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10GradeEnlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry
HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?
Anicet-Charles-GabrielLemonnier-IntheSalonofMadameGeoffrinin1755athttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salon_de_M..PublicDomainImage
SupportingQuestions
1. WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwriters’viewsonhumanrights?
2. Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?
3. WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?
4. HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinfluencepeopletoactionandrevolution?
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10GradeEnlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry
HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?InquiryStandard Era7.2.WH.2:Analyzethesocial,economicandpoliticalideasthatinfluencedthe18thand19th
centuryrevolutions.
StagingtheCompellingQuestion
DiscusstheconceptofinalienablerightsasseenthroughtheexcerptsfromtheDeclarationofIndependence,theDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen-1789andJohnLocke'sTwoTreatisesofGovernment-1690TheSecondTreatisesofCivilGovernment.
SummativePerformanceTask
ARGUMENTHowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?Constructanargumentthataddressesthecompellingquestionusingspecificclaimsandrelevantevidencefromhistoricalsourceswhileacknowledgingcompetingviews.EXTENSIONExpresstheseargumentsinaperspective-takingexerciseusingsnapchat,topix.com,twitter,orothersocialmedia.
SupportingQuestion1
WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwriters’viewsonhumanrights?
FormativePerformanceTask
DefineEnlightenmentanddesignachartlistingthemajorEnlightenmentwriters,theirmajorworks,abriefbiographyofwheretheywerefrom,andtheiressentialEnlightenmentideasexpressedintheirwritings.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:Enlightenment1685-1815SourceB:WhatWastheEnlightenment?SourceC:TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsSourceD: FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenment
SupportingQuestion2
Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?
FormativePerformanceTask
MatchmajorEnlightenmentwriterswiththesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemspointedoutintheirwritings.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernment SourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieu SourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith
SupportingQuestion3
WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?FormativePerformance
Task
Inashortessay,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritingsandsuggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieu SourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith
SupportingQuestion4
HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinfluencepeopletoactionandrevolution?
FormativePerformanceTask
Developaclaimwhichissupportedbyevidencefromvariousdocuments,thatdemonstrateshowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:SelectedExcerptsfromCommonSensebyThomasPaine SourceB:PatrickHenry:"GiveMeLibertyorGiveMeDeath"
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TakingInformedAction
UNDERSTANDInvestigatethecurrentdifficultiesbetweenpoliceandminoritygroupsintheBlackLivesMattersocio-economicpoliticalrevolutioncurrentlyunderwayintheUnitedStates.ASSESSExaminetheextenttowhichthiscurrentattemptatrevolutionisbeingsuccessfulandstateone'spersonalstanceonhowthisissueshouldberesolved.ACTIONWritealettertotheeditorofthelocalorstatenewspapercomparingtheideasasexpressedbytheAgeofReasonwritersandtheviewsasexpressedbytheBlackLivesMattermovementandhowtheseissuesshouldberesolvedpeacefullyandrespectfullyasoutlinedbyEnlightenmentwritersratherthanthroughaviolentrevolution.
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InquiryDescription
HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersinfluencethepeopleofthe18thcenturytothinkdifferentlyaboutthemselvesandtheworldaroundthem?Howdidtheirwritingsmotivatepeopletotakeactiontofightfortheirbasichumaninalienablerightsandevenlaunchviolentrevolutionsforsocialandpoliticalfreedomstoachieveitinthe18thcentury?Dotheirwritingsaffectustoday? Ifso,howdothosewritingsaffectustoday?Aretherestrugglestodaythatcanbeconnectedtothoserevolutionsofthepast?Howmuchofaroledotheirwritingsplayinoureffortstodaytoinsureequalrightsforeveryone?DoequalrightsreallyexistinAmerica?Ifnot,wherearetheinequalitiesinoursocietytoday?ThesearebutsomeofthequestionsthisinquiryattemptstohaveyoungscholarstothinkaboutandtotrytoanswerthroughadetailedstudyofselectedwritingsoftheAgeofReason.Havingresearched,analyzedandthoughtaboutwhatthesewriterssaid,scholarsshouldthenbeabletohaveascholarlycompellingargumentusingtheprimarydocumentsofthatperiod,toanswerthecompellingquestion,"HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?" Ofcourse,thisinquiryshouldbedoneafterscholarlearningoftheEnlightenment,theAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsandisintendedtoencouragescholarstothinkcriticallyhowtheseeventsarelinkedtogether.
