Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy of Tribal Farmers

Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy of Tribal Farmers:

A Mixed Methods Study in Nagaland, India

A Dissertation

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

BY

Elizabeth Abraham

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Bradley C. Greiman, Ph.D. Adviser

January 2020

© 2020

Elizabeth Abraham

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The quest for knowledge is a never-ending process, and I have always loved to

learn. However, juggling between multiple responsibilities and academic pursuits in a

new country was not easy. Besides my passion and faith that kept me going, I am deeply

indebted to many people for their support while I pursued my Ph.D. program.

I am indebted to my advisor, who believed in this research even before I put it on

paper. Dr. Brad Greiman, I thank you for acknowledging my diverse background and

research interests, for providing professional support, and, most importantly, for being an

exemplary human through your interactions with me. I am also thankful to Dr. Amy

Smith, who not only served as a committee member but also supported me throughout

my Ph.D. program with her kind words and timely advice. I thank Dr. Alexandre

Ardichvilli, for his support for the advancement of my study and for serving on my final

committee as the chair. I am also grateful to Dr. Rosemarie Park, who brought to my

committee her valuable international research experiences and her expertise in qualitative

research.

I also want to thank Dr. Limasenla, who, through her friendship that dates back to

my vet schooling days in India, made me less anxious about conducting my research in a

very new environment. Limasenla, thank you for hosting me in Nagaland and helping me

develop the required networks to pursue my research. I am also thankful to Dr. Keneisezo

Kuotsou, Dr. Kevi Kikhi, and Dr. Aabon Yathan for their support while I was in

Nagaland. I would also like to thank Imti Pongen, who supported me with his knowledge

of the Naga tribes and helped me travel to the villages for research. I am also very

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grateful to the enthusiastic and passionate tribal farmers of Nagaland, who welcomed me

into their homes and gave me their time despite their busy farming schedules.

I also wish to thank all those who were a part of my expert panel, think alouds,

and reviews. I am particularly obliged to Kyle Nickodem and Romina Madrid for their

feedback on the data analysis. I am also thankful to my dear friends: Pradeep Daniel,

Snega M, Christine Yaeger, Karlee Lafavor, Nicole Baldwin, Sandra Ayoo, Kruthika

Patel, and Yeshoda for all their support.

I am forever indebted to my husband, Wells, who supported my academic

pursuits. Thank you for the countless hours you spent (and will spend) listening to my

ramblings about research. I am so grateful for my son Asher who was born when I started

my Ph.D. program. Asher, you taught me to laugh and be excited about the little things in

life. I am also thankful for my son Sholom, who I was pregnant with when I traveled to

Nagaland for my data collection. Sholom, as mentioned by the people of Nagaland, I

think your prenatal travel experiences will make you quite the globetrotter.

I would also like to thank my mom, Achamma Abraham, who is the most

significant motivator and cheerleader of my life. Mom, thank you for raising your girls to

be strong women who are not embarrassed to dream big. I thank my dad P.A Abraham

for instilling in his girls the inclination for scientific pursuits. I thank my sisters Annie,

Susan, Mary, who have been my role models while growing up. I also thank my in-laws

for their prayers and support.

Finally yet importantly, I owe it all to the Creator, the author of all wisdom and

understanding. Thank you, Jesus, for giving me grace, patience, strength, and passion.

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DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to the marginalized small-scale farmers around the globe who endure hardships and work tirelessly to bring food to our plates.

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ABSTRACT

This sequential design mixed methods study was conducted to understand the

factors contributing to the development of ESE among tribal farmers having

entrepreneurial intentions in Nagaland, India. This study involved 106 participants in the

quantitative phase and 15 participants in the qualitative phase. The majority of the

participants in the quantitative phase were 26-45-year-olds, female, and educated until

the high school level. The ESE of the tribal farmers suggested high confidence and a

statistically significant association of ESE with prior experience, monthly income, and

the tribe was noted.

The findings of this study resulted in the development of an ESE model for

entrepreneurial farmers that describes nine factors that helped the tribal farmers of

Nagaland develop high ESE. These factors are prior experiences, training, education,

modeling experiences, verbal persuasion, awards and recognitions, constructive feedback

and criticisms, personality characteristics, and social interactions and support systems.

Prior experience was the most predominant factor, followed by social interactions and

support systems.

A six-dimensional ESE instrument with 27 items was also developed through this

study. The multidimensionality of the ESE instrument was confirmed through CFA, and a

high hierarchical omega (.99) and alpha (.96) were obtained indicating good reliability.

This study also offers several practical recommendations for future research and practice.

Keywords: Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy, Tribal Farmers, Mixed Method Study

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................................................................................ i

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1

Overview of the Critical Issue ................................................................................ 1

Problem Statement .................................................................................................. 6

Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 6

Research Questions ................................................................................................. 7

Definition of Key Terms ......................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 9

Method of Literature Review .................................................................................. 9

Findings of Literature Review ................................................................................ 10

Entrepreneurship ................................................................................................ 10

Self-Efficacy ...................................................................................................... 14

ESE .................................................................................................................... 27

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ................................................................. 37

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS ................................................... 42

Overview of Methodology ...................................................................................... 42

Background and Positionality as a Researcher ....................................................... 44

Research Context .................................................................................................... 46

Research Design ..................................................................................................... 50

Quantitative Phase ............................................................................................. 54

Quantitative Phase Analysis .............................................................................. 67

Connecting Quantitative and Qualitative Phases ............................................... 68

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Qualitative Phase ............................................................................................... 68

Qualitative Phase Analysis ................................................................................ 73

Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Results........................................... 74

IRB Process and Research Ethics ........................................................................... 75

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS ............................................................................................. 76

Quantitative Phase Findings ................................................................................... 77

Research Question 1: What are the levels of ESE among the tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions? ................................................................ 77

Research Question 2: What are the demographic characteristics of tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions? ................................................... 80

Research Question 3: What is the relationship of ESE with demographic characteristics of tribal farmers? ........................................................................ 85

Qualitative Phase Findings ..................................................................................... 93

Research Question 4 (a): What is the role of mastery experiences in the development of ESE among tribal farmers? ...................................................... 94

Research Question 4 (b): What is the role of vicarious experiences in the development of ESE among tribal farmers? ...................................................... 105

Research Question 4 (c): What is the role of positive reinforcements in the development of ESE among tribal farmers? ..................................................... 110

Research Question 4 (d): What is the role of physiological state in the development of ESE among tribal farmers? ..................................................... 116

Research Question 4 (e): What are other factors that affect the development of ESE among tribal farmers? ........................................................................... 125

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........ 132

Discussion of Major Findings and Conclusion ....................................................... 132

Demographics .................................................................................................... 132

ESE .................................................................................................................... 136

Association of Demographics with ESE ............................................................ 137

Sources of ESE .................................................................................................. 139

ESE Model for Entrepreneurial Farmers ................................................................ 155

Implications of the Study ........................................................................................ 157

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HRD ................................................................................................................... 158

International Agricultural Extension Education ................................................ 159

Limitations of the Study ......................................................................................... 160

Recommendations for Research ............................................................................. 161

Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................... 163

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 165

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 182

Appendix 1: McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument .............................................. 182

Appendix 2: Expert Panel for Survey ..................................................................... 183

Appendix 3: Post Expert Panel Review ESE Survey ............................................. 185

Appendix 4: Think Aloud Participants ................................................................... 189

Appendix 5: Post Think Aloud ESE Survey ........................................................... 190

Appendix 6: Survey Questions ............................................................................... 195

Appendix 7: Expert Panel for Interview ................................................................. 201

Appendix 8: Semi-structured Interview Questions ................................................. 202

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Number of Tribal Farmers with Entrepreneurial Intentions Selected for

Quantitative Phase .................................................................................................... 58

Table 3.2 Fit Indices Measures of the Tested Model ..................................................... 63

Table 3.3 Standardized Factor Loadings of the Tested Model ...................................... 63

Table 3.4 Reliabilities of the ESE Scores ...................................................................... 67

Table 3.5 Profile of Interview Participants .................................................................... 70

Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics of ESE Scores ............................................................. 78

Table 4.2 Age of Tribal Farmers.................................................................................... 80

Table 4.3 Gender of Tribal Farmers .............................................................................. 80

Table 4.4 Tribes of Tribal Farmers ................................................................................ 81

Table 4.5 Educational Background of Tribal Farmers ................................................... 81

Table 4.6 Marital Status of Tribal Farmers .................................................................... 82

Table 4.7 Number of People in the Household of Tribal Farmers................................. 82

Table 4.8 Average Monthly Income of Tribal Farmers ................................................. 82

Table 4.9 Prior Business Experience of Tribal Farmers ................................................ 83

Table 4.10 Major Sources of Funding for Tribal Farmers ............................................. 83

Table 4.11 Major Source of Motivation to Start the Business ....................................... 84

Table 4.12 Type of Business Started/ Intended to Start................................................. 84

Table 4.13 One-Way ANOVA between ESE and the Demographic Groups ................ 85

Table 4.14 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD: Tribe and ESE ................................................. 87

Table 4.15 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of People in Household and ESE ..................... 89

Table 4.16 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Prior Experience and ESE............................ 90

Table 4.17 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Average Monthly Income and ESE ............. 91

Table 4.18 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Type of Business and ESE ........................... 92

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework ................................................................................. 41

Figure 3.1 Political map of India displaying states and union territories ...................... 47

Figure 3.2 A political map displaying the districts of Nagaland ................................... 48

Figure 3.3 Research design model for this mixed methods study ................................. 53

Figure 3.4. Graphic representation of the model tested: Correlated Factor Model ....... 61

Figure 4.1 Histogram of ESE ......................................................................................... 78

Figure 4.2 Histograms of six dimensions of ESE .......................................................... 79

Figure 4.3. Major themes related to mastery experiences among the tribal farmers ..... 95

Figure 4.4. Major theme related to vicarious experiences among the tribal farmers..... 105

Figure 4.5. Major themes related to positive reinforcements among the tribal farmers 110

Figure 4.6. Major themes related to the physiological state of tribal farmers ............... 117

Figure 5.1. ESE model of entrepreneurial farmers describing the factors that affected the

development of ESE among tribal farmers in Nagaland, India ................................ 156

Figure 5.2. An integrated training approach with an emphasis on the important

competency needs of entrepreneurial farmers ........................................................... 162

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with an overview of the critical issue, leading to the problem

statement and purpose of the study. The research questions were formulated to address

the problem statement. This chapter concludes with the definition of key terms.

Overview of the Critical Issue

India is the second-largest country in the world, with almost 1.3 billion people

(Central Intelligence Agency, 2018). Considering its high potential for economic growth

and development, India was included as part of the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and

China) nations in the early 2000s by the investment firm, Goldman Sachs (Walden,

2014). Over the last few years, India has recorded a high growth rate of 7.2% on average

in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita annually (Central Intelligence Agency,

2018). However, despite being one of the rising economies of the world, 21.9% of the

population in India still lives below the poverty line (Central Intelligence Agency, 2018).

The economic growth in India has not impacted the entire Indian population equitably;

many groups are left behind while the rest experience improved living standards (Das,

Hall, Kapoor & Nikitin, 2011). Among the populations left behind are the indigenous

people identified by the Constitution of India as Scheduled Tribes, also called Adivasis,

meaning original inhabitants (Das et al., 2011). Comprising about 8.6% of India’s total

population (Ministry of Tribal Affairs Government of India, 2017), the Scheduled Tribes

(referred to as tribals hereafter) account for one-fourth of the nation’s population living in

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poverty, with poverty rates closer to where the general Indian population was 20 years

ago (Das et al., 2011).

Historically, tribals in India moved from one place to another and were classified

based on their occupation as hunters, gatherers, cultivators, cattle herders, agricultural or

industrial laborers, artists, and traders (Vidyarthi & Rai, 1977). Over the years, most

tribals have settled into private land and rely heavily on agriculture for their livelihood

(Nathan, Thapa, Kelkar, & Cordone, 2012). The majority practice subsistence farming

and grow only enough food to feed themselves and their families. Uncertainties of

weather, hilly terrains, the lack of affordable credit, and the lack of insurance make tribal

subsistence farmers vulnerable and predisposed to poverty (Food and Agriculture

Organization, 2015). Despite facing such vulnerabilities, some tribal farmers in India

have displayed the capacity for risk-taking and decision making by becoming

entrepreneurs and increasing their income (Trivedi, 1991). The Indian government has

also observed innumerable untapped business opportunities in the agricultural sector and

has offered numerous welfare programs to help its rural poor to start agribusinesses

(Government of India, 2019). Entrepreneurship in agriculture can help tribal farmers

overcome poverty by assisting them to diversify into higher-priced agricultural and

livestock production, and expanding farm sizes to increase household income (The World

Bank, 2012).

One definition of entrepreneurship describes it as a mindset and process to create

and develop economic activity by blending risk-taking, creativity, and innovation with

sound management within a new or an existing organization or sector (Ahmad &

3

Seymour, 2008). The process of entrepreneurship starts with the exploration phase,

through the investigation of business opportunities and the formation of entrepreneurial

intentions, defined as an inclination of a person to start an entrepreneurial activity in the

future (Douglas, 2009). At a certain point in the exploration phase, individuals with

entrepreneurial intentions form the belief that they have enough information and enter the

exploitation phase by displaying entrepreneurial behavior (Douglas, 2009). The link

between intention and subsequent behavior was first established in theory by Ajzen

(1991). The theory of planned behavior by Ajzen (1991) states that a planned behavior

such as starting a business is best predicted by intentions toward that behavior.

Researchers have also found empirical evidence that entrepreneurial intention is a

precursor to entrepreneurial behavior (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993).

Entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE), which is “a person’s belief in their ability to

successfully launch an entrepreneurial venture” (McGee, Peterson, Mueller & Sequeira,

2009, p. 965) is considered to be a predictor to entrepreneurial intentions (Chen, Greene,

& Crick, 1998; Zhao, Seibert, & Hills, 2005). A theoretical model by Boyd and Vozikis

(1994) proposed ESE as “an important explanatory variable in determining both the

strength of entrepreneurial intentions and the likelihood that those intentions will result in

entrepreneurial actions” (p. 66). ESE is a role-specific self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and

self-efficacy is a predictor of risk-taking behavior (Bandura, 1997), a crucial

characteristic of entrepreneurs (Ahmad & Seymour, 2008). Individuals who have higher

levels of self-efficacy have been observed to perform more challenging tasks, sustain

efforts toward those tasks and accomplishments, and persist when they encounter

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problems (Bandura, 1997; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). The importance of ESE in

determining crucial characteristics of entrepreneurs, and it being a predictor to

entrepreneurial intentions (Chen et al., 1998; Venugopal, Viswanathan, & Jung, 2015;

Zhao et al., 2005) and subsequent behavior (Bird, 1988; Krueger & Carsrud, 1993) makes

ESE a vital construct in both entrepreneurial research and practice.

Researchers have identified factors that can support or inhibit the development of

ESE and that it can be improved through interventions (Newman, Obschonka, Schwarz,

Cohen, & Nielsen, 2019). Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy that provides

information on the four principal sources of self-efficacy namely (a) mastery experiences,

(b) vicarious experiences, (c) positive reinforcements and (d) physiological state, has

served as the theoretical framework for studying the antecedents of ESE. These sources

of self-efficacy provide a sound foundation to examine the factors influencing the

development of ESE (Newman et al., 2019). Researchers have empirically indicated work

experience (Zhao et al., 2005), education and training (Florin, Karri, & Rossiter, 2007;

Venugopal et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2005), and interactions with entrepreneurial role

models and mentors (Austin & Nauta, 2016; Carr & Sequeira, 2007; Farashah, 2015) are

antecedents of ESE. However, a gap in the literature on the development of ESE among

the tribal farmers of India was identified.

The relationship of an individual’s demographic characteristics with ESE is

largely unknown, except for gender. Many researchers have advocated for the recognition

of entrepreneurship as a masculine trait (Baron, Markman, & Hirsa, 2001) and asserted

that most entrepreneurs are men (Moore & Buttner, 1997). The initial empirical evidence

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that female students had lower ESE than male students was provided by Scherer,

Brodzinski, and Wiebe (1990). The reasons for this lower ESE were attributed to fewer

opportunities for early mastery experiences, social support, or role models among

females in comparison to males (Dyer & Handler, 1994). However, researchers have

proposed that entrepreneurial intentions and behavior are correlated with several

demographic characteristics, such as age, ethnicity, educational level, and household

income (Bates, 1990, 1995). Bates (1995) provided empirical evidence that

entrepreneurial intentions increase with age, peaking as people approach 40, and then

level out. Household income also influences entrepreneurship as it provides resources for

new business capital and is positively associated with the borrowing power of prospective

entrepreneurs (Bates, 1990). There appeared to be a gap in the literature regarding the

relationship of ESE with the demographic characteristics of an individual besides gender,

especially those associated with entrepreneurial intentions and behavior.

In summary, tribal farming communities in India face several challenges and

vulnerabilities, predisposing them to poverty (Das et al., 2011). International

development agencies have suggested agricultural entrepreneurship to play a fundamental

role in improving family income and alleviating poverty among marginalized farming

communities of the developing world (The World Bank, 2012). While researchers have

recommended ESE to be a crucial factor that predicts entrepreneurial intentions and

behavior (Chen et al., 1998; Zhao et al., 2005), nothing is known about its development

among the tribal farming communities. The need to support the economic growth of tribal

farmers through entrepreneurship makes it crucial to understand the factors that are

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contributing to the development of ESE. Exploring the development of ESE among tribal

farmers will also determine the factors that are currently supporting entrepreneurship

among the tribals. The findings of the study will serve International Human Resource

Development, International Agricultural Extension Education, other international

research and development agencies and the local government to contemplate strategies

for the improvement of entrepreneurial behavior among tribals in India.

Problem Statement

Despite the growing national economy, the tribal farmers in India are still

struggling with issues of poverty. Although there is an opportunity to improve the

livelihood of tribal farmers through entrepreneurship, a higher degree of ESE is required

to take risks and become entrepreneurial. The lack of literature on ESE among the tribal

farmers, coupled with the vulnerabilities of the tribal communities, made it imperative to

understand the factors contributing to the development of ESE among tribal farmers in

India.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to understand the factors contributing to the

development of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions.

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Research Questions

The following research questions were addressed in this study:

1) What are the levels of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial

intentions?

2) What are the demographic characteristics of tribal farmers who have

entrepreneurial intentions?

3) What is the relationship of ESE with demographic characteristics of tribal farmers

who have entrepreneurial intentions?

4) How do tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions develop higher levels

of ESE?

a. What is the role of mastery experiences in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

b. What is the role of vicarious experiences in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

c. What is the role of positive reinforcements in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

d. What is the role of physiological state in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

e. What other factors affect the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

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Definition of Key Terms

1. Entrepreneurship is a mindset and process that allows individuals to create and

develop economic activity by blending risk-taking, creativity, and/or innovation

with sound management (Ahmad & Seymour, 2008).

2. Entrepreneurial intentions is defined as an inclination of a person to start an

entrepreneurial activity in the future (Douglas, 2009).

3. Nascent entrepreneur in this study is defined as a person who is now trying to

start a new business, who expects to be the owner or part-owner of a new firm,

who has been active in trying to start a new firm in the past 12 months, or whose

start-up does not yet have a positive monthly cash flow that covers expenses and

the owner-manager salaries for more than three months. (Definition used in the

Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED) (Shaver, Carter, Gartner, &

Reynolds, 2001) and the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (Wagner,

2006).

4. Self-efficacy is defined as the “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute

the courses of action required to produce given attainment” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3).

5. Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) is a work-specific self-efficacy and is defined

as an individual's belief in his/her capability to perform tasks and roles aimed at

entrepreneurial outcomes (Chen et al., 1998).

6. Tribals in this study are the indigenous people identified by the Constitution of

India as Scheduled Tribes, also called Adivasis, meaning original inhabitants

(Ministry of Tribal Affairs Government of India, 2017).

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter begins with the method of literature review, followed by the findings

of literature review. The three major subheadings in the literature review are

entrepreneurship, self-efficacy, and ESE. This chapter ends with a detailed discussion of

the theoretical and conceptual framework of this study.

Method of Literature Review

To date, ESE research has drawn upon theoretical and foundational perspectives

from numerous fields, including psychology, management, career development, and

economics (Newman et al., 2019). This chapter will provide an integrated perspective on

entrepreneurship, self-efficacy, and ESE based on an extensive interdisciplinary literature

review.

The literature review was conducted using multiple online databases available

through the University of Minnesota’s online library (e.g., MNCAT Discovery, Google

Scholar, JSTOR, PsycINFO). Peer-reviewed articles having the keyword entrepreneurial

self-efficacy in their title, abstract, or keywords were selected. References cited in the

bibliography of these articles were identified and screened and checked for eligibility for

inclusion in the review. The initial review helped establish additional keywords and

subject terms that were not considered earlier. Some additional keywords identified were

stages of entrepreneurship, sources of self-efficacy, theoretical foundations of

entrepreneurial self-efficacy, antecedents of entrepreneurial self-efficacy, entrepreneurial

self-efficacy scales, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy and demographics. These searches

10

yielded a vast amount of literature, which was screened and checked for eligibility based

on relevance to the purpose of this study. The systematic process of a literature review

followed in this study that uses one information item to find more information is referred

to as the pearl growing technique (Ramer, 2005).

Findings of Literature Review

Entrepreneurship

How individuals think and act entrepreneurially has become an important

question for researchers seeking to understand entrepreneurship both at the individual and

organizational levels (Hisrich, Langan-Fox, & Grant, 2007). In business research,

entrepreneurship is generally defined as the process of discovery or co-creation,

evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities to produce goods or services (Shane, 2012).

In the context of management, Ahmad & Seymour (2008) define entrepreneurship as a

mindset and process to create and develop economic activity by blending risk-taking,

creativity, and innovation with sound management. Douglas (2009), describes

entrepreneurs as people who view the world with different eyes, look at the future

positively, see opportunities that others do not see, and do not see risks that others do see.

The entrepreneurial process. The process of entrepreneurship starts with the

exploration phase (McMullen & Shepherd, 2006; Choi, Lévesque, & Shepherd, 2008, as

cited in Douglas, 2009). During this phase, the entrepreneur investigates entrepreneurial

opportunities and then forms entrepreneurial intentions, which is defined as the

11

inclinations of a person to start an entrepreneurial activity in the future (Douglas, 2009).

In the exploration phase, individuals are referred to as nascent entrepreneurs, which

means they are actively planning to start their own business (Shaver et al., 2001). Nascent

entrepreneurs conduct viability screening on one or more new venture opportunities that

they are interested in. At some point in the exploration phase, nascent entrepreneurs form

the belief that they have collected enough information and make the decision to launch

the new venture, entering the exploitation phase (Choi et al., 2008). In this phase, an

entrepreneur displays entrepreneurial behavior and becomes an actual entrepreneur by

realizing his/her entrepreneurial intentions (Douglas, 2009). The new venture at this point

could go on to survive as a small-scale business with no desire for further growth, or it

could become bankrupt and not survive. A new venture’s subsequent success would

depend on the competition that it experiences following its entry into the market, the

entrepreneur’s ability to cope with those competitions, the potential notions of customer

demand, and the entrepreneur’s preferences for growth or a no-growth business

(Barringer & Ireland, 2006).

The process of entrepreneurship takes place in a highly uncertain business

environment. To act decisively despite uncertainty, entrepreneurs must see beyond the

situation and act on what they think they see, or what they will face shortly. In other

words, in the face of uncertainty, entrepreneurs must act upon their perception of reality

(Krueger & Brazeal, 1994; Forlani & Mullins, 2000). How an entrepreneur perceives the

environment will determine their subsequent exploration and exploitation decisions and

their success (Douglas, 2009).

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Many studies have attempted to relate human capital with entrepreneurial

intentions and behavior (Aldrich, Renzulli, & Langton, 1998; Boden & Nucci, 2000;

Shane, 2003). According to Davidsson and Honig (2003) and Aldrich et al. (1998),

entrepreneurial capabilities can differ based on “general” human capital (e.g., age,

gender, years of education, and work experience) and “specific” human capital (e.g.,

relevant education and industry experience, relatives who are self-employed, and social

networks) (as cited in Douglas, 2009). Douglas (2009) further emphasizes the importance

of an entrepreneur’s prior knowledge and experience in the process of entrepreneurship.

Janney and Dess (2006) explain that favorable human capital can also assist

entrepreneurs in possessing specialized knowledge and distinctive resources that allow

them to become better risk-takers.

However, some researchers have argued that situational factors like employment

status or individual human factors like demographic characteristics or personality traits

are poor predictors of entrepreneurial activities (Krueger, Reilly, & Carsrud, 2000).

Researchers have advanced towards studying entrepreneurial intentions as an important

predictor of entrepreneurial behavior (Krueger et al., 2000). The link between an

individual’s intention and subsequent behavior has strong theoretical foundations and was

first established by Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior, which states that a

planned behavior such as starting a business is best predicted by intentions toward that

behavior. Empirical research also indicates the importance of entrepreneurial intention as

a precursor of entrepreneurial behavior (Bird, 1988; Krueger & Carsrud, 1993), making it

important to study entrepreneurial intentions. It is believed that nascent entrepreneurs

13

with entrepreneurial intentions are surprisingly numerous, and there is much merit in

supporting them to prevent ventures from becoming “stillborn” (Reynolds, 1994).

Agricultural entrepreneurship for development. The most recent statistics for

India suggest that 44% of the nation’s workforce is employed in the agricultural sector

(The World Bank, 2019a). The importance of agriculture in India goes even further than

being the largest employer, as this sector is responsible for providing food to its growing

population. However, the Indian farming community is confronted by several emerging

challenges, like limited land and water availability, the degradation of natural resources,

adverse climate changes, the vagaries in demand and consumption patterns, and

liberalization of trade (Lele, Pretty, Terry, Trigo, & Klousia, 2010). The tribal subsistence

farmers are particularly predisposed to poverty based on their geographic location, and

access to information or resources. Farmers, researchers, and governments around the

world have recognized the need for a more entrepreneurial culture in farming for farmers

to survive and be successful in a challenging environment (McElwee, 2006). A method

for subsistence farmers to be entrepreneurial is to intensify conventional production by

volume increase, and by selective and well-managed specialization and diversification

(McElwee & Robson, 2005).

According to Smit (2004), entrepreneurship has become an integral aspect of

farming and will increasingly continue to be so. The World Bank (2012) also suggests

that agricultural entrepreneurship be used as a tool for marginalized farmers in India to

overcome poverty by helping them diversify into higher-priced agricultural commodities,

14

utilizing the benefits of livestock production and expanding farm sizes to increase the

household income. International development agencies are garnering the benefits of

agricultural entrepreneurship while planning projects for economic development (Food

and Agriculture Organization, 2015). The Indian government has observed innumerable

untapped business opportunities in agriculture and allied sectors and is offering numerous

welfare programs to help the rural poor become agricultural entrepreneurs (Government

of India, 2019).

Self-Efficacy

Several researchers have proposed that self-efficacy is the most crucial construct

that explains the development of entrepreneurial intentions, which in turn affect

entrepreneurial behavior (Azjen, 1987; Boyd & Vozikis, 1994; Chen et al., 1998; Krueger

et al., 2000; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014). Self-efficacy was defined by Bandura (1997), as

the “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to

produce given attainment” (p. 3). Believing in one’s capability has diverse effects; it

influences what actions people choose to pursue, how much effort they put in those

actions, and how long they persevere when obstacles and failures come their way.

Believing in one’s capability also determines if an individual thinks self-aiding or self-

hindering thoughts, how much stress they feel when coping with the demands of the

situation, and how much accomplishment they realize (Bandura, 1997).

Self-efficacy has also been positively associated with opportunity recognition and

risk-taking behavior (Krueger & Dickson, 1994. Individuals who have higher levels of

15

self-efficacy have been observed to perform more challenging tasks, sustain efforts

toward those task accomplishments, and persist when they encounter problems (Bandura,

1997; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). However, individuals who believe that they are not

capable of doing a task may not consider doing the task or may face failure if they

attempt the task.

