those projects which provide greater employment opportunities to the
poor. It should expand health; family planning and education that will help reduce
population growth. Supply of drinking water, sanitation facilities, and slum clearance
should be given top priority.
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2) Removing Subsidies:
To reduce environmental degradation at no net financial cost to the
Government, subsidies for resource use by the private and public sectors should be
removed. Because, subsidies on the use of electricity, fertilizers, pesticides, diesel,
petrol, gas, irrigation, water etc lead to their wasteful use and environmental
problems.
3) Clarifying and Extending Property Rights:
Lack of property rights over excessive use of resources leads to degradation of
environment. This leads to overgrazing, deforestation and over exploitation of
minerals. Therefore, clarifying and assigning ownership titles to private owners will
solve environmental problems.
4) Market based Approaches:
Various market based approaches should be adopted to protect environment.
Market based instruments in the form of emission tax, pollution taxes, marketable
permits, depositor fund system, input taxes, differential tax rates, user administrative
charges, subsidies for pollution abatement equipment etc should be extensively used
to protect environment.
5) Regulatory Policies:
Regulatory policies are the 'other weapons for reducing environmental
degradation. Regulators have to make decisions regarding price, quantity and
technology. They decide the technical standards, regulations and charges on air, water
and land pollutants.
6) Public Participation:
Public awareness and participation are highly effective to improve
environmental conditions. For this purpose various formal and informal education
programme, environmental awareness programmes, advertisement, public
movements, afforestation, conservation of wild life etc are to be organized on a large
scale.
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7) Trade and Environment:
The Government should formulate an environment friendly trade policy
covering both domestic and international trade. It should encourage the establishment
of less polluting industries, adoption of cleaner technologies, adoption of environment
friendly processes etc to control environmental degradation.
8) Participation in Global Environmental Efforts:
Participation in various international conventions and agreements on
environmental protection and conservation can also help to minimize damages of
environmental degradation. They include the Montreal protocol, the Basel convention,
the Rio Declaration, the Agenda 21, the Earth summits etc.
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