Finally,sinceconnectingthepasttocurrenteventsisessentialforscholarstofeelandunderstandhistory,itisofutmostimportancetofindastrugglefromourpresenttimestoassociatethisinquiryto.OnestruggleforhumaninalienablerightsatthepresenttimeinAmericaistheBlackLivesMattermovement. Beingawareofthismovementduetotheintensivemediacoverageoftheirprotestsacrossthecountry,scholarswilllookatthismovementandthinkabouthowtheirargumentsofinequalitiescanbecomparedandcontrastedtotheargumentsforequalityandinalienablerightsencouragedbyEnlightenmentwritersandfoughtforbyparticipantsoftheAmericanandFrenchRevolutions. Afterhavingdonethat,thisinquiryleadsscholarstotakeinformedactionbywritingalettertotheeditorofanewspaperencouragingpeacefulratherthanviolentprotestfromtheBlackLivesMattersupporterstoresolvetheircomplaints. Thiswholeinquiryshouldtakearound12classdaysofinstructiontimetocompletelyclosereadthedocumentsandplayouttheeventsscheduledas formativeandsummativeperformance tasks.
Structure
Thisinquirybeginswiththecompellingquestionof"HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?"butthecompellingargumentthatscholarsmustpresentcannotcomewithoutfirst lookingatprimarydocumentsofwhatinalienablerightsareasseenthroughthewritersoftheEnlightenment. Afterdiscussingtheconceptspresentedbythesedocuments,scholarsmustdefineEnlightenmentandexpresswhatthewritersoftheEnlightenmentviewswere,ofhumanrightsinthefirstsupportingquestionintheformofachart.Afteraccomplishingthistask,scholarsthenmusttakethewealthofinformationprovidedinthenexttwosupportingquestions(thesamesourcesforbothquestions)andfirstmatchthemwiththesocial,political,andeconomicproblemstheypointedout intheirwritings,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritings,andfinally,suggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.Inthelastsupportingquestion,scholarswilldevelopaclaimsupportedbyevidencethatdemonstrateshowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution. Afterallofthisthinking,analyzing,evaluating,andconnectingallofthepiecesofthiscompellingquestionmaterial,scholarswillanswerthesummativeperformancetaskofconstructinganargumentthataddresses thecompellingquestionwhileacknowledgingcompetingviewsthatwouldconflictwithwhattheseyoungscholarshavearrivedatastheanswertothecompellingquestion. Finally,youngscholarsmusttakeinformedaction.Whilethiscanbedoneinanumberofways,itissuggestedthatitbedoneintheformofaformallettertotheeditorofanewspaperconnectingtheBlackLivesMattermovementwiththeargumentsmadebyEnlightenmentwritersandencouragingthefollowersofthemovementtomaketheirvoicesknownthroughtheactionsofpeacefulmethodsratherthanthroughviolentrevolution.
Overview
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StagingtheCompellingQuestionCompellingQuestion
HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?
FeaturedSources
SourceA:JohnLocke:TwoTreatisesofGovernment--1690TheSecondTreatiseofCivilGovernmentfromfaculty.history.wisc.eduSourceB:ExcerptfromtheU.S.DeclarationofIndependencefromushistory.orgSourceC:DeclarationoftheRightsofMan--1789fromavalon.law.yale.edu
Stagingthecompellingquestion
Thefirstdayofinstructiononthisinquiryneedstobespentevaluatingtheconceptofinalienablerightsthroughclassdiscussionamongtheyoungscholarsandwhattheirdefinitionofitis. Throughdiscussion,theteacher/performancecoachcanbringoutmorethan"justrightsgivenbyGodthatmancannottakeaway"tothepointofthemuchdeepermeaningsoninalienable. Theteacher/performancecoachcanthenenterintowhattheyoungscholarsthinkareinalienablerightsaswellasdeepdiscussionwhatthoserightsareandhowtheyaffectourlivesonadailybasis.Aftermuchgroupdiscussion(smallgrouporlargegroup),theteacher/performancecoachcanintroducethefollowingsourcesfortheyoungscholarstoseewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidwereinalienablerights. Theteacher/performancecoachcanthendiscusswiththeyoungscholarsiftherearerightsneededinthosedaysthattodaywetakeforgrantedandwhatthoserightsmaybe.Thisshouldtakeonetotwodaysofinstructiontogothroughthispieceoftheinquiry.Seethefollowingdocumentsaswellasthesourceswhichareapartofthisinquiry.