There are two types of self-efficacies in literature, one is the generalized self-

efficacy, and the other is the domain-specific self-efficacy. Some researchers have found

value in studying the effects of generalized self-efficacy, which is a general belief about

one's capabilities to solve future tasks of any kind (see Judge & Bono, 2001; Scholz,

Dona, Sud, & Schwarzer, 2002). However, most experts agree that self-efficacy is

domain or role-specific and targets a specific behavior or outcome such as one's career or

a creative task. The belief that self-efficacy is domain or role-specific is consistent with

Bandura's (1997) conceptualization of the construct. The social cognitive theory of career

and academic interest, choice, and performance (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994)

emphasizes, for example, that it is occupation-specific self-efficacy as opposed to

generalized self-efficacy that exerts effects on the choice of career and performance

(Newman et al., 2019). The type of role-specific self-efficacy that targets

entrepreneurship is ESE. However, since the broader construct of self-efficacy houses the

role-specific ESE, a detailed literature review of self-efficacy is presented here before

venturing into ESE.

While measuring and studying a construct, it is important to differentiate it from

other similar constructs. Hence, some constructs that are commonly confused with self-

16

efficacy are discussed. According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy should not be

confused with self-esteem. While the former is concerned with the judgments of personal

capability, the latter is concerned with judgments of self-worth. (Bandura, 1997). Self-

esteem is defined as the general or overall feeling of one’s worth or value (Neill, 2005).

High self-worth or self-esteem can improve an individual’s self-efficacy. Similarly, high

self-efficacy can contribute to improving one’s sense of overall self-worth, but the two

constructs remain different. Locus of control is again a generalized construct that can be

confused with self-efficacy. Locus of control covers a broad umbrella of situations, while

self-efficacy is the role- and situation-specific (Gist, 1987). The internal locus of control

is considered the perception that rewards depend on an individual's behavior, while the

external locus of control denotes that rewards are influenced by outside factors (Rotter,

1966). Individuals who have a high internal locus of control will develop high self-

efficacy when they experience success (Bandura, 1997).

Since self-efficacy is linked to the ability to control or modulate one’s behavior to

reach goals, it can sometimes be confused with self-regulation. According to Schunk &

Zimmerman (2007), self-regulation refers to an individual’s self-generated thoughts,

feelings, and actions that are systematically designed to affect one’s learning. However,

self-efficacy is more closely related to an individual’s perceptions of his/her ability. Self-

regulation can become a strategy for achieving one’s goals. Both self-efficacy and self-

regulation can be developed through modeling. However, they remain distinct constructs

(Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). Another common term that can be confused with self-

efficacy is motivation. Motivation is grounded in an individual’s desire to achieve, while

17

self-efficacy is built on an individual’s belief about their capacity to achieve. According

to Mayer (2011), those individuals who gain or maintain self-efficacy by experiencing

success improve their motivation to continue learning and making progress.

Another term that is very similar to self-efficacy is confidence. Albert Bandura

(1997) refers to confidence as a nonspecific term that refers to the power of belief in

oneself but not in any particular domain or role. Perceived self-efficacy refers to belief in

one’s agentive capabilities that one can produce given levels of attainment. Just as with

self-esteem and motivation, self-efficacy and confidence can be positively related to each

other, and the relationship is cyclical. The more confident an individual is in his/her

abilities, the more likely they are to succeed, which provides him/her with experiences to

develop self-efficacy, which in turn can give the individual more confidence.

The self-efficacy beliefs of an individual vary in several dimensions. According to

Bandura (1997), self-efficacy differs in level, generality, and strength. First, self-efficacy

differs in level. If the level of difficulty is low, the task may be perceived as easy to

perform, and most people would have a high self-efficacy for that task. However, when

the difficulty of the task at hand is increased, the perceived self-efficacy attached to that

task could decrease too. While developing scales to measure self-efficacy, Bandura

(1997) says there is value in utilizing the results of conceptual analysis and expert

knowledge on what it takes to succeed at that particular task. “Challenges may be graded

in terms of the level of ingenuity, exertion, accuracy, productivity, threat, or self-

regulation required just to mention a few dimensions of performance demands” (Bandura,

18

1997, p. 43). Thus, Bandura (1997) states that while building self-efficacy scales,

sufficient impediments should be built into the efficacy item to avoid any ceiling effects.

Another dimension that self-efficacy differs in is generality. People could believe

they are efficacious in a broad range of activities or could be restricted in self-efficacy to

a particular activity. The generality of self-efficacy can vary on several different

dimensions, including the degree of similarity in the activities, the modality in which the

capability is expressed, the qualitative features of the situations, and the characteristics of

the person towards whom the behaviors are directed (Bandura, 1997).

Lastly, self-efficacy differs in strength. An individual who has low self-efficacy

with a particular task can quickly leave the task in situations that are harder than

imagined. Whereas, people who have a very high self-efficacy persevere during

difficulties and obstacles. “The stronger the sense of personal efficacy, the greater the

perseverance and higher the likelihood that a chosen activity will be performed

successfully” (Bandura, 1997, p. 43).

Based on theory of self-efficacy, individuals develop and strengthen their self-

efficacy in four ways: (a) mastery experiences that can serve as indicators of capability;

(b) vicarious experiences that can alter self-efficacy beliefs through the transmission of

competencies and by comparison of others attainments; (c) positive reinforcements that

reinforces individual’s beliefs of capability; and (d) judgments of physiological state that

can help people judge their abilities, strengths, and vulnerabilities (Bandura, 1982;

Bandura, 1997; Bandura, 2010; Wood & Bandura, 1989).

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Mastery experiences. The most influential source for individuals to develop a

strong sense of self-efficacy is through mastery experiences, in other words, the gradual

generation of an ability (Bandura, 1982; Bandura, 1997; Bandura, 2010; Gist, 1987;

Wood & Bandura, 1989). According to Lent and Hackett (1987), enactive mastery

provides confirming experiences that contribute to positive estimations of future

performance. However, when individuals experience only easy successes, they can

become quickly discouraged by failure when it occurs (Bandura, 1997). To gain a more

resilient and stable sense of self-efficacy, it is necessary to have the personal experience

of overcoming obstacles through effort and perseverance (Wood & Bandura, 1989).

Failures serve the useful purpose of teaching that it is necessary to have sustained effort

for success. When individuals develop a sense of confidence in their capabilities by

experiencing both success and failures, then setbacks can be more effectively managed

(Wood & Bandura, 1989).

The extent to which an individual will develop their self-efficacy based on a

successful performance depends on many factors, like how individuals preconceive their

ability, how difficult they perceive the task to be, the amount of effort that they have put

into the task, the amount of external support they received, and the cognitive processing

of their performance (Bandura, 1997). However, once the individual develops a high self-

efficacy, they can ascribe a poor performance in the future to insufficient effort or

unfavorable external circumstances, while those with low self-efficacy can relate failure

to a lack of ability (Bandura, 1997; Silver, Mitchell & Gist, 1995). Self-efficacy is

affected not only by how an individual perceives successes and failures but also by the

20

biases involved in self-monitoring those performances (Bandura, 1997). Self-modeling

interventions by editing missteps or external help, with no new information, have been

seen to improve self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Dowrick, 1991).

Vicarious experiences. Vicarious experiences or observational learning through

modeling provides a slightly less-effective method of developing and strengthening self-

efficacy in comparison to mastery experiences (Bandura, 2010; Gist, 1987; Wood &

Bandura, 1989). When people have fewer mastery experiences, they might rely more on

the experiences of others, which get mediated through modeled attainments. Experienced

role models can convey effective strategies for managing particular situations, thus

affecting self-efficacy through a social comparison process (Wood & Bandura, 1989).

Also, when an individual’s performance is judged by the performance of others, social

comparison becomes the primary factor in the self-appraisal of capabilities (Suls &

Miller, 1977). People thus form judgments of their capabilities by comparing themselves

to others. According to Gist & Mitchell (1992), through observational learning, an

individual first estimates the relevant skills and behavior of a role model in performing a

particular task, then the individual estimates the extent to which those skills are

comparable to his or her own, and finally infers the amount of effort or the number of

skills that would be required to reach the same results. However, to enhance modeling

experiences, there is a need for an individual to perceive a degree of similarity with the

role model in terms of both personal characteristics and capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Gist,

1987).

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Bandura (1997) explained several processes by which modeling is influenced and

can exert its effect on self-efficacy. Modeling is influenced through social comparative

inferences. This means that the attainments of others who are similar to oneself can be

judged as the diagnostic of a person’s capabilities. Thus, when a person sees or visualizes

people similar to them perform successfully, this typically increases the efficacy beliefs

that the person possesses about their capability to master comparable or related activities

(Bandura, 1997). People persuade themselves that if others can perform well, then they

too can raise their performance and do well (Schunk, Hanson & Cox, 1987). Similarly, if

people observe others like themselves fail despite their high efforts, it can lower the self-

efficacy of the observer (Brown & Inouye, 1978). “The greater the assumed similarity,

the more persuasive are the models’ successes and failures” (Bandura, 1997, p. 87).

Modeling is also influenced by direct knowledge. Perceived self-efficacy can

change as a result of relevant modeling influences when people have had no/little prior

experience in that field to base their beliefs (Bandura, 1997). When lacking direct

knowledge of one’s capability, one relies more heavily on modeled indicators (Takata &

Takata, 1976). Bandura (1997), also confirms that though lacking direct knowledge can

influence the effect of vicarious experience on self-efficacy, it does not mean that prior

experiences will nullify the potential influence of social modeling. Even those individuals

who have their own experiences may further improve their efficacy beliefs if models

teach them better ways of doing certain things (Bandura, 1997). Bandura (1997) goes on

further to explain that although vicarious experiences can seem weaker than direct ones,

under some conditions, vicarious influences may override the impact of direct

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experience. In the face of repeated failure, modeling influences can help to improve self-

efficacy, thus sustaining efforts that support performance (Brown & Inouye, 1978).

Modeling exerts its effect on self-efficacy through aspirational modeling. People

may actively seek proficient models who possess the competencies that they aspire to

have. Competent models, through their behavior and expressed ways of thinking, can

teach their observers effective skills and strategies (Bandura, 1986). Bandura (1997),

explains that the acquisition of effective skills means that it affects the observer's self-

efficacy. If models express confidence while facing difficulties, they will instill a higher

sense of self-efficacy than the models who begin to doubt themselves (Zimmerman &

Ringle, 1981).

Modeling also exerts its effects on self-efficacy through observational learning,

in which an individual is actively engaged in learning through observation. According to

Bandura (1986), the four sub-processes that govern observational learning are: (a)

attentional processes that determine what is selected to be observed, (b) retention

processes in which the selected material is restructured for memorizing, (c) production

processes in which the retained concepts are translated into appropriate courses of action,

and finally (d) motivational processes that occur as the result of direct, vicarious and self-

produced incentive motivators.

Bandura (1997), also explains different sources by which individuals can seek

modeling. First, modeling occurs through everyday associations. A great deal of

psychological modeling occurs in day-to-day life associations and networks. The people

with whom one regularly associates, either through personal preference or through

23

obligation, can determine the types of competencies, attitudes, and motivational

orientations that could be repeatedly observed (Bandura, 1997).

Another source of modeling influence is symbolic modeling that occurs through

television and other visual media. Exposure to symbolic models exhibiting useful skills

raises observers’ beliefs in their capabilities (Bandura, 1982; Schunk, 1987). It was

studied that observing symbolic models also raised the performance of groups by

enhancing the collective sense of efficacy (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996).

The third source of modeling is abstract modeling. People not only learn behavior

from models but can also learn ways of thinking and how to apply them by deducing the

rules and strategies that the models use (Bandura, 1997). Once an observer learns the

rules, they can use them to guide their actions and generate behavior that may go beyond

what was seen or heard (Bandura, 1986).

The fourth source of modeling is verbal modeling. In conveying cognitive skills

verbally, models are able to verbalize their thoughts on how to use cognitive plans and

strategies to diagnose and solve problems, think of alternate solutions, monitor effects of

performed action, correct errors, use strategies to cope with self-doubts, use self-praise to

provide support for efforts, and manage symptoms of stress (Meichenbaum, 1977).

Verbal modeling of cognitive skills builds self-efficacy and promotes the development of

cognitive skills (Schunk, 1981; Schunk & Hanson, 1985).

Lastly, there is self-modeling. This method was used and applied widely by

Dowrick (1991). In this method, the performances of people who exhibit lower skills or

coping capabilities, in particular, are recorded. The mistakes or hesitancies in the video

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are edited, to show that the individual is performing skillfully. (1993) confirmed that the

performance improvements that are caused by successful self-modeling are mediated

through self-efficacy beliefs. According to Bandura (1997), each of the vicarious models

of influence—whether conveyed through actual modeling, symbolic modeling, or self-

modeling, can enhance the self-efficacy beliefs of an individual, which leads to

improvement in performance.

Positive reinforcements. The third source of developing self-efficacy is through

positive reinforcements. It was noted by Bandura (1997; 2010) that people who are

verbally persuaded to believe in their capabilities are likely to mobilize a greater

sustained effort to perform a specific task than those who harbor self-doubt. According to

Gist & Mitchell (1992), both persuasive discussions and specific performance feedback

may be used to provide information regarding a person's ability to perform a task. When

people receive positive feedback and realistic encouragement that is meant to convince

them that they are capable of performing a task, they may exert more effort (Gist, 1987;

Wood & Bandura, 1989). According to Bandura (1997), social persuasion strengthens

people’s beliefs that they possess capabilities to achieve what they seek to achieve.

However, verbal persuasion, when considered alone, is usually less effective in

increasing perceptions of self-efficacy than mastery experiences and modeling (Bandura,

1982; Gist, 1987).

Persuasory self-efficacy information can be conveyed in evaluative feedback to

performers. Evaluative feedback that highlights personal capabilities raises self-efficacy

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belief (Bandura, 1999). Feedback on ability at the very early stages of the development of

skills in an individual has a notable effect on the development of personal self-efficacy

(Schunk, 1984). Bandura (1997) also clarified that persuasory modes of affecting efficacy

should not be restricted to a brief verbal influence attempt, and it involves much more

than a short pep talk. He explained that skill efficacy builders not only convey positive

appraisals but should diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the individual and

structured activities for the individuals that would bring success and avoid placing them

in situations where they would experience repeated failure. (Bandura, 1997). The danger

in unrealistic positive feedback is that beliefs of self-efficacy may be increased to

impractical levels. Thus, there is a need for social persuasion to incorporate activities that

develop self-improvement (mastery experiences) to ensure success. Also, it is essential to

consider factors such as the credibility, expertise, and trustworthiness of a person when

evaluating the usefulness of their persuasive feedback or information (Bandura, 1997;

Gist & Mitchell, 1992).

Physiological state. The last source of self-efficacy relies partly on the

individuals’ perceptions of their physiological and emotional states (Bandura, 2010). This

means people may interpret their emotional arousal, stress, or tension as indications of

defenselessness to poor performance. For example, anxiety may be viewed as an

overwhelming fear that will increase the probability of failure and lower any self-efficacy

expectations (Gist, 1987; Stumpf, Brief, & Hartman, 1987; Wood & Bandura, 1989).

Perceived vulnerability to stresses can heighten the physiological reactions in an

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individual (Bandura, 1997). According to Gist & Mitchell (1992), factors such as general

physical condition, personality, and mood can affect self-efficacy by influencing the

arousal a person experiences when confronted with a task. Heightened anxiety levels

were found to contribute to low self-efficacy expectations (Stumpf et al., 1987).

Researchers have recommended that to strengthen perceptions of self-efficacy,

individuals need to seek ways to enhance their emotional and physical status and reduce

stress levels (Gist, 1987; Wood & Bandura, 1989).

Researchers have also advised the need to promote specific behavioral patterns to

improve physiological state, which includes:

a coaching approach to making individuals think reflexively about their behavior

or exposing them to exercises that slowly push their limits for certain behavior.

For example, in teaching entrepreneurs who may fear rejection from the first

customer, a teacher could ask, ‘Are there situations in which you feel comfortable

in contacting new persons?’ and ‘Are there then potential ways in which you

extrapolate from this situation to situations where you feel uncomfortable?’ Such

future-oriented and solution-driven questions do not break the therapeutic space

but more subtly facilitate an emotionally safe solution that will condition the mind

toward a more positive interpretation of oneself (Mauer, Neergaard, & Linstad,

2017, p. 294).

To summarize, an individual's performance judgment results from the integration

and assimilation of efficacy information derived from all four sources of self-efficacy:

mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, positive reinforcements, and physiological

27

state (Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Lent & Hackett, 1987). Moreover, the formation of self-

efficacy can also be influenced by the individual's assessment of the availability of

resources and constraints, both personal and situational that may affect future

performance (Ajzen, 1987; Gist & Mitchell, 1992).

The general scores of personal self-efficacy are found to have very little or no

relation to self-efficacy beliefs related to a specific activity (Earley & Lituchy, 1991;

Eden & Zuk, 1995). For example, measuring a person’s self-efficacy in academics may

not be an indicator of the person’s self-efficacy in mathematics. Since the purpose of this

study was to understand the ESE of tribal farmers, a detailed literature review on ESE

was conducted and is presented as the third and last major subheading.

ESE

The type of domain and role-specific self-efficacy related to entrepreneurship is

referred to as ESE and is defined as an individual's belief in his/her capability to perform

tasks and roles aimed at entrepreneurial outcomes (Chen et al.,1998). McGee et al. (2009)

defined ESE as “a person’s belief in their ability to successfully launch an entrepreneurial

venture” (p. 965). ESE plays a very crucial role in determining whether individuals

pursue entrepreneurial careers and engage in entrepreneurial behavior (Newman et al.,

2019) and is widely accepted to be an important predictor of entrepreneurial intentions

and behavior (Chen et al., 1998; Zhao et al., 2005). Boyd and Vozikis (1994) proposed

ESE as “an important explanatory variable in determining both the strength of

28

entrepreneurial intentions and the likelihood that those intentions will result in

entrepreneurial actions” (p. 66).

The process of entrepreneurship encompasses the relationship between specific

personal and situational opportunities, and entrepreneurs perceive those opportunities

differently from non-entrepreneurs (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000). Entrepreneurs may

recognize themselves to be more competent than non-entrepreneurs; hence, they

generally have higher ESE than non-entrepreneurs (Ajzen, 1991; Krueger & Dickson,

1994). ESE could arise due to an individual’s knowledge about an entrepreneurial

opportunity, the knowledge of market needs, and the perceived potential and capability to

serve those needs (Gimeno, Folta, Cooper, & Woo, 1997; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000).

ESE is thus important during the exploration and exploitation phases of the

entrepreneurial process (Chen et al., 1998).

Measurement of ESE. The literature review helped identify some robust

instruments that have been used to test ESE from those studies that focused solely on

scale development or testing. The most commonly used instrument has been the 22-item

multi-dimensional measure developed by Chen et al. (1998). Items in this instrument

were derived from a content analysis of previous literature and interviews with

entrepreneurs. Factor analysis of this instrument confirmed that ESE is made up of five

sub-dimensions or factors capturing an entrepreneur's self-efficacy around marketing,

innovation, management, risk-taking, and financial control (Newman et al., 2019). Part of

the popularity of Chen et al.'s (1998) instrument is the fact that it has been in existence

29

for longer than any other ESE scale. This instrument has been used with a variety of

populations, including college students, small business owners, franchisees, and

entrepreneurs (Newman et al., 2019).

DeNoble, Jung, and Ehrlich (1999) developed an alternative 22-item multi-

dimensional instrument for measuring ESE that captures “the entrepreneurial skills that

are uniquely different from managerial skills” (p. 3). This instrument was developed by

content analyses of responses from entrepreneurs to a question asking them to describe

critical issues they faced in the startup and early development phases of their companies.

This instrument is comprised of six sub-dimensions that capture an entrepreneur's self-

efficacy around developing new product and market opportunities, building an innovative

environment, initiating investor relationships, defining core purpose, coping with

unexpected challenges, and developing critical human resources (Newman et al., 2019).

Zhao et al. (2005) developed a 4-item global measure that measures an

individual's self-efficacy about specific entrepreneurial tasks. Zhao et al. (2005) reported

a strong relationship between their measure and that developed by Chen et al. (1998), and

a weaker relationship to measures of general self-efficacy (Newman et al., 2019).

Barbosa, Gerhardt, and Kickul (2007) developed an instrument comprised of four sub-

dimensions, namely opportunity identification self-efficacy, relationship self-efficacy,

managerial self-efficacy, and tolerance self-efficacy.

The most recent ESE instrument was developed by McGee et al. (2009), who

contended that “there remain inconsistencies in the definition, dimensionality, and

measurement of ESE” (p. 965). They proposed a 19-item multi-dimensional measure of

30

ESE that can be used for both nascent and experienced entrepreneurs. This instrument is

based on four different phases of business creation: searching, planning, marshaling, and

implementation (Newman et al., 2019). Factor analysis of the survey items showed that

ESE is made up of five sub-dimensions that capture an entrepreneur's self-efficacy

regarding searching for opportunities, planning, marshaling resources, and implementing

both related to human resources and financial resources. This is the only instrument that

captures ESE in different phases of the venture creation and development process.

Spagnoli, Santos, and Caetano (2017), who examined the validity and reliability of

McGee et al.’s (2009) instrument, used it among entrepreneurs in Italy and Portugal and

provided support for the use of the scale outside the U.S.

Factors affecting the development or growth of ESE. Several factors that may

foster or inhibit ESE have been identified in the literature. These studies not only support

the malleability of ESE but also highlight the importance of mediations aimed at

encouraging individuals to pursue entrepreneurial careers and develop entrepreneurial

ventures (Newman et al., 2019). The following section examines key antecedents of ESE,

including education and training, work experience, role models and mentors, and

individual/demographic differences. When exploring antecedents of ESE, most

researchers draw upon Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy (1997), which highlights

mastery experience, vicarious experiences, positive reinforcements, and judgment of

one's physiological states as the four main sources of self-efficacy. Each of these sources

31

has been discussed in detail under the self-efficacy sub-heading, only additional

information will be provided here.

Education and training. Several researchers have confirmed that participation in

entrepreneurial education and training programs can enhance the ESE of university

students (Byabashaija & Katano, 2011; Karlsson & Moberg, 2013; Kubberød &

Pettersen, 2017; Wilson, Kickul, & Marlino, 2007; Zhao et al., 2005) or real-world

entrepreneurs (Kerrick, Cumberland, & Choi, 2016; Lee, Hallak, & Sardeshmukh, 2016).

According to Zhao et al. (2005), entrepreneurial education provides opportunities for an

individual to experience all four of Bandura’s (1997) sources of self-efficacy: mastery

experiences, vicarious experiences, positive reinforcements, and physiological state. For

example, through an educational or training program, a trainee can gain mastery

experience by creating business plans or case studies. They could also learn vicariously

by observing successful role models or witness verbal persuasion through constructive

and positive feedback on their assessments by trainers (Newman et al., 2019). Finally, by

observing how entrepreneurs introduced at training, deal with challenges, trainees can

develop their psychological coping strategies, managing anxiety and leading to greater

confidence in their future chances of success (Newman et al., 2019). Boukamcha (2015)

confirmed that participation in an entrepreneurship training program could lead to higher

levels of ESE. A study amongst low-income women in India found evidence that

marketplace literacy training improved the ESE (Venugopal et al., 2015). However, a

study conducted by Piperopoulos & Dimov (2015) found that the nature of the training

32

program was critical in determining its effect on self-efficacy; self-efficacy beliefs only

improved when the entrepreneurial courses were practically oriented rather than being

theoretically oriented. Also, a study conducted by Hodzic, Ripoll, Lira, & Zenasni (2015)

established that training interventions, which were designed to enhance the emotional

competences of trainees, also led to higher levels of ESE in comparison to a control

group that did not undertake the training. The authors claim this effect is due to the

enhancing of their physiological or affective state, as mentioned by Bandura (2010)

(Newman et al., 2019).

Work experience. Prior experience in launching or running one's own business

promotes ESE, as it provides opportunities for both mastery experiences and vicarious

learning (Lee et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2005). Work experience as an employee can also

enhance an individuals' ESE through similar mechanisms (Farashah, 2015; Hockerts,

2017). Although the quality of work experience in a family business was found to be

positively related to the ESE of family business successors, years of work experience was

not (Sardeshmukh & Corbett, 2011). Cooper and Dunkelberg (1984) found a relationship

between the number of jobs held previously and entrepreneurial activity. According to

Fuchs (1982), men with professional, sales, and managerial experience were more likely

to be self-employed at the end of their careers. Based on the above two studies, Boyd and

Vozikis (1994) concluded that the type of job experience should be considered while

studying the development of self-efficacy beliefs through mastery experiences.

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Role models. Entrepreneurial role models, as such, are weak predictors of future

entrepreneurial activity (Scott & Twomey, 1988). However, role models can affect

entrepreneurial intentions if it impacts attitudes such as self-efficacy (Krueger, 1993;

Krueger & Casrud, 1993). Based on the social cognitive theory, growing evidence was

found confirming a positive relationship between the presence of role models and ESE.

Several studies confirmed a positive link between a student's exposure to entrepreneurial

role models and their ESE (BarNir, Watson, & Hutchins, 2011; Vanevenhoven &

Liguori, 2013). BarNir et al. (2011) argued that role models not only provide

opportunities for vicarious learning experiences but are also a good source of social

persuasion, making individuals feel more confident to pursue an entrepreneurial career

(Newman et al., 2019). Also, by learning from role models about how to cope with

challenges and stress, individuals are better able to develop strategies to deal with

problems and maintain a positive physiological state. Researchers have found that

exposure to entrepreneurial role models, in general (Farashah, 2015) or in family business

settings (Carr & Sequeira, 2007), is positively related to an individual's ESE.

Mentoring. The influence of observational learning through modeling on the

development of self-efficacy beliefs may also extend to mentoring relationships when an

individual has the opportunity to work under the guidance and direction of a successful

entrepreneur (Boyd & Vozikis, 1994). A mentor can support an entrepreneur by

providing information or access to sponsorship, coaching, work assignments, and

relevant informal social networks through which individuals can exchange information

34

(Kram, 1983). A recent study by St-Jean and Mathieu (2015) found that the quality of

mentoring provided to novice entrepreneurs as part of a mentoring program positively

related to their ESE.

Entrepreneurs in the family. Many researchers have found a positive correlation

between being an entrepreneur and having a self-employed parent (Bowen & Hisrich,

1986; Scherer, Adams, Carley, & Wiebe, 1989; Shapero & Sokol, 1982). Boyd &

Vozikis (1994) claim that the finding confirms observational learning through role-

modeling within families. Having a parent entrepreneurial role model affects the self-

efficacy of an individual regarding their preference for an entrepreneurial career (Boyd &

Vozikis, 1994). Scherer et al. (1989) found that individuals who observe a low-

performing parental entrepreneur role model may possess lower self-efficacy towards

entrepreneurship than those of individuals who observe a high-performing parental role

model.

Social support. The social support theory proposes that when an individual

receives help from an interpersonal relationship, it has a positive effect on how the

individual copes with stress or life changes (Boyd & Vozikis, 1994), which in turn affects

ESE through the affective process. According to Fisher (1985), individuals can rely on

relationships to provide them with emotional reassurance, necessary information, and

tangential aid (Fisher, 1985). The assets-benefits hypothesis states that social support

directly benefits the overall personal well-being of an individual by providing a sense of

35

stability to one's life (Cohen & Wills, 1985). On the other hand, a lack of social support

may contribute to increased anxiety and a diminished sense of physiological well-being

(Boyd & Vozikis, 1994). Thus, social persuasion may be viewed as a form of social

support that enhances self-efficacy beliefs. During unemployment, verbal persuasion

from relationships in the form of positive feedback can influence entrepreneurial self-

efficacy (Boyd & Vozikis, 1994). Also, if the source of social support is a trusted and

successful role model to the individual, verbal persuasion may exert an even more

profound influence on the development of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (Boyd & Vozikis,

1994). Recent literature also proves the role of social support. Chen & He (2011) have

found that an entrepreneur's strong ties with family and friends are positively associated

with their ESE.

