Environmental and Social Risks posed by the Green and Gene revolution

Iris W - Risks of Green Gene Revolution - Research Report · page 1 of 17

International Development - Research report 2012

What are the Environmental and Social Risks

posed by the Green and Gene revolution?

What are the alternatives to intensive agriculture?

A case study review on the Integrated Pest Management project

by the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences Nepal


Executive summary This report aims on highlighting the environmental, social and economic risks posed by the Green and Gene revolution, and makes assessments on the impacts of intensive agriculture. Further, this report presents possible alternatives through institutional systems, market-based mechanisms, technical solutions and capacity-building approaches that might be employed to help alleviate the problem associated with intensive agriculture. The case study examined for this report is the 'Integrated Pest Management through Farmers Field School (IPM-FFS)', a study conducted in Badhara in East Chitwan by the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences Nepal, as part of the nation's effort of achieving Nepal’s Millennium Development Goals targets. It follows the UN's FAO framework for Agriculture Conservation in its focussing on sustainable farming practices and on alternatives to intensive agricultural methods (UNDP Nepal, 2011). The results of the study suggest that in a world with limited natural resources (land, water, energy, fertiliser), where food inequality and food insecurity are still the reality and cost-effective solutions have to be found to produce enough safe and nutritious food accessible for all, the return to sovereign sustainable agriculture must become a priority.


1. Introduction The period since the 1960ies has seen two waves of agricultural technology development. The first wave arrived as 'Green Revolution', where seeds with technically improved germplasm were supplied strategically to farmers in developing countries. The second wave was the Gene Revolution in which a global and largely private agricultural research conglomerate is creating improved agricultural technologies based on genetic modification (GM) that flow to developing countries primarily through market transactions (Pingali, 2005). Four decades ago the United States and the rest of the developed world feared that food crises in developing countries would cause political instability that could push those countries over to the Communist side. At that time the Green Revolution was first seriously considered, as the U.S. government was highly concerned about agricultural science in the developing world, and subsequently worked with foundations and scientists in the post-World War II decades to bring about the Green Revolution in regions subject to famine (Perkins, 1997). By now the Cold War has ended, and famines appear to be more the result of climate change, politics, and war conditions than a sweeping threat that would command sustained attention by governments and the public in industrial countries. Instead, public concerns and national and international regulations are now the driving force behind the discourse whether GM crops are adopted or rejected in various parts of the world, because wider public scrutiny and the newness of the science have led to concerns about environmental and health risks of GM crops that must be dealt with at the policy level (Wu, 2004). This report aims to identify alternatives to intensive agriculture practices and the implications of the Green and Gene revolution.


2. Methodology The data for this report has been drawn from secondary data sources in form of an extensive literature review of academic, NGO and government publications. The data sources included mostly grey literature such as websites and online publications, but also black literature sources in form of peer reviewed books and journals. Sources were established by snowballing through literature references and relevant websites. The selection criteria for sources were a scientific nature of the article and origin of the published content. Where information was not available, assessments and assumptions have been made.

2.1 Definition of Green Revolution Technically speaking the term Green Revolution describes the breeding of plants that will bear more edible grain and thus increase yields without increasing cultivated crop areas. Traditional grains tend to be tall on the stalk for reasons of natural selection. That way they can get more sunlight, grow higher than the surrounding weeds, and resist flooding when heavy rains come. If one tried to produce double kernels on these long stalks, the plants would be top heavy, keel over and lodge in the soil. To overcome this problem plants with short, tough stalks that could bear new fertiliser-sensitive hybrids had to be found. These dwarf varieties, capable of producing spectacular yields under ideal conditions, were eventually bred, under the name of 'High-Yielding Varieties, or HYVs for short (George, 1991). In Nepal the green revolution started during the mid-sixties, a time when traditional farmers were taught to use agrochemicals, such as fertilisers, fungicides and insecticides. 63 registered technical products are now available in the market which are being used on various crops throughout the country. Most of the pesticides (98 %) are imported, very few (2 %) are formulated in Nepal. The majority of the farmers in the region are illiterate. Similarly the general public is ignorant about the impact of pesticides on the environment and the human health. (Neupane, 2001).