TheTwoTreatisesofGovernment-1690TheSecondTreatisesofCivilGovernmentSummary:"Inthelate1600s,theconceptof'government'meantonething- monarchy.Theideathatindividualswereallequal- oratleast,hadanequalclaimtorightsandfreedom- wasafairlyalienone.In1689,however,abookappearedthatlaidoutacontrarytheory,onewhichclaimedexactlythat- andstartedtheworldtowardsrevolutionandwhatwetodaycall'democracy.'Thatbook,TwoTreatisesonGovernment,aworkofpoliticalphilosophyintendedtopushforwardtheideasofcontracttheoryandnaturalrightswaswrittenbyapersonwhoprobablywould'vebeensomewhatshockedbywhathisideashelpedcreate,acenturylater--JohnLocke.Locke'smajorworkwasTwoTreatisesonGovernment,whichwaspublishedanonymouslyin1689.It'simportanttorememberwhenLockewaswritingtheseideas;justayearbeforehisbookcameout,thenationwasconvulsedbytheGloriousRevolution,wheretheking,JamesII,wasoverthrown(atleastinpartbecausewasCatholic).So,whilethepowerofthemonarchywasunquestioned,theideathatcommonpeoplecouldhavesomedegreeofcontroloverthegovernmentwasgainingstrength.
Onthesubjectofrights,Lockewasdecadesaheadofhistime.Lockeclaimedthattherewerenaturalrights,orentitlementshumanbeingshadmerelybecausetheywerehuman,rightsthatnoonecouldtakeawayorrightfullyeliminate.Therewereessentiallythree: life(eachpersoneffectively 'owns'him/herself),liberty(yourrighttodo,moreorless,whatyouwantwiththatlife)andproperty."
http://study.com/academy/lesson/two-treatises-of-g.. UsedwithpermissionbyAnne from the Study.comTeam
TheAmericanDeclarationofIndependenceSummary:"Asthefirstformalstatementbyanation’speopleassertingtheirrighttochoosetheirowngovernment,theDeclarationofIndependencebecameasignificantlandmarkinthehistoryofdemocracy.InadditiontoitsimportanceinthefateofthefledglingAmericannation,italsoexertedatremendousinfluenceoutsidetheUnitedStates,mostmemorablyinFranceduringtheFrenchRevolution.TogetherwiththeConstitutionandtheBillofRights,theDeclarationofIndependencecanbecountedasoneofthethreeessentialfoundingdocumentsoftheUnitedStatesgovernment."
http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/..Used with permission per the website
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TheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen--1789Summary:"Thedocument,TheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan,isonethatisveryimportanttotheFrenchwayofliving.Thisdocumentgivesthenaturalrightsofmanandwhattheycanandcannotdo.Inthis,itisverysimilartotheDeclarationofIndependence
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writtenbyThomasJefferson.ThisdocumentwaswrittenatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolutionandthewritingofthiswasthemarkeroftheresistanceagainstthemonarchy.TheDeclarationsoftheRightsofMan,statesthenaturalrightsofman,asintherightsthatcannotbetakenawaybyanyone.However,theserightsarelimitedtothepeopleofthewhitecolororthoseoftheageof25yearsold.Asbadasthatsounds,itwasastarttoanewbeginning.TheFrenchpeople,liketheAmericanpeopleduringourRevolution,feltthatthiswasgleamofhopetheyneededtocarryon."https://ccalawh.wikispaces.com/French+Revolution
Contributions tohttps://ccalawh.wikispaces.com/are licensedunder aCreativeCommonsAttributionShare- Alike3.0Licen...
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CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:TwoTreatisesofGovernment--1690TheSecondTreatiseofCivilGovernmentfrom
faculty.history.wisc.edu
Excerpt
ChapterII,Sections4-5:"Tounderstandpoliticalpowerright,andderiveitfromitsoriginal,wemustconsider,whatstateallmenarenaturallyin,andthatis,astateofperfectfreedomtoordertheiractions,anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandpersons,astheythinkfit,withintheboundsofthelawofnature,withoutaskingleave,ordependinguponthewillofanyotherman.Astatealsoofequality,whereinallthepowerandjurisdictionisreciprocal,noonehavingmorethananother;therebeingnothingmoreevident,thanthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandrank,promiscuouslyborntoallthesameadvantagesofnature,andtheuseofthesamefaculties,shouldalsobeequaloneamongstanotherwithoutsubordinationorsubjection,unlessthelordandmasterofthemallshould,byanymanifestdeclarationofhiswill,setoneaboveanother,andconferonhim,byanevidentandclearappointment,anundoubtedright todominionandsovereignty."
ChapterIV,Section23:"Thisfreedomfromabsolute,arbitrarypower,issonecessaryto,andcloselyjoinedwithaman'spreservation,thathecannotpartwithit,butbywhatforfeitshispreservationandlifetogether:foraman,nothavingthepowerofhisownlife,cannot,bycompact,orhisownconsent,enslavehimselftoanyone,norputhimselfundertheabsolute,arbitrarypowerofanother,totakeawayhislife,whenhepleases.Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehashimself;andhethatcannottakeawayhisownlife,cannotgiveanotherpoweroverit."Source:https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/367/L..
PublicDomainDocument
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CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceB ExcerptfromtheU.S.DeclarationofIndependencefromushistory.org
Excerpt
henintheCourseofhumaneventsitbecomesnecessaryforonepeopletodissolvethepoliticalbandswhichhaveconnectedthemwithanotherandtoassumeamongthepowersoftheearth,theseparateandequalstationtowhichtheLawsofNatureandofNature'sGodentitlethem,adecentrespecttotheopinionsofmankindrequiresthattheyshoulddeclarethecauseswhichimpelthemtotheseparation.
Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,LibertyandthepursuitofHappiness.—Thattosecuretheserights,GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheir justpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,—ThatwheneveranyFormofGovernmentbecomesdestructiveoftheseends,itistheRightofthePeopletoalterortoabolishit,andtoinstitutenewGovernment,layingitsfoundationonsuchprinciplesandorganizingitspowersinsuchform,astothemshallseemmostlikelytoeffecttheirSafetyandHappiness.Prudence,indeed,willdictatethatGovernmentslongestablishedshouldnotbechangedforlightandtransientcauses;andaccordinglyallexperiencehathshewnthatmankindaremoredisposedtosuffer,whileevilsaresufferablethantorightthemselvesbyabolishingtheformstowhichtheyareaccustomed.Butwhenalongtrainofabusesandusurpations,pursuinginvariablythesameObjectevincesadesigntoreducethemunderabsoluteDespotism,itistheirright,itistheirduty,tothrowoffsuchGovernment,andtoprovidenewGuardsfortheirfuturesecurity.—SuchhasbeenthepatientsufferanceoftheseColonies;andsuchisnowthenecessitywhichconstrainsthemtoaltertheirformerSystemsofGovernment.ThehistoryofthepresentKingofGreatBritainisahistoryofrepeatedinjuriesandusurpations,allhavingindirectobjecttheestablishmentofanabsoluteTyrannyovertheseStates.Toprovethis,letFactsbesubmittedtoacandidworld."Source:http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/
PublicDomainDocument
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CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceC DeclarationoftheRightsofMan--1789fromavalon.law.yale.edu
Excerpt
"ApprovedbytheNationalAssemblyofFrance,August26,1789TherepresentativesoftheFrenchpeople,organizedasaNationalAssembly,believingthattheignorance,neglect,orcontemptoftherightsofmanarethesolecauseofpubliccalamitiesandofthecorruptionofgovernments,havedeterminedtosetforthinasolemndeclarationthenatural,unalienable,andsacredrightsofman,inorderthatthisdeclaration,beingconstantlybeforeallthemembersoftheSocialbody,shallremindthemcontinuallyoftheirrightsandduties;inorderthattheactsofthelegislativepower,aswellasthoseoftheexecutivepower,maybecomparedatanymomentwiththeobjectsandpurposesofallpoliticalinstitutionsandmaythusbemorerespected,and,lastly,inorderthatthegrievancesofthecitizens,basedhereafteruponsimpleandincontestableprinciples,shalltendtothemaintenanceoftheconstitutionandredoundtothehappinessofall.ThereforetheNationalAssemblyrecognizesandproclaims,inthepresenceandundertheauspicesoftheSupremeBeing,thefollowingrightsofmanandofthecitizen:
Articles:1. Menarebornandremainfreeandequalinrights.Socialdistinctionsmaybefoundedonlyuponthegeneralgood.
2. Theaimofallpoliticalassociationisthepreservationofthenaturalandimprescriptiblerightsofman.Theserightsare liberty,property,security,andresistancetooppression.
3. Theprincipleofallsovereigntyresidesessentiallyinthenation.Nobodynorindividualmayexerciseanyauthoritywhichdoesnotproceeddirectlyfromthenation.
4. Libertyconsistsinthefreedomtodoeverythingwhichinjuresnooneelse;hencetheexerciseofthenaturalrightsofeachmanhasnolimitsexceptthosewhichassuretotheothermembersofthesocietytheenjoymentofthesamerights.Theselimitscanonlybedeterminedbylaw.
5. Lawcanonlyprohibitsuchactionsasarehurtfultosociety.Nothingmaybepreventedwhichisnotforbiddenbylaw,andnoonemaybeforcedtodoanythingnotprovidedforbylaw.
6. Lawistheexpressionofthegeneralwill.Everycitizenhasarighttoparticipatepersonally,orthroughhisrepresentative,initsfoundation.Itmustbethesameforall,whetheritprotectsorpunishes.Allcitizens,beingequalintheeyesofthelaw,areequallyeligibletoalldignitiesandtoallpublicpositionsandoccupations,accordingtotheirabilities,andwithoutdistinctionexceptthatoftheirvirtuesandtalents.
7. Nopersonshallbeaccused,arrested,orimprisonedexceptinthecasesandaccordingtotheformsprescribedbylaw.Anyonesoliciting,transmitting,executing,orcausingtobeexecuted,anyarbitraryorder,shallbepunished.Butanycitizensummonedorarrestedinvirtueofthelawshallsubmitwithoutdelay,asresistance constitutes anoffense.
8. Thelawshallprovideforsuchpunishmentsonlyasarestrictlyandobviouslynecessary,andnooneshallsufferpunishmentexceptitbelegallyinflictedinvirtueofalawpassedandpromulgatedbeforethecommissionof theoffense.
9. Asallpersonsareheldinnocentuntiltheyshallhavebeendeclaredguilty,ifarrestshallbedeemedindispensable,allharshnessnotessentialtothesecuringoftheprisoner'spersonshallbeseverelyrepressedbylaw.
10. Nooneshallbedisquietedonaccountofhisopinions,includinghisreligiousviews,providedtheirmanifestationdoesnotdisturbthepublicorderestablishedbylaw.
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11. Thefreecommunicationofideasandopinionsisoneofthemostpreciousoftherightsofman.Everycitizenmay,accordingly,speak,write,andprintwithfreedom,butshallberesponsibleforsuchabusesofthis
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freedomasshallbedefinedbylaw.12. Thesecurityoftherightsofmanandofthecitizenrequirespublicmilitaryforces.Theseforcesare,therefore,establishedforthegoodofallandnotforthepersonaladvantageofthosetowhomtheyshallbeintrusted.
13. Acommoncontributionisessentialforthemaintenanceofthepublicforcesandforthecostofadministration.Thisshouldbeequitablydistributedamongall thecitizensinproportiontotheirmeans.
14. Allthecitizenshavearighttodecide,eitherpersonallyorbytheirrepresentatives,astothenecessityofthepubliccontribution;tograntthisfreely;toknowtowhatusesitisput;andtofixtheproportion,themodeofassessmentandofcollectionandthedurationofthetaxes.
15. Societyhastherighttorequireofeverypublicagentanaccountofhisadministration.16. Asocietyinwhichtheobservanceofthelawisnotassured,northeseparationofpowersdefined,hasnoconstitutionatall.
17. Sincepropertyisaninviolableandsacredright,nooneshallbedeprivedthereofexceptwherepublicnecessity,legallydetermined,shallclearlydemandit,andthenonlyonconditionthattheownershallhavebeenpreviously andequitably indemnified."Source:http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.a..
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion1SupportingQuestion
WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwritersviewsonhumanrights?
FormativePerformanceTask
DefineEnlightenmentanddesignachartlistingthemajorEnlightenmentwriters,theirmajorworks,abriefbiographyofwheretheywerefrom,andtheiressentialEnlightenmentideasexpressedintheirwritings.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:Enlightenment1685-1815fromhistory.comSourceB:WhatWastheEnlightenment?fromlivescience.comSourceC:TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsfromchnm.gmu.eduSourceD:FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenmentfrombiography.com
Inordertobeginacompellingargumenttoanswerthecompellingquestion,youngscholarsfirstmustdiscoverwhattheEnlightenmentis,defineit,andthenexpresswhattheirviewswereonhumanrights.Thissupportingquestionwilltakeafullclassperiodandmaybe1/2ofanotherday.
FormativePerformanceTask
Young scholarswill defineEnlightenment from the various sourcesprovidedwith thisquestion, and thendesigna chartwhichhorizontally andvertically lists themajorEnlightenmentwriters, theirmajorworks,listingwheretheywerefrom,andanyfamousquotesorideasexpressedthroughtheirwritings.
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SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceA Enlightenment1685-1815fromhistory.com
Excerpt
THEENLIGHTENMENT:"Europeanpolitics,philosophy,scienceandcommunicationswereradicallyreorientedduring thecourseofthe“long18thcentury”(1685-1815)aspartofamovementreferredtobyitsparticipantsastheAgeofReason,orsimplytheEnlightenment.Enlightenmentthinkers inBritain, inFranceandthroughoutEuropequestionedtraditionalauthorityandembracedthenotionthathumanitycouldbe improvedthroughrationalchange.TheEnlightenmentproducednumerousbooks,essays, inventions,scientificdiscoveries, laws,warsandrevolutions.TheAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsweredirectly inspiredbyEnlightenmentidealsandrespectivelymarkedthepeakofitsinfluenceandthebeginningofitsdecline.TheEnlightenmentultimatelygaveway to19th-centuryRomanticism.
THEEARLYENLIGHTENMENT:1685-1730TheEnlightenment’s important17th-centuryprecursors included theEnglishmenFrancisBaconandThomasHobbes,theFrenchmanReneeDescartesandthekeynaturalphilosophersoftheScientificRevolution,includingGalileo,KeplerandLeibniz.Itsrootsareusuallytracedto1680sEngland,whereinthespanofthreeyearsIsaacNewton publishedhis“PrincipiaMathematica”(1686)andJohnLockehis“EssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding” (1689)—twoworks thatprovided thescientific,mathematicalandphilosophicaltoolkit for theEnlightenment’smajoradvances.
DidYouKnow:Inhisessay"WhatIsEnlightenment?"(1784),theGermanphilosopherImmanuelKantsummeduptheera'smottointhefollowingterms:"Daretoknow!Havecouragetouseyourownreason!"
Lockearguedthathumannaturewasmutableandthatknowledgewasgainedthroughaccumulatedexperienceratherthanbyaccessingsomesortofoutsidetruth.Newton’scalculusandopticaltheoriesprovidedthepowerfulEnlightenmentmetaphors forpreciselymeasuredchangeand illumination.
Therewasnosingle,unifiedEnlightenment.Instead,itispossibletospeakoftheFrenchEnlightenment,theScottishEnlightenmentand theEnglish,German,SwissorAmericanEnlightenment. IndividualEnlightenmentthinkersoftenhadverydifferentapproaches.LockedifferedfromHume,RousseaufromVoltaire,ThomasJeffersonfromFredericktheGreat.Theirdifferencesanddisagreements,though,emergedoutofthecommonEnlightenmentