Environmental and Social Costs of Pesticides: A Preliminary Assessment

Nordic Society Oikos

Environmental and Social Costs of Pesticides: A Preliminary AssessmentAuthor(s): David Pimentel, David Andow, Rada Dyson-Hudson, David Gallahan, StuartJacobson, Molly Irish, Susan Kroop, Anne Moss, Ilse Schreiner, Mike Shepard, ToddThompson, Bill VinzantSource: Oikos, Vol. 34, No. 2 (1980), pp. 126-140Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Nordic Society OikosStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3544173Accessed: 07/04/2010 12:23

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OIKOS 34: 126-140. Copenhagen 1980

Environmental and social costs of pesticides: a preliminary assessment

David Pimentel, David Andow, Rada Dyson-Hudson, David Gallahan, Stuart Jacobson, Molly Irish, Susan Kroop, Anne Moss, Use Schreiner, Mike Shepard, Todd Thompson and Bill Vinzant

Pimentel, D., Andow, D., Dyson-Hudson, R., Gallahan, D., Jacobson, S., Irish, M., Kroop, S., Moss, A., Schreiner, I., Shepard, M., Thompson, T. and Vinzant, B. 1980. Environmental and social costs of pesticides: a preliminary assessment. - Oikos 34: 126-140.

A study was made of the indirect costs that result from pesticide usage in the United States. These costs included: 45,000 annual non-fatal and fatal human pesticide poisonings; $ 12 million in livestock losses; $ 287 million in reduced natural enemies and pesticide resistance; $ 135 million in honey bee poisonings and reduced pollination; $ 70 million in losses of crops and trees; $ 11 million in fish and wildlife losses; and $ 140 million in miscellaneous losses. The estimated total of $ 839 million annual losses attributed to environmental and social costs of pesticide use represents only a small portion of the actual costs. A more complete accounting of the indirect costs would probably be several times the total reported. The results of this preliminary assessment underscore the serious nature of the environmental and social costs of pesticide use.

D. Pimentel (reprints), New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences; R. Dyson-Hudson, College of Arts and Sciences; all other authors: College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.

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126 OIKOS 34: 2 (1980)

1. Introduction

About 1 billion pounds (5 x 108 kg) of pesticide are used annually in the United States (Berry 1979). About 800 million pounds (4 x 108 kg) of this are applied to only approximately 20% of the crop acreage (USDA 1975a). Despite this use of pesticides, pest insects, pathogens, and weeds annually destroy an estimated 33% of potential U.S. crop production (USDA 1965, Pimentel et al. 1978a).

About 200 million pounds (1 x 108 kg) of pesticides are employed by homeowners and state and federal governments for pest control. Some insecticide is used to prevent human disease spread by vector insects as well as to eliminate nuisance pests (NAS 1975). Al- though no data are available, probably some human lives are saved because insect disease vectors are controlled by insecticides. Some pesticide is used to im- prove the environment we live in by controlling weeds in lawns and insect pests of valued trees and shrubs.

It is calculated that if pesticides were not used and some substitute alternatives were employed, crop losses would rise 9% or $ 8700 million (Pimentel et al. 1978a). Preventing a loss of this magnitude requires an investment of $ 2200 million annually in pesticide treatments (including material, machinery, and labor for application and costs of natural enemy losses, insecticide resistance, and insurance) (Pimentel et al. 1978a). Assuming a $ 4 return per $ 1 invested for the additional 200 million pounds of pesticide not used on crops, the annual total benefits of pesticide use are estimated to be about $ 10900 million from an investment of about $ 2800 million in pesticides.

This estimated cost of pesticide use includes primarily the direct costs but excludes the indirect costs. These indirect or environmental and social costs must be assessed to facilitate an effective policy on pesticide usage. Unfortunately the complexity of the task and scarcity of data has delayed an assessment. The Administrator's Pesticide Policy Advisory Committee of the Environ- mental Protection Agency, however, concluded that a serious need exists for such an assessment and that a "first order estimate" of the environmental and social costs of pesticide use is entirely possible (EPA 1977). For these reasons, we were prompted to begin to inves- tigate and evaluate the available data on the indirect costs that result from pesticide usage in this country.

Included in this preliminary assessment are analyses of the costs due to: human pesticide poisonings and fatalities; livestock and livestock product losses; increased control expenses resulting from pesticide-related destruction of natural enemies and pesticide resistance; crop pollination problems and honey bee losses; crop and crop product losses; fish and wildlife losses; and governmental expenditures to reduce environmental and social costs resulting from pesticide use. All of these are viewed as the indirect or environmental and social costs of pesticides.

2. Human pesticide poisonings

Although human pesticide poisonings are clearly the highest price paid for pesticide use, it is impossible to measure exactly the social costs of these poisonings. No one is able to place a monetary value on human life or the cost of chronic illness caused by exposure to pesticides.

Everyone in the United States consumes small amounts of pesticides daily in his food and water. For instance about 50% of U.S. foods sampled by the Food and Drug Administration contain detectable levels of pesticides (Duggan and Duggan 1973).

Although the major source of exposure is probably food, pesticides may be absorbed from drinking water, by inhaling contaminated air, and by having pesticides come in contact with the skin (Feldman and Maibach 1970, Stanley et al. 1971, Starr and Clifford 1971, Keil et al. 1972a, CEN 1977). Chronic exposure of the human population to low levels of pesticides has been the major reason for the common occurrence of residues in humans. Nearly 100% of the U.S. population has some pesticide residue, averaging about 6 ppm in fatty tissue (Kutz et al. 1977). Human milk has detectable residues (Kutz et al. 1977) and pesticides may cross the placental barrier (O'Leary 1970).

In spite of the fact that pesticide residues in humans are ubiquitous, the epidemiological effects of these residues have not been well documented (Goulding 1969, HEW 1969, NAS 1975, Barnes 1976). However, it has been demonstrated that chronic exposure to pesticides may cause blood dyscrasias (Best 1963, Mengle et al. 1966); allergy sensitivities (Milby and Epstein 1964); psychiatric sequalae (Durham et al. 1965, Stoller et al. 1965, Tabershaw and Cooper 1966, West 1968, Met- calf and Holmes 1969); electroencephalogram changes (Metcalf and Holmes 1969, Brown 1971); and neurological alterations (Dille and Smith 1964, Jenkins and Toole 1964, Metcalf and Holmes 1969). Relatively high levels of chronic exposure have resulted in hyper- tension (Radomski et al. 1968, Sandifer and Keil 1971); high blood cholesterol and serum vitamin A concentrations (Sandifer and Keil 1971, Carlson and Kolmodin- Hedman 1972, 1977, Keil et al. 1972b); cardiovascular disease (Gumennyi and Tkach 1976); and liver disease (Radomski et al. 1968, Cassarett et al. 1968, Komarova 1976).

A variety of pesticides have been implicated as teratogens in several laboratory organisms, but data on humans are needed (Nora et al. 1967, Koos and Longo 1976). Several pesticides have been found to be mutagenic (Epstein and Legator 1971), but it is still unknown whether they are mutagenic in humans (Reich 1970, Kiraly et al. 1977).

Pesticides have also been implicated in the incidence of cancer (Radomski et al. 1968, Cassarett et al. 1968, Dacre and Jennings 1970, Komarova 1976, Wasser- mann et al. 1976, 1978, Infante et al. 1978). Twenty-six

9* OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 127

pesticides have been found to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals (Kraybill 1977), and some may react to form carcinogens (Maugh 1973, Wolfe et al. 1976, Ames 1979). No one denies that pesticides have the potential to cause cancer, but whether this potential is realized or not remains to be investigated. In an epidemiological study, Clark et al. (1977) reported a significant correlation between the intensity of cotton and vegetable farming and total cancer and lung cancer mortalities in the southeastern U.S. Other "major crops such as corn, which receive less pesticide treatment, were not significantly associated with cancer mortality". The findings of this study have important limitations as indicated by the investigators, but deserve further investigation.

The Clark et al. (1977) study reported that cotton and vegetable farming accounted for 1.6 to 6.7% of the total cancer variance in their sample. D. Schotterfeld (Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, pers. comm., 1978) estimated that the fraction of human cancer attributable to pesticides is probably less than 1%. Assuming that only 0.5% of all human cancer is due to pesticides, then with annual costs calculated to be $ 25,000 million (Epstein 1978) the annual cost due to pesticides is $ 125 million. Thus, even if the incidence of pesticide- induced cancer is low, the cost borne is high. Although these data on chronic effects of pesticides have serious limitations and are extremely difficult to measure, we believe that the $ 125 million is a low estimate of these costs.

Acute effects from pesticides are more easily diag- nosed and more frequently reported than chronic effects. Populations most frequently poisoned are occupational groups in direct contact with pesticides and young children who gain accidental access to pesticides (Davies et al. 1973, Milby 1976, Wicker 1976, Wolfe 1976).

The number of fatalities from pesticide poisonings has declined significantly in the past 20 yr, but in 1974 there were still 52 accidental deaths (Hayes and Vaughn 1977). The number of intentional deaths from pesticides are about three times the accidental deaths (Reich et al. 1968a, K. T. Maddy, California Dept. Food and Agriculture, pers. comm. 1978). The total estimated mortality from pesticides is about 200 per year (EPA 1976).

Many persons, who are exposed to pesticides and poisoned, are rushed to hospitals. EPA (1976) estimated that an average of 2,831 of these poisonings are admitted to hospitals each year. Other data indicate that this estimate may be only one-half the real incidence of hospitalizations (Cann et al. 1958, Hayes 1960, 1964, Richardson 1973, Lande 1974, EPA 1974, K. T. Maddy, California Dept. Food and Agriculture, pers. comm. 1978). In addition to these inpatients, approximately 12,220 emergency room-treated pesticide poisonings are handled each year (CPSC 1976).

Many more human pesticide poisonings are treated as

outpatients by private practitioners than are treated in hospitals; however, the numbers can only be estimated. J. Blondell (Environmental Protection Agency, pers. comm. 1978) calculates that there are 15 outpatient cases for every hospitalized case. Then for every fatality, Hayes (1964, 1969) and West and Milby (1965) calculate there are 100 poisoning cases of all types. These calculations suggest 42,500 and 20,000 human poisonings, respectively. Our analysis of several published studies (Reich et al. 1968a, b, Davis et al. 1969, Keil et al. 1970, Smith and Wiseman 1971, Whitlock et al. 1972, Richardson 1973, Gehlbach et al. 1974, Caldwell and Watson 1975, K. T. Maddy, California Dept. Food and Agriculture, pers. comm. 1978) indicated that the number of outpatient poisonings treated by private physicians is probably about 30,000 per year.

When the three values (2,831, 12,220, 30,000) are added together, the total is about 45,000 human pesticide poisonings occurring annually in the U.S. Clearly, there are limitations to the data used in these calculations and extrapolations. However, even with the given limitations and variability of the data, the magnitude of the human pesticide poisoning problems becomes quite evident.

In addition to these acute effects, there are occupational groups that are exposed to special hazards, for example, reduced fertility in workers contacting pesticides (Whorton et al. 1977). Another group are the aircraft applicators: there were 174 airplane crashes in- volving pesticide applicators of which 11 were fatal during 1976 (NTSB 1977). EPA reports there are 1000 hospitalized occupational poisonings each year. The total number is probably much higher (Swartz 1974, Bogden et al. 1975, Quinones et al. 1976). The delayed effects of high levels of exposure in occupational groups may now be appearing (Bidstrup et al. 1953, Fisher 1977, Davis et al. 1978).

To calculate the annual economic costs of human pesticide poisoning in the United States the following data were used: 45,000 total human pesticide poisonings that includes 2,831 hospital-admitted poisonings plus about 200 fatalities (52 accidental deaths) (Tab. 1).

Note that the $ 52 million for 52 fatalities (excluding suicides) is based on placing a value on an individual's life at about $ 1 million. This value was calculated by averaging the estimates of the amount of money that might be reasonably spent by industry and government to prevent a fatality, but obviously it is much less than the true value of a human life (Rhoads 1978).

Recognizing the limitations of the data in Tab. 1, the annual cost of human pesticide poisoning is calculated to be about $ 184 million.

3. Domestic animal poisonings and contaminated livestock products

Not only are domestic animals directly poisoned by pesticides but livestock products easily become con-

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 128

Tab. 1. Calculated economic costs of human pesticide poisonings and human cancer annually in the United States.

Human Poisoning Costs Total costs

1. Cost of hospitalized poisonings 2,831 hospitalized poisoningsa x 3.7

days in hospitalb x $ 127.70/day hospital feec ......................... $ 1,337,619

2,831 hospitalized poisonings x 3.7 days in hospital x $ 16.04/day doctor feed 168,014

1,000 worker hospitalized poisoningse x 6.67 days lost workf x $ 34/day ... 226,780

2. Cost of nonhospitalized poisonings 30,000 physician treated x 1.5 physician

visits x $ 20/visit' ................ 900,000 40% Nonhospitalized physician treatedj

x 42,200k physician treated x 6.67 days lost work x $ 34/day'......... 3,828,046

3. Cost of emergency room treated poisonings 12,200 Emergency Room poisonings x

$ 25/visitT" ....................... 305,000 4. Cost of fatalities

52 Accidental Fatalities" x $ 1 million0 52,000,000 5. Cost of human cancer due to pesticides

0.5% cancerP x $ 25,000 millionq .... $ 125,000,000

Total ................................. $ 183,765,459

a. EPA 1976. b. Average 3.7 day stay in hospital for pesticide poisoning (M.

Daniel-Guido, Nutrition Action, Washington, D.C., pers. comm. 1978).

c. Hospital cost/day exclusive of doctor fee (HII 1976). d. Average cost of general practitioner's or internist's visit in

the hospital (AMA 1977). e. Estimated from EPA 1976. f. Average number of days of work lost per pesticide incident

(State of California 1974). g. Wage computed by averaging wage of agrichemical work-

ers with that of farmers and agricultural workers (USDL 1975, USDA 1977).

h. Assume each poisoning victim visits a medical doctor 1.5 times.

i. Fee per visit including medication (AMA 1977). j. Assume 40% of nonhospitalized physician-treated cases

were employed adults. Estimated from EPA (1976) which states 39% of hospitalized poisonings were children under 4 years old and Lisella et al. (1975) who states 68% of all poisonings were children.

k. 30,000 physician-treated poisonings + 12,200 emergency- room treated poisonings = 42,200.

1. Overall worker average daily wage (USDA 1977). m. Lisella et al. 1975. n. A total of 52 accidental deaths from pesticides of a total of

217 pesticide poisoning fatalities. o. Estimated value of human life is assumed to be $ 1 million. p. Assumed incidence of cancer due to pesticides. q. Epstein 1978.

taminated with pesticide residues. To assess the number of pesticide poisoning cases that occur in domestic animals, data from surveys conducted by veterinarians in South Carolina (Caldwell et al. 1977) and Arkansas (Ramsay et al. 1976) were used. Unfortunately, the only data available for these calculations were from these two states; and we recognize it would be highly

desirable to have data from several other states representing different livestock and crop production systems.

The largest incidence of poisonings occurs with dogs and cats (Tab. 2). This is not surprising since these animals wander freely about the home and farm and have greater opportunity to come in contact with pesticides than other domesticated animals.

Fully recognizing the limitations of the data, the total cost of pesticide poisoning in all domestic animals is calculated to be $ 8.6 million per year (Tab. 2). This estimate is considered low because it is based only on poisoning cases that were reported to veterinarians. When poisoning occurs and little can be done for an animal, the farmer seldom calls a veterinarian (G. Maylin, Cornell University, pers. comm. 1977).

Another serious loss of livestock occurs when pesticide residues are found in livestock scheduled to be or having been slaughtered. A sample of approximately 1% of all the livestock coming into state and federally inspected slaughter houses is checked for pesticide residues (G. M. Clark, USDA, pers. comm. 1977). This inspection brings to light the presence of pesticides in meat. The average annual loss of livestock condemned because of contamination with pesticides is $ 3.1 million (G. M. Clark, USDA, pers. comm. 1977). These estimates do not include losses experienced by farmers who have to withhold their animals from slaughter until pesticide levels decline to acceptable levels.

Milk contaminated with pesticides is disposed of and not used. Milk losses resulting from contamination by accident and under conditions over which the farmer has absolutely no control can be compensated by the U.S. government. The compensation paid under the U.S. milk indemnity law last year was $ 143,468. How- ever, this represents only a part of the milk disposed of because of pesticide contamination. If milk becomes contaminated because of a farmer's carelessness, or from sources that are not indemnifiable according to the present laws, there is no public record of the loss. The indemnified milk probably represents about twothirds of the total losses due to pesticide residues in milk (G. Schiemeyer, USDA, pers. comm. 1977). Thus the total monetary loss due to pesticide contamination of milk is calculated to be about $ 210,000.

When the costs attributable to animal poisonings, contaminated meat and milk are combined, then the economic value of all livestock and products lost because of pesticide use is estimated to be a minimum of $ 11,910,000.

4. Reduced natural enemies and pesticide resistance

Many insect and mite populations remain as minor or unimportant pests in crops because their natural enemies control them (DeBach 1964, Huffaker 1971). When insecticides or other pesticides are employed against one pest, its natural enemies or those of another

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 129

Tab. 2. Animal pesticide poisoning cases calculated for the United States.

Species Number Percentage Number of Vet. Percentage Number Cost of Total in U.S. of pesticide pesticide costse of fatal of fatal fatalities losses

poisoningsd poisoning ($) pesticide pesticide ($) ($) cases poisoningsf cases

(X 106) (X 103) (X 103) (x103) (x 103) (x103) Cattle ............. 128a 0.0144 18.4 552 0.007 9.0 2,250g 2,802 Dogs .............. 41 0.2180 74.1 2,223 0.050 17.0 850h 3,073 Horses............. 50c 0.0143 7.2 216 0.007 3.5 1,400' 1,616 Cats ............ 23b 0.0478 14.8 444 0.035 10.9 55i 499 Swine.............. 39a 0.0037 1.4 42 0.002 0.8 562k 604 Poultry............ 1,300 0.0001 1.3 7 0.0001 1.3 1 8

Total ........................... .............. . . . . . . . ....................................... $ 8,602

a. b: c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

j. k.

(USDA 1976). (Anonymous 1978) (Note, total dogs and cats, both tame and wild, is about 100-120 million (Wittwer 1975). Estimated. Percentages based on incidence of cases in Arkansas and South Carolina (Ramsay et al. 1976, Caldwell et al. 1977). Calculated based on $ 30 per incident, except for poultry. Percentages based on incidence of cases in South Carolina (Caldwell et al. 1977). Valued at $ 250/head (USDA 1976). Estimated value at $ 50/dog (no attempt was made to attach a personal or social value to pet dogs). Estimated value at $ 400/horse. Estimated value at $ 5/cat (no attempt was made to attach a personal or social value to pet cats). Valued at $ 72/pig (USDA 1976).

pest may be reduced or eliminated. This has contributed to outbreaks of pests that were previously not a problem (Pimentel 1971, van den Bosch and Messenger 1973, Adkisson 1977).

In the first quarter of this century, for example, the major pests of cotton in the United States were the boll weevil and cotton leaf worm (Newsom 1962). Since 1945 and the extensive use of toxaphene, DDT, methyl parathion, and other insecticides on cotton, several other insects and mites have become more serious pests than they were previously. These include: the cotton bollworm, tobacco budworm, cotton aphid, spider mites, and loopers (Newsom 1962). In particular, the cotton bollworm and budworm populations have become serious pests because some pesticides have destroyed their natural enemies (Ridgway et al. 1967, Cate et al. 1972, Lindgren et al. 1972, Van Steenwyk et al. 1975, Johnson et al. 1976a, Kinzer et al. 1977, Plapp and Vinson 1977, Adkisson 1977, Pimentel et al. 1977a) and also because of plants becoming more at- tractive.

In the apple agroecosystem most of the minor pests are effectively controlled by natural enemies (Croft 1978). However, when some of the key apple pests such as the apple maggot and codling moth are controlled by insecticides, secondary pest outbreaks often occur. Pest problems that have been aggravated in apple culture include: San Jose scale, oyster shell scale, apple aphid, rosy apple aphid, woolly apple aphid, white apple aphid, potato leafhopper, European red mite, two-spotted spider mite, and apple rust mite (Croft 1978).

Fungicides also may contribute to pest outbreaks by reducing fungi that are naturally pathogenic to insects.

For example, the use of benomyl will reduce entomopathogenic fungi. This reduction in turn results in increased survival of velvet bean caterpillars and cab- bage loopers in soybeans and eventually leads to reduced crop yields (Ignoffo et al. 1975, Johnson et al. 1976b).

As mentioned, when outbreaks of new pests occur in crops, additional control treatments have to be made. An estimate of the added costs, based on additional sprays and/or more expensive insecticides employed, has been made for the many crops produced in the United States (Tab. 3). These data were compiled by first surveying the literature for known cases of pest outbreaks due to the destruction of natural enemies. Then, several entomological specialists* throughout the nation were consulted concerning the validity of the estimates and the data revised based on their advice. Based on these data the annual costs for the additional control treatments used to compensate the loss of natural enemies on all crops is calculated to be about $ 153 million.

* Perry Adkisson, Texas A and M University; Max J. Bass, Auburn University; Brian Croft, Michigan State University; Charles J. Eckenrode, N.Y.S. Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Geneva, New York; George Georghiou, University of California, Riverside; E. H. Glass, N.Y.S. Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Geneva, New York; Carl B. Huffaker, Uni- versity of California, Riverside; William Luckmann, University of Illinois; L. Dale Newsom, Louisiana State University; Robert Rabb, North Carolina State University; Thomas E. Reagan, North Carolina State University; George Teetes, Texas A and M university; Ward M. Tingey, Cornell Univer- sity; Robert van den Bosch, University of California, Berkeley; William Whitcomb, University of Florida.

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 130

Tab. 3. Environmental costs due to loss of natural enemies and insecticide resistance in pest insect and mite populations (Pimentel et al. 1979).

Crops, livestock, Total added insecticide and public health costs ($) due to

Loss of natural Increased enemies resistance

Field Crops ............ 133,007,000 101,820,000 Vegetable Crops ....... 6,235,000 7,958,000 Fruits and Nuts ........ 14,242,000 8,312,000 Livestock and Public Health .......... >0 15,000,000

Total ................. 153,484,000 133,090,000 Combined total ........ 286,574,000

We assumed that the loss of natural enemies of livestock pests, medically important pests, and other non- crop insect pests controlled by insecticides were not significant. Hence, no added costs were included.

In addition to destroying natural enemy populations, the extensive use of pesticides has often resulted in pest populations developing resistance. In fact, a total of 364 insect and mite species are now known to be resistant to pesticides (Georghiou and Taylor 1977). Increased pesticide resistance in crop insect and mite pest populations often results in additional sprays of the commonly used pesticide being applied to control the pest and/or more expensive pesticides substituted for the previously used pesticides. For these reasons increasing levels of pesticide resistance or tolerance in pest populations have significant environmental costs. It should be pointed out that such an environmental impact occurred in the past, but is paid for in the present.

The situation that evolved in northeastern Mexico and the Lower Rio Grande of Texas is a striking example of the magnitude of environmental and social costs due to development of resistance. Because an extremely high level of resistance developed in the tobacco budworm pest of cotton in early 1970, approximately 700,000 acres (285,000 ha) of cotton had to be aban- doned (Adkisson 1971, 1972, NAS 1975). The economic and social impact on the farming communities that depended upon this cotton crop was devastating. This is a cost that was not included in Tab. 3.

In the United States, the best estimate is that at least 15% more pesticide treatments have to be made to control cotton insects and mites because resistance has evolved (Tab. 3). The estimates for other crops are also tabulated in Tab. 3 bringing the total annual cost for pesticide resistance to $ 118 million. These data were validated in a manner similar to that used for the loss of natural enemies.

In addition a relatively large number of insect and mite pests of livestock and man have become resistant to pesticides (Georghiou and Taylor 1977). As mentioned, however, a relatively small quantity of pesticide

is applied for control of pests of livestock and man. Thus, we calculated that resistance in insect and mite pests of livestock and man is costing only about $ 15 million annually (Tab. 3).

Therefore, the total environmental and social costs that result from the destruction of natural enemies and pesticide resistance is calculated to be about $ 287 million annually. This amount is already included in the $ 2800 million representing the costs of pesticides, even though it is recognized as an indirect cost.

5. Honey bee poisoning and reduced pollination

Well known is the fact that honey bees and wild bees are vital to the pollination of fruits, vegetables, forage crops, and natural plants (McGregor 1976). Therefore, it is not an unexpected finding that the impact of pesticides on honey bees and wild bees has been significant, and in some crop environments both honey and wild bee populations have been greatly reduced. The seriousness of honeybee kills with pesticides resulted in legislation of the Bee Indemnity Act of 1970 to compensate apiculturalists for such losses (Public Law 91-524). Since 1970 the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service has paid a total of about $ 21 million in bee indemnities to apiculturalists for their losses (ASCS 1976). However, this probably represents a small portion of actual losses. Martin (1978) estimated that perhaps 20% of all honey bee colonies are actually affected and this includes the approximately 5% of U.S. bee colonies that are killed outright or die during the winter because of pesticide damage. For this impact Martin calculates an annual loss of $ 11.1 million. Another 15% of the colonies either are damaged by pesticides and suffer partial losses or suffer losses when apiculturalists move colonies to avoid pesticide damage. The loss from partial kills, reduced honey production, and movement of colonies totals about $ 21.1 million annually (Martin 1978). Also, as a result of heavy pesticide use on certain crops, beekeepers are excluded from 10 to 15 million acres (4-6 million ha) of good apiary locations (Martin 1978). The estimated loss in honey production from these regions is $ 22.5 million annually (E. C. Martin, USDA, pers. comm. 1977).

These environmental losses from pesticides are suf- fered annually by apiculturalists. In addition, some farmers in the U.S. are affected by heavy pesticide use because of its adverse effect on crop pollination. In California, for example, about 700,000 colonies of honey bees must be rented annually at $ 8 per colony to supplement natural pollination of almonds, alfalfa, melons, and other fruits and vegetables produced for seeds (E. L. Atkins, University of California, Riverside, pers. comm. 1977). This is an annual cost of $ 5.6 million for California. Since California produces nearly 50% of our bee-pollinated crops, the total cost for bee rental would

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 131

be about $ 11.2 million for the entire country. Note that of this, only one-tenth (about $ 1 million) is considered due to pesticide usage because most rented bee colonies are needed because of our system of extensive crop monocultures.

Estimates of annual agricultural losses due to poor pollination from pesticides range from about $ 80 million (E. L. Atkins, University of California, Riverside, pers. comm. 1977) to a high of $ 4000 million (S. E. McGregor, USDA, pers. comm. 1977). Yield in many crops can be enhanced by efficient pollination. For example Shishikin (1947), McGregor et al. (1955), and Mahadevan and Chandy (1959) have shown that for several cotton varieties good pollination by bees can result in yield increases of 20 to 30%. This practice, however, has not been possible mainly because of the intensive use of insecticides on cotton (McGregor 1976). Assuming that only a 10% increase in cotton yield would result from efficient pollination and sub- tracting the charges for honey bee rental necessary to accomplish this, the net annual gain in dollars could be as high as $ 300 million.

Atkins (E. L. Atkins, University of California, Riverside, pers. comm. 1977) emphasizes that poor pollination will reduce crop yields but more importantly points out that it will reduce the quality of crops such as melons and several fruits. In experiments with melons, Atkins reported that with adequate pollination melons were increased 10% in yields and 25% in quality as measured by dollar value of the crop.

For our analysis of the environmental costs, we assumed the minimum estimate that the pollination losses due to pesticides are at least $ 80 million. Adding the cost of reduced pollination to the other environmental costs of pesticides on honey bees and wild bees, the total annual loss is calculated to be about $ 135 million. Clearly the available evidence confirms that annual honey bee losses, and agricultural losses due to poor pollination due to honey bee and wild bee kills are significant and the problems deserve careful scrutiny.

6. Crops and crop product losses

Although pesticides are applied to protect crops, sometimes the crop may be damaged as a result of the treatments. This can occur when: (1) the usual dosages of pesticides are applied improperly or under unfavorable environmental conditions; (2) pesticide drifts from a treated crop to nearby crops; (3) herbicide residues prevent chemical-sensitive crops from being planted in rotation or inhibit the growth of crops which are planted; and (4) excessive residues of pesticides ac- cumulate on crops, causing these harvested products to be destroyed or devalued.

Some damage can occur to crops when normal dosages of herbicides and insecticides are applied to them but under normal environmental conditions this crop

damage has little effect upon ultimate yield (Chang 1965, Elliot et al. 1975). If, however, weather or soil conditions are unsatisfactory, standard herbicide treatments may cause yield reductions ranging from 2 to 50% (von Rumker and Horay 1974, Elliot et al. 1975, Akins et al. 1976). Improper pesticide applications including the use of less desirable pesticides, poor or ill- timed application techniques, or application at incorrect dosage rates, also result in significant annual losses. As demonstrated with corn, herbicides may also increase the susceptibility of the crop to insects and diseases (Oka and Pimentel 1974, Pimentel et al. 1978b).

Drifting pesticides, herbicides in particular, are known to cause significant environmental problems. Drift occurs with any method of pesticide application, but the potential for problems is greatest when pesticides are applied by aircraft. This is significant because about 65% of all agricultural pesticides are applied by aircraft (USDA 1971). From 20 to 80% of pesticides applied by aircraft land inside the target area (Yates and Akesson 1973). Under some conditions drift injury to nontarget crops can occur several miles downwind (Henderson 1968, Akesson et al. 1978).

Crop injury due to drift is a common problem in areas with diverse crops. For example, drift injury to the Washington State grape crop has been a "very serious problem" (R. Fox, Welch Company, pers. comm. 1978) annually since the mid 1950s, and individual growers may suffer losses of over 50% of their grapes because of it (C. Brown, Washington State Dept. Agriculture, Pes- ticides Branch, pers. comm. 1978). Grapes and some other crops are very sensitive to certain herbicides and thus the use of these chemicals has been restricted in the vicinity of some crops (Akesson et al. 1978).

In addition to agricultural spraying, an estimated 17 million pounds (7.7 million kg) of herbicides are used every year by highway and utility crews to clear road- sides and rights-of-way (NAS 1975). Drift damage to crops, gardens, tree crops, and shelter-belts arising from such applications is reported every year (C. L. Elmore, University of California, Davis, pers. comm. 1977, E. L. Knake, University of Illinois, pers. comm. 1977). Al- though this type of damage is known to be widespread, precise data are lacking; therefore, it was impossible to calculate the losses.

Because of the persistence of some herbicides in the soil, crops planted in rotation may be injured. In Illinois crop losses due to herbicide drift and residue persistence are estimated to range from 0.1% to 0.25% of the crop yield (E. L. Knake, University of Illinois, pers. comm. 1977). Using the lowest estimate of 0.1%, this would amount to an annual loss of about $ 60 million nationwide. In some years and on some crops, losses can exceed 0.25%. For example, the 1977 New York crops of both wheat and field beans were estimated to be reduced by greater than 1%, due to herbicide persistence (R. R. Hahn, R. D. Sweet, Cornell University, pers. comm. 1977). Likewise in Indiana exceptionally

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 132

severe persistence problems were reported in 1977 (T. T. Bauman, Purdue University, pers. comm. 1978).

If, because of herbicide persistence, the grower cannot rotate his crops the following year and is forced to continue planting the same crop, extra costs can be incurred. The continuous planting of some crops may result in serious insect, weed, and pathogen problems (PSAC 1965, Pimentel 1977, NAS 1975). These increased pest problems will reduce crop yields and/or

require increased investments in pesticides. An additional monetary loss is incurred when food

crops are seized for exceeding the FDA regulatory tolerances for pesticide residue levels. This represents a serious loss to the grower. Estimated costs for this were calculated to be at least $ 2.5 million (Pimentel et al.

1977b). Clearly, several problems are inherent in the process

of pesticide application and such problems plague commercial applicators. For instance, applicators sometimes are charged for damage inflicted during or after treatment, and in many states an applicator must show evidence of financial responsibility before spraying. Many applicators carry crop liability insurance to

protect themselves from expensive lawsuits. Because of

damage suits, annual insurance rates are now a minimum of $ 382 for ground applicators and $ 1,982 per aircraft for aerial applicators (S. Turner, Stuart Turner and Company, pers. comm. 1978). Nationwide the total investment for aerial crop liability insurance is $ 7.9 million (based on the estimate that 1/2 of the aircraft applying pesticides carry such insurance [F. Higbee, National Agricultural Aviation Association, pers. comm. 1978]).

When insurance costs are added to costs of the various losses associated with pesticide use in commercial crops and forests, the total monetary loss is estimated to be about $ 70 million (Tab. 4). Note that the crop liability insurance costs are already included in the $ 2800 million cost figure mentioned earlier.

Tab. 4. Estimated loss of crops and trees due to the use of pesticides.

Crops or trees lost Total costs ($)

Crops injured through the direct use of pesticides (0.1%) ................. 60,000,000 Crop applicator insurance ............... 7,900,000 Crops seized as exceeding pesticide tolerances ..................... 2,500,000

Total ................................. 70,400,000

ticide residues, these unmarketable fish should be considered a loss.

Reported losses from direct fish kills have increased substantially since 1966 (Fig. 1) (HEW 1960-66, FWPCA 1967-70, EPA 1972-76). During the early 1960s the yearly average kills were in the range of 200,000-400,000 fish. For the last five years the average has been well over 1 million each year. These estimates of fish killed are considered to be low for many reasons. For instance, 20% of the reported fish kills give no estimate of the number of fish killed and fish kills often cannot be investigated quickly enough to deter- mine the primary cause. Then too, fast moving waters in rivers dilute pollutants so that cause cannot be iden- tified. In addition, the fast-moving waters wash away the poisoned fish while other poisoned fish sink to the bottom and cannot be counted. Perhaps most important is the fact that, unlike direct kills, few, if any, of the wide-spread, low-level pesticide poisonings are observed in dramatic fashion and therefore are not recognized and reported (HEW 1960-66, FWPCA 1967-70, EPA 1972-76). The recent rise in the reported fish kill may well be due to improved reporting procedures and/or to more toxic pesticides being used in our environment.

Somewhat encouraging, however, is the fact that three successive studies have shown steadily decreasing

5983

7. Fishery and wildlife losses

Pesticides that run off treated cropland often drain into nearby aquatic ecosystems. Thus soluble pesticides are easily washed into streams and lakes, while others are carried with soil sediments into water bodies. With

many row crops, such as cotton and corn, water erosion carries an average of 20 tons of soil (plus pesticides) per acre and year (8 tons ha-1 yr-1) into aquatic habitats (Pimentel et al. 1976).

Pesticides are known to cause fishery losses in several

ways. These include: high pesticide concentrations in water which directly kill fish and low level doses which may kill highly susceptible fish fry or may eliminate essential fish foods like insects and other invertebrates. In addition, because there are safety restrictions placed on the catching or sale of fish contaminated with pes-

2000- / \ /\

0

1200

E / \ 800

400 -

1960 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76

Year

Fig. 1. The number of fish killed annually in the United States (HEW 1960-66, FWPCA 1967-70, EPA 1972-76).

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 133

concentrations of pesticides in surface waters and streams during the years 1964-1978 (Lichtenberg et al. 1970, Schulze et al. 1973, NYSDEC 1977-78). This is apparently due to the replacement of the persistent pesticides with less persistent materials.

The average value of a fish was calculated to be about 40C (Lopinot 1971, Sherry 1971, AFS 1975, ILLDEC 1976). At this cost per fish the value of the estimated 2 million fish killed per year is $ 800,000. For the reasons mentioned earlier, this is considered a low estimate, with the actual loss probably several times this amount.

There is historical evidence that periodically as a result of major industrial mishaps or carelessness, widespread pesticide contamination occurs with subsequent massive fish kills. The large scale endrin spill in the Mississippi in the early 1960s, a DDT spill in Los Angeles in 1969-1970 (Ehrlich et al. 1977), the mirex contamination of Lake Ontario, and the Kepone contamination of the James River in 1975 all illustrate this type of occurrence. The costs of these massive inci- dences are, however, almost impossible to calculate.

Consider the Kepone incident, where the extent and seriousness is well documented but the precise dollar costs even now are uncertain. This major river was closed to all fishery activities in December 1975 and will remain closed at least through December 1978 (it can be closed only on a year-to-year basis). Due to this, annual fishery losses were reported to be at least $ 2.7 million (U.S. Senate 1976). Of this, $ 1.1 million was from seed oyster production. The problem is even more serious because the James River, as the principal source of seed oysters in Virginia, cannot be replaced. The loss attributed to recreational use was reported to far exceed the commercial loss. Other one-time costs related to the Kepone incident include a fine levied against Allied Chemical of $ 5.3 million plus the cost to Allied of an $ 8 million trust fund used to establish the Virginia Environmental Endowment (W. Gilley, Virginia Dept. Public Health, pers. comm. 1978). Still to be assessed are the local government and individual employee judgements against Allied. The Environmental Protec- tion Agency reports that "cleaning Kepone out of the James River could cost up to $ 7000 million" (Chemecology 1978). We limited our cost estimates, however, to $ 2.7 million (Tab. 5). (U.S. Senate 1976). It should be noted that the James River will be produc- tive again after several years, and that although these pesticide catastrophes appear to be common they are relatively infrequent occurrences.

Recently in Lake Ontario because of mirex and PCB contamination a partial ban on fishing was imposed. This reduced fishing to less than one third of earlier estimates (Brown, 1976) and resulted in a calculated annual loss of at least $ 2 million (Tab. 5).

Birds and mammals in the wild also suffer from exposure to pesticides. Deleterious effects include: death from direct exposure to high dosages; reduced survival, growth and reproduction from exposure to sublethal

Tab. 5. Fishery and wildlife losses due to pesticides.

Fishery loss Total costs ($)

Direct fish kills .................... ... 800,000 Lake Ontario fishing restriction .......... 2,000,000 Kepone contamination of James River fishery ..................... 2,670,000 Pesticide monitoring of wildlife .......... 5,000,000 Re-establishment of endangered species ........ .. ...................... 250,000

Total ................................. 10,720,000

dosages; and habitat reduction through elimination of food sources. Because scant data exist on wildlife kills caused by pesticides, it is impossible to estimate mortality rates. There is good reason for this, as terrestrial wildlife are often secretive, camouflaged, highly mobile, and do not conspicuously "float to the surface" as fish do. Even in controlled studies researchers have had great difficulty in finding poisoned birds and mammals (Rosene and Lay 1963).

Despite the difficulty in quantifying wildlife losses there is considerable evidence linking pesticides to reduced populations of such bird species as the bald eagle and peregrine falcon (Pimentel 1971, Stickel 1973, Ed- wards 1973, Brown 1978a). No attempt has been made to place an economic value on this kind of wildlife loss.

Perhaps a more serious problem is the various sublethal effects caused by continuous exposure to low level dosages of pesticides. Numerous studies have documented that sublethal residues can increase susceptibility to disease, starvation, and other environmental stresses (Friend and Trainer 1970, Pimentel 1971, Hill et al. 1971, Scott et al. 1975, Babcock and Flickinger 1977). Reduced reproductive success in many species of birds, disrupted metabolic processes such as vitamin A utilization, and behavioral effects such as delayed migratory activity have all been linked to low level pesticide exposure (Stickel 1973, Jefferies 1975, Mahoney 1975).

Damage to wildlife is a serious concern because wildlife is an integral part of man's ecological support system. Furthermore, wildlife serve as an "early warn- ing system" to man to alert him of the presence of serious pesticide pollution. Not to be discounted is the important role wildlife play in the nation's economy. As documented by the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, fishermen and hunters spent large sums of money pursuing their sport; 36 million fishermen and hunters spent about $ 7000 million in 1970 (USDI 1970).

Another cost of pesticide use is related to the activities of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which operates a monitoring program specifically concerned with the impact of environmental contaminants on nontarget species. From 60 to 70% of the contaminants monitored are agricultural chemicals, and the annual

134 OIKOS 34: 2 (1980)

budget for the program is nearly $ 10 million (J. M.

Sheppard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. comm.

1978). We assumed that half of this cost could be attributed to pesticides (Tab. 5).

An additional $ 250,000 is spent annually by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in their Endangered Species Program, which aims to re-establish species such as the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, osprey, and brown pelican whose numbers have been severely reduced by pesticides (J. M. Sheppard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. comm. 1978). This too increases the ultimate cost of pesticides.

The fishery and wildlife losses that could be estimated were only $ 10.7 million (Tab. 5); most of the costs cannot be calculated.

8. Invertebrates and microorganisms

Perhaps more important than the effects on fish and wildlife are the effects of pesticides on insects, earthworms, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa found in soils. These small organisms are essential to the proper func- tioning of all ecosystems since they break down wastes, permitting the vital chemical elements to be recycled in the life system. Bacteria and fungi make nitrogen and other elements available to plants. Earthworms and insects aid in turning over the soil at a rate of about 20 tons per acre year (8 tons ha-1 yr-~) (Kevan 1962, Satchel 1967). Although there are specific instances demonstrating the impact of pesticides on soil organisms (Dubey 1970, Pimentel 1971), no quantita- tive data exist concerning the overall impact of pesticides on soil organisms and what this may mean economically to the environment, agriculture, and soc-

iety as a whole (Edwards 1973, Alexander 1977, Brown 1978a).

9. Governmental funds for pesticide pollution control

A major environmental cost associated with pesticide use is the cost of state and federal government regulatory actions and pesticide monitoring to control pesticide pollution. Specifically, these funds are spent to reduce the hazards of pesticides and to protect the integrity of the environment and public health. For example, several million dollars are spent each year to train and register pesticide applicators.

The federal government annually spends about $ 70 million for pesticide pollution control (USBC 1977) and individual states also spend substantial amounts. As- suming that the states spend an amount equal to that spent on the federal level (USBC 1977), then together the governments spend an estimated $ 140 million for pesticide pollution control. The high cost associated with regulatory and monitoring activities is an indirect

cost of pesticide use because these activities aim at reducing environmental and social problems.

10. Conclusion

In the United States the economic benefits of pesticide use are estimated to be about $ 10,900 million per year. Balanced against this level of benefits are the direct costs of pesticide control measures that are about $ 2800 million; included in this are the indirect costs of loss of natural enemies, resistance, and insurance costs.

The estimated annual indirect cost of pesticide use is about $ 840 million, based on the available data of this preliminary study that assessed some of the environmental and social costs. This figure includes about $ 300 million for natural enemy losses, resistance and insurance costs (Tab. 6). Adding the remaining $ 540 million to $ 2800 million, suggests a return of about $ 3 per dollar invested in pesticidal controls rather than the $ 4 return calculated by Pimentel et al. (1978a).

Tab. 6. Total estimated environmental and social costs for pesticides in the United States.

Environmental factor Total costs ($)

Human pesticide poisonings ............. 184,000,000 Animal pesticide poisonings and contaminated livestock products .......... 12,000,000 Reduced natural enemies and pesticide resistance ..................... 287,000,000 Honey bee poisonings and reduced pollination ..................... 135,000,000 Losses of crops and trees ................ 70,000,000 Fishery and wildlife losses ............... 11,000,000 Government pesticide pollution controls ............................... 140,000,000

Total ................................. 839,000,000

Our analysis is obviously an oversimplified and in- complete assessment of the existing situation. There is no satisfactory way to summarize all the environmental and social costs or benefits in dollars that in turn can be added or subtracted. For example, it is impossible to place an acceptable monetary value on human lives lost or disabled due to pesticides and equally difficult to place a monetary value on wildlife losses.

In addition to values that cannot be measured, the $ 840 million attributed to environmental and social costs represent only a small portion of the actual costs that exist. A more complete accounting of indirect costs would include these additional data: the total costs of accidental releases of pesticides like the recent Kepone incident; livestock poisonings; pollination losses in crop production; unrecorded losses of fish, wildlife, crops and trees; losses resulting from the destruction of soil invertebrates, microflora, and microfauna; the true costs of human pesticide poisonings; and chronic health

OIKOS 34: 2 (1980) 135

problems like teratogenic and mutagenic effects. If the full environmental and social costs could be measured as a whole, the total cost would probably be several times that estimated in this study. Thus a more complete cost/benefit analysis that includes more of the ecological and public health costs of pesticide use would reduce the high profitability of pesticides suggested above.

Human pesticide poisonings, reduced natural enemies because of pesticides, increased pesticide resistance in insects and mites, and honey bee poisonings accounted for about 70% of the calculated environmental and social costs for pesticides in the United States. There has been a significant reduction in fatal human poisonings from pesticides, due in part to strengthened government regulations and safety programs; however, both fatal and nonfatal human pesticide poisonings remain a major social cost. Losses of natural enemies and pesticide resistance problems are being alleviated by some of the newly introduced integrated pesticide management practices, but much needs to be done to reduce these important environmental costs. Greater attention needs to be directed at reducing honey bee and associated pollination losses than is currently practiced.

Clearly, the results of this preliminary assessment not only underscore the serious nature of the environmental and social costs of pesticides but emphasize the need for more detailed investigations. Pesticides are and will continue to be a valuable pest control measure, but more accurate cost/benefit analyses will be helpful as we endeavor to minimize risks and maximize benefits of pest control strategies for society as a whole.

Acknowledgements - We thank the following specialists for reading an earlier draft of the manuscript and for their many helpful suggestions: Norman B. Akesson and Eric Mussen, Univ. of California, Davis; E. Laurence Atkins and George P. Georghiou, Univ. of California, Riverside; Stephen Berry, Univ. of Chicago; W. Nelson Beyer, Patuxent Wildlife Re- search Center; Jerome Blondell and Warren Muir, Environ- mental Protection Agency; John Buckley, Environmental Protection Agency (emeritus); Robert Dorfman, Harvard Univ.; Roger E. Drexel, DuPont; Samuel S. Epstein, Univ. of Illinois Medical Center; Joseph C. Headley, Univ. of Missouri; Robert W. Kates, Clark Univ.; Keith T. Maddy, California Department of Food and Agriculture; E. C. Martin, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center; F. L. McEwen, Univ of Guelph; S. E. McGregor, Kitty Reichelderfer, Richard L. Ridgway, Norman Starler, and Bob Torla, United States Department of Agriculture; Ralph Richardson, Jr. and Gary Toenniessen, Rockefeller Foundation; Eldon Savage, Colorado State Univ.; Jay M. Sheppard, United States Fish and Wildlife Service; Jerry Stockdale, Univ. of Northern Iowa; John Wessel, Food and Drug Administration; and at Cornell Univ.; Donald W. Barton, Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station; Durward F. Bateman, Dept of Plant Pathology; Nancy Goodman, Ronald J. Kuhr, Roger A. Morse and Richard Pendleton, Dept of Entomology; Robert D. Sweet, Dept of Vegetable Crops; Marcia Pimentel, Divison of Nutritional Sciences. Clearly any errors or omissions are the authors' responsibility. Support for this study was provided in part by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. This is a publication of the Cornell Univ. Ag-

ricultural Experiment Station, New York State College of Ag- riculture and Life Sciences, A Statutory College of the State University of New York.

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Environmental and Social Costs of Pesticides: A Preliminary Assessment

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