2.2 Definition of Gene Revolution The terms 'Gene Revolution' and 'Biotechnology' stand for the development of genetically modified organisms, and represent an attempt to overcome the problems associated with the Green Revolution. In 2010 48 % of the global biotech crops have been grown by countries in the developing world, and they are expected to exceed industrialised nations in their plantings of biotech crops by 2015 (James, 2011). Genetic engineering refers to artificial processes that alter the genetic makeup of an organism by transferring genes from one organism to another in order to transfer a desired trait such as drought or pest resistance. (Kashambuzi, 2008).


However, the idea of manipulating the genetic structure of a living organism has caused much debate and unease around the world. A number of countries in the developed world have imposed a ban on genetically modified crops, and heavy restrictions have been imposed on their importation. The real risk-benefit analysis about plant biotechnology will take place throughout the developing world among the poorest people living on less favoured lands, as it is in these circumstances that the need becomes urgent and the options are few. Had there been a slower introduction of this technology, with more commitment to the Precautionary Principle, which suggests a pace moderate enough to measure unforeseen effects and to measure carefully enough to detect those effects before they do harm, there might have been a better public acceptance of biotechnology altogether (Conway, 2000).


3. Risks of Green and Gene Revolution

3.1. Environmental risks Although the advancements of modern agriculture has brought increased food productivity and saved lives throughout the developing world, the technologies used – pesticides, fertilisers, mechanisation, irrigation and GM developments – have introduced serious economic, social and environmental challenges. The required use of high yielding/high responding seed varieties leads to the replacement of traditional seeds, and small scale farmers are being pushed out of business because they cannot afford the high costs of the new technologies (Kashambuzi, 2008). High-yielding varieties plants can be adapted to any number of environments, but they are not as adapted as thousands of years of natural selection could make them - they present problems of disease resistance. They will not bear full fruit unless optimum interventions are being applied. To get full benefit from new seed varieties, they must have heavy doses of pesticides and fungicides, large amounts of fertilisers and irrigation water which pollute the soil and water, and plenty of herbicides against the weeds that also thrive on fertiliser. The problem is that if a single one of these elements is lacking, HYVS can produce less grain than what could have been obtained with traditional varieties (George, 1991). Societal resistance to GM crops has been triggered by the emergence of potential allergies that could cause reactions in humans, the rising resistance rates of pests to toxins and the presence of toxins in sediments that threaten non-target insect populations, as well as the unintended possible crossing of new genes into wild relatives (Kashambuzi, 2008).

3.2. Social risks Throughout the 10,000 year history of agriculture, seeds always represented its very foundation. Seed diversity is the product of constantly evolving efforts of farmers to conserve, adapt, improve, and utilise diverse range of seeds for equally diverse range of purposes. The free exchange of seeds among farmers has been a very important part of this process, which made the passing of knowledge, customs, traditions and culture possible from one farmer to another. This changed dramatically with the advent of modern farming and the Green and Gene Revolutions. Farmers seeds were no longer valuable, while the seeds bred by scientists (using the very same seeds of farmers) were applauded as the answer to all problems. Farmers had to be responsible in feeding entire nations, and thus had to be mindful of productive harvests, which are measured in volume (of the same crop) and not diversity of outputs. Farmers now have to rely on agricultural technicians for technical guidelines in farming, and have to mechanise their operation in order to achieve “efficiency” (GRAIN, 2010). The result of such systematic undermining of traditional farming knowledge has become apparent with a large number of seed varieties having disappeared, and with farmers being left disempowered and without control over their destiny.


Governments, researchers and the general public need to understand the full implications of what is called Terminator Technology, which are programmed seeds that will sterilise grains from its planting. The terminator gene is triggered by the application of tetracycline to the seed at the time when it is being marketed. The farmers are therefore forced to purchase the seed every planting season and become dependent on the few companies that sell these seeds because the farmers’ knowledge becomes obsolete (Kashambuzi, 2008). The political and security implications of such arrangements have to be watched closely.

3.3 Economic risks A fundamental challenge for Biotechnology that did not arise during the Green Revolution is the definition and treatment of intellectual property (IP). IP issues are central to the Gene Revolution, as while science and technology advance through the sharing of ideas and resources, legal implications and IP restrictions can often limit the valuable diffusion of science and technology. The issue of who can 'own' a particular event (the successful transformation) of a genetically modified crop and who can develop it further has become so economically important and contentious that cases involving this issue are now being litigated, and IP issues are considered among the most important impediments to the development and adoption of GM crops in the developing world (Wu, 2004). A number of large transnational corporations that combine seed industries with chemical industries currently dominate agricultural biotechnology. Such profit-driven companies see little reason to invest in expensive research and regulatory costs to produce crops which will be grown on relatively few acres, only to be heavily subsidised for poor farmers to afford. So private research focuses instead on needs of capital-intensive farming, as research into feeding the poor is less attractive due to long lead times, risk related to unpredictable agricultural conditions and disregard of intellectual property rights, and beneficiaries with little capacity to pay (Conway, 2000). Because of the private sector’s role in the financial organisation of the GM crop movement, IP considerations arise. Corporations own the rights to many of the necessary technologies and knowledge that lead to the development of useful GM crops; thus, public researchers in agricultural biotechnology as well as other private companies are often unable to access those technologies and knowledge that they need, or are legally blocked from using what they do know.


4. Alternatives besides intensive agriculture

4.1.1. Case Study Nepal: Farmers Field School IPM FFS This reports examines the case study 'Farmers Field School in Potato - An Effective Tool For Integrated Pest Management', a study undertaken by the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences in Rampur Chitwan Nepal in 2007 as part of the nation's effort of achieving Nepal’s Millennium Development Goals (see table 1.1) (UNMDG Nepal, 2011).

Nepal is among the poorest countries on earth, with 25.4 percent of its population of 27.5 million living below the national poverty line. Nepal’s Human Development Index is 0.428, with a rank of 138 out of 169 countries. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for 75% of the population and accounting for about 30% of GDP (UNDP Nepal, 2011). Nepal has immense diversity in agro-climate and crop production allowed by spatial variation in climate, but pests are the major constraints. Various studies indicated that about 35-40% pre- and post-harvest losses are caused by pests (FAO, 2008) and several types of chemicals are used to control pests of the major crops in Nepal. Due to misuse and over use of pesticides, harmful effects have been observed on human beings and the environment (UNDP Nepal, 2011). Most of the farmers are not aware of the chemical hazards and do not have adequate knowledge of safety measures. In the Nepalese context, pesticides are not only hazardous but also highly persistent in nature. They leave long term effects, such as effect in soil, environment, human health, ground water contamination, pesticide resistance, pest resurgence and other ecological effects but these effects are being neglected by the farmers (Neupane 2001).


The term integrated pest management (IPM) in the context of the associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species is used as a system that utilises all suitable techniques and methods to maintain pest populations at levels below those causing economic injury. IPM is not about eliminating all pests; in fact, low-levels of population of some pests are needed to keep natural enemies in the field (FAO, 2008). Physical, mechanical, biological, chemical, botanicals, host plant resistance methods have been mentioned as single or an integrated way for the pest management. Hence, IPM aims at combining all available methods or tools of insect pest control measures in a manner that minimizes insecticides use and disturbance to an ecosystem. In 1990, farmers’ field school (FFS) for IPM began to appear in Indonesian villages, and Nepal has been following IPM-FFS model since 1997. Considering those novel aspects of FFS an IPM-FFS was conducted with the objective of familiarising farmers with the ill-effects agrochemicals, and orienting them toward IPM and increasing their confidence in analysing and managing agro-ecosystem. The Farmers Field School (FFS) conducted an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) training in Badhara, East Chitwan Nepal, to familiarise farmers on IPM practices, technology transfer and develop their skills in agro-ecosystem analysis. Sixteen farmers were selected with additional two farmers selected as trainers. The teaching-learning process was completely participatory and collaborative during the duration of the project. Participants compared the growth performance, pest incidence and economy of production in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Farmer Managed (FM) practices. The IPM plots were kept free from chemicals, but were included in the FM practice of potato cultivation. The results of the Farmers Field School study showed that IPM performed better than FM in regards to growth parameters, such as leaf numbers and plant height. Recorded in the IPM plot were 69 leaves per plant and in the FM plot 65 leaves per plant (see figures 1 and 2).

Chart © 2007 IAAS

Figure 1 Map Nepal ©2007 IAAS


Chart © 2007 IAAS

In both practices pest incidences were similar, irrespective whether chemicals had been applied or not. Observation of beneficial and harmful insects in the field showed that in the early part of the observation, when major pesticides were applied in the FM plots, the number of beneficial insects were higher in IPM plots than in FM plots, but later followed similar trends of rhythmic increase and decrease in insect population in both plots, with slightly higher population in FM plots. In the early stages of the potato growth, the number of harmful insects was lower in FM plots when pest control measures were applied. It then peaked during mid growing season, to return to a lower equilibrium level which was maintained. However, in IPM plots the pest population was higher at the early growing stage with a gradual decrease during the later stage of the growing season (see figures 3 and 4).

Chart © 2007 IAAS


Chart © 2007 IAAS

Spodopteran pests were trapped using spodolure in pheromone traps. Various insects collected in the spodolure traps showed that the number of caught insects were the highest in the 7th agro-ecosystem observation (see figure 5). This maximum number coincides with maximum number of harmful insects. Spodolure was the best IPM tool for monitoring of lepidopteran pests in potato crops under farmers field condition.

Chart © 2007 IAAS

Experimentation and comparative analysis of various parameters in the agro-ecosystem analysis showed better growth performance of the potato plants in the IPM plots than in FM practice. Observation of plant height, leaf number, pest population and number of beneficial insects also showed that overall performance was better in IPM plots than in FM practice. Pest population in IPM plots was maintained at lower threshold level and no pest outbreak was observed during study period. The economic evaluation by the participating farmers showed that the IPM was more cost effective with judicious use of agro-chemicals than FM practice. The IPM system eventuated as more economically profitable for the farmer than the FM practice. Thus, IPM FFS proved to be very useful and beneficial for farmers.


4.2. Technical solutions: Botanical pesticides, perennial grains and BIF The Hindu Kush Region hosts a wide variety of plant species with pesticidal properties (Neupane, 2001). In the past, before the discovery and use of synthetic chemical pesticides, farmers used such plants for crop protection. These plants have almost been forgotten, but now new studies are being undertaken, researching the use of botanical pesticides. Among the various plants that have pesticidal properties, Neem has been found to possess special chemicals that have insecticidal, repelling, antifeeding, growth inhibiting, and fungicidal and nematicidal properties. The derivatives of Neem have been widely used in India and also to some extent in Nepal (Neupane, 2001).

Neem Blossoms. Image © 2009 J.M.Garg

Perennial wheat grasses seem to offer another solution for more sustainable agriculture. These plants have longer growing seasons than annual crops, and their deep roots let the plant take greater advantage of precipitation. Their root system can reach 10 to 12 feet down, and thereby build soil and sequester carbon from the atmosphere. They also require fewer passes of farm equipment and need less herbicide. The hydrological benefits include reduced soil water logging, reduced sub-soil acidification associated with nitrate leaching, and decreased groundwater recharge and dryland salinity. Perennial grain research is currently underway in Argentina, Australia, China, India, Sweden and the United States (Cox, 2010).

Image source: © 2012 The Land Institute

Integrated pest management is one of the techno-environmental components within the conceptual framework of Bio-Intensive Farming (BIF) system, and is the only eco- and health-friendly option available today for the control of pests in agriculture. The bio-intensive farming system relies on appropriate spatial management of field crops, vegetable crops, fruits and fodder trees as well as livestock and poultry for rational and ecologically non-destructive utilisation of lands in the hills and mountains. It increases soil fertility, revitalises degraded soil, decreases environmental pollution and prevents health hazards to humans and livestock, and also reduces further degradation of the environment, which otherwise might lead to desertification of previously good quality farmland. It is, therefore, not only eco-friendly but also friendly to human and animal health (Rajbhandari, 2011).


4.3. Market based mechanisms: Micro financing Microfinance is a general term to describe financial services such as loans, savings, and other basic financial services to low-income individuals or to those who do not have access to typical banking services. As these financial services usually involve small amounts of money - small loans, small savings, etc. - the term "microfinance" is used to differentiate these services from those which formal banks provide. Patan Business and Professional Women (BPW Patan) was established in 1995 as the Patan Chapter of Federation of Business and Professional Women (BPW Nepal), a pioneer social, non-profit and voluntary organisation. BPW Patan specifically operates in areas where poverty levels are very high and no other banks, financial institutions or NGOs provide microfinance services. BPW enables women borrowers in Nepal to move beyond subsistence agriculture and earn much-needed cash income throughout the year. In addition to offering microcredit and business training programs to its clients, BPW Patan seeks to empower Nepali women within the home and community through a healthy local governance structure that promotes leadership and encourages women to voice their opinions (BPW Patan, 2012). The United Nation Development Program in Nepal is promoting micro-enterprises and thereby helping to institutionalise support for micro-enterprise development by supporting the inclusion of a micro-enterprise development component in the government’s Comprehensive Industrial Policy. In 2010 the program saw the training of 487 enterprise development facilitators and the establishment of micro-enterprise units in 25 districts, helping to implement the government’s Micro-enterprise Development for Poverty Alleviation scheme (UNDP Nepal, 2010).

4.4. Capacity building: Education The Center for Environmental and Agricultural Policy Research, Extension and Development (CEAPRED) facilitates training for Nepali farmers through the Integrated Pest Management-Collaborative Research Support Program, making Farmers aware about the use of pheromones and traps and its positive impact upon the health, environment and biodiversity. The program aims to minimise the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides on vegetables and commercial crops; to educate farmers about bio-fertilisers and bio-pesticides in farmers practice for their effectiveness in terms of yield, cost and benefits; to encourage farmers to maintain bio-diversity and keep soils healthy by improving moisture and controlling erosion with suitable ground cover; to make farmers aware about use importance of technologies like grafting; and to accelerate biological and physiological activities of plants to increase the yield of the crop (CEAPRED, 2012). The United Nation Development Program in Nepal facilitated extending access to financial services, where partnerships with 18 financial service providers have been forged and technical and capacity building support had been provided. This led to the opening of 80 new branches and reaching 97,880 new clients, almost all of whom are women. Furthermore 8,385 poor rural people received training to be entrepreneurs. 5,078 trainees have been provided with technical skill training, and 11,815 micro-entrepreneurs have been supported to scale-up their businesses. This and previous support led to 5,416 new micro-enterprises (70% run by women) and 6,489 new full-time jobs in 2010 (UNDP Nepal, 2010).


5. Conclusion It is without doubt that Biotechnology and Intensive Agriculture are extremely controversial contemporary topics. Currently, the Gene Revolution is being driven by the private sector for profit motives. A better solution involving all stakeholders and taking all interests into account would be a public-private partnership, where major food crops of low income populations such as beans, millet and sorghum receive commensurate coverage in research funding. Furthermore the establishment and/or strengthening of government institutions in agriculture, environment and food safety would help to address the opportunities and challenges of the Gene Revolution, and do that in an participatory, comprehensive and transparent manner (Kashambuzi, 2008). It is important to remember that the goal of the Green Revolution was not to provide a cure for socioeconomic disparities, but to improve food production. Hence, these ancillary problems still exist and will persist until the emergence of a more comprehensive agricultural revolution makes socioeconomic well-being a priority across all stakeholders.


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Environmental and Social Risks posed by the Green and Gene revolution

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