Personality characteristics. Based on social cognitive theory, differences in

personality are likely to affect individuals' judgments of their own physiological or

affective state, which influences their level of self-efficacy to start a new business

(Newman et al., 2019). Zhao et al. (2005) and Zhang and Cain (2017) found a positive

relationship between risk-taking preference and ESE among graduate students. Biraglia

and Kadile (2017) found that creativity positively influenced ESE. The need for

achievement and control have also been found to influence the ESE of entrepreneurs

(Luthans & Ibrayeva, 2007). Researchers have also examined the relationship between

personality and ESE and found a correlation between conscientiousness and proactivity

with ESE (Prabhu, McGuire, Drost, & Kwong, 2012). Likewise, others have confirmed a

36

positive relationship between career adaptability and ESE (Tolentino, Sedoglavich, Lu,

Garcia, & Restubog, 2014). Researchers have linked fear of failure and social persuasion

promoted through media and ESE as well (Farashah, 2015).

Age. An association between age and entrepreneurial activity has been found in

the literature. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) research findings show that

involvement in entrepreneurial activity varies across different age groups (Bosma &

Harding, 2008). The possibility of starting a business was most pronounced in the 25-34

years age group across the globe (Bosma & Harding, 2008). This desire tends to diminish

with age, but at the same time, experience increases with age. Thus, the pattern is not

linear but rather an inverted U‐shape (Laguna, 2013). However, no promising studies

could be found to ascertain the relationship between age and ESE.

Gender. The relationship between an individual’s demographic characteristics

and ESE is mostly unknown, except for gender. Many researchers have asserted that

entrepreneurship is a masculine trait (Baron et al., 2001) and that most entrepreneurs are

men (Moore & Buttner, 1997). The initial empirical evidence proving that female

students had lower ESE than male students was provided by Scherer et al. (1990). The

reasons for this lower ESE were speculated to be due to fewer opportunities for early

mastery experiences, social support, or role models among females in comparison to

males (Dyer & Handler, 1994). Many other researchers have also confirmed that females

on average have lower levels of ESE than males (Dempsey & Jennings, 2014; Díaz-

37

García & Jiménez-Moreno, 2010; Wilson, Kickul, Marlino, Barbosa, & Griffiths, 2009),

and they attributed the findings to less entrepreneurial experience and lower levels of

affect towards entrepreneurship (Newman et al., 2019). The most recent (2007) research

by the GEM project gives evidence that the lower levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy

among women and the subsequent lower levels of entrepreneurial intentions are a global

trend (Wilson et al., 2007).

However, some level of mixed opinion about the role of gender in moderating the

relationships between both entrepreneurial education, work experience, and ESE was

gathered (Kickul, Wilson, Marlino, & Barbosa, 2008; Wilson et al., 2007). Coleman &

Kariv (2014) argued that females have higher ESE than males, while a few other

researchers found no significant differences in ESE between males and females (Mueller

& Dato-On, 2008; Zhao et al., 2005). Sweida & Reichard (2013) suggest that

stereotyping women in a negative sense can impact women's ESE and their subsequent

intention to start a business.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

This section explores the theoretical foundations of ESE and its relationship with

entrepreneurial intentions and behavior. ESE is rooted in the broader concept of self-

efficacy, which was introduced by Albert Bandura in 1997. Self-efficacy, along with its

domain-specific constructs such as ESE, have theoretical roots in the human agency

perspective in which individuals are seen to interact reciprocally with internal and

external environments (Newman et al., 2019). Individuals tend to exercise an influence

38

over what they do, and agency refers to those acts that are done intentionally. Perceived

self-efficacy constitutes the critical factor of human agency (Bandura, 1997), and it is

thus an integral concept while studying entrepreneurial intentions and actions (Newman

et al., 2019). Bandura’s social cognitive theory adopts a much broader view of human

agency, extending the analysis to the exercise of collective agency. People’s confidence

in their capabilities to produce effects collectively is crucial to the collective agency

(Bandura, 1997).

Bandura (1997) proposed that self-efficacy beliefs are developed as individuals

interpret information from four different sources, namely: (a) enactive mastery

experience, (b) vicarious experience, (c) positive reinforcements, and (d) physiological

state. The most powerful of these sources are the interpreted results of the individual’s

previous attainments or experiences, which are called an enactive mastery experience.

Bandura (1997, 2010) claims that most individuals do not quickly dismiss their

experiences of mastery and successful performance, and this can have lasting effects on

their self-efficacy. In addition to interpreting the results of one’s performance, individuals

tend to gauge their capabilities on the performance of others by observing them perform

through vicarious experience. Individuals are most likely to alter their beliefs following a

role model's success or failure to the degree that the individual feels similar to the role

model in the particular area in question (Schunk, 1987).

The feedback that individuals receive from peers and others serves as the third

source of self-efficacy; this is called social/verbal persuasion. Social persuasion may be

limited in its ability to create enduring increases in self-efficacy. However, it may be

39

easier to undermine an individual’s self-efficacy through negative feedback than to

enhance it through positive feedback; this is particularly important in the formative years

of learning a new skill (Bandura, 1997, 2010). Finally, Bandura (1997, 2010)

hypothesized that the emotional or physiological state informs self-efficacy beliefs of the

individual, which is called physiological experience. In general, increasing the physical

and emotional well-being of the individual and reducing negative emotional states

strengthens self-efficacy.

Reviewing literature was also helpful for arriving at the theories that explain the

role of ESE in entrepreneurial intentions and behavior. Ajzen's theory of planned

behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) suggests that perceived behavioral control is an important

determinant of both intentions and behavior. Ajzen further explains perceived behavioral

control as the perceived ease or difficulty of performing a behavior, which is reflective of

the individual's experience and the anticipated future problems (Ajzen, 1987). The

concept of perceived behavioral control is similar to the concept of self-efficacy

(Bandura, 1997) since both perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy refer to

perceptual factors that are specific to the attainment of a given behavior (Boyd &

Vozikis, 1994). According to the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), self-

efficacy, which captures the extent of an individual's perceived behavioral control, is a

crucial determinant of their intention to engage in the behavior (Krueger et al., 2000).

ESE can promote entrepreneurial behavior by intensifying an individual's entrepreneurial

intentions (Chen et al., 1998; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014).

40

Another relevant theory that connects ESE with entrepreneurial intentions was

developed by Boyd and Vozikis (1994). Boyd and Vozikis (1994) revised Bird's (1988)

model of entrepreneurial intentionality by including the concept of self-efficacy as a

means to explain both the development of entrepreneurial intentions and the conditions

under which the intentions may translate into action. Boyd and Vozikis (1994) proposed

that self-efficacy affects entrepreneurial behavior by influencing the development of

entrepreneurial intentions. An individual's entrepreneurial intention is formed in part by

the confidence the individual perceives to have in obtaining the desired outcome from the

new venture (Boyd & Vozikis, 1994). Attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs of the individual

influence their self-efficacy towards entrepreneurship and beliefs are in turn, shaped by

the social, political, and economic context, as well as personal history, personality, and

abilities of the individual.

The conceptual framework for this study (see Figure 2.1) was developed using

Bandura’s (1997) theory of the development of self-efficacy, Ajzen’s (1991) theory of

planned behavior, and Boyd and Vozikis’s (1994) theory of entrepreneurial intentionality.

This study argued that tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions possess significantly

higher levels of ESE and that differences in demographic characteristics like age, gender,

educational level, household income, marital status, and household size affect their ESE

levels. It was also suggested that factors such as mastery experiences, vicarious

experiences, positive reinforcements, and physiological state could be important sources

of developing ESE among tribal farmers.

41

Figure 2.1. Conceptual framework. This conceptual framework was developed

using Bandura’s (1997) theory of the development of self-efficacy, Ajzen’s (1991) theory

of planned behavior, and Boyd and Vozikis’s (1994) theory of entrepreneurial

intentionality.

42

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS

This chapter starts with an overview of the methodology, followed by background

and positionality as a researcher, leading to the research context, and research design.

Major headings in research design were based on the six stages of the study (i.e.,

quantitative phase, quantitative phase analysis, connecting quantitative and qualitative

phases, qualitative phase, qualitative phase analysis, integration of quantitative and

qualitative phase results). Information on IRB and research ethics follows the research

design.

Overview of Methodology

The purpose of this study was to understand the factors contributing to the

development of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions. A mixed

methods study incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods was found

befitting to answer the research questions of this study. A mixed methods study is an

“inquiry that involves collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the

two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve different philosophical

assumptions and theoretical frameworks” (Creswell, 2014, p. 4). Quantitative and

qualitative methods represent two different ends of the same continuum (Newman &

Benz, 1998), and a mixed methods study incorporating both methods resides somewhere

in the middle of that continuum (Creswell, 2014). The assumption that was made in

conducting this mixed methods study is that utilizing both quantitative and qualitative

methods would help in providing a complete understanding of the research problem.

43

This mixed methods study followed a sequential design with a qualitative phase

sequentially succeeding a quantitative phase. The quantitative phase of this study was

designed to answer the first three research questions :

1) What are the levels of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial

intentions?

2) What are the demographic characteristics of tribal farmers who have

entrepreneurial intentions?

3) What is the relationship of ESE with demographic characteristics of tribal farmers

who have entrepreneurial intentions?

The qualitative phase was designed to answer the fourth question of this research study:

4) How do tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions develop higher levels

of ESE?

a) What is the role of mastery experiences in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

b) What is the role of vicarious experiences in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

c) What is the role of positive reinforcements in the development of

ESE among tribal farmers?

d) What is the role of physiological state in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

e) What other factors affect the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

44

Background and Positionality as a Researcher

According to Patton and Bondi (2015), researchers must reflect on their

positionality and how that will affect the conceptualization and execution of their studies.

Hence, I will discuss my educational background and positionality as a researcher in this

section.

I was born in a suburban town in Goa, India. Aside from the annual trip to the

farm of my paternal grandparents in Kerala, India, my only experience with agriculture

and animal husbandry as a kid was the backyard garden and poultry that my parents

meticulously maintained. After graduating from high school, my interest in scientific

inquiry and knowledge combined with a love for nature led me into the field of veterinary

medicine. In 2007, I graduated with a Bachelor’s degree in Veterinary Sciences (BVSc),

which is India’s equivalent of DVM in the United States. However, while doing an

internship at a rural veterinary clinic, I started observing and gathering information on the

socio-economic plight of rural subsistence farmers in India. These first-hand experiences

led me to become passionate about improving the livelihood of farmers through training

and education. With this goal, I obtained a Master’s in Veterinary and Animal Husbandry

Extension Education in 2010. The field of extension thus became my portal of entry into

the colossal world of social science research.

For my master's dissertation, I employed a quasi-experimental research design.

The purpose of my study was to understand the effects of a low-cost cell phone-mediated

audio-conferencing device for the training of women dairy farmers in rural India. Aside

from my research experiences, I have collaborated in several farmer training and rural

45

development work through the Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry

Extension Education at Pondicherry University, India.

My passion for discovering strategies to solve some of the socio-economic issues

of marginalized populations, like subsistence farmers in the developing world, motivated

me to design this study. My prior experiences interacting with farmers in India gave me

the confidence to build rapport with tribal farmers who participated in my study. Due to

my background as a veterinarian, I was also comfortable to network with local

veterinarians and agricultural officers in Nagaland. Developing positive rapport with the

locals and building effective networks helped me to mitigate the various challenges and

hindrances of working in an unfamiliar research setting.

Considering my extensive background in pure sciences, I have strictly seen the

research world as a positivist in the past. However, the diverse research methodology

classes that I took during my doctoral program gave me the exposure to recognize the

importance of various paradigms and methods in social science research. Hence, while

designing this research, my focus was not on using one particular research method. In

contrast, I focused on the purpose of this study and how I could best answer my research

questions. Several researchers have found it worthwhile to focus attention on the research

problem and then utilize pluralistic approaches (Morgan, 2007; Patton, 1990; Tashakkori

& Teddlie, 2010). The pragmatic paradigm provides a philosophical underpinning for

research that seeks to utilize pluralistic approaches (Cherryholmes, 1992; Creswell, 2014;

Morgan, 2007). Pragmatist researchers do not see the world in absolute unity and look for

the what and how of research based on the intended outcomes (Creswell, 2014). As a

46

pragmatist in this research, I have used multiple methods, worldviews, assumptions, and

various ways of collecting information, that would help me answer the research questions

of this study (Creswell, 2014).

Research Context

India is a federal republic with 29 states and six union territories (see Figure 3.1)

(Commonwealth Secretariat, 2019). The seven sister states of northeastern India:

Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura, are

home to over 220 different tribes of India (Government of India, 2013). Nagaland, which

became the 16th state of India in the year 1963, is a northeast state that is well known for

its diverse tribes, systems of governance, cultures, and unique traditions. Since it is still

scientifically unexplored, Nagaland is considered a gold mine for anthropological studies

and other social research (Government of Nagaland, 2004).

The state of Nagaland, with an area of 6,401 sq mi, and a population of over 2

million people, is considered one of the smallest states in India (Government of

Nagaland, 2016). There are 14 major Naga tribes (viz., Angami, Ao, Chakhesang, Chang,

Khiamniungan, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchungru,

and Zeliang) and two non-Naga tribes (viz., Kachari, Kuki) in Nagaland (Government of

Nagaland, 2016). Each of these 16 tribes is unique and has its distinct customs,

languages, and dress code (Government of Nagaland, 2016).

47

Figure 3.1 Political map of India displaying states and union territories. Adapted from

https://geology.com/world/india-satellite-image.shtml. Copyright Geology.com © 2018.

In 1967, English was declared as the official language of the state by the

Nagaland Assembly, and is used widely as the medium of all school and university

education (Khubchandani, 1997). Other than English, Nagamese, a creole language

based on Assamese is widely spoken (Khubchandani, 1997). The tribal languages spoken

in Nagaland are Ao, Konyak, Lotha, Angami, Sumi, Phom, Yimchungre, Sangtam,

48

Chakru, Chang, Zeliang, Bengali, Rengma, Hindi, Kheza, Khiamniungan, Kuki,

Assamese, and Chakhesang (Government of Nagaland, 2016). The state capital of

Nagaland is Kohima, and the largest city is Dimapur. Nagaland is divided into eleven

districts (see Figure 3.2): Dimapur, Kiphire, Kohima, Longleng, Mokokchung, Mon,

Peren, Phek, Tuensang, Wokha, and Zunheboto (Government of Nagaland, 2019).

Figure 3.2. A political map displaying the districts of Nagaland. Retrieved from

http://icarnagaland.nic.in/Map_Location.html.

The participants of this study were the tribal farmers from the district of Dimapur.

Dimapur, which means "Big-river-city" in English, is called the gateway to Nagaland,

49

possessing the only railhead and functional airport in the state. The Indian Agricultural

Research Center (ICAR) and Krishi Vigan Kendra (KVK), which are federal agricultural

research and training centers, have their branches in Dimapur district of Nagaland (see

Figure 3.2). The selection of participants for this study was done with the support of

agricultural research scientists and veterinarians at ICAR in Dimapur. This center, funded

by the Government of India for agricultural research and training, has been functioning at

Jharnapani, Dimapur, since 1975. Besides being a research center, ICAR, Nagaland, has

also conducted various poultry and piggery training programs for farmers in Nagaland.

As a part of its piggery and poultry research initiatives, ICAR, Nagaland has been

distributing free chickens and pigs to farmers interested in starting small businesses

The state of Nagaland has experienced episodes of insurgency as well as inter-

ethnic conflict since the 1950s, and the violence and insecurity have limited Nagaland's

economic development because it had to commit its scarce resources to law, order, and

security (Chasie, 2005). Approximately 10% of Nagaland’s rural population and 4.3% of

its urban population live below the poverty line (Reserve Bank of India, 2013).

Nagaland is a predominantly agricultural economy, with 71.14% of the population

dependent on agriculture (Government of Nagaland, 2016). Agriculture is one of the

crucial contributors to the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) and is the major

employer of the workforce in the state. Farmers in Nagaland mainly cultivate rice, maize,

linseed, potato, pulses, soybean, sugarcane, gram, cotton, and castor oil. Backyard

poultry farming and other livestock rearing practices among farmers supplement

household incomes and takes care of the protein requirements of the family (Government

50

of Nagaland, 2016). In recent years, agricultural activities of the state of Nagaland have

diversified to include commercial crops such as rubber, oilseeds, sugarcane, and coffee.

However, since agriculture in Nagaland is mostly dependent on monsoons for irrigation,

the erratic rainfall pattern is the principal cause for concern among farmers (Government

of Nagaland, 2016). Another reason for concern is that the majority of the farmers in

Nagaland are primarily subsistence farmers producing only food enough for themselves

and their families, hardly making much profit.

The Government of Nagaland (2016) has emphasized that the way forward for

economic development must begin with the agricultural sector since the majority of the

population in the state is highly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, The

Government of Nagaland (2016) is looking forward to equipping more farmers with

entrepreneurial skills, so they may increase their farm income by diversifying into

commercial crops, livestock production, and vegetable and fruit processing.

Research Design

Researchers like Creswell & Creswell (2018) and Mertens (2015) have advocated

various strategies to conduct a mixed methods study. Mertens (2015) explains that

applying quantitative and qualitative methods simultaneously or sequentially forming two

major mixed methods study designs: (a) parallel form and (b) sequential form. Creswell

(2014) further classifies sequential designs as either explanatory that have strong

quantitative leanings or exploratory that has strong qualitative leanings and the

concurrent designs where quantitative and qualitative occurs in parallel. In this mixed

51

methods study, an explanatory sequential design was employed. This study was

sequential because one phase (qualitative phase) followed the other phase (quantitative

phase). It was explanatory because the qualitative phase was used to explain the findings

of the quantitative phase.

Creswell (2014) also underlines the four factors that influence a mixed methods

study, which includes timing, weighing, mixing, and theorizing. Timing refers to when

qualitative and quantitative data collection happens. The weight or priority implies

emphasizing one method over the other or giving both the methods equal weight. Mixing

refers to integrating the data, connecting data analysis of the first phase and the data

collection of the second phase, or embedding a secondary form of data within a more

extensive study. Finally, theorizing is determining whether the theoretical perspective of

guiding the study is explicit or implicit.

In this sequential design mixed methods study, both the quantitative and

qualitative phases play equally important roles, and hence, both the phases were given

equal weight from the time of planning to analyzing, and interpreting. Mixing has

occurred by utilizing the data analyzed from the quantitative phase for conducting the

qualitative phase and by integrating quantitative and qualitative findings at the end for

interpretation.

Many researchers have indicated importance in providing a visual model of the

procedures in a mixed methods study (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Creswell, 2018;

Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006). The visual research design model for this study (see

Figure 3.3) was adapted from the model described by Ivankova et al. (2006), and it

52

portrays the sequence of the research activities, states all the data collection and analysis

procedures, and lists the outcome from each stage of the study. In this mixed methods

study, the quantitative phase was conducted to measure the ESE of tribal farmers.

Additionally, data on demographic characteristics were also gathered in this phase.

53

Figure 3.3.Research design model for this mixed methods study

Next, data collected from the quantitative phase was analyzed and used to select

participants for the qualitative phase of the study. The qualitative phase was then

conducted to understand the factors contributing to the development of higher ESE scores

54

among tribal farmers. This phase was followed by an analysis of collected data and

interpretation based on the findings of both the qualitative and quantitative phases.

Quantitative Phase

The first step of the research design was the quantitative phase.

Instrumentation. A literature review to identify existing instruments for

assessing ESE was conducted, details of which are discussed in the literature review

section. According to Benson and Clark (1982), undertaking a literature review has two

potential benefits: (a) it ensures the usage of an appropriate, reliable, and valid

instrument, and (b) it aids in formulating an operational definition for the constructs to be

measured. The five-dimensional ESE instrument (McGee et al., 2009), which is based on

the venture creation process model of entrepreneurship, was selected for this study. The

process model of entrepreneurship which was originally proposed by Stevenson, Roberts,

and Grousbeck (1985), divides entrepreneurial activities into four phases, namely (a)

searching, which involves the development of a unique idea or an opportunity; (b)

planning, which includes the activities that convert the idea into a business plan; (c)

marshaling, involving assembling resources such as capital, labor, customers, and

suppliers; and (d) implementing, growing and sustaining the business past its infancy.

The authors in McGee et al.’s (2009) article were contacted by email, and the ESE

instrument used by them was obtained. McGee et al.’s (2009) instrument (see Appendix

1) had 26 items on a 5-point scale: 1 (very little confidence) to 5 (complete confidence).

There were no anchors for points 2, 3 and 4. The multi-dimensional nature of this ESE

55

instrument was confirmed by the authors through a factor analysis conducted on the

survey results obtained from prospective entrepreneurs (McGee et al., 2009). The five

dimensions of ESE in McGee et al.’s (2009) instrument were, searching, planning,

marshaling, implementing: people, and implementing: financial. These five dimensions

had a Cronbach’s α > .80, indicating sufficient reliability (McGee et al., 2009).

Reliability is a property of the scores on an instrument from a specific sample of

participants; it is, therefore, necessary to measure reliability each time the instrument is

administered (Streiner, 2003). Hence, the reliability of ESE scores for this study sample

will be discussed later in this chapter.

The following steps were undertaken chronologically to modify and improve the

validity and reliability of McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument:

1. Researcher’s review: Few wordings were changed to make the items of the

McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument comprehensible to the tribal farmers of

Nagaland. Additionally, the five-point rating scale was changed to include no

confidence (0) and to anchor all the points. The new rating scale developed was:

no confidence (0), very little confidence (1), little confidence (2), high confidence

(3), and very high confidence (4).

2. Expert panel review: Eight experts (see Appendix 2) based on their expertise in

developing survey instruments or experience in entrepreneurship research were

contacted to review the modified McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument. A letter

was sent to the selected panel explaining the study and seeking help (see

Appendix 2). Feedback and comments were received from four experts. Based on

56

the feedback of the expert panel, necessary changes were made to the instrument

(see Appendix 3).

3. Think-aloud: Think aloud procedure was carried out with six agricultural research

scientists at ICAR in Dimapur, who were local to Nagaland (see Appendix 4).

Each item in the instrument was read out to participants during the individual

face-to-face meeting. The participants were asked to think aloud what they

thought while hearing the question (Bandalos, 2018). This was a very important

exercise since it brought important perspectives into the picture that could be

understood only by locals. Based on the think-aloud observations, the items in the

modified McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument were further changed. An

additional dimension called Implementing (general) was added to the instrument

(see Appendix 5), that contained the item on confidence in using tools and

equipment needed for the business. The final modified instrument (to be referred

to as the six-dimensional ESE instrument hereafter) had 27 items, on a five-point

scale (0-4) with six dimensions namely: searching, planning, marshaling,

implementing: people, implementing: general), implementing: financial.

Participants. To achieve the purpose of this study, it was proposed to survey

tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions from the Dimapur district of Nagaland,

India. A working definition of tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions for this

study was considered as those individuals who have: (a) approached a local veterinarian

or agricultural officer with queries regarding agricultural or animal husbandry

57

entrepreneurship, (b) participated in training through agricultural institutions and

indicated the intention to start a business. (c) approached government agencies for

funding for starting an agribusiness, (d) purchased land, or are in the process of

purchasing land for starting an agribusiness, (e) discussed the intentions to start an

agribusiness with other farmers. After reaching Dimapur, Nagaland and discussing the

research with local veterinarians, the most effective approach for selecting participants

with entrepreneurial intentions was identified as selecting those tribal farmers who have

attended poultry and piggery training at ICAR and indicated an interest in starting

businesses, and to select those recommended by agricultural officers and veterinarians

working in Dimapur.

Therefore, the selection of participants for the quantitative phase was done

purposively by following three different approaches: First, with the help of agricultural

research scientists and veterinarians working at ICAR, a list of villages in Dimapur from

where the farmers attending training at ICAR belonged was generated. Based on the

highest frequency of trainees, three villages in the Dimapur district (Maova, Dhansiripar,

Phaibijang) were selected for survey visits. The village chairperson of each of those

villages were contacted by phone and was asked to assemble all those with

entrepreneurial intentions willing to participate in the survey. Fifty-two participants were

selected through this approach (Maova-18, Dhansiripar-24, and Phaibijang-10) and all

consented to participate in the survey. Second, tribal farmers from Dimapur, who were

attending poultry training at ICAR and had indicated entrepreneurial intentions were

selected and surveyed at ICAR’s training campus on the day of training. Thirty-eight

58

farmers were selected through this approach. Third, nascent tribal entrepreneurs

recommended by veterinarians and agricultural officers in Dimapur who had in the last

year started small business ventures were selected. Twenty farmers were contacted

through this approach and 16 consented to be surveyed. A combined total of 106 tribal

farmers with entrepreneurial intentions were selected by following these three approaches

of selection (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1

Number of Tribal Farmers with Entrepreneurial Intentions Selected for Quantitative Phase (N = 106)

Selection of participants n Tribal farmers from three villages selected based on training frequency at ICAR

Maova 18

Dhansiripar 24

Phaibijang 10

Participants at ICAR’s poultry training surveyed on the day of training 38

Nascent entrepreneurs recommended by veterinarians and agricultural officers 16

Survey method. The tenets of social exchange theory were followed to ensure

that the selected farmers showed interest in participating in the survey. This was done by

increasing the benefits of participation, reducing the cost of participation, and developing

a rapport and trust with the farmers (Dillman, Smyth & Christian, 2014). Since the

participating farmers did not understand the goal and benefits of the research, the

participants were given 100 rupees each, equivalent to around $2 towards buying

lunch/dinner. If they had to travel any distance to participate in the survey, they were

reimbursed for their travel costs.

59

Most participants could understand basic conversational English; however, to

ensure that the meaning of the survey questions was understood correctly, additional help

was taken from local individuals (hereafter referred to as survey assistants) who read out

each survey question in English and explained the meaning in the local tribal language.

These individuals were selected based on their interest and experience in conducting

surveys. The research problem, the purpose of the research, the research questions, and

the questions in the questionnaire were explained in detail to the survey assistant before

they helped with the surveys. The survey assistants were given a chance to ask any

questions to the researcher before conducting the surveys. The survey assistants were

given 500 rupees ($8) as a token of appreciation for their work. The researcher was

present while survey assistants translated the surveys to participants.

Oral consent was gathered from all selected and willing to participate in this

study. A printed copy of the survey was given to farmers who consented to participate.

The survey given to the farmers contained two parts. Part A comprised of the ESE

instrument, and Part B had the questions related to demographics. The surveys took

30-60 minutes to complete depending on the time taken for translating survey questions.

Hundred and six participants participated in the quantitative phase of this study (see

Table 3.1).

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA, which is part of the larger family of

methods known as Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), is a powerful statistical tool for

measurement model validation (Brown, 2006). CFA is appropriate for theory testing,

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while Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), another SEM-based method, is appropriate for

theory generation. CFA is used in situations wherein an influential theory or prior

research is available to guide the specification of the factor model (Bandalos, 2018).

Since the instrument used in this study was developed from a theory, and a factor analysis

proved the multidimensionality in previous studies (McGee et al., 2009), performing

CFA was found appropriate for this study.

CFA was conducted using the lavaan package in R version 3.6.0. CFA was

conducted for the following reasons: to test the dimensionality of the instrument, to

determine model fit using fit indices, to provide evidence of measurement validity, and to

obtain reliability estimates, in particular, McDonald’s (1999) hierarchical omega (ωh).

Before conducting CFA, it is important to specify which variables load on which

factors and which factors are correlated (Bandalos, 2018). The factor structure that was

tested is displayed in Figure 3.4. In this model, 27 items load on six unique, but

correlated dimensions: (1) searching- x1, x2, x3, (2) planning- x4, x5, x6, x7, x8, x9, x10,

(3) marshaling- x11, x12, x13, x14, (4) implementing: people - x15, x16, x17, x18, x19,

x20, (5) implementing: general- x21, x22, x23 (6) implementing: financial- x24, x25,

x26, x27.

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Figure 3.4. Graphic representation of the model tested: Correlated Factor Model.

The following assumptions of CFA were considered in this study: (a)

Assumptions for distribution. Items in this instrument are categorical (rating scale) rather

than continuous. Therefore, a diagonally weighted least squares estimator was used,

which makes no distributional assumptions about the item responses (Rhemtulla,

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Brosseau-Laird, & Savalei, 2012). This is in contrast to the normality assumption for a

maximum likelihood estimator with continuous items. (b) Screening for the multivariate

outlier. It is difficult to have true outliers on a rating scale. Therefore, the data were

screened to check whether each response on every item had adequate representation.

Very few people responded with 0 on most items, so the 0 and 1 categories were

collapsed (c) Measures taken for missing data. The listwise deletion of 18 cases was done

to deal with missing data. (d) Fixing latent variables. The model used delta

parameterization, meaning that the factor loading for one item on each factor (i.e., latent

variable) was set to one. (e) Model modification ad cross-validation. No model

modification indices were used. Cross-validation involved splitting the sample in half and

running the model on each half separately to see if the fit is similar. The sample size was

not large enough to allow for cross-validation.

Fit indices. Three fit indices namely Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root Mean

Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square (SRMR),

were used to assess the model fit for CFA. Since, CFI is an incremental fit index while

RSMEA and SRMR are absolute fit indices, examining both types of fit indices gave a

complete picture of the model fit.

According to Hu and Bentler (1999) recommended cutoffs for the fit indices are

CFI >.95, RMSEA < .06, SRMR < .08. As seen in Table 3.2 the fit indices were all

within the recommended cutoff range; therefore, the model tested adequately fit the data.

As per the model tested, the instrument was six-dimensional (searching, planning,

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marshaling, implementing: people, implementing: general and implementing: financial),

and these dimensions were related to each other.

Table 3.2

Fit Indices Measures of the Tested Model

N X2 CFI RMSEA SRMR 88 408.121 (309) 0.979 0.061 0.079

Standardized factor loadings. To measure of how closely related the item is to

the factor, standardized factor-loadings were used. A factor loading of > .3 is generally

desired. As seen in Table 3.3, the standardized factor loading obtained were between .60

to .98. A factor loading of .60 means that the factor explains .602 = .36 or 36% of the

variation in responses to the item.

Table 3.3

Standardized Factor Loadings of the Tested Model Factor Item Std.Est Searching x1 0.83 Searching x2 0.67 Searching x3 0.71 Planning x4 0.57 Planning x5 0.60 Planning x6 0.60 Planning x7 0.84 Planning x8 0.71 Planning x9 0.75 Planning x10 0.79 Marshalling x11 0.89 Marshalling x12 0.92 Marshalling x13 0.77 Marshalling x14 0.85 People x15 0.88 People x16 0.95 People x17 0.87 People x18 0.89 People x19 0.90 People x20 0.77

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Implementing x21 0.91 Implementing x22 0.78 Implementing x23 0.75 Financial x24 0.86 Financial x25 0.98 Financial x26 0.84 Financial x27 0.77

Validity. In an explanatory, sequential mixed methods study, the validity of the

scores in the quantitative measures should be established to discuss the validity of the

qualitative findings. (Creswell, 2014). However, Creswell (2014) also explains certain

additional validity issues that can arise in a sequential mixed methods study. These issues

include drawing different participant samples for quantitative and qualitative analysis and

having an inadequate sample size. These validity issues were minimized by deriving the

sample for the qualitative interviews from the initial participant list used for the

quantitative phase and ensuring a sufficient number of participants in both phases of the

study. The following steps were taken to improve the various forms of validity:

Content validity. The ESE instrument was sent to a panel of experts who were

selected based on their expertise in entrepreneurship or the development of instruments

(see Appendix 2). Six think alouds were also conducted with agricultural research

scientists at ICAR, Dimapur, who were local to Nagaland (see Appendix 4). To improve

the content validity, necessary modifications were made to the instrument based on the

expert panel’s review and the think alouds.

Internal validity. Issues with internal validity were not a problem in this study

because the findings of the quantitative study were not meant to be used to imply

causation.

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External validity. External validity was also not a problem since generalizability

to a larger population was also not the intent of this study.

Reliability. The following steps were taken to avoid the four possible sources of

error in a survey method, thereby improving reliability (a) Coverage error. Based on the

suggestions of local veterinarians in Dimapur, Nagaland, three steps were taken to select

survey participants. The aim of this purposive sampling method was to make the

participant list a true representation of tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions

in Dimapur, Nagaland. However, errors in coverage cannot be denied. (b) Sampling

error. Farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions were selected through purposive

random sampling. Based on Boyd and Vozikis’s (1994) theory of entrepreneurial

intentionality, a higher ESE promotes entrepreneurial intentionality and action.

Therefore, farmers with entrepreneurial intentions who were selected in the initial list

were assumed to have higher ESEs, which reduced the chances of missing tribal farmers

with high scores for the qualitative phase of this study. (c) Measurement error. This type

of error was avoided by ensuring survey items were consistent with the item writing

guidelines and avoiding any erroneous items or confusion in the survey. Expert panel

review and think alouds were conducted to make the items relevant to the locals of

Dimapur. (d) Non-Response error. The unit non-response error was eliminated by

contacting the tribal entrepreneurs through local tribals who had a good rapport with

them. Also, a small token of appreciation was given to those farmers who successfully

participated in the survey. Meanwhile, the item non-response error was reduced by not

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asking for sensitive information in the survey. However, for those items that many

participants did not respond to, listwise deletion method was followed to address the

missing data.

Reliability estimates of the test scores were calculated post-survey. Coefficient

alpha provides a degree of internal consistency of an instrument and is expressed as a

number between 0 and 1 (Cronbach, 1951). Internal consistency of a test can be described

as the extent to which all the items in a test measure the same concept or a construct, in

other words, the inter-relatedness of the items within the test. Reliability estimates also

show the amount of measurement error in a test, which is obtained by multiplying the

standard deviation of scores by the square root of the reliability coefficient subtracted

from 1.00. When reliability increases, the fraction of the score that is attributable to the

error decreases (Nunnally& Bernstein, 1994). The number of test items, item inter-

relatedness, and dimensionality affects the value of alpha (Cortina, 1993). Since the

multi-dimensionality of the instrument was demonstrated through CFA, coefficient alpha

of each of the six dimensions was reported (Table 3.4). A high value of (>.80) in all the

dimensions (except searching) indicated a very high item correlation and low

measurement error within each dimension.

However, some researchers have claimed that the coefficient alpha is a highly

misused measure of reliability (Cho, 2016), which is especially true when the ‘tau

equivalent model’ assumptions are not met: Each test item should measure the same

latent trait on the same scale. Thus, if multiple factors/traits underlie the items on a scale,

as revealed by CFA, this assumption is violated, and alpha underestimates the reliability

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of the test (Green & Yang, 2015). Additionally, the number of test items should not be

too small since it will violate the assumption of tau-equivalence and will underestimate

reliability.

McDonald (1999) proposed two definitions of reliability that apply to

multidimensional models. Zinbarg, Revelle, Yovel, and Li (2005) agreed with

McDonald’s proposal and recommended that it be categorized as ω, which was relabeled

as ωH called hierarchical omega or omega hierarchical. Several studies have suggested

the use of hierarchical omega (Revelle & Zinbarg, 2009; Zinbarg et al., 2005; Zinbarg,

Revelle, & Yovel, 2007; Zinbarg, Yovel, Revelle, & McDonald, 2006).ω is a lower

bound to population reliability, and α is a lower bound to ω (McDonald,1999). ω is equal

to population reliability only when the measure is unidimensional, and α is equal to ω

only when all the factor loadings are of equal value (McDonald, 1999). This study reports

both hierarchical omega and coefficient alpha. Table 3.4 indicates high measures of both

coefficient alpha and hierarchical omega.

Table 3.4

Reliabilities of the ESE Scores

Coefficient Searching Planning Marshaling People Implementing Financial Total

Alpha 0.75 0.86 0.92 0.95 0.86 0.91 0.96

Hierarchical omega 0.76 0.86 0.88 0.95 0.80 0.92 0.99

Quantitative Phase Analysis

The analysis of survey data was done using the statistical software SPSS version

23. First, the ESE scores of all participants were analyzed. Descriptive statistics of mean,

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median, mode, standard deviation, and range were used to describe the ESE scores.

Descriptive statistics helped in understanding whether the average ESE score of the tribal

population having entrepreneurial intentions is above the midpoint, and the standard

deviation confirmed how much the ESE scores of this group vary. Descriptive statistics

were also used to describe the demographics of the participants. The association between

all demographic characteristics and ESE scores was investigated by ANOVA testing. A

post hoc analysis was conducted to investigate which groups within the demographic had

a statistically significant difference in ESE scores.

Connecting Quantitative and Qualitative Phases

A maximal variation sampling strategy (Creswell, 2014) was used to select

demographically diverse, high ESE scoring participants for the qualitative phase through

the findings of the survey. Maximum variation is one of the most frequently employed

purposeful sampling methods and typically requires the largest minimum sample size of

any of the purposeful sampling strategies (Sandelowski, 1995). A fair representation of

different ages, genders, tribes, educational levels, income, prior experience, and types of

businesses was sought through this sampling method. This selection strategy helped

preserve multiple perspectives based on both the ESE scores and critical demographics.

Qualitative Phase

Interview protocol development. Semi-structured interview questions were

constructed based on Bandura’s theory of the development of self-efficacy. The interview

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protocol was then sent to four qualitative experts (see Appendix 7) for review and

comments. Two replied to the request and gave very detailed feedback and

recommendations. The interview questions were edited based on the input from the

experts (see Appendix 8). The final interview protocol contained key questions and

prompts for probing to explore the depth. The prompts included phrases such as tell me

more, how is that, in what ways, and anything else? Participating farmers were asked

about their insights, perceptions, experiences, and opinions on the four major sources

affecting the development of self-efficacy and were also given opportunities to share

relevant stories and experiences.

Participants. The following criteria were met while selecting participants for the

qualitative phase of this study (a) high ESE score (> 2.60), (b) knowledge of English or

Hindi for conversing with the researcher during the interview, (c) maximal variation in

demographics (age, gender, tribe, educational level, income, prior experience and types

of business); to reflect diverse perspectives (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Table 3.5 describes

the profile of the fifteen participants selected for the qualitative phase.

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Table 3.5

Profile of Interview Participants

No.

Age (in

years) Gender Tribe Education

Prior Experience (in years) Business

Total ESE Score

1 26-35 Male Angami Graduate 1-5 Piggery 3.70

2 26-35 Male Sumi Graduate Less than 1 Poultry 2.96

3 36-45 Female Chakesang

High School More than 10 Mixed farming

3.74

4 36-45 Male Ao Undergraduate 1-5 Piggery 3.48

5 56-65 Male Ao Middle School More than 10 Mixed farming

4.00

6 26-35 Male Other Higher Secondary

6-10 Floriculture 3.78

7 26-35 Female Chakesang

Graduate 1-5 Food processing

4.00

8 26-35 Female Ao Graduate 1-5 Gardening tools & supplies

2.89

9 36-45 Female Dimasa Kachari

High School More than 10 Sericulture 3.15

10 26-35 Female Dimasa Kachari

High School More than 10 Sericulture 3.63

11 36-45 Male Dimasa Kachari

Higher Secondary

5-9 Sericulture 3.11

12 26-35 Female Ao Graduate 1-5 Floriculture 3.89

13 26-35 Female Kuki Graduate 1-5 Poultry 2.96

14 36-45 Female Kuki High School Less than 1 Poultry 2.67

15 26-35 Female Kuki High School 1-5 Poultry 3.70

Interviews. The 15 participants who were purposively selected to interview were

notified by phone. A time to meet the individuals was identified based on their

availability. On the day of the interview, oral consent was obtained with the help of

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consent forms. The semi-structured, open-ended interview questions developed using

Bandura’s theory of the development of self-efficacy and edited by experts was used to

guide the interviews. According to Patton (2002), semi-structured interviews offer the

interviewer flexibility in probing and in determining when it is appropriate to explore

certain subjects in greater depth. This phase aimed to understand, with the help of open-

ended qualitative questions, factors that are contributing to the development of the ESE in

the high ESE scoring individuals.

Participant observation. According to Spradley (1980), participant observation

allows the researcher to “engage in activities that are appropriate to the situation and

observe the activities, people, and physical aspects of the situation” (p. 54). Maxwell

(2013) equally asserts that observation can support researchers to “draw inferences about

someone’s meaning and perspectives that couldn’t be obtained by relying exclusively on

interview data” (p. 76). The purpose of participant observation was to gain access to

additional information on factors contributing to the development of ESE. Bernard (2017)

emphasizes, “when done right, participant observation turns fieldwork into instruments of

data collection and data analysis” (p. 324). In this study, participant observation added

richer insights into the findings of interviews.

Validity. Guba and Lincoln (1981) emphasized that in a qualitative study, validity

depends on whether the interview questionnaire was well constructed if the contents of

documents were properly analyzed, and if the overall conclusions were appropriately

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grounded in the findings of the study. However, other qualitative researchers like Wolcott

(1994) have called validity absurd, since it derives from an obsession of finding the truth

or correct answers. Instead, they proposed it is more necessary to obtain an understanding

of critical elements and gain plausible interpretations. However, in this qualitative phase

of the study, based on the recommendations of Merriam (1998), the term validity is used

and discussed.

Internal validity. The internal validity, or whether the research findings match

reality (Merriam, 1998), was improved in the following ways: (a) triangulations: used

data gathered through multiple sources such as interviews and participant observations

(b) member checks: checked with locals in Nagaland to determine if the research is

plausible; (c) peer examination: asked colleagues for opinions and feedback; (d)

researcher’s biases: clarified the assumptions and orientations of the researcher (Merriam,

1998).

External validity. Generalizability of the qualitative phase was enhanced through

(a) rich, thick descriptions so that there is enough material for direct comparison with

other situations; and (b) described the typicality of the population to show how typical the

population is in comparison with other populations (Merriam, 1998).

Dependability. In qualitative studies. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest using

terms such as “dependability” or “consistency” instead of reliability (p. 288). The real

question in this phase of the study is not whether findings can be reproduced, but if the

findings are consistent with the data that was collected. Dependability in this study was

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enhanced by (a) the investigator’s position: the theory that undergirds the study, the

paradigm of research, and the positionality of the researcher were all explained, (b)

triangulation: data from interviews and participant observations were used in this study,

and (c) audit trail: a detailed explanation of how the data was collected and how the

analysis was conducted is given in this study (Merriam, 1998).

Qualitative Phase Analysis

The audio files of the interviews were transcribed verbatim (Creswell, 2014).

NVivo version 12 plus, a qualitative data analysis software, was used for storing the

transcribed interviews, coding, categorizing, and theme development. The directed

content analysis approach was selected for the analysis of transcribed data. Directed

content analysis “validates or extends conceptually a theoretical framework or theory”

(Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1281) and is a more structured process than the conventional

content analysis (Hickey & Kipping, 1996).

The content analysis depends on the skills, insights, and style of a researcher

(Hoskins & Mariano, 2004). The directed content analysis in this study followed a mix of

deductive and inductive styles. The deductive style is commonly used to retest existing

data in a new context (Catanzaro, 1988) which in this case is the four sources of ESE.

However, to be open to the emergence of other sources of ESE the inductive style was

also used during coding.

The transcribed interviews were first imported into NVivo and saved as files.

Next, through the deductive style, the four primary sources of self-efficacy namely

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mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, positive reinforcement, and physiological

state were named as the major overarching themes to guide the analysis. The transcribed

files were read line-by-line to get a sense of the whole picture. Next, one file was selected

and chunks of data within the file were assigned to a code. The process of open coding

helped to take apart the text, and give each discrete idea a name, something that

represents the phenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). .A deductive style was also used in

labeling the codes with the help of prior research. However, an inductive style was also

used during coding to look for any additional codes besides those informed through

theory and prior research. At times, multiple codes were assigned to the same data.

The same procedure was followed with other files. Thirty-five codes were

generated through this process. A node in NVivo organizes all the references relating to a

particular code in one place. The codes were then categorized under nine themes. These

nine themes related to each of the four main sources of self-efficacy. The themes, with its

underlying codes, were visually represented using the feature of maps in NVivo. The

themes were verified through the process of triangulation by referring to the field notes

and observations, rich and thick descriptions of the themes, and the review of the

academic adviser (Creswell, 2014).

Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Results

This final stage in the research design included interpretation and explanation of

both quantitative and qualitative phases of the study. The findings and participant

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observations were integrated to write the discussion and conclusion, the implication of

the study and recommendations for theory and research.

IRB Process and Research Ethics

An IRB application for this research was sent to the University of Minnesota for

approval before conducting this study. The study was initiated after the approval of the

IRB. Codes of research ethics to protect the human subjects were closely followed

throughout this research. Both the survey and interview participants were given the

freedom to choose to participate or not to participate, promoting voluntarism. The

participants were surveyed and interviewed only after the consent form was read, and oral

consent was obtained. The consent forms (see Appendix 6 & Appendix 8) contain

information on the purpose of the study, a description of what will be asked of the

participants, any foreseeable risks or harm, and the freedom to withdraw at any time.

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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to understand the factors contributing to the

development of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions. This

sequential design mixed methods study with a quantitative phase followed by a

qualitative phase was designed to answer the following research questions:

1) What are the levels of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial

intentions?

2) What are the demographic characteristics of tribal farmers who have

entrepreneurial intentions?

3) What is the relationship of ESE with demographic characteristics of tribal farmers

who have entrepreneurial intentions?

4) How do tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions develop higher levels

of ESE?

a. What is the role of mastery experiences in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

b. What is the role of vicarious experiences in the development of higher

levels of ESE among tribal farmers?

c. What is the role of positive reinforcements in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

d. What is the role of physiological state in the development of ESE

among tribal farmers?

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e. What other factors affect the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

This chapter provides the findings of both the quantitative and qualitative data

analysis, which is presented to answer the research questions in its sequential order.

Quantitative Phase Findings

The quantitative phase of this study was designed to answer research questions 1,

2, and 3. Hundred and six tribal farmers who had entrepreneurial intentions were

purposively selected from Dimapur district of Nagaland, India, and all responded to the

survey, which consisted of the six-dimensional ESE instrument and demographic

questions (Appendix 6). Any missing data in the ESE instrument was dealt with by the

listwise deletion of the entire row leading to a lower N in some of the tables.

Research Question 1: What are the levels of ESE among the tribal farmers who

have entrepreneurial intentions?

The overall mean score for ESE among the tribal farmers with entrepreneurial

intentions on a scale of 0 to 4 was 2.85, with a standard deviation of 0.7, and a range of

1-4 on a sample size of 88 (Table 4.1). An overall ESE score close to a 3 indicates high

confidence among the tribal farmers. While comparing scores within the six dimensions

of ESE, the participants scored the highest in the Implementing: financial dimension

(M=3.11). The second highest mean score was found to be for the Implementing: general

dimension (M = 2.93), followed by the Marshalling (M= 2.77).

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The distribution of mean ESE scores was multimodal, with three predominant

peaks across the entire scale with a frequency between 10-12 (Figure 4.1). The

histograms of the six dimensions of ESE are displayed below in Figure 4.2. The

Searching and Planning dimensions displayed slightly bell-shaped curves, whereas the

distributions in the Marshalling, Implementing: general and Implementing: financial

dimensions were skewed toward the left. Amongst this, the Implementing: financial had

the most notable left-skewed distribution, pointing to the fact that the tribal farmers

scored higher in this dimension.

Table 4.1

Descriptive Statistics of ESE Scores

Dimensions of ESE N M SD Minimum Maximum Searching 102 2.69 0.76 1.00 4.00

Planning 98 2.65 0.78 1.14 4.00

Marshaling 104 2.77 0.90 0.75 4.00

Implementing (People) 104 2.65 0.99 0.33 4.00

Implementing (General) 97 2.93 0.84 1.00 4.00

Implementing (Financial) 106 3.11 0.90 0.00 4.00

ESE 88 2.85 0.70 1.07 4.00

Note: ESE was measured on a 5-point scale (0 = no confidence, 1 = little confidence, 2 = some confidence, 3 = high confidence, and 4 = complete confidence)

Figure 4.1. Histogram of ESE

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Figure 4.2. Histograms of six dimensions of ESE

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Research Question 2: What are the demographic characteristics of tribal farmers

who have entrepreneurial intentions?

Age. As shown in Table 4.2, the most frequent age category of the tribal farmers

was 36-45 years (35%), followed by 26-35 years (28%). There were very few individuals

below 25 and above 56 years of age.

Table 4.2

Age of Tribal Farmers (N=105)

Gender. As shown in Table 4.3, the tribal farmers were predominantly female

(67%), and only 33%were male.

Table 4.3

Gender of Tribal Farmers (N=105)

Tribe. As shown in Table 4.4, over 50% of the tribal farmers belonged to the

Kuki (26%) and Dimasa Kachari (25%) tribes of Nagaland.

Age categories (in years) f % 18-25 11 10 26-35 29 28 36-45 37 35 46-55 21 20 56-65 6 6 65 & above 1 1

Gender categories f % Male 35 33 Female 70 67 Other 0 0

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Table 4.4

Tribes of Tribal Farmers (N=106) Names of tribes f % Angami 8 8 Ao 6 6 Chakesang 19 18 Dimasa Kachari 26 25 Kuki 28 26 Lotha 1 1 Rengma 5 5 Sumi 5 5 Zeliang 1 1 Others 7 7

Educational background. As shown in Table 4.5, the tribal farmers were most

frequently educated until high school level (37%). Graduate and above degree was the

second most frequent (19%) educational level.

Table 4.5

Educational Background of Tribal Farmers (N=106) Educational level f %

No schooling 3 3 Primary school 15 14 Middle school 12 11 High school 39 37 Higher secondary school

11 10

Certifications/ Diploma degree

2 2

Undergraduate degree

4 4

Graduate & above 20 19

Marital status. As shown in Table 4.6, the majority of tribal farmers with

entrepreneurial intentions were married (69%).

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Table 4.6

Marital Status of Tribal Farmers (N=106) Marital status categories f %

Never married 29 27 Married 73 69 Divorced 0 0

Widowed 4 4

People in household. As shown in Table 4.7, sixty-two percent of tribal farmers

had 5-9 people staying in their houses. Only 3% were staying alone.

Table 4.7

Number of People in the Household of Tribal Farmers (N=105) Number of people f % 1 3 3 2-4 28 27 5-9 65 62 10 & above 9 8

Average monthly income. As shown in Table 4.8, more than half the tribal

farmers (53%) earned less than $110 each month.

Table 4.8

Average Monthly Income of Tribal Farmers (N=106) Income categories in rupees f %

Below 5,000 ($ 73) 29 27 5,000-7,500 ($73-$110) 27 26 7,501-10,000 ($110-$146) 13 12 10,001-20,000 ($146- $292) 14 13 20,001-50,000 ($292- $729) 15 14 50,001-100,000 ($729- $1458) 3 3 Above 100,000 ($1458 ) 2 2

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Prior business experience. As shown in Table 4.9, the most frequent group of

tribal farmers (31%) had between 1-5 years of experience, while the second most

frequent group (26%) had more than ten years of experience.

Table 4.9

Prior Business Experience of Tribal Farmers (N=105) Number of years of experience f % None 17 16 Less than 1year 18 17 1-5 years 32 31 6-10 years 11 10 More than 10 27 26

Major source of funding for the business. As shown in Table 4.10, almost half

(48%) of tribal farmers depended on personal finances and help from family/friends as

the primary source of funding. Tribal farmers also relied on private financers (15%) and

government funding (12%)

Table 4.10

Major Sources of Funding for Tribal Farmers (N=106) Major Sources of funding f %

Personal finances 27 26 Help from family/friends 23 22 Private financers 15 15 Government funding 13 12 Self-Help Groups (SHG’s) 13 12 Bank loan 10 10 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s)

2 2

Others 1 1

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Major source of motivation to start the business. Personal interest was

indicated as the major source of motivation to start the business by majority of the tribal

farmers (50%) (Table 4.11). The next major motivating factor was unemployment (18%)

and for an additional source of income (15%).

Table 4.11

Major Source of Motivation to Start the Business (N=106)

Type of business started/ intended to start. The highest percentage

(33%) of the tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions had either started or intended

to start a poultry business (Table 4.12). The next major type of business was piggery

(26%), followed by sericulture (16%) and mixed farming (13%).

Table 4.12

Type of Business Started/ Intended to Start Type of business f %

Poultry 35 33 Piggery 28 26 Sericulture 17 16 Mixed farming 14 13 Food processing 7 7 Floriculture 2 2 Beekeeping 1 1 Gardening supplies 1 1 Utility store 1 1

Major source of motivation f % Personal interest 53 50 Unemployed (no other source of income)

19 18

For an additional source of income 15 15 Influenced by training 10 10 Influenced by other entrepreneurs 7 7

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Research Question 3: What is the relationship of ESE with demographic

characteristics of tribal farmers?

A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed using SPSS version

23 to test whether the mean score for ESE for each group within a demographic variable

was equal. With Type I error rate set to α = .05, the ANOVA table (Table 4.13) showed a

statistically significant difference in ESE by tribe (p = .01), people in household (p =.04),

prior experience (p = .01) and business type (p = .02). Thus, it can be concluded that the

mean ESE is significantly different for at least one of the groups within the variables of

tribe, people in the household, prior experience, and business type. P-values do not

indicate the size of an effect. Hence, eta-squared (η2) was used to measure the total

variation in ESE accounted for by each demographic variable. Based on the general rule

of thumb, η2 ≥.14 is considered large (Miles & Shevlin, 2001). Table 4.13 shows that the

η2 for the variables tribe (.41), average monthly income (.14), prior experience (.15), and

business type (.15) were large.

Table 4.13

One-Way ANOVA between ESE and the Demographic Groups N M (SD) F(df) p η2

Total 88 2.85 (0.70) Age (in years) 2.04 (4) .096 .090

18-25 11 2.37 (0.45) 26-35 28 3.03 (0.67) 36-45 28 2.94(0.63) 46-55 16 2.76(0.80) 56-65 5 2.76 (1.05)

Gender 0.84 (1) .36 .01 Male 30 2.94 (0.67) Female 58 2.80 (0.71)

Tribe 7.8 (7) .0 .41 Angami 8 3.60 (0.28) Ao 6 3.40 (0.60) Chakesang 16 3.12 (0.66)

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Dimasa Kachari 18 2.70 (0.60) Kuki 24 2.30 (0.59) Rengma 2 2.30 (0.10) Sumi 5 2.85 (0.58) Others 9 3.27 (0.34)

Education .67(5) .65 .04 Primary school or less 11 2.69 (0.78) Middle school 12 2.92(0.77) High school 29 2.80(0.71) Higher secondary school 11 3.05(0.68) Diploma or Undergraduate 6 3.19(0.55) Graduate & above 19 2.77 (0.65)

Marital status 1.91(2) .15 .04 Never married 29 2.73 (0.61) Married 55 2.95 (0.69) Widowed 4 2.40(1.18)

People in the household 3.32 (2) .04 .07 1-4 30 3.10 (0.60) 5-9 49 2.77 (0.71) 10 & above 8 2.50 (0.81)

Average Monthly Income 2.23 (6) .05 .14 Below 5,000 ($73) 27 2.75 (0.80) 5,000-7,500 ($73-110) 20 2.60 (.69) 7,501-10,000 ($73.1-146) 9 2.75 (0.51) 10,001-20,000 ($146- 292) 11 2.89 (0.67) 20,001-50,000 ($292- 729) 14 3.35 (0.49) Above 50,001 ($729.1) 5 3.23 (0.50)

Prior Experience 3.62 (4) .009 .15 None 15 2.66 (0.52) Less than one year 14 2.57 (0.63) 1-5 years 26 2.70 (0.67) 6- 10 years 8 3.11 (0.99) More than 10 years 24 3.24 (0.62)

Source of Funding .78 (6) .587 .055 Government funding 9 2.98 (0.52) Bank loan 9 2.98 (0.74) NGO’s & SHG’s 10 2.94 (0.76) Private financers 12 3.02 (0.88) Family/Friends help 21 2.75 (0.51) Personal finances 26 2.70 (0.77)

Motivation to start a business 1.11 (4) .356 .05 Personal interest 45 2.84 (0.73) Unemployment 16 2.74 (0.76) Additional source of income 12 3.12 (0.68) Training influence 9 3.02 (0.52) Other entrepreneurs influence 6 2.48 (0.45)

Business Type 2.84 (5) .02 .15 Food processing 7 3.39 (0.44) Mixed farming 11 2.37 (0.91) Piggery 23 2.96 (0.70) Poultry 30 2.77 (0.65) Sericulture 12 2.80 (0.50) Others 5 3.34 (0.46)

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Although the one-way ANOVA helped in concluding that the mean ESE differed

for at least one group within tribe (p =.01), people in the household (p =.04), prior

experience (p = .01) and business type (p = .02), it could not be specified which of the

groups are different. Hence, to determine which of the groups differed from each other, a

post hoc test was done for the variables: tribe, people in household, prior experience,

business type, and average monthly income. A post hoc test in ANOVA using SPSS can

be performed only with numeric variables; hence, the tribe and type of business were

automatically recoded into numbers for the calculations.

Association between tribe and ESE. The Angami tribe had statistically

significantly higher ESE than Dimasa Kachari (ΔM = 0.91; p =.01) and Kuki (ΔM =1.29;

p =.01) tribes. At the same time, the Kuki tribe had statistically significantly lower ESE

than Angami (ΔM = -1.29; p =.01); Ao (ΔM = -1.10; p =.01); Chakesang (ΔM = - 0.82; p

=.01); and Other (ΔM = - 0.97; p =.01) tribes (Table 4.14).

Table 4.14 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD: Tribe and ESE

Tribe (I) Tribe (J) ΔM (I-J)

Standard Error p

95% CI Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Angami Ao .19 .30 .10 -.76 1.13 Chakesang .47 .24 .54 -.29 1.23 Dimasa Kachari

.91* .24 .01 .161 1.65

Kuki 1.29* .23 .01 .57 2.01 Rengma 1.30 .45 .08 -.09 2.68 Sumi .74 .32 .30 -.26 1.74

Other .32 .27 .10 -.53 1.17 Ao Angami -.19 .30 .10 -1.13 .76

Chakesang .28 .27 .96 -.56 1.12

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Dimasa Kachari

.72 .27 .13 -.11 1.55

Kuki 1.10* .26 .01 .30 1.90 Rengma 1.11 .46 .25 -.32 2.54 Sumi .56 .34 .73 -.51 1.67

Other .13 .30 1.00 -.79 1.06 Chakesang Angami -.47 .24 .54 -1.23 .29

Ao -.28 .27 .97 -1.12 .56 Dimasa Kachari

.44 .19 .33 -.16 1.03

Kuki .82* .18 .01 .26 1.39 Rengma .83 .42 .51 -.49 2.14 Sumi .27 .29 .98 -.62 1.17

Other -.15 .24 .10 -.88 .58 Dimasa Kachari

Angami -.91* .24 .01 -1.65 -.16 Ao -.72 .27 .13 -1.55 .10 Chakesang -.44 .19 .31 -1.04 .16 Kuki .38 .18 .37 -.16 .93 Other -.59 .23 .19 -1.30 .127 Rengma .39 .42 .98 -.92 1.70 Sumi -.16 .28 .10 -1.05 .72

Kuki Angami -1.29*

.23 .01 -2.01 -.57

Ao -1.10*

.26 .01 -1.90 -.30

Chakesang -.82* .18 .01 -1.39 -.26 Dimasa Kachari

-.38 .18 .37 -.93 .16

Other -.97* .22 .01 -1.66 -.29 Rengma .01 .41 1.00 -1.28 1.30 Sumi -.55 .28 .50 -1.41 .31

Rengma Angami -1.30 .45 .08 -2.68 .09 Ao -1.11 .46 .25 -2.54 .320 Chakesang -.83 .42 .51 -2.14 .49 Dimasa Kachari

-.39 .42 .98 -1.70 .92

Kuki -.01 .41 1.00 -1.30 1.28 Other -.98 .44 .35 -2.35 .39 Sumi -.56 .47 .94 -2.02 .91

Sumi Angami -.74 .32 .30 -1.74 .26 Ao -.56 .34 .73 -1.62 .51 Chakesang -.27 .29 .98 -1.17 .62

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Dimasa Kachari

.16 .28 .10 -.72 1.05

Kuki .55 .28 .50 -.31 1.41 Other -.42 .31 .88 -1.40 .55 Rengma .56 .47 .94 -.91 2.02

Other Angami -.32 .27 .94 -1.17 .53 Ao -.13 .30 1.00 -1.06 .79 Chakesang .15 .23 .10 -.58 .88 Dimasa

Kachari .59 .23 .19 -.13 1.30

Kuki .97* .22 .01 .29 1.66 Rengma .98 .44 .35 -.39 2.35 Sumi .42 .31 .88 -.55 1.40

* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Association between people in household and ESE. As shown in Table 4.15, no

statistically significant difference in ESE was noticed between the various groups within

people in the household.

Table 4.15 Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of People in Household and ESE

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Association between prior experience and ESE. As shown in Table 4.16, those

having more than ten years of prior experience in activity pertaining to the business had

significantly higher ESE than those having 1-5 years (ΔM = .54; p =.04) or less than one

year (ΔM = .67; p =.03) of experience.

People in Household (I)

People in Household (J)

ΔM (I-J)

Standard Error p

95% CI Lower Bound

Upper Bound

1-4 5 -9 .32 .16 .11 -.05 .70 10 and above .60 .27 .08 -.05 1.29

5 -9 1-4 -.32 .16 .11 -.70 .05 10 and above .27 .26 .55 -.35 .90

10 and above 1-4 -.60 .27 .08 -1.25 .05 5 -9 -.27 .26 .58 -.90 .35

90

Table 4.16

Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Prior Experience and ESE

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Prior Experience (I)

Prior Experience (J)

ΔM (I-J)

Standard Error p

95% CI Lower Bound

Upper Bound

None Less than 1 year .10 .25 .10 -.59 .78 1-5 years -.04 .21 1.00 -.64 .56 6-10 years -.45 .29 .54 -1.26 .36 More than 10 years

-.58 .22 .07 -1.19 .03

Less than I year None -.10 .25 .10 -.78 .59 1-5 years -.13 .22 .98 -.74 .48

6-10 years -.54 .29 .36 -1.36 .28 More than 10 years

-.67* .22 .03 -1.29 -.05

1-5 years None .04 .21 1.00 -.56 .64 Less than 1 year

.13 .22 .98 -.48 .74

6-10 years -.41 .27 .55 -1.16 .34 More than 10 years

-.54* .19 .04 -1.06 -.015

6-10 years None .45 .29 .54 -.36 1.26 Less than 1 year

.54 .29 .36 -.28 1.36

1-5 years .41 .27 .55 -.34 1.16 More than 10 years

-.13 .27 .99 -.88 .63

More than 10 years

None .58 .22 .07 -.03 1.19 Less than 1 year

.67* .22 .03 .05 1.29

1-5 years .54* .19 .04 .02 1.06 6-10 years .13 .27 .99 -.63 .88

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Association between average monthly income and ESE. As shown in Table

4.17, the tribal farmers earning $292-729 per month had a significantly higher mean ESE

than those earning $73-110 (ΔM = - 0.76; p =.02) per month.

Table 4.17

Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Average Monthly Income and ESE

Monthly Income (I) Monthly Income (J)

ΔM (I-J)

Standard Error p

95% CI Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Below 5,000 ($73) 5,000- 7,500 .15 .20 .97 -.43 .73 7,501- 10,000 -.01 .26 1.00 -.76 .75 10,001- 20,000 -.14 .24 .99 -.84 .57

20,001 -50,000 -.60 .22 .08 -1.25 .05

Above 50,001 -.49 .33 .68 -1.44 .47 5,000- 7,500 ($73-110)

Below 5,000 -.15 .20 .97 -.73 .43 7,501- 10,000 -.16 .27 .99 -.95 .64 10,001- 20,000 -.29 .25 .86 -1.03 .45

20,001 -50,000 -.76*

.24 .02 -1.44 -.07

Above 50,001 -.64 .34 .41 -1.62 .35 7,501- 10,000 ($110 – 146)

Below 5,000 .01 .26 1.00 -.76 .76 5,000- 7,500 .155 .27 .99 -.64 .95 10,001- 20,000 -.14 .30 1.00 -1.02 .75

20,001 -50,000 -.60 .29 .31 -1.44 .24

Above 50,001 -.48 .38 .79 -1.58 .61 10,001- 20,000 ($146- 292)

Below 5,000 .137 .24 .99 -.57 .841 5,000- 7,500 .29 .25 .86 -.45 1.03 7,501- 10,000 .136 .30 1.00 -.75 1.02 20,001 -50,000 -.47 .27 .53 -1.26 .33

Above 50,001 -.35 .36 .93 -1.41 .71 20,001 -50,000 ($292- 729)

Below 5,000 .60 .22 .08 -.05 1.25 5,000- 7,500 .76* .24 .02 .07 1.44 7,501- 10,000 .60 .29 .31 -.24 1.44 10,001- 20,000 .47 .27 .53 -.33 1.26

Above 50,001 .12 .35 1.00 -.91 1.14 Above 50,001 ($729)

Below 5,000 .49 .33 .68 -.47 1.44 5,000- 7,500 .64 .34 .41 -.35 1.62 7,501- 10,000 .48 .38 .79 -.61 1.58 10,001- 20,000 .35 .36 .93 -.71 1.41

20,001 -50,000 -.12 .35 1.00 -1.14 .91

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

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Association between type of business and ESE. As shown in Table 4.18, the

tribal farmers pursuing food processing business had significantly higher mean ESE than

those tribal farmers involved in mixed farming (ΔM = 1.02; p = .03).

Table 4.18

Post Hoc Test Tukey HSD of Type of Business and ESE

Business (I) Business (J) ΔM (I-J)

Standard Error p

95% CI Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Food processing

Mixed farming

1.02* .32 .03 .08 1.96

Piggery .42 .29 .68 -.47 1.26 Poultry .62 .28 .24 -.20 1.44 Sericulture .59 .32 .43 -.34 1.52

Other .05 .39 1.00 -1.09 1.18 Mixed farming

Food processing

-1.02*

.32 .03 -1.96 -.08

Piggery -.60 .24 .16 -1.31 .12 Poultry -.40 .23 .54 -1.09 .29 Sericulture -.43 .29 .64 -1.24 .38

Other -.97 .36 .09 -2.02 .08 Piggery Food

processing -.42 .29 .68 -1.26 .42

Mixed farming

.60 .24 .16 -.12 1.31

Poultry .20 .18 .90 -.34 .74 Sericulture .17 .24 .98 -.57 .86

Other -.38 .33 .86 -1.34 .58 Poultry Food

processing -.62 .28 .24 -1.47 .20

Mixed farming

.40 .23 .54 -.29 1.09

Piggery -.20 .18 .90 -.74 .34 Sericulture -.03 .23 1.00 -.69 .63

Other -.57 .32 .48 -1.51 .37

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Sericulture Food processing

-.59 .32 .43 -1.52 .34

Mixed farming

.43 .28 .64 -.38 1.24

Piggery -.17 .24 .98 -.86 .53 Poultry .03 .23 1.00 -.63 .69

Other -.54 .35 .64 -1.58 .49 Other Food

processing -.05 .39 1.00 -1.18 1.09

Mixed farming

.97 .36 .09 -.08 2.02

Piggery .38 .33 .86 -.58 1.34 Poultry .57 .32 .48 -.37 1.51 Sericulture .54 .35 .64 -.49 1.58

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Qualitative Phase Findings In the qualitative phase, 15 tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions having

high ESE scores were interviewed to understand how they developed ESE. These tribal

farmers were selected for the interviews based on their high ESE score (>2.60), the

knowledge of either English or Hindi for communication with the researcher, and

maximal variation within the demographic characteristics of gender, tribe, educational

level, income, prior experience, and business. The following research questions were

examined in this phase of the study.

a) What is the role of mastery experiences in the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

b) What is the role of vicarious experiences in the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

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c) What is the role of positive reinforcements in the development of ESE among

tribal farmers?

d) What is the role of physiological state in the development of ESE among tribal

farmers?

e) What other factors affect the development of ESE among tribal farmers?

A directed content analysis of the transcripts from the interviews using the

software NVivo version 12 plus generated 35 codes. The codes were then sorted and

categorized to form themes. Nine major themes were identified in this process. The

identified themes were classified under the four sources of ESE to shed light on the

research questions (e.g., three themes: prior experiences, training, and education sheds

light on the first research question). Two additional categories were identified through

this study as factors affecting entrepreneurship. Short abbreviations are used to identify

the interview participants without revealing identity.

Research Question 4 (a): What is the role of mastery experiences in the development

of ESE among tribal farmers?

According to Bandura (1997), mastery experiences are the most influential source

of self-efficacy because they provide some evidence to people suggesting if they can

successfully do a particular activity. Content analysis of the interviews revealed three

major themes, which were factors that helped the tribal farmers gain mastery experiences:

prior experiences, training, and education (Figure 4.3).

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Figure 4.3. Major themes related to mastery experiences among the tribal farmers.

Prior experiences. Most of the tribal farmers had some prior experience and

interactions with the activity involved in their current/ future business. These prior

experiences brought opportunities for mastering a particular skill. Moreover, tribal

farmers derived prior experiences from two different settings. For some, experiences or

interactions occurred in a formal setting wherein there could be repercussions in case of

failure (e.g., their workplace). Other’s prior experiences originated in a potentially laid

back and informal setting (e.g., their homes).

A tribal farmer who had intentions to start a floriculture business and was

currently working at a floriculture center said that he was looking forward to utilizing his

experiences from the workplace in his future business. He said, “I think I am learning

something and helping someone here (workplace). Whatever I am experiencing here, it

will help me in my business” (B). It cannot be ignored that almost all of B’s experiences

with floriculture originated from his workplace and perceiving himself capable of doing

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the routine tasks at the plant nursery and floriculture center was possibly giving him the

confidence to start his own business. Another tribal farmer had considerable experience

as a staff member at an agricultural research center and had learned a lot about mixed

farming from his workplace. He noted, “actually I am also Agriculture staff. I am

working here for the last 25 years, so I learned so many things” (T).

Working as staff at an agricultural research center provided him opportunities to not only

master skills in farming but also for observing agricultural research scientists and

networking with them. He was also gaining access to current information about scientific

best practices in agriculture through his work.

Another tribal farmer said she started her gardening supplies business with limited

experience; however, during the piloting stage of her business, she regularly

experimented with her product design on a trial and error basis and learned considerably

from those experiences. She remarked:

So much of trial and error. Ya! so much of trial and error. Till now I'm facing the

same problem if I have to make one new item we go through the process again.

Sometimes it takes even five to six days even to come up with the shape and size

of a little item, so that's hard so far. But with each of those experiences, I learn.

(As)

Although, As could experiment at her business place, the risks attached to failure in such

instances are quite high, because of the cost and labor attached to each trial and error.

On the other hand, many tribal farmers attributed personal experiences to an

informal setting, such as the comfort of their own homes. Many had watched their parents

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or elders doing similar work and had experiences of assisting family members in related

activities. One participant recollected that her mother used to make homemade pickles,

squash, and juices. She said, “I joined her (mom) in the kitchen right, and then we

decided to make it real (start the business)” (Pu). She treasures the experiences of

assisting her mother and considers those to be her first steps into food processing.

There were also a few participants who were continuing their family’s profession.

For example, M said, “our grandmothers used to do it (weaving) whole day after their

kitchen work,” and Le said, “actually no one taught us. We are just following our

forefathers; it (weaving) is our everyday work.” These individuals had grown up

watching and helping their families in weaving. Hence when they started it as a business,

it did not seem like a chore to them. Other participants mentioned having childhood

experiences relevant to their business. One participant noted, “my mother used to have

like around 5-10 birds like that. So that is the main experience that I have in poultry

rearing” (Ng). Another said, “so every summer, she (mom) used to take us to the village

and…we go to the field and get trained in all the works” (Ne).

These childhood experiences could have been opportunities to master a skill in a

comfortable environment with presumably low risks.

Some participants mentioned prior experiences from performing tasks as hobbies.

For example, Li recalled “I was also growing succulents as a hobby for two years, knew

about their care and market placement. So, I was sure that if I take it up as a business, it

would be a success.” Similarly, Ne said:

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And even while I was studying and staying outside the home (boarding) I used to

always grow flower plants, I used to plant, chili, and gingers in flower pots and

keep inside of my house all these experiences helped me.

The content analysis also suggested different ways through which having prior

experiences helped the tribal farmers. Prior experiences helped the tribal farmers in

gaining first-hand knowledge about best practices, nutrition, diseases and, market

demands, and fluctuations. The prior experiences in the business allowed the farmers to

figure out the best practices in their business. One farmer noted “we have to boil this

cocoon (eri worm) first. It should not be over boiled, but another one (mulberry worm

cocoon) should be over boiled” (M). The above quote highlights the knowledge about the

differences in the silkworms and the temperatures at which the cocoons must be boiled to

retrieve the silk. Also, since the eri worms are traditionally reared in comparison to the

mulberry silkworms, the knowledge was coming out of traditional silk rearing

experiences. Another participant remembered how he learned about the practical aspects

of swine nutrition through his own piggery experience. He said “because when I saw the

pigs, they were big it looked like 80-90 kgs but when I measured, they were 65 kgs. That

time we were not feeding much salt, then I learned” (K).

The participants also gained knowledge about market demands and market

fluctuations because of personal experiences in business. For example, Li said “I was

confident in my knowledge of the varieties (of succulents) and the market demand, so I

went ahead with my plan (business).” She also remarked, “I could also see the growing

demand in the market for new varieties and thought if I could import, they will sell well.”

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Personal experience in animal husbandry practices had also helped the tribal farmers to

have some knowledge about diseases they would encounter with their animals. One

participant noted “when we butchered her (sow), we came to know about her problem.

She was having some intestine problem…I am a self-taught man in this business” (I).

In addition to gaining first-hand knowledge, personal experiences also helped

tribal farmers perceive themselves as role models. Having considerable years of

experience gave some tribal farmers the confidence to teach others with their knowledge.

Li, who was a traditional weaver, quoted “actually we became a role model for others.

We are self-dependent. People come to us for suggestions in business”.

Having personal experience helped tribal farmers to identify strengths and potentials in

the business. One participant explained:

first of all, we wanted to start (business) for additional income, and slowly slowly

we came to know that it is not only for additional source of income or making an

investment but apart from that we can make it big if we have some funding, and

we can make it (business) our primary source of income also. (I)

Due to prior experiences, some participants were able to study the market and identify the

potentials in starting a business. As B said, “there is a huge demand for flowers in this

area, and there is more profit too” (B). While K noted “Nagas will never stop eating

meat, so the prospect of this business (piggery) going down is very scarce.”

Relatedly, personal experiences also helped the tribal farmers to identify

challenges and coping strategies in the business. One participant identified problems in

procuring poultry feed in Nagaland. He said, “in Nagaland, feed is the main problem,

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here there is no groundnut cake supply, so we have to buy it from the wholesale market

which is quite expensive” (Pr). One participant mentioned, “many of us when we start

business, we want to become rich overnight, and then we start pricing our items at a very

high price. Maybe that's one of the reasons where we fail” (As). Nu pointed out the need

to be intrinsically motivated and persist while facing challenges:

I feel that in this entrepreneurial side, we need to have much motivation because

we are not getting the salaries monthly, there is not much security also

presently…people I see try for one year or some few months they try and leave.

Maybe pretty much they have low motivational level, they didn’t persist maybe

that was the issue.

Training. The second theme identified as a factor that helped tribal farmers gain

mastery experiences was training. Almost all tribal farmers who were interviewed had

been to a training, and most of them said that they gained confidence through the training

that they had attended. Ng said “that training made me more confident for business.”

Training was helping tribal farmers in various ways. Most importantly training was

providing opportunities for mastery. Training can involve hands-on experiences or field

visits; L remembered having gone for a field visit and doing some practical work. L said

“they take us around (to visits) like that. They have shown us how we are going to rear,

developing ways which those farmers are using and practice it.” However, not all tribal

farmers got to practice skills during the training; some utilize the knowledge they

received at the training to practice after they get back home. For example, B explained

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“whatever I learned there (training), I tried it in my experiments, and it really increased

my confidence such as how to plant, when to plant, how to water, etc.”.

Training at agricultural research centers also was a great avenue for tribal farmers

to learn about any scientific methods and practices in agriculture. Ne had learned about

crop diversification and value crops due to the training that she attended; she recalled

“after I came (to training) I learned to do intercropping, short term crops, and value-

added vegetables. Like mustard is a value crop, then lypatta…we produce but more of

value ka vegetables like lettuce, broccoli, capsicum” (Ne). The tribal farmers engaged in

poultry and piggery had learned about animal management practices and common

diseases and preventive measures through the training that they attended. For example,

one tribal farmer said:

KVK people gave me one-month training in ICAR. They taught us how to keep

chicks, how to feed them, and about temperature, etc. Earlier I did not know about

diseases like Ranikhet and Fowlpox in local chicks, but after training now, I know

all about this. (Pr)

Another participant emphasized:

We have really learned a lot like before going (training) we are totally blind, we

are just rearing it (poultry) because other people were rearing…but after attending

(training), we have knowledge regarding medications and all… how we are going

to take care of them (poultry), everything we have learned from them (training

center), and I am very thankful to them (training center). (L)

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One participant also mentioned that through training, the tribal farmers receive

knowledge about technological advances and current innovations. She elaborated,

saying “Ah! like we learn from training new technology, new methods, new ways.

Sometimes we just keep doing but don’t know new ways. So, training helps us” (Ne). She

followed up by emphasizing, that even if a farmer attends a training multiple times, there

is always something new that they can learn, she said “So no matter how many trainings

you attend for the same crop if you attend multiple training sessions, next time you learn

something different. New innovations, new methods we learn” (Ne).

Sometimes training also provided an opportunity for the tribal farmers to learn

soft skills with regards to entrepreneurial and management skills (e.g., how to deal with

their customers or ways to form a network). One participant mentioned that she went to a

training that dealt with soft skills; however, that was an out of state training and was not

accessible to most rural farmers.

The knowledge gained through training seemed to have helped entrepreneurs to

identify resources and business opportunities. One participant said “the resources we

have enough. We just need to be a little more innovative, in how to use them and process

them” (Pu). Knowledge from training also seems to have provided tribal farmers with

insights into specific business opportunities. For example, another tribal farmer noted

“right now organic medicines plants are very expensive. So, we are trying to plant it”

(Ne). Finally, training seemed to be a way for tribal farmers to gain knowledge about the

professional affiliations and support systems that they can be a part of. One participant

said “I’m actually a member of EEI, Institute of extension under the government of

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agriculture. I came to know about EEI through the training. I am a member as a farmer’s

representative” (Pu).

Education. The third and last theme to be discussed as a factor leading to mastery

experiences is education. Having an educational background that provided skillsets to the

business helped one entrepreneur to confidently identify herself as someone with more

knowledge and skills than others in the same business. She noted “first (in what gives you

confidence) would be my educational background, since I have more knowledge on this

(food processing) and I have more skills than others in this field, ya ! that gives me more

confidence” (Pu). Another participant explained, “because we have learned so many

things at the undergraduate level, so it boosts our confidence with doing a business” (K).

Education also helped tribal entrepreneurs with information to identify the need to start a

business. The educational background in food processing allowed Pu to examine the

richness in the natural resources of her state. She said:

Seeing all the resources and nobody was actually processing anything, it is just

recently that people are starting to have more interest on this processing thing, but

nobody has any skills or technical knowledge on this (Pu).

Although education is a great source of mastery experiences, it should be noted

that it is quite rare for the tribal farmers to have specialized educational backgrounds that

would provide them with required skillsets for their business. In comparison to personal

experiences and training experiences, education is an infrequent source for mastery

experience among the tribal farmers.

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To summarize the findings in this question, it is noted that personal experiences,

training, and education were some of the key factors through which the tribal farmers

with entrepreneurial intentions gained mastery experiences. Most participants had either

formal or informal experiences in the type of business they were involved. The tribals,

however, also had the benefit of having certain traditional skills passed down through

generations; for example, the Dimasa Kachari tribe grew silkworms and were weavers.

The added advantage in this kind of generational practice or skills was that the type of

knowledge that was passed down was unique and it automatically made the individuals

feel confident in their ability to practice those skills.

Since having attended training was one of the criteria for selecting the tribal

farmers with entrepreneurial intentions for the surveys, it was not surprising that almost

all the participants had participated in training and felt they gained confidence through

those training. Although it was the hands-on activities during training that brought

opportunities for mastery, training benefited the tribal farmers in multiple ways,

especially by imparting important information and knowledge. Education as a source for

mastery was less common among the three sources since only a few had specialized

degrees that had given them opportunities for mastery with respect to the business they

had started.

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Research Question 4 (b): What is the role of vicarious experiences in the

development of ESE among tribal farmers?

Content analysis revealed one major theme through which the tribal farmers learned

vicariously, which was modeling experiences, the subthemes identified were family

members, entrepreneurs in the community, and role models (Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4. Major theme related to vicarious experiences among the tribal farmers.

Modeling experiences. The most important modeling experiences among the

tribal farmers occurred through interaction with family members. Some participants

recalled observing parents or grandparents doing those activities involved in their

business. One participant said “mom like I said, has these interests she makes homemade

pickles, squash, juices, and all…I joined her right” Pu. Another participant noted “our

grandmothers used to do it (weaving) whole day after their kitchen work” (M). Having a

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spouse interested or involved in the business was also promoting vicarious learning. It

was interesting to note that this transfer of knowledge/interest happened irrespective of

gender. One female tribal farmer commented, “I got married to my husband, and he was

very interested (in farming) and I followed him” (Ne). While a male tribal farmer said

“my wife is more experienced than me. I should say that. She knows better and gradually

I followed her and became better day by day” (I).

Having a distant family member in agribusiness was also noted as an opportunity

for tribal farmers to learn vicariously. One participant said:

From the family side, she has an uncle down there in Dimapur, so his work really

influences me sometimes because of the effort they give without even getting any

financial help from bank or any family members also. Without any financial

support, they used to give their full dedication, so we used to hear about their

success every year. So…ya he can do castration also. He can do AI also. He is

just like us, but he came for training here. He is inspiring (I).

The tribal farmers also seemed to learn vicariously by keenly observing and

interacting with other entrepreneurs within their network. For example, one tribal farmer

noted “by watching other people; I learn to emulate their positive aspects like customer

relationship, importance of quality, pricing, and most importantly I learn how to

improvise and package my business better than them” (Li). In that sense, it is clear that

the tribal farmers were closely observing other entrepreneurs and learning from them

both intentionally and unintentionally. Another participant shared his experience of

gathering information from other farmers, saying:

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“they started giving training to farmers, I didn’t attend, but the people who go and attend

seminars and training used to share their ideas on the seminars and training about

piggery, what benefits are there” (I). The success of other tribal entrepreneurs also

seemed to have positively impacted and motivated the participants. One tribal farmer

said, “when I see someone, who is successful, I also dream that I should be one of them

one day” (I). He also commented on how success among other farmers inspired him. He

explained “that time I thought if they (successful entrepreneurs) can do why not me?…

people do inspire me in so many ways when they become successful” (I). Another

participant noted, “definitely we are going to admire them (successful businessmen)

because we really want to be like them, we want to be successful in our own business”

(L).

Some entrepreneurs were also very purposeful in their interactions with successful

entrepreneurs and utilized those interactions as learning strategies. One participant said:

It’s like I have some friends who are very successful, and then I try to mingle with

them asking questions and learn from them and ask them to critique me in my

work. So yeah, that's how I learn from them (As).

The tribal farmers were also learning attributes like perseverance from other

entrepreneurs even if they worked outside of agriculture. One farmer noted:

My friends, they are not into farming, they are into other kinds of businesses, but

they are doing what they like, and they are achieving their goals so looking at

them it gives me the confidence that if I start something and if I give my

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everything on it I think I will also be successful. That’s the driving force that I

have received from them (Ng).

Two tribal farmers also mentioned that they had a role model. The first participant

recounted the experience of having multiple role models. He had taken inspiration from

even some famous businessmen that he has watched on TV. He said:

They (famous businessmen) inspire me a lot. I saw Ambani on T.V. Ambani’s

father also started from zero. One more person Rakesh Jalan, A Marvadi, was

doing betelnut business in Guwahati. He was also my friend. He used to supply

betelnut to Rajnigandha Company in Delhi. It all started small. I learn so much

(Pr).

The same participant was equally inspired by local businessmen, saying:

There is one big poultry farm in Nagaland. They bought 6000 chicks every

month and sell them after gaining weight up to 2-3 Kg. Feed also they prepare by

own so getting success. They have employees also to help. I am also thinking to

make it big by hiring employees (Pr).

Pr also recollected being inspired by some famous out of state businessmen that he

observed and interacted with while traveling, noting:

In Guwahati, one businessman who is state level, not national-level named Anil

Poddar. I was in Guwahati for three years. That time he had one puncture repair

shop, now he is running one multi showroom and one Tata showroom (Pr).

In each of these cases, Pr was impressed by others at a range of levels, and yet in similar

ways, each had motivated him to take risk and become a businessman.

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Another participant also remembered the experience of interacting with a famous

business personality while pursuing her degree, recalling:

Acchi Masala owner from South India, he used to come often when I was in

DNU; he used to come often for these motivational talks. He also started it small

and then now he's doing very good. Now, like it's gone global, Acchi Masala, that

person. He is one of the people that has been inspired me because when I was

there, I've attended his sessions…so from there, I came to learn that to do

something big, we can't start big we have to start it small… There will be failures

there will be success; that’s how it goes (Pu).

Despite the diverse range of entrepreneurs, that the tribal farmers took inspiration from, a

common thread was that all these inspirational role models had similar “rags to riches”

stories, which is what probably attracted the entrepreneurs towards them. They took

inspiration from the fact that if those entrepreneurs could defy all socioeconomic barriers,

and become successful, then they can as well.

To summarize findings for this question, it can be said that the tribal farmers with

entrepreneurial intentions were learning vicariously through modeling experiences by

watching family members, other entrepreneurs, and role models. Although most of those

interviewed had modeling experiences from their family members, many were also

keenly observing and learning from other entrepreneurs. Some tribal farmers seemed very

deliberate in interactions with successful entrepreneurs so that they could learn more.

Few tribal farmers also stated that they had some famous successful entrepreneurs as role

models who had influenced their decisions to become an entrepreneur.

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Research Question 4 (c): What is the role of positive reinforcements in the

development of ESE among tribal farmers?

Three themes were identified in this question about positive reinforcements,

namely: positive verbal persuasion, awards and recognitions, and criticisms and

constructive feedback (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Major themes related to positive reinforcements among the tribal farmers.

Verbal persuasion. The results of the content analysis revealed certain sub-

themes within the positive verbal persuasion. Sub-themes were based on who was

providing the verbal persuasion, which mainly included family, friends, and officials.

Families can be great sources of positive verbal persuasion because they come into

contact with the entrepreneur frequently. One participant explained that “my mom and

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dad also my own aunties and uncles all encouraged me” (Pu). While another similarly

said, “my relatives always encourage me and say you are doing good” (Pr).

Due to the frequency of meeting family members, for some, hearing positive

comments from family was a common affair. One participant said:

Just this morning, some relatives came. They were coming here after a couple of

months now and then they saw my things now. My goodness, you have improved

so much, so many things, it's really good you are doing well. That's how they see

your value. So yeah, that's an everyday affair (As).

Almost all the entrepreneurs interviewed had gotten positive verbal persuasions

from friends through feedback and verbal encouragement. One participant noted, “my

friends told me to go ahead because I know the market well and love succulents in

general as a hobby” (Li). Another participant recounted experiences of encouragement

from her friends who were successful in business, she explained:

I am very fortunate in this case because I have so many good friends in this

business and a similar sort of business, they are always there to help me and

encourage me whenever. When I started this off, some of those friends called me

up and they encouraged me. Don't lose your hope, you might fail here, you might

do this you might but still just keep on doing it. So, they themselves are already

very successful, and I was just starting out. And in those things really pushed me

here (As).

Another tribal farmer also had a similar experience, saying:

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I got a lot of motivation from my friends, neighbors, and relatives; they used to

say that even if you don’t get a job, you should start a business. You should not

always look for government jobs, because the government it is like only a fixed

number of jobs, but you should go for entrepreneurship (K).

Some tribal farmers also knew how to weed out other people’s opinions and not take all

positive comments seriously, such as one participant who said:

But in general, I don’t let what others say go to my head, I always take it with a

pinch of salt whether it is positive or negative, I think things through and form my

opinion because sometimes I come across patronizing people (Li).

The tribal farmers also said they received positive verbal persuasions from

government officials. One participant gave an example of this from the conversations he

had before pursuing his goal. He said “when I told our scientists that I want to start my

business, they encouraged me and provided me medicines, etc.” (T). While Le spoke

about receiving continuous support and encouragement from officials “sometimes people

from sericulture department visit us to support and encourage” (Le). An entrepreneur also

mentioned that she received encouragement from her customers and how that influences

her confidence. She explained, “I got encouragement from my well-wishers and

customers… It's like you don’t want to cook for somebody who discourages your food

every time, so encouragement is helpful.” (As).

Awards and Recognitions. The second theme related to positive reinforcements

is awards and recognitions. These recognitions were received mainly from government

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agricultural organizations and sometimes other organizations. The tribal farmers spoke

about their awards with a great deal of pride and contentment. The awards were displayed

in their workplaces or houses and were shown to the researcher during the interview. One

tribal farmer recalled “my most powerful appreciation was from Director, Department of

Sericulture when we (Self-Help Group) received award… We got award on 15th August,

and it was most encouraging for us” (Le).

Another participant remembered a similar experience, saying:

We got award...best farmer entrepreneur by Indian fertilizers company,

IFFCO…during their 50 years celebration they gave the award. ATMA also has

written a success story on me in their news bulletin. All this is very encouraging

(Ne).

It is interesting to note that they had received those awards in the presence of other

villagers, thus positively reinforcing their skills in front of an audience. Others felt

rewarded even without having a tangible award; for eg. when officials visited them or

took pictures/ videos of their business. One of the participants recollected “scientists from

Delhi visited my mushroom cultivation and appreciated me. They took pictures also” (T).

Criticisms and constructive feedback. The third theme related to positive

reinforcements is criticisms or constructive feedback. The participants clearly

remembered instances of hearing criticisms from family, friends, and neighbors. Some

tribal farmers recalled family members who were skeptical about their business ideas.

One participant remembered, “my friends encouraged me but not my family. My family

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thought I should concentrate on my veterinary career” (Li). Another recalled “some of us

encouraged by our husbands, some not. But we really do not care” (Le). Overall, most

were not deterred by their families, some of whom encouraged them in the end.

The tribal farmers also mentioned receiving criticism from some friends. For

example, one entrepreneur felt she was judged by her friends for her interests in farming.

She said:

They(friends) say you were in city training for farming? Like that, Nah.

Sometimes people just laugh. They just find it opposite like that I am doing

farming… I want to prove to them that being a farmer; I can be more successful

than them. I don’t feel shy saying I am a farmer (Ne).

One entrepreneur also said that her neighbors openly voiced their displeasure

regarding the smell from poultry farming, but since she knew the benefits from farming,

the comments did not bother her much. She explained:

Mam, definitely we are hearing all these things because some people who are our

neighbors and all those who are not rearing, they are complaining about, like, they

smell things and all. Even some say that it’s a wastage of time and all. So, we face

a lot… because we have our own benefit out of business, so we know even if

people discourage us, we know the outcome of the business, so we don’t care (L).

However, all participants had their own coping strategies when it came to

criticisms or negative feedback. They did not let the criticisms or any negativity affect

them. Some even persevered to make the other side understand the situation. One farmer

said:

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Actually, it was kind of discouraging at one point of time. His (Dad’s) whole idea

was that since you are a doctor, you should now seek a government job. That was

his mentality. But later on, when I started and started to make him understand he

was supportive (K).

Others learned not to react and continued to defend their choices. One noted:

I don't react much. I mean when they say that I just tell them straight that that is

not my interest and that’s not what I want to do. So I'm just going to... No matter

what you see, I'm just going to go on with my own thing. In my mind, I don't tell

them like I am going to show them someday” (Pu).

One participant also remembered both his family and friends were critical when

he started his business, but he sensed it was more of a concern rather than criticism. He

said:

In my family, this (poultry rearing) is very new to us, so sometimes one or two

friends or aunties they are skeptical, if we can do it or not, if we are investing too

much on it, or wasting time like that. The talk comes up, but they do not just

skeptically say and leave like that. Maybe they are concerned for us, but after that,

they mostly encourage us” (Ng).

Meanwhile, another participant said she knew how to differentiate between criticism and

constructive feedback, especially when it comes from the family. She said:

I am sure they were like apprehensive about this business because they initially

thought, who would buy such stuff? Do you think you are really going to make it?

I'm sure there were some people like that. But no, they were not really

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discouraging me…Since I was also concerned about who would buy these stuffs,

especially my father, he is someone who would never buy this stuff. Ya! so it was

more of a concern when they said that. So, I took it in a good mood (Pu).

Some also used the criticisms for their advantage by working harder than before, to prove

their critics wrong. One entrepreneur explained, “like I said when people discourage me,

I just tend to work more or try harder just to prove them wrong” (Pu).

To summarize, positive reinforcements among the tribal farmers occurred through

positive verbal persuasions, awards, and recognitions and even through criticisms and

constructive feedback. The tribal farmers received verbal persuasions to commence or

continue with their business, most commonly from their families and friends, and

sometimes also from officials and customers. Although the tribal farmers sometimes also

faced criticisms from family, friends, or neighbors, their reaction to those criticisms

strengthened their confidence since they challenged themselves to perform better.

Awards and recognitions were an effective method for positively reinforcing skills

amongst the tribal farmers.

Research Question 4 (d): What is the role of physiological state in the development

of ESE among tribal farmers?

Personality characteristics and social interactions and support systems were the

two major themes identified as affecting physiological state of tribal farmers (Figure 4.6).

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Figure 4.6. Major themes related to the physiological state of tribal farmers.

Personality characteristics. “Personality characteristics” was used as an

umbrella term to indicate both the built-in mechanisms that tribal farmers had in place to

cope with stress and also to indicate the traits like being hopeful, confident and

persevering while facing challenges. All the tribal farmers who were interviewed recalled

having some sort of a coping mechanism to combat stress; one said:

I listen to music, read books, do household chores when I am stressed. But that

being said, I don’t have a habit of stressing myself overthinking whenever I

encounter problems, I prefer to work towards finding a solution (Li).

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Li also alleged “so far being stressed has not affected my business. Maybe it might be

because I don’t run a full-fledged commercial sales center, but it’s more of a home-based

enterprise, and I can select my working hours” (Li).

Other entrepreneurs found additional interesting ways of combating stress. One tribal

farmer who is also a member of a Self-Help Group said, “when we are stressed we just

gossip for some time and start working” (Le).

Another tribal farmer explained that he did various things but then went back to

work even when stressed, quoting:

During that period (farrowing), it really makes me stressed for two or three

weeks. That is the most important time; it really stresses me out because we need

to give them extra care. When I have stress, I probably go for TV, or I go for any

unfinished work that I have. If I have the strength, I go for the work that I have

left; I resume with my work (T).

Some used stress as an opportunity to talk and interact with friends and gain their

perspective. One tribal farmer said:

I listen to music that helps me a lot. Even when that doesn’t help me, I speak to

my entrepreneur friends, and then I tell them that I am such a mess right now, but

they have been pretty much encouraging, and by talking to them, I learn so many

things. It gives me back the driving force that I have to keep on doing what I want

because my other successful friends also told me that they are there just not like

that; they have their own share of the burden. Their own share of stress. So, such

kinds of things help motivate me where I am right now (Ng).

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Another explained, “for me the best way to escape stress is I communicate with the close

ones and all, that way only we can rely on them, tell them” (P).

Most of the tribal farmers interviewed recalled facing challenges confidently. One

participant, in particular, displayed highly confident mannerisms and spoke about various

strategies she used to deal with challenges. She said “I think like I am very stubborn

(persistent) person… I'm still excited, every day I'm excited about my work …I think

facing some challenges makes me do better” (As). She also said:

I really keep pushing through it (challenges) and push my employees to do it

faster because I think that's the thing. If I have to meet a deadline or something

like that, that’s what I would do. But I don't know how I go with my stress I'll just

deal with it just like that (As).

There was also a tribal farmer with entrepreneurial intentions who said having

confidence in himself helped him to face challenges in the business. He explained “it’s

my self-confidence that helps me face challenges. If I get customers, I can run this

business successfully” (B). On the other hand, another spoke about how challenges and

obstacles were part and parcel of being an entrepreneur or of life in general. He said:

Those challenging times make me aware, and I learn from them that even in the

coming day's things will happen, it’s not just a bed of roses; things will come and

go. So, I tell myself that things get worse, but things will get better again, but at

that time, I was stressed out, but now I feel a little confidence maybe coming days

I will feel something like that, but something better will come up (Ng).

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Another participant mentioned the importance of being hopeful and looking

forward to a good future in business. He said “hope should be there. If today's profit is 50

rupees, maybe tomorrow will increase up to Rs. 100. They should believe that profit will

increase” (T). While another tribal farmer stated the importance of persevering despite

hardships. One farmer explained. She said “one should never give up even if things go

wrong initially, it always helps to identify the problem and works towards a solution. We

learn from failures” (Li).

Social interactions and support system. The second major theme affecting the

physiological state of tribal farmers was social interactions and support systems.

The tribal farmers relied extensively on each other, their family, friends, customers, or

the government for support like advice, information, financial help, labor, etc.

Interestingly all the tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions interviewed relied

highly on either one of the sources of social support, most commonly family and friends.

The family supported tribal entrepreneurs in different ways. Labor was identified

as major support that the families provided. Almost all entrepreneurs interviewed

depended on their family members for labor. For example, one farmer said, “my husband

helped me to construct the silkworm rearing house” (Le) While another said “ya! my

main strength is my wife, she helps a lot. Without her, I think it won’t be possible. I do

not keep extra labor, so all that we do we do together. Ya! Everything we do together”

(I). In addition to spouses, other farmers got support from their children and extended

family. One explained:

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The whole family helps. He has his first wife’s daughter. She has two

daughters…Two daughters and one son we have adopted, and our own daughter,

we have got one now — total of four children. First one tho, she got married and

settled here, so her family is also there, and the son is there. All help us in farming

(Ni).

Another tribal farmer said “they (family) give full support. My mother and wife

both help me in my business. They take care of feeding and watering in my absence or

when I go market sometime” (Pr). While another farmer explained “they help me with

watering the mushrooms, cutting and boiling. My wife and son both help me, and we

work together” (T). Some tribal farmers depended on their family members for advice.

One said “my Uncle and Aunty are staying in Nepal. They also always suggested me to

start this business” (B).While some other tribal farmers also recollected receiving

financial help from their immediate family members. One farmer explained “and

finances, my dad supports all finances” (Pu).

Support from family members also meant that they agreed to buy products and

become potential customers. One farmer noted:

From my family members, our cousins, friends they have been pretty encouraging

and excited also, and they were like if you are if your chicks are ready like if your

chicks start to lay eggs, they will be the first ones to come here to buy that. They

have been pretty much supporting me (Ng).

However, few women tribal farmers said that they felt they received support from

immediate family (especially husbands) because of the additional income that they took

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home due to their business, which went towards the household expenses. One farmer

explained:

They (family) encourages us. At some level, we have support from our family

because some way or the other whatever we earn, it goes to the management of

the households and all. So we’ve got the support from the families also (P).

The tribal farmers recalled feeling supported by friends. Friends seemed to be the

go-to people for advice. One farmer explained “if they (veterinary doctors and trainers)

are not there, then we consult with our friends” (Im). Another tribal farmer said, “I speak

to my entrepreneur friends, and then I tell them that I am such a mess right now, but they

have been pretty much encouraging, and by talking to them, I learn so many things” (Ng).

One other participant similarly stated:

I am very fortunate in this case because I have so many good friends in this

business and similar sort of business, they are always there to help me and

encourage me whenever I want. When I started this off, people were some of

those friends called me up and then encouraged me. Don't lose your hope you

might fail but still just keep on doing it. So, they themselves are already very

successful, and I was just starting out, those things really pushed me ahead (As).

Some tribal farmers also received support with finances and resources from their friends.

One explained for instance “some things borrow from my farmer friends like rice husk”

(T), While another said, “my friends always encouraged and supported me with

resources” (Pr).

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The third main source of support for tribal farmer entrepreneurs was government

organizations. Government organizations tend to mainly help by providing low-income

farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions with infrastructure and resources. It was

observed that most of the entrepreneurs who had low income received, for instance, free

chicks for poultry rearing. One farmer explained:

In their project, they (KVK) gives 50, 100, or 150 chicks for free depending upon

success rate. More success more numbers they provide. They come and observe

how we are keeping chicks; we are giving feed and water timely or not. Some

farmer keeps the chicks on the floor, so disease comes. The first time they gave

me 50 chicks, which I did successfully. Out of fifty, forty-four were healthy,

which I used at home as well as sold, only six died. This year on November 30,

they gave 150 chicks, now their weight is 5 kg after fifty days, only fourteen were

died due to cold (Pr).

Others received free sapling for mixed farming, such as Ne who said “so in

between the litchi we are planting the neem tree…company IFCO they gave us the

saplings. After a few years, once it starts blooming, they will buy the seeds.” Another

farmer similarly recalled receiving free machinery and sheds for silk rearing, saying “one

in 2014 and another in 2015 we got a machine for rearing silkworm from the sericulture

department. This shed is also from the department. Some money also they have given”

(M). While another tribal farmer recalled, “when I went for training last year they gave

me 50 thousand for construction and mushroom seeds” (T), while another recalled that he

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received fertilizers, saying “KVK people visit our village regularly to help farmers in

mustard, rice, and vegetable farming. Sometimes they provide fertilizer also” (Pr).

If the entrepreneurs wished to establish themselves at a commercial level, they also

received subsidies on equipment and raw materials from the government. One

entrepreneur explained, “now we got a 90% subsidy from the department, which helped

us establish at commercial level” (Le).

Some tribal farmer entrepreneurs considered the officials working at research

institutions as consultants during times of need and quoted receiving professional

support. One farmer explained “what I learned is that we have many veterinary doctors

and trainers here, so when we need they come. When we need to consult, we consult

them.” (Im). Regular visits and monitoring from government institutions also helped the

farmers. One said: “KVK people also visit our farm monthly, so it helps a lot” (Pr). Some

entrepreneurs also recalled support from other organizations like the local church. Li

said, “my church helps those with low income to set up businesses.”

Regarding the social interactions, despite being a strongly collectivistic tribal

culture, traces of both collectivism and individualism were captured through the

interviews. Referring to other entrepreneurs, one tribal farmer said “we help them (other

weavers doing well in business)…we even buy clothes from them” (Le). While in

contrast, another participant explained:

I shared my business interests with only a friend or two because the competition is

tough for such a business. Due to the insurgency problem, we have limited

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earning opportunities, so whenever people see a business doing well, everybody

jumps into the bandwagon over here and all the enterprises collapse together (Li).

The difference being the two entrepreneurs was that the one who displayed individualism

had spent many years away from her community since she did both her undergraduate

and graduate degrees outside the state of Nagaland. Those participants who showed

collectivism had never lived outside their community.

To summarize, the physiological state of the tribal farmers was affected by their

positive personality characteristics, and their social interactions and support systems. The

tribal farmer had developed various coping mechanisms to address stressful and

challenging situations. They were also highly persistent and resilient in their approaches.

The tribal farmers also relied heavily on a support system of family, friends, government,

and the local church. Families provided labor, advice, and also financial support. While

friends mostly provided advice and support with finances and other resources, tribal

farmers got help from the government for infrastructure, resources, and professional

support, and local churches helped financially.

Research Question 4 (e) What other factors affect the development of ESE among

tribal farmers?

In addition to the nine major themes related to the sources of ESE, two additional

categories were also identified in this study. These two categories (motivational factors

and major challenges) are presented as issues that indirectly influenced ESE by

influencing entrepreneurship.

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Motivational factors. The content analysis revealed some factors that played a

role in motivating the tribal farmers to consider becoming entrepreneurs. Unemployment

was identified as the major motivational factor that led tribal farmers to consider

entrepreneurship. Many participants mentioned having gone through an unemployment

phase at a certain stage of their life and how that impacted them to think about

entrepreneurship. One farmer said:

I got a job also after my studies, but unfortunately, I declared unfit in the physical

test as my muscle was broken. Then I felt bad and thought won’t go for a job. At

that time, I had decided to run my own business (Pr).

Another tribal farmer noted “but this whole thing (the idea of business) came up only a

few years back…when I was sitting idle at home, without any job” (K). Other farmers

also had similar experiences. One recalled, “I wasn't doing anything for a year, then I

thought of starting my own business” (As). While another explained:

Right now, the present situation is we don’t have much private-sector jobs here as

you might have already known, the lack of opportunity is also there which

motivated me or influenced me to start something like this (Ng).

The availability of capital for starting the business also motivated the tribal

farmers to go ahead with entrepreneurship. One participant said that she had planned and

saved money to start a business, noting “I saved up money in small amounts from my

salary, borrowed the remaining from a friend and looked for a business partner to

contribute half the expenses and also for selling the plants” (Li). Some participants also

mentioned that they wanted to help others in their community by starting the business.

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One farmer explained, “right now, organic medicines are very expensive. So, we are

trying to plant and use our resources. That is what we are trying to do. We are trying to

encourage other farmers; we want to help them also” (Ne).

Some participants displayed a strong drive to prove the merits of their choices to

the society. For example, comparing government jobs to entrepreneurship, one farmer

said:

“Well, I will prove them wrong that it's just not just government jobs that you get

success. Because here in Nagaland, I have seen people thinking that when

someone joins government service and goes up to a high level, people tend to

respect them more. They have better hmm...ah...honor. People honor them more

than others. There is a stubbornness in me to prove them wrong” (As).

Another participant similarly stated, “I want to prove to them that being a farmer, I can be

more successful than them. I don’t feel shy saying I am a farmer” (Ne). Some tribal

farmers sought independence through entrepreneurship. One participant explained, “I had

this dream to have something like a company of my own, wanted to be my boss” (Pu).

Many participants also mentioned that they were motivated to do business due to

interest in agribusiness. For instance, one tribal farmer said:

I was interested to start a business from childhood. It is my hobby. I had cows and

pigs…Initially; I started at a small level to develop interest. Money is also

important, but if interest is not there, money does not work. You have to develop

interest from inside. I mean to say that money is not everything; interest must be

there (T).

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While another tribal farmer mentioned a passion for farming as the motivational factor.

He said:

Whatever I do, I do it with Passion. I am passionate about farming. I am

passionate about my business. About the kind of thing I am doing. I do not do

things because people want me to, or people say that if you do these things, you

will get success. I do it because I like it. I did, and I like it. And I do it with full

heart (Ne).

Major challenges. The content analysis also helped to understand the challenges

faced by tribal farmers that affected the development of entrepreneurial intentions. Most

tribal farmers faced financial problems in starting businesses, particularly if they did not

have support from family or friends to start the business. For example, one tribal farmer

explained, “my father was a farmer, so we do not have enough money to invest in

business” (Pr). Another stated, “without capital, it is very difficult to start a business in

Nagaland” (K).

In some cases, these financial constraints prevented farmers from being more

efficient. For example, one participant explained that he was “I am doing it (poultry

business) all manually because I can’t afford mechanization” (Ng). Ng also cited a lack of

knowledge as the most challenging thing he faced in poultry business. He stated, “maybe

the hardest thing was lack of knowledge.”

Some participants also said that they were unable to match demand and supply;

they either had too little demand or too little production and it was hard to match the two.

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For example, one farmer said, “low production in the poultry was the problem,” and thus,

he was “not able to supply to the people to meet their demands” (Ng). Another expressed

a similar issue, lamenting that there was:

Too much production, no market, and too much wastage, and then sometimes,

when you don’t produce, there is a lot of demand, sometimes the production is

more, and the demand is not there; sometimes, demand is more, and production is

not there. So that kind of thing is really frustrating (Ne).

In addition, while doing agribusinesses, crop and animal diseases was a common

problem that the tribal farmers dealt with. One farmer noted, “disease is the main

problem. Once they (poultry) get infected, it is most difficult to save. We have to give

medicines in the early stages” (Pr). Feed for the animals can be too costly to afford as

well, and finding an alternative was a tedious task, according to some. One tribal farmer

explained:

I think I should say finding locally available feeds. Like now is the time, in winter

it is very difficult to find vegetables. Usually, what we do is that we cook

vegetables and feed the pigs. Initially, I was having the confidence that I will

start, but after some time the pigs didn’t grow according to plan, so I got little

stressed out., so the first attempt it was not very successful; most of the pigs after

one year were hardly 60-70 kgs, so it was not very profitable I think (K).

Finding and retaining labor was another problem that the tribal farmers faced.

Most entrepreneurs relied on migrant laborers when they needed more help than what the

family could provide. Specifically, one participant said:

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Turning a worker to a trained, skilled worker was stressful, most stressful thing. I

still face those problems even now because it is the loyalty factor; it is not that

good here. They come here and since most of them come with zero experience

here. They come, and then I train them two months three months, and then when

they're like just about to give me back, they'll leave (As).

Transportation of produce to out of state markets was also a problem by the tribal

farmers. Due to the hilly terrain and landslides, transportation in Nagaland was not very

reliable. Hence, those wanting to transport and sell their products out of state were

demotivated. One tribal farmer emphasized:

But the problem is again the transportation and ours is not certified (organic

certification), so we have to get it certified and then transportation issues,

everything all the logistics we could not do it, so it (selling produce outside the

state) didn’t work out (Ne).

Similarly, issues with import and customs posed challenges to those wanting to do

international business. Those procuring raw materials from out of the country had to deal

with strict import and customs regulations and unexpected delays. One participant noted,

“Import clearance and getting capital is hard. Twice my plant shipments rotted before

their import clearance, which dragged on for more than two months. I had to reinvest and

begin all over again in 2018” (Li). Li further explained:

Initially, it (the big issue) was arranging the required capital. Then the customs

clearance became an issue. Plant parcels were held up for several weeks, even up

to two months, causing damage to my plants (Li).

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To conclude, two additional themes (motivational factors and major challenges)

were identified in this study and presented as factors affecting the development of

entrepreneurship among tribal farmers of Nagaland. Unemployment, availability of

capital, helping others in the community, proving the merits of personal choices, seeking

independence, interest, and passion in agriculture and farming where some of the

motivational factors that were identified. While financial problems, lack of knowledge,

inability to match demand and supply, diseases, cost of feed, finding and retaining labor,

transportation, and import and customs were identified as some of the major problems

faced by the tribal farmers in Nagaland.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This sequential design mixed methods study was conducted to understand the

factors contributing to the development of ESE among tribal farmers who have

entrepreneurial intentions. In this chapter, the discussion of major findings is presented,

followed by implications of the study, limitations of the study, recommendations for

research, and practice.

Discussion of Major Findings and Conclusion

In this sequential design mixed methods study, the quantitative phase preceded

the qualitative phase. Hundred and six tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions from

Dimapur district of Nagaland, India, participated in the quantitative phase and responded

to the demographics and ESE survey. These surveyed tribal farmers had the intention to

make a profit from the following agribusinesses presented in the order of frequency:

poultry, piggery, sericulture, mixed farming, food processing, floriculture, beekeeping,

gardening tools & supplies, and agricultural utility store.

Demographics

Researchers have always been interested to understand if there is a typical

demographic profile for those individuals who become entrepreneurs. In this study, the

tribal farmers who were surveyed were most frequently 36-45-year-olds (35%) followed

by the 26-35-year-olds (28%). Previous studies have indicated that age triggers

entrepreneurship, and there exists a negative relationship between age and entrepreneurial

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attitude (Levesque & Minniti, 2006). The creation of new businesses was suggested to be

the highest among 26-35-year-olds, the reason being that after a threshold age,

individuals do not think about allocating time to entrepreneurial activities and prefer

predictable waged labor (Levesque & Minniti, 2006). Other researchers have confirmed

that across the globe, the possibility of starting a business is most pronounced in the 26-

35-year-olds (Bosma & Harding, 2008). Bates (1995) provided empirical evidence that

entrepreneurial intentions can increase with age, peaking as people approach 40, and then

entirely levels out. Although the most frequent age group in this study was the 36-45-

year-olds, many were facing unemployment and may not have chosen entrepreneurship if

they had a steady source of income. Moreover, although previous studies have indicated

that interest in entrepreneurial activities decreases after a certain age, experience tends to

increase with age, which may have been an advantage to older individuals in this study

population.

The findings on gender in this study were unexpected. Participants were

predominantly female (67%), with only 33% of males. Previous literature has supported

that males tend to become entrepreneurs more frequently than females (Moore & Buttner,

1997), with some researchers even advocating that entrepreneurship is a masculine trait

(Baron et al., 2001). The study on OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development) countries have also confirmed that the probability of being self-employed

was higher for men than women (Blanchflower, 2000). To find a more significant

number of women in comparison to men in this study is encouraging considering the

disparities in women’s rights, including land ownership or participation in politics in

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Nagaland (Sonowal, 2018). Since many of the participants with entrepreneurial intentions

had not even started their business, it is uncertain if these women would get a favorable

environment in the future to start the businesses. Also, the statistics on gender might have

differed if the study included entrepreneurs outside agriculture. There has never been a

clear-cut indication of the division of labor in agriculture, and both men and women have

historically played important roles in agricultural activities within the tribal communities

of Nagaland (Shimray, 2004). Since women have experiences in agriculture as much as

the men do, it might make the women more confident in starting a business within the

agricultural sector. Therefore, supporting entrepreneurial activities in agriculture could

particularly influence the lives of women in tribal communities.

The participants of this study were mostly educated at the high school level

(37%), and the second-largest group had a graduate-level or higher degree (19%).

Previous studies have shown that lower levels of education are positively related to self-

employment in India with propositions that higher education decreased self-employment

(Tamvada, 2008). To find that the second-highest frequency in this study belonged to

graduates and above, either points to the problem of unemployment in the state of

Nagaland or shows the emergence of highly passionate educated individuals who choose

to be self-employed. Although personal interest was indicated as the major source of

motivation to start a business by a majority of participants (50%), the next major source

of motivation was cited as unemployment (18%). Unemployment, named as a source of

motivation by a significant number of participants, points out the problem of finding

employment in the state of Nagaland. Based on the figures presented at the Parliament of

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India during the 2019 monsoon session, Nagaland was reported to have the highest

unemployment rate (21.4%) among the North-eastern states of India, further confirming

the status quo of unemployment in Nagaland (“State divide in unemployment,” 2019).

The findings of this study also show that 69% of the participants were married,

and only 27% were not married. Previous studies have suggested that married people are

more likely to be self-employed in India because marriage reduces entrepreneurial risk if

the spouse is also contributing to the finances of the family. Entrepreneurs also perceive

additional support in the form of free labor from their spouses and other family members

(Tamvada, 2008). Unsurprisingly, a majority of the participants in this study had a larger

family size of 5-9 members, which also confirms with the family size findings from

previous self-employment studies in India (Tamvada, 2008). Larger family size means

more hands to help with labor and other activities in the business.

Most tribal farmers said that they relied on their finances (26%) or sought help

from family/friends (22%) as a major source of funding for their business. Additionally,

some also relied on private financers (15%) and government funding (12%). The liberty

of borrowing money whenever required from family and friends demonstrates the

connectedness in these communities. However, an interesting borrowing pattern amongst

the tribals of Nagaland is documented. A credit taken between members of a tribe is not

seen as an obligation of the lender but of the community, so there is a reluctance to pay

back loans (Nathan et al., 2012). The unique borrowing pattern has even called for

intensive supervision and monitoring of loans applied through the state (Nathan et al.,

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2012). Fascinatingly, the threat of mortgage or high-interest rates often motivates tribal

farmers to pay back loans from private financiers on time.

ESE

The overall mean score of ESE for the tribal farmers was 2.85, signifying high

confidence. According to Chen et al. (1998), individuals assess their capacity to prepare

for and enter an occupation in which they feel efficacious and avoid those occupations in

which they feel incompetent. Since the participants of this study had recently started or

had already decided to start a business, a high ESE score was not surprising. However,

most empirical studies that previously reported high ESE among those with

entrepreneurial intentions were conducted amongst university students in the developed

countries (Chen et al., 1998; Kickul & D’Intino, 2005). Therefore, observing a high ESE

score among rural tribal farmers of Nagaland, India, is noteworthy.

While comparing the ESE scores amongst the six dimensions of the ESE

instrument, it was observed that the participants scored the highest in the Implementing:

financial dimension, which includes, managing financial assets, maintaining financial

records, preparing financial statements, and understanding the financial statements. Since

the majority of the participants had only high school level education with no access to

formal financial training, the high ESE score in financial dimension was surprising.

However, it is to be noted that the items in the financial dimension were attempted by all

participants and had the highest N in comparison to the other dimensions of the ESE

instrument. Additionally, Implementing: financial was also the only dimension that had

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participants with a mean score of zero, indicating that some tribal farmers had absolutely

no confidence in the financial side of the business.

The second highest mean score (2.93) was found to be for the Implementing:

general dimension, suggesting that most participants had high confidence in dealing with

day to day problems, working long hours, and using the tools/equipment needed for

work. The minimum score in this dimension was one, suggesting that all participants had

some level of confidence in this area, unlike the financial dimension. Tribals in India,

who mostly live in hilly areas, are generally considered to be very hardworking people

because they have strived to make a livelihood fighting the challenges of unhospitable

geographical terrains and unpredictable climate with fewer resources. For example,

Nagaland experiences almost six months of monsoons, which accompanied by landslides

and floods that can cause havoc. In August 2018, nearly 400 villages in Nagaland were

displaced due to the floods. These unpredictable conditions, along with constant fear of

insurgency, could have forced the people to be confident in dealing with day-to-day

problems of their business or life in general and the ability to even work long hours if

needed.

Association of Demographics with ESE

The ANOVA findings indicated an association between ESE and the demographic

characteristics of the tribe, prior experience, and income of the tribal farmers. The

surveyed tribal farmers mostly belonged to the Kuki (26%) and Dimasa Kachari (25%)

tribes. Both these tribes did not originate in Nagaland, while Kuki tribe originated in

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Manipur, the Dimasa Kachari tribe is believed to have originated in Assam. In this study,

the Angami tribe, which is the largest of the Naga tribe, was found to have significantly

higher ESE than both Dimasa Kachari and Kuki tribes. Since the inception of Nagaland

as a state of India in December 1963, the Angami tribe bears the reputation of being one

of the most progressive tribes. Kohima, the capital of Nagaland, is the home track of the

Angami tribe, and thus they get better access to education, infrastructure, road

connectivity, and health care. It is therefore not surprising that the Naga Angamis had

significantly higher ESE than the two non-naga minority tribes (Kuki and Dimasa

Kachari).

The highest number (31%) of surveyed tribal farmers had between 1-5 years of

prior experience, while the second-highest (26%) had more than ten years of prior

experience in a similar activity as their business. The findings of post-hoc analysis

indicated that those having more than ten years of prior experience had significantly

higher ESE than those having 1-5 years or less than one year of experience. Literature

suggests that prior experience in launching or running one's own business promotes ESE

as it provides opportunities for both mastery experiences and vicarious learning (Lee et

al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2005). Also, experiences of working for a business company can

enhance an individuals' ESE through mastery and vicarious learning (Farashah, 2015;

Hockerts, 2017). Since ESE increased with the number of years of prior experience, it

can be concluded that the prior experiences of the tribal farmers were positively

associated with their ESE scores. Prior experience was also a major theme that came up

in the qualitative analysis and is discussed in detail later in this chapter.

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The majority (53%) of the participants in the study had less than 7,500 rupees

income, which is less than $73 a month. The post-hoc analysis indicated that those tribal

farmers who were earning $292-729 per month (14%) had significantly higher mean ESE

than those who were making $73-110 per month. More income brings the power to

purchase feed/fertilizers/ or other necessary material needed for agribusinesses. Also,

more income is associated with the ability to buy food in such low-income communities,

which affects the mental and physical wellbeing of the people, and having a better

physiological state positively impacts the development of ESE. Prior research has also

stated a negative association between financial constraints faced by the entrepreneur and

their ESE in India (Venugopal et al., 2015).

Sources of ESE

A qualitative phase followed the quantitative phase of this study. Participants for

the qualitative phase were selected based on high ESE scores (>2.60), the knowledge of

either English or Hindi for communication with the researcher, and a maximal variation

in the demographic characteristics of gender, tribe, educational level, income, prior

experience, and type of business. Fifteen tribal farmers were selected and interviewed to

understand how they developed high ESE. The semi-structured interview questions

(Appendix 8) were based on Bandura’s (1997) four major sources of ESE. Themes

generated from the qualitative analysis were presented in chapter four to answer the

research questions of this study.

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Prior experiences, training, education, modeling experiences, verbal persuasion,

awards and recognitions, constructive feedback and criticisms, personality characteristics,

and social interactions and support systems were the nine major themes that were

identified in this study as factors that gave the tribals farmers opportunities to experience

the four sources of ESE. In this chapter, major themes are discussed with the help of

previous literature and observations made by the researcher.

Prior experiences. The most important finding through the ANOVA test was the

association between ESE and prior experience; tribal farmers who had more than ten

years of prior experiences had significantly higher ESE than those with less than five

years of experience. Prior experience also was one of the major themes that came up

through the content analysis of the interviews. Some tribes in Nagaland possess unique

skillsets and knowledge in traditional weaving and artistry that has been passed down

through many generations. Two traditional weavers from the Dimasa Kachari were a part

of the qualitative phase of this study. These two women who practiced traditional

sericulture and weaving are an example of skilled tribals who have turned their

indigenous practices into small businesses. Prior research has indicated that family

business experience serves as an important intergenerational influence on entrepreneurial

intent (Carr & Sequeira, 2007). Family businesses have also been described as “business

incubators” for future business by becoming a training ground for the children of

entrepreneurial parents (Carr & Sequeira, 2007). Although these traditional weavers may

not fit into the classic family businesses, it cannot be denied that parallels exist. The rich

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opportunity of being trained in an activity in an informal setting of their home could be a

factor that gives these women the confidence to pursue weaving as a business.

The two women weavers who were interviewed belonged to the Dimasa Kachari

tribe, which is a non-naga tribe that migrated from the neighboring state of Assam. The

women of this tribe have been weavers for many generations. Rearing the eri worm and

weaving is considered the women’s job; every girl in a Dimasa family starts to learn to

weave from her mother and grandmother by a certain age (Bhattacharjee, 2018).

Participants in this study remembered learning to weave from their mothers and

grandmothers, who they recalled weaving when not doing other household chores. Thus,

these tribal women had great opportunities for vicarious learning experiences from a very

young age. Also, the practice of eri rearing is an age-old tradition of the Dimasa Kachari

tribe. Rearing the eri worm is uncommon in comparison to raising mulberry silkworms.

The eri worms are raised in India by a few tribal communities who benefit from

indigenous knowledge passed down from many generations.

The women interviewed for this study had enthusiastically shared their

experiences of rearing eri worms. These women were a part of the Self-Help Group

(SHG) called Dangal, and they practiced sericulture and weaving as a group. These

women also held leadership positions, while one was the President; the other was the

Treasurer of the SHG. The Government of Nagaland's Department of Sericulture had

helped the SHG with the construction of sheds made of bamboo for raising the eri

silkworms and weaving. The eri worms were raised in bamboo trays and were fed castor

leaves. The castor plants were also grown and harvested by the SHG members. It took the

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women almost one month to complete a cycle of eri rearing, from the egg stage to larva

and cocoon. The main difference between the eri cocoon and other silkworms cocoon is

their open mouth, enabling the moth to escape before the cocoons are boiled to extract the

silk. For this reason, the eri silk is called non-violence or peace silk and is a preferred

choice of vegan silk consumers.

Although the women who were interviewed displayed evidence of having strong

traditional knowledge passed on from generations, they also had information on current

practices that they accrued by attending training through the Department of Sericulture.

These women also displayed confidence in the way that they dealt with other up-and-

coming weavers in their community; they were not envious of them; instead harbored the

desire to mentor them. Being the recipients of a performance award from the Department

of Sericulture had further boosted their confidence. One of the women recalled that

getting the award from the Director of the Department of Sericulture was the most

powerful recognition they received as an SHG.

Several factors seem to have worked together for the advantage of the two women

weavers who were interviewed. They were traditional tribal weavers, with opportunities

for both mastery and vicarious childhood learning experiences, and had benefited from

current knowledge and advancements through training. In addition, working collectively

as an SHG was helping the women to share workloads, which ultimately helped reducing

stress and impacted their physiological state. Their prior experience in the traditional

tribal practice of sericulture and weaving was crucial in giving these women

opportunities to experience the sources of ESE.

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In conclusion, prior experiences is undoubtedly the most important factor that

helped in the development of ESE among tribal farmers. It is, therefore, advantageous to

support traditional tribal farmers, weavers, and artisans to start a business utilizing the

indigenous skills that they have mastered through their personal experiences and by

learning vicariously from others in the family. However, to increase production and make

a profit, these traditional farmers and weavers will have to modify the labor-intensive

practices and incorporate scientific knowledge and technology without damaging the core

value and ethics of the indigenous practice.

Training. Almost all the tribal farmers who were interviewed had attended

technical training conducted by agricultural research institutions like ICAR. Past research

has indicated that if training is effectively designed, it can provide opportunities for an

individual to experience all four sources of self-efficacy (Zhao et al., 2005). For example,

through learning by doing, a trainee can gain mastery experience in creating business

plans or developing financial statements, they could also learn vicariously by observing

successful role models through field visits or case studies or witness verbal persuasion

through constructive and positive feedback on their assessments by trainers (Newman et

al., 2019). Also, by observing how entrepreneurs (introduced at training) deal with

challenges, trainees can develop their psychological coping strategies (Newman et al.,

2019).

The participants of the interview indicated the role of training mastery

experiences through hands-on activities and some vicarious experiences through field

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visits. However, the length of the farmer's training programs conducted by the

agricultural institutions was generally restricted to one full day and very rarely went up to

three days. Due to the shorter duration of the training, it might not be possible to gain

mastery through hands-on experiences during the training. However, some farmers used

the knowledge gained at the training to pursue and master skills at their workplace or

home.

The findings of this study also suggest that farmer’s training through agricultural

institutions are crucial channels for the transfer of scientific knowledge and best

practices. These trainings also disseminate knowledge about technological advancements

and current innovations in the field. Participants had recalled learning about

intercropping, value-added vegetables, crop diversification, poultry diseases, and disease

management, etc. Farmers who have decided to farm for profit benefit from such

specialized training. Entrepreneurial farmers often need help to identify and capture value

within the value chain, enhance and manage efficiencies in production, promote new

technologies and innovations (Kahan, 2013), and findings of this study have suggested

that the training and extension efforts of agricultural research institutions were helping

the tribal farmers in those aspects. However, besides the technical knowledge, training

also needs to integrate other competency needs of an entrepreneur based on the stage of

entrepreneurship. An entrepreneurial farmer needs support not just in technical

competencies, but also entrepreneurial and managerial skills (Kahan, 2013). One

participant mentioned that she went to a training that dealt with what she called soft skills

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in business, but that was an out of state training, which is not accessible to most rural

farmers.

In conclusion, the farmer’s training programs conducted by agricultural research

institutions are doing a great job in transferring scientific knowledge and best practices to

entrepreneurial tribal farmers. However, there is an opportunity to focus on training

farmers in entrepreneurial skills like creative thinking, interpersonal abilities, networking

with other entrepreneurs and managerial skills like planning, leading, organizing,

controlling, evaluating etc. There should be a focus on financial literacy. The curriculum

of the training programs should also be modified in ways to experience all major sources

of ESE, like mastery, vicarious learning, and positive reinforcements.

Education. The lesser common factor that provided the tribal farmers

opportunities for gaining mastery experiences was education. Only two participants

suggested having an educational background that helped them in their business.

However, education is still an important factor because those having an educational

background that provided skillsets to their business confidently identified themselves

more knowledgeable than others without the degree. Education is a factor that provides

an opportunity to master skills in a controlled environment. One also participant

mentioned having met her role model at a guest lecture organized by her educational

institute. Getting to know a successful entrepreneur while at school had influenced her

trajectory of life and was one of the reasons she chose to be an entrepreneur. Through her

role model, she also learned that she could be successful if she worked hard and

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persisted. Although education is an excellent source of mastery and vicarious learning

experiences, it is quite rare for the tribal farmers to have specialized degrees, which

would provide them with the required skillsets for their business.

In conclusion, although education is an infrequent source for mastery experience

among the tribal farmers it is still a powerful source for developing ESE. Thus, there is an

opportunity and need for the development of short-term certification programs or

vocational degrees that can train entrepreneurial farmers in a specialized area of

entrepreneurship. These short-term degrees for entrepreneurs should also include

internship opportunities wherein the entrepreneurial farmers can be exposed to large-

scale production systems.

Modeling experiences. Vicarious learning through modeling experiences was a

pervasive factor that contributed to the development of higher ESE’s among the tribal

farmers. The unequivocal agricultural and livestock rearing backgrounds of these tribal

communities had provided them opportunities for vicarious learning within their

households while they watched and assisted family members in farming. Also, those

tribal farmers who grew up in homes that practice traditional weaving or making

handicrafts were influenced vicariously by observing their family members. Some

participants in the interview had vivid memories of their grandmothers or mothers

weaving while they sat on their laps as little kids. With the abundance of local fruits,

vegetables, herbs, and spices, the people of Nagaland are also known for their

traditionally preserved and processed food. The women undertake the job of traditional

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food processing that occurs in the kitchens of most households. The younger women

thus have memories of watching older women preparing pickles, jams, jellies, juices, etc.

The findings of this study also suggest vicarious learning also occurred between

spouses. It was fascinating to note that the transfer of knowledge and interest occurred

both from husband to wife and vice versa. Highly passionate men and women with a deep

interest in entrepreneurial activities were able to introduce their partners to their vocation

successfully.

Although most of the tribal farmers who were interviewed had vicarious learning

experiences from their family members, many were also keenly observing and learning

from other entrepreneurs in their community. Some were even deliberate in their

interactions with successful entrepreneurs so that they could learn more by asking them

questions and get feedback. Bandura (1997), pointed out that comparing one’s

competencies and achievements with others, helps in the development and maintenance

of self-efficacy beliefs. Several researchers have indicated the impact of downward and

upward social comparisons within groups of individuals, for example, surpassing

associates or competitors raises self-efficacy beliefs, whereas being outperformed lowers

them (Weinberg, Gould, & Jackson, 1979; Vrugt, 1994). However, it is interesting to

note that these tribal farmers were looking at successful entrepreneurs within their

communities and gaining inspiration and motivation to perform like them. One

participant mentioned, “…if they (successful entrepreneurs) can do it, why not me?” (I),

pointing out to the fact that these vicarious experiences where beyond social comparisons

and exchange of knowledge, they were ‘modeling’ experiences (Bandura, 1997).

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In ‘modeling,’ people not only try to compare themselves to others but also try to

match them (Vrugt, 1994). When a role model represents an attainable outcome,

individuals hope to become like them in the future and are motivated to work harder

(Lockwood & Kunda, 1999). Role models can not only illustrate possible achievements

that one can strive for but also demonstrate the route for achieving them (Lockwood &

Kunda, 1997, 1999). Having role models within the community was helping the tribal

farmers to make close observations. One tribal farmer mentioned that she was able to

emulate customer relationships, pricing of goods, and even improvise her products by

watching and learning from other entrepreneurs.

Some participants also quoted famous successful entrepreneurs as their role

models; these were people that they had heard speaking at events, read about in

newspapers, or had seen on television or social media. Bandura (1997) refers to role

modeling that transcends the bounds of immediate social life as symbolic role modeling

and suggests that exposure to symbolic role models who exhibit useful skills raises the

self-efficacy of the observer. Despite the diverse range of symbolic role models, that the

tribal farmers took inspiration from, a common thread was that all the role models who

were quoted started very small before they were successful. The tribal farmers could have

taken inspiration from the fact that if those individuals could defy all socioeconomic

barriers, and become successful, then they could as well. According to Bandura (1997),

people develop preconceptions of their capabilities linked to characteristics such as their

age, gender, race, and educational and socio-economic backgrounds; therefore, the

tendency to be attracted to role models coming from lower socio-economic backgrounds

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is not surprising. A female in food-processing quoted a successful male as her symbolic

role model; this could either mean that that symbolic role modeling occurred across

genders or indicates the lack of famous female entrepreneurs in food processing in

Nagaland.

In conclusion, the agricultural sector presented immense opportunities for

modeling experience to occur within tribal communities. The tribal farmers learned

indigenous ways of rearing crops, raising animals, weaving, and food processing from

their families. They also had role models within their community. Symbolic role models

had also impacted some tribal farmers. In addition, since women played a major role in

most of the traditional livestock rearing, weaving, and food processing activities, younger

women were able to learn these skills vicariously at their homes. Thus, promoting

entrepreneurship within agriculture can particularly impact tribal women due to their

vicarious learning experiences in the past.

Verbal persuasion. The tribal communities of Nagaland are tightly knit

communities that give a lot of importance to the structure and hierarchy in the family.

The oldest man is respected the most in a household, followed by the oldest woman. It is

thus uncommon to see children take up a profession without the approval of their parents.

Gaining positive feedback and support from family members, especially parents, was

very important in these communities. However, most parents wanted their children to

take up government jobs as a symbol of status and steady income. Also, due to the risk

involved in entrepreneurial activities, parents often do not encourage their children to

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become entrepreneurs. The participants with higher education in this study recounted

facing disapproval from their parents (especially fathers) in becoming entrepreneurs.

However, some were persistent in seeking approval by ultimately making their parents

understand their need to start a business. Some participants were also impacted by the

positive comments from their extended families like aunts and uncles, reiterating the

power and voice of the family in these communities. It was also noticed that the

encouragement and positive feedback from friends sometimes helped entrepreneurial

farmers to overcome the disapproval of the family.

Bandura (1997) said that evaluative feedback highlighting personal capabilities

raises self-efficacy beliefs. However, in this study, it is observed that the positive

feedback from family and friends was less frequently based on the evaluation of abilities

but was mostly verbal suggestions of support. Previous research has suggested that when

people offer support that is validating and reassuring, it could minimize anxiety (Afifi,

Afifi, Merrill, Denes & Davis, 2013), which in turn affects the physiological and

emotional state of the individual and hence affecting self-efficacy. Also, it is easier to

sustain a sense of self-efficacy if significant others express faith in one’s capabilities than

if they convey doubts (Bandra, 1997).

In conclusion, the voice of the family played a major role in the development of

ESE of entrepreneurial farmers in tribal communities. Verbal persuasion in these

communities was less of evaluative feedback but were suggestions of support that

ultimately affected the physiological state of the entrepreneur.

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Constructive feedback and criticisms. Entrepreneurial tribal farmers had also

developed coping strategies to deal with their critiques. Some participants said that they

used criticisms for their advantage by working harder than before to prove their critics

wrong. Others reassured themselves that those who criticized (especially family

members) were voicing their opinion out of concern and love. The entrepreneurial

farmers demonstrated a willingness to change and grow through their openness to

constructive feedback and criticisms, especially from family and friends.

Awards and recognitions. Being a hierarchical society, people in Nagaland

respected those working in high positions, especially within the governmental sector.

Hence, receiving positive reinforcements from government officials through either verbal

persuasion or awards and recognitions made a huge impact on the entrepreneurial tribal

farmers. Participants of this study who had received awards from agricultural institutions

had enthusiastically recounted those experiences during the interview. Being recognized

and awarded, especially in the presence of other members of the community, positively

influenced the tribal farmers. Tribal farmers also considered farm or home visits by those

in high positions as a recognition. Some participants also vividly recounted experiences

of being recognized in the local newspaper. Although awards and recognitions impact

ESE of tribal farmers through positive reinforcement of capabilities, it also impacts ESE

by affecting the physiological state. In conclusion, recognizing and awarding the

performance and success of entrepreneurial farmers can positively influence their ESE.

152

Personality characteristics. Despite the many socio-economic challenges faced

by tribal communities, they displayed grit and resilience in their approaches towards life

in general. The nature of resilience was also seen in the way they approached problems in

business. While talking about challenges, a participant mentioned “those challenging

times make me aware, and I learn from them, that, even in the coming days things will

happen, it is not just a bed of roses; things will come and go. So, I tell myself that things

might get worse, but things will get better again” (Ng).

Perceived vulnerability to stresses and challenges can heighten the physiological

reactions in an individual (Bandura, 1997). Thus, it is very important to have strategies to

cope with stress. All the tribal farmers who were interviewed recalled having some

coping mechanisms to combat stress. They watched TV, listened to music, read books or

continued working. When facing challenges, many also sought the support of a friend or

a dear one, whom they interacted with and asked for advice. Some women said that even

gossiping with other women helped them to overcome stress.

In conclusion, entrepreneurial tribal farmers exhibited personality characteristics

that promoted resilience in business. They also had simple ways of combating stress,

which included social interactions within the community. However, since financial issues

and lack of resources were the major problems faced by the tribal farmers, helping tribal

farmers secure funding and raw materials can further assist in reducing stress and

improving ESE. The coping mechanisms for anxiety that are already working well among

these communities should also be identified and accentuated. Furthermore, reducing

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stress by correcting any misinterpretations of bodily states such as the association of

sweaty palms with less capability can also enhance ESE (Bandura, 1997).

Social interactions and support systems. The tight-knit tribal communities of

Nagaland relied extensively on their family and friends for support, advice, help with

finances and labor. The social interactions within tribal communities provide evidence of

collectivism. Collectivists are motivated primarily by the norms and duties of those

groups such as the family or tribe, and give priority to the group’s goals over their own

goals and emphasize their connectedness to other members in the group (Triandis, 2001).

Tribal farmers often sought the approval of their parents before venturing into an

entrepreneurial activity. Interestingly, there was a reciprocal interaction between the

parents and their children. If the parents had enough money and approved the business,

they would support their children financially without expecting repayment. Families of

entrepreneurs also played a significant role in providing labor for the business. Relying

on relatives like parents, children, spouses or the extended family for work helped to

minimize the cost of hiring external labor. Although family members provided unpaid

labor, they reaped the benefits of the business because profits from the business often

went to the management of the entire household.

Friends also played a crucial role in the lives of the tribal farmers. Friends

provided emotional support and advice and even helped monetarily. The freedom to

borrow money from family or friends whenever needed shows the connectedness within

these communities. However, as mentioned earlier, the tribal farmers displayed unique

154

borrowing patterns and showed reluctance to pay back a loan (Nathan et al., 2012).

Although the borrowing pattern has worked within the community, it has affected the

disbursement of funds by development projects through governmental organizations.

Previous studies have shown that social support has positive consequences for

improving health and reducing stress (Cutrona & Russell, 1990; Deelstra et al., 2003;

Kets de Vries, 1999; Viswesvaran, Sanchez, & Fisher, 1999). Studies have also revealed

that social support outside of work, such as that provided by spouses and friends, may

have a positive impact on work‐family balance and reducing stress (Carlson & Perrewe,

1999; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1994). Thus, it can be assumed that the social

interactions and support among these tribal communities affected their physiological state

and thereby improving ESE.

The interviews also revealed that the tribal farmers depended on government

institutions, for support with infrastructure, raw material, and funding. ICAR’s poultry

and piggery projects provided entrepreneurial farmers with few indigenous chicks and

piglets at no cost. Those farmers who wanted to expand their farm size were able to avail

larger numbers of chickens and piglets at a subsidized price. Similarly, the department of

Sericulture provided free silkworms and machinery and assisted with the construction of

sheds for sericulture. The Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) also

supported farmers by giving free saplings of trees and crops. However, in most cases,

when government institutions provided support, they expected farmers to adhere to

scientific practices and hence monitored the farmer’s progress through farm visits. Also,

155

the access of resources from governmental institutions are geographically restricted to

specific villages and may not describe the situation of all tribal farmers in Nagaland.

Nagaland is also a predominantly Christian state. Most of the tribes of Nagaland

practice Christianity, except those who have migrated from other states, like the Dimasa

Kachari tribe or migrants from Nepal or Bangladesh. Churches, therefore, play an

integral role in the lives of the tribal people of Nagaland. Financially proficient churches

have been providing support for entrepreneurial activities by funding projects for low-

income individuals. Churches also support people by providing a safe space for social

interaction.

In conclusion, collectivistic tribal communities of Nagaland, depend a lot on

social interactions and support systems. An entrepreneur in these communities is not just

an individual but is a product of a healthy and interactive social system that allows its

members to grow. Besides family and friends, governmental and non-governmental

organizations also play a crucial role in the development of entrepreneurs. Tribal farmers

who perceive support are able to express themselves more freely and have less stress,

which improves their ESE.

ESE Model for Entrepreneurial Farmers

The findings of this study helped to generate a model that shows nine important

factors that affected the development of ESE among the entrepreneurial tribal farmers in

Nagaland, India (Figure 5.1). These nine different factors namely: prior experiences,

training, education, modeling experiences, verbal persuasion, awards and recognitions,

156

constructive feedback and criticisms, personality characteristics, and social interactions

and support systems, promoted higher ESE by interacting with the four primary sources

of ESE (Figure 5.1). Some of the factors brought opportunities to experience more than

one source of ESE. For example, having prior experiences had given the tribal farmers

the opportunities for mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and positive

reinforcements. While modeling experiences was a source for vicarious learning

experiences (Figure 5.1). This model also identifies the major stakeholders such as

family, friends, neighbors, etc. who play an important role in the factors that affect ESE.

Figure 5.1. ESE model of entrepreneurial farmers describing the factors that affected the development of ESE among tribal farmers in Nagaland, India.

157

Implications of the Study

This study is pivotal due to three main reasons. First, the sectoral focus of

entrepreneurship research both in the US and internationally has mostly been in the

manufacturing, technology, and service sectors. The absence of the agricultural sector

from entrepreneurship research is amplified by its absence from even government and

privately owned entrepreneurship datasets (Alsos, Carter, Ljunggren, & Welter, 2011). At

the same time, there is an increased consensus among international agricultural research

organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization about the importance and

need for entrepreneurship in agriculture. The findings of this study bring to light some of

the advantages that the agriculture sector provides tribal entrepreneurs, thereby showing

the need for focusing on agricultural entrepreneurship as a tribal developmental initiative.

Second, the poverty and development research in the agricultural sector has

primarily utilized quantitative economic approaches in their studies. However, it is

argued that there needs to be an integration of disciplines and approaches to consider not

just the economics but also the social and human processes that impact the lives of

farmers (Adato, Meinzed-Dick, Hazell, & Haddad, 2007). By focusing on the

development of the psychological construct of ESE, this study unearthed various social

and human factors that are working well among the tribal farming communities. These

factors can be used both for future research and practice.

Third, the study made use of the five-dimensional McGee et al. (2009) ESE

instrument and modified it to develop the six-dimensional ESE instrument with 27 items.

The multidimensionality of the instrument was confirmed through CFA, and a high

158

hierarchical omega (.99) and alpha (.96) were obtained indicating good reliability. The

six-dimensional ESE instrument is the first ESE instrument that has been developed and

tested among tribal farmers.

The implication of this study for HRD and international agricultural extension

education is described below.

HRD

Mclean (2002) and Bates (2003), advocated that HRD as a profession should

focus on the social, political, environmental, and cultural development of people around

the world. Other HRD scholars (Alagaraja & Wang, 2012; Cho & McLean, 2004;

McLean, 2004; Lynham & Cunningham, 2006) have also emphasized the role of HRD in

advancing economic growth and the societal development of nations. National Human

Resource Development (NHRD) has played a major role in the alleviation of poverty in

emerging and underdeveloped countries (Baek & Kim, 2014; Kim, Lee, & Jung, 2009).

Fundamental to the concept of NHRD is the idea that investing in human capital can

enhance the country’s economic, social and civic development, which is mostly done

through investment in training and development initiatives (Garavan, Wang, Matthews-

Smith, Nagarathnam, & Lai, 2018).

This study describes various opportunities for the development of tribal farming

communities of Nagaland by improving their ESE for entrepreneurial activities within

agriculture. The model on the factors contributing to the development of ESE can be

utilized for further research and interventions through NHRD in India. Training is an

159

important intervention through which ESE can be improved. The findings of this study

suggest that the tribal farmers were receiving training to enhance their technical

competencies; there is, however, a need for training to also include entrepreneurial and

managerial competencies (Kahan, 2013). NHRD can play a role in this aspect by

researching strategies for the inclusion of entrepreneurial and managerial competencies in

the training programs. In practice, NHRD can work with grassroots agricultural

institutions to improve the training modules and curriculum to make it more

comprehensive.

International Agricultural Extension Education

As a result of the steady commercialization of the global food supply chain, prices

of major food commodities are declining, which is negatively impacting the small and

medium-scale farmers in the developing world (Fritschel, 2003; Swanson, 2006). Despite

facing new challenges, the international agricultural extension systems are still operating

based on the development strategy when food security was its major priority (Swanson,

Samy, & Sofranko, 2003; Swanson, 2006). According to Swanson (2006), the

international agricultural extension needs to shift its focus from food security and strive

to increase farm income and rural employment.

Since entrepreneurship in agriculture has been identified as an approach to

improve farm income and provide rural employment (Food and Agriculture Organization,

2015), it is beneficial for both international and national extension in developing

countries to focus on entrepreneurship research and practice. Hence, the findings of this

160

study are significant to the body of literature within international agricultural extension

education.

This study revealed that technical training through agricultural research and

training institutions were unable to incorporate all four sources of self-efficacy within

their training modules. It is therefore suggested that entrepreneurial training for tribal

farmers should include more experiential and active learning strategies, opportunities for

interaction with positive role models, and feedback by trainers. The international

agricultural extension education has multiple opportunities for further research in

agricultural entrepreneurship and the improvement of entrepreneurial training modules in

developing nations such as India.

Limitations of the Study

Although this study offers several insights to support the development of ESE

among tribal farming communities, it is not without limitations. First, the sample for this

study was restricted to the tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions in Nagaland,

India. Subsequently, the results are not generalizable to tribal communities outside

Nagaland. The results would probably differ based on socio-economic and cultural

contexts and accessibility to training and developmental resources. Second, ESE was

scored using a self-reported instrument. One key weakness of relying on participants’

subjective evaluations of their perception or behaviors concerns the social desirability

bias defined as the tendency of some respondents to report an answer in a way they deem

to be more socially acceptable than would be their "true" answer” (Lavrakas, 2008, p

161

825). In a self-reported instrument, there are chances that individuals may exaggerate to

make their situation seem better than it is or may under-report to make the situation seem

worse (Dillman et al., 2014).

Recommendations for Research

Gender equality and women’s empowerment is one of the 17 sustainable

development goals of the UN (United Nations, 2019). Women’s empowerment is also an

important subject of national and international projects targeting rural development in

India. Women’s rights and land use among the tribal communities depend on the norms

of the tribe and is a contentious topic. However, it can be agreed that tribal women in

Nagaland face several disparities and challenges. The tribal women in Nagaland did not

own land and did not have enough representation in politics, governance, and business.

Surprisingly, the majority of the participants in this study were female tribal farmers with

entrepreneurial intentions who had considerable prior experiences within the agricultural

sector. Women played a major role in most of the traditional livestock rearing, weaving,

and food processing activities and younger women were able to learn these skills

vicariously at their homes. Due to their rich experiences and confidence in agriculture,

supporting entrepreneurship within agriculture can particularly affect the development of

tribal women. There is thus a need to explore how entrepreneurship in agriculture can be

used as a vehicle for tribal women's development. This study, therefore, recommends

future research focusing on entrepreneurship among tribal women farmers.

162

The farmers’ training programs conducted by agricultural research institutions in

Nagaland were helping in the transfer of scientific knowledge and best practices to

entrepreneurial tribal farmers. However, training programs solely focused on technical

aspects. There is a need for training to be more comprehensive and focus on

entrepreneurial and managerial aspects. This study recommends future research by

NHRD and international agricultural extension education on the development of an

integrated and comprehensive curriculum for training entrepreneurial farmers that focus

on technical, entrepreneurial, and managerial competencies (Figure 5.2). The curriculum

should also be developed to improve ESE, through active learning, hands-on experiences,

field visits, and constructive feedback from trainers

Figure 5.2. An integrated training approach with an emphasis on the important

competency needs of entrepreneurial farmers. Adapted and modified from Kahan (2013).

163

Recommendations for Practice

Prior experiences that help in mastering skills is the most important factor that

helped in the development of ESE among tribal farmers. The tribal farmers have the

advantage of prior experiences in traditional farming, weaving, food processing or

making furniture and handicrafts. Helping traditional farmers and artisans to become

entrepreneurs will benefit them in utilizing the indigenous skills that they have mastered

through their personal experiences and by learning vicariously from others. However, to

increase production and make a profit, these traditional farmers will need assistance from

the agricultural research institutions in modifying the labor-intensive practices and

incorporating scientific knowledge and technology without damaging the core value and

ethics of the indigenous practice. This study recommends the local government to assist

traditional farmers in becoming entrepreneurs through the incorporation of technology

and current best practices.

Although education was an infrequent source for mastery experience among the

tribal farmers, it was a powerful source for developing ESE. This study recommends that

the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare and the Ministry of HRD in India should

focus on the establishment of short-term vocational degrees and certification programs

that can train entrepreneurial farmers in agribusinesses. These short-term degrees for

entrepreneurs should also include internship opportunities wherein entrepreneurial

farmers can be exposed to large business enterprises.

The predominantly collectivistic social interactions and reliance on the

community for support indicate the value of working collectively in the tribal

164

communities. The tribal farmers will immensely benefit from the initiation of groups to

perform entrepreneurial activities, for example, the formation of SHG’s. Working in a

group will help the tribal farmers to draw upon the strength of other members and utilize

the collective efficacy of the group. It could also enhance physiological state by reducing

the stresses through the division of labor, cost, and grant experiences of social support.

This study recommends the Department of Agriculture, Department of Animal

Husbandry and other non-governmental organizations in Nagaland to continue supporting

the formation of SHG’s for entrepreneurial farmers.

Modeling experiences was also an important factor that helped in the

development of ESE among tribal farmers. The tribal entrepreneurs who are relatively

new in the business will benefit from interacting with successful entrepreneurs. Such

interactions can bring positive modeling experiences that will enhance the ESE of tribal

farmers during the developmental stages of their business. This study recommends that

the Department of Agriculture and Department of Animal Husbandry in Nagaland should

encourage successful entrepreneurs to mentor tribal farmers with entrepreneurial

intentions.

Finally, government and non-governmental organizations should recognize and

award those tribal entrepreneurs who are doing well. Verbal and tangible recognitions

like awards, local newspaper articles, and television interviews will positively reinforce

the skills that the tribal farmers are being recognized for. Identifying and awarding

successful entrepreneurs will also motivate other tribal farmers to perform well.

165

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: McGee et al.’s (2009) ESE instrument

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Appendix 2: Expert Panel for Survey

Name Affiliation Reviewed Survey (Yes/No)

Kyle Nickodem

PhD student, Quantitative Methods in Education Consultant , CAREI (Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement) Research Services, CEHD University of Minnesota - Twin Cities [email protected]

Yes

David J. Weerts

Associate Professor of Higher Education Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy, and Development University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 239 Burton Hall 178 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55344 [email protected]

Yes

Alexandre Ardichvili

Professor Hellervik Endowed Chair in Leadership and Adult Career Development Director of Undergraduate Studies Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy, and Development University of Minnesota [email protected]

Yes

Mark Peterson Professor – Marketing Editor, Journal of Macromarketing University of Wyoming College of Business, Management & Marketing Department 3275 1000 E University Avenue • Laramie, Wyoming 82071 [email protected]

Yes

Jennifer M. Sequeira

Associate Professor of Management Alvin J. Williams Professor of Minority Entrepreneurship Sam Walton Fellow Department of Management and International Business The University of Southern Mississippi [email protected]

No (Responded did not review the survey)

Jeffrey E. McGee

Department of Management University of Texas at Arlington 701 S. West Street Arlington, TX 76019

No

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[email protected] Michael C. Rodriguez

Professor, Quantitative Methods in Education Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota 250 Education Sciences, 56 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455 [email protected]

No (Responded did not review the survey)

Ramkumar Sukumaran

Dean, Rajiv Gandhi Institute Veterinary Education and Research (RIVER), Puducherry, India [email protected]

No

Email to Expert Panel:

Dear …………,

I am Elizabeth Abraham, a doctoral candidate majoring in Work Human Resource Education, and minoring in Agricultural Education from the Department of Organizational Leadership Policy and Development. Because of your knowledge and research expertise in…………………., I am requesting your help at reviewing a survey which I will be using for my Ph.D. research work titled “Development of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy of Tribal Farmers in Nagaland, India”.

In my research, I will be employing a systematic explanatory mixed methods design, with a quantitative phase followed by a qualitative phase. The participants of my research will be tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions from Dimapur, Nagaland, India. The survey instrument that I am asking you to review will be used in the quantitative phase of the study with the purpose of measuring the Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) of tribal farmers and to gather information on their demographics. The quantitative phase will be followed by a qualitative phase, during which interviews will be conducted with selected participants having high ESE scores to understand the factors contributing to the development of ESE.

I am attaching the survey questions and the statement of problem and purpose of study with this email. I am aware that this is a busy time of the year for you, and I deeply appreciate your time and help with reviewing my survey questions. You are welcome to send me your feedback as comments on the survey instrument word document. I am hoping to start collecting data in the second week of December and hence will be very grateful if you could send me your input by December 6, 2017. If you have any further questions about my study, please feel free to contact me by email [email protected], or by cell phone at 952-465-4930.

I thank you in advance for reviewing my survey questions. My advisor Dr. Brad Greiman and I will be looking forward to your feedback.

Thanks, Elizabeth

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Appendix 3: Post Expert Panel Review ESE Survey

A. Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) instrument: How much confidence do you have in your ability to do the following?

No confidence

0

Little confidence

1

Some confidence

2

High confidence

3

Complete confidence

4

SEARCHING Identify a need to start your business

Recognize a business opportunity before others do

Design the business to satisfy the needs of potential customers

PLANNING Estimate the amount of capital needed to start your business

Raise funds to start your business

Find individuals who can help you with the capital to start your business

Estimate the demand for your product

Determine a competitive price to sell your product

Create plans for advertising to customers about your product

Think of new ways to sell your product

MARSHALLING Get others to believe in your goals with the business

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Gain the trust of potential customers

Make contacts with others doing business

Clearly explain business idea to others

IMPLEMENTING (people)

Hire people to help with your business

Train people to work in your business

Delegate work to people who will work in your business

Supervise the work of those who will work in your business

Encourage people who will work in your business

Plan benefits for people who will work in your business

Deal effectively with day to day problems in your business

Work long hours in the business

IMPLEMENTING- (financial)

Manage the financial assets of your business

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Maintain financial records for your business

Prepare financial statements without any help

Read and understand financial statements

B. Demographic questions:

a. What is your age (in years)?

1. 18-30 2. 31- 40 3. 41-50 4. 51- 60 5. 61 and above

b. What is your gender?

1. Male 2. Female 3. Others

c. What is the name of the tribe that you belong to?

d. What is your educational level?

1. Illiterate 2. Primary schooling 3. Secondary schooling 4. Higher secondary schooling 5. Certifications/Diploma degree 6. Undergraduate degree 7. Graduate and above

e. What is your marital status?

1. Never married 2. Married

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3. Divorced 4. Widowed

f. How many people currently live in your household (including yourself)?

1. 1 2. 2-4 3. 5-9 4. 10 and above

g. What is your current average monthly income (in Rupees)?

1. Below 5,000 2. 5,000- 7,500 3. 7,501-10,000 4. 10,001- 20,000 5. 20,001- 50,000 6. 50,001-100,000 7. Above 100,000

h. How many years of prior experience do you have in any kind of business?

1. No prior experience 2. Less than 1 3. 1 to 5 4. 6 to 10 5. More than 10

i. What is the source of funding to start your business?

1. Government funding 2. Bank loan 3. Private financers 4. Help from family/friends 5. Personal finances 6. Others

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Appendix 4: Think Aloud Participants

Name Affiliation Asen Walling

Technical Officer- Meteorological Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Dimapur, Nagaland

Aabon Yanthan Scientist - Horticulture ICAR, Dimapur, Nagaland

Dr. Ebibeni Ngullie

Assistant Chief Technical Officer ICAR, Dimapur, Nagaland

Joseph Kikon Assistant Officer ICAR, Dimapur, Nagaland

Romen Sharma Scientist Extension ICAR, Dimapur, Nagaland

Dr. Limasenla

Senior Research Fellow ICAR, Dimapur, Nagaland

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Appendix 5: Post Think Aloud ESE Survey

A. Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) instrument: How much confidence do you have in your ability to do the following?

No confidence

0

Little confidence

1

Some confidence

2

High confidence

3

Complete confidence

4

SEARCHING Identify a need to start your business

Recognize a business opportunity before others do

Design the business to satisfy the needs of potential customers

PLANNING Estimate the amount of capital needed to start your business

Raise funds to start your business

Find individuals who can help you with the capital to start your business

Estimate the demand for your produce/product

Determine a competitive price to sell your produce/ product

Create plans for informing customers about your produce/product

Think of new ways to sell your produce/product

MARSHALLING

191

Get others to believe in your goals with the business

Gain the trust of potential customers

Make contacts with others doing business

Clearly explain business idea to others

IMPLEMENTING Hire people to help with your business

Train people to work in your business

Delegate work to people who will work in your business

Supervise the work of those who will work in your business

Encourage people who will work in your business

Plan benefits for people who will work in your business

IMPLEMENTING (general)

Deal effectively with day to day problems in your business

Work long hours in the business

Use all the tools/equipment’s

192

needed in your business IMPLEMENTING (financial)

Manage the financial assets of your business

Maintain financial records for your business

Prepare financial statements without any help

Read and understand financial statements

B. Demographic questions:

a. What is your age (in years)?

1. 18-25 2. 26-35 3. 36- 45 4. 46-55 5. 56- 65 6. 65 and above

b. What is your gender?

1. Male 2. Female 3. Others

c. What is the name of the tribe that you belong to?

d. What is your educational level?

1. Illiterate 2. Primary school 3. Middle school 4. High School

193

5. Higher secondary school 6. Certifications/Diploma degree 7. Undergraduate degree 8. Graduate and above

e. What is your marital status?

1. Never married 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed

f. How many people currently live in your household (including yourself)?

1. 1 2. 2-4 3. 5-9 4. 10 and above

g. What is your current average monthly income (in Rupees)?

1. Below 5,000 2. 5,000- 7,500 3. 7,501-10,000 4. 10,001- 20,000 5. 20,001- 50,000 6. 50,001-100,000 7. Above 100,000

h. How many years of prior experience do you have in any kind of business?

1. No prior experience 2. Less than 1 3. 1 to 5 4. 6 to 10 5. More than 10

i. What is the source of funding to start your business?

1. Government funding

194

2. Bank loan 3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) 4. Self Help Groups (SHG’s) 5. Private financers 6. Help from family/friends 7. Personal finances 8. Others (explain)

j. What motivates you to start a business?

1. Personal interest 2. Unemployed (no other source of income) 3. For an additional source of income 4. Influenced by training 5. Influenced by other entrepreneurs 6. Forced by others 7. Other reasons (explain)

195

Appendix 6: Survey Questions

CONSENT FORM

Background

You are invited to participate in this research study focusing on understanding the factors contributing to the development of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions. You are selected as a possible participant because you have shown interest in starting your own business.

Confidentiality The results of the survey will not be linked to you. In any sort of report we might publish, we will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you. Research records will be stored securely and only researchers will have access to the records.

Voluntary Nature of the Study Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect your current or future relations with the researcher or any organization. If you decide to participate, you are free to not answer particular questions or withdraw at any time without affecting those relationships.

Procedure There are a two sections in this survey. More detailed information on how to answer is included under each section.

YOU ARE FREE TO STOP AND SEEK CLARIFICATIONS AT ANY POINT DURING THE SURVEY If you have no objections in taking this survey, please continue by indicating your (a) name, (b) village and (c) contact number below. This information will not be used to link you with your responses.

196

A. Six dimensional ESE instrument: The purpose of this section is to understand your level of ESE, which can be defined as your perceived confidence in your ability to perform the tasks involved in entrepreneurship.

Please rate the following items on a scale of No Confidence (0) to Complete Confidence (4). These items are based on four stages of Entrepreneurship namely: Searching, Planning, Marshalling and Implementing.

How much confidence do you have in your ability to do the following?

No confidence

0

Little confidence

1

Some confidence

2

High confidence

3

Complete confidence

4

SEARCHING Identify a need to start your business

Recognize a business opportunity before others do

Design the business to satisfy the needs of potential customers

PLANNING Estimate the amount of capital needed to start your business

Raise funds to start your business

Find individuals who can help you with the capital to start your business

Estimate the demand for your produce/product

Determine a competitive price to

197

sell your produce/product Create plans for informing customers about your product

Think of new ways to sell your produce/product

MARSHALLING Get others to believe in your goals with the business

Gain the trust of potential customers

Make contacts with others doing business

Clearly explain business idea to others

IMPLEMENTING (people) Hire people to help with your business

Train people to work in your business

Delegate work to people who will work in your business

Supervise the work of those who will work in your business

Encourage people who will work in your business

Plan benefits for people who will work in your business

198

IMPLEMENTING (general) Deal effectively with day to day problems in your business

Work long hours in the business

Use all the tools/equipment’s needed in your business

IMPLEMENTING (financial) Manage the financial assets of your business

Maintain financial records for your business

Prepare financial statements without any help

Read and understand financial statements

B. Demographic questions:

In the following questions please tick besides the option that most represents your situation. In the last two questions more than one options can be selected.

a. What is your age (in years)?

1. 18-25 2. 26-35 3. 36- 45 4. 46-55 5. 56- 65 6. 65 and above

b. What is your gender?

1. Male 2. Female

199

3. Others

c. What is the name of the tribe that you belong to?

d. What is your educational level?

1. Never been to school 2. Primary school 3. Middle school 4. High School 5. Higher secondary school 6. Certifications/Diploma degree 7. Undergraduate degree 8. Graduate and above

e. What is your marital status?

1. Never married 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed

f. How many people currently live in your household (including yourself)?

1. 1 2. 2-4 3. 5-9 4. 10 and above

g. What is your current average monthly income (in Rupees)?

1. Below 5,000 2. 5,000- 7,500 3. 7,501-10,000 4. 10,001- 20,000 5. 20,001- 50,000 6. 50,001-100,000 7. Above 100,000

h. How many years of prior experience do you have in any kind of business?

200

1. No prior experience 2. Less than 1 3. 1 to 5 4. 6 to 10 5. More than 10

i. What is the kind of business you wish to start?

j. What is the source of funding to start this business?

1. Government funding 2. Bank loan 3. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) 4. Self Help Groups (SHG’s) 5. Private financers 6. Help from family/friends 7. Personal finances 8. Others (explain)

k. What is your motivation to start this business?

1. Personal interest 2. Unemployed (no other source of income) 3. For additional source of income 4. Influenced by training 5. Influenced by other entrepreneurs 6. Forced by others 7. Other reasons (explain)

201

Appendix 7: Expert Panel for Interview

Name Affiliation Feedback Received (Yes/No) Karen J Storm Evaluation and Qualitative Research

Consultant Center for Organizational Development Minneapolis, MN [email protected]

Yes

Mary Anne Casey Focus Group Consultant [email protected]

Yes

Rosemarie Park Associate Professor of Education OLPD University of Minnesota

No

Karen Miksch Associate Professor Org Leadership, Policy/Dev University of Minnesota

No

Email to Expert Panel

Dear …………,

I am Elizabeth Abraham, a doctoral candidate majoring in Work Human Resource Education, and minoring in Agricultural Education from the Department of Organizational Leadership Policy and Development. Because of your knowledge and research expertise in…………………., I am requesting your help at reviewing a survey which I will be using for my Ph.D. research work titled “Development of Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy of Tribal Farmers in Nagaland, India”.

In my research, I will be employing a systematic explanatory mixed methods design, with a quantitative phase followed by a qualitative phase. The participants of my research will be tribal farmers with entrepreneurial intentions from Dimapur, Nagaland, India. The survey instrument that I am asking you to review will be used in the quantitative phase of the study with the purpose of measuring the Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy (ESE) of tribal farmers and to gather information on their demographics. The quantitative phase will be followed by a qualitative phase, during which interviews will be conducted with selected participants who have high ESE scores to understand the factors contributing to the development of ESE.

I am attaching the survey questions and the statement of problem and purpose of study with this email. I am aware that this is a busy time of the year for you, and I deeply appreciate your time and help with reviewing my survey questions. You are welcome to send me your feedback as comments on the survey instrument word document. I am hoping to start collecting data in the second week of December and hence will be very grateful if you could send me your input by December 6, 2017. If you have any further questions about my study, please feel free to contact me by email [email protected], or by cell phone at 952-465-4930.

I thank you in advance for reviewing my survey questions. My advisor Dr. Brad Greiman and I will be looking forward to your feedback.

Thanks, Elizabeth

202

Appendix 8: Semi-structured Interview Questions

CONSENT FORM

Background

You are invited to participate in this research study focusing on understanding the factors contributing to the development of ESE among tribal farmers who have entrepreneurial intentions. You are selected as a possible participant because of your high ESE score in the survey.

Confidentiality The results of the survey will not be linked to you. In any sort of report that is published, I will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you. Research records will be stored securely and only I will have access to the records.

Permission for recording interview The interview will be recorded since that will help me not to miss any important things that you share with me today. However, only I will have access to the audio files of the recorded interviews. Voluntary Nature of the Study Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will not affect your current or future relations with me or any organization. If you decide to participate, you can let me know now and we can begin the interview.

(Probes: Tell me more. How is that? In what ways? Anything else?) According to research a businessperson who is confident to perform the daily tasks of business tends to become successful. Based on the survey you participated recently, I have come to an understanding that you display high confidence. I am now interested to find out where that confidence has come from. If we can learn where you got the confidence to start your business, it will help researchers to come up with ways to assist tribal farmers start small businesses around the world. So let me start the interview by asking you some general questions

1. What kind of business do you own/ wish to own?

2. What attracted you to the idea of starting the business?

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3. How long ago did you start it/ when will you start it?

4. How much product/produce did you start with initially? And how much do you

produce now?

5. Does/will your family help you? How?

6. What has been/is the hardest thing about starting your business?

7. According to research, those who persevere in the initial stages and start a

business are those who have a high level of confidence in their ability to perform the tasks of business. What gave you the confidence to start/ think of starting your business?

8. a. How have you been able to practice the skills needed in your business?

b. Have you attended any training/education related to the business you want to start?

If yes: b. What prompted you to go to the training? What were you hoping to gain from

it? c. What role did that training play in your confidence to start the business? d. What was particularly useful about the training that helped in your business?

9. a. Have you got opportunities to watch and learn your business skills from others?

b. What have you learned by watching other business people who are successful?

c. What have you learned by watching other business people who are not as successful?

d. How does watching and learning others influence your confidence with your business?

e. Do you have role models?

10. a. Have people encouraged you to start a business? b. Who were they? How did they encourage you? c. How often did/do you receive these kinds of encouragement? d. What has been the most powerful encouragement you have gotten? e. How has the encouragement influenced your confidence with your business?

11. a. Have people discouraged you from starting a business?

b. How has the discouragement influenced your confidence with your business?

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12. a. What has been the most stressful thing about starting this business?

b. Were you more stressed when you started or are you more stressed now? c. How do you cope with stress? d. How does stress influence your confidence with business?

13. We just went through some of the possible sources through which you could have developed your confidence in doing business. If I ask you now to rate the sources of confidence that we discussed earlier in rank order how would you rank them. a. Your own experiences of practice b. Watching and learning from others c. Encouragement from others d. How you deal with stress and challenges

14. Finally, I want to congratulate you on this venture. Some people think about

starting a business but don’t. However, you have taken the initial steps and I believe you will do well. To end this interview if I asked you, in one word describe what helped you to start your business what would you say?

Thank you so much for all your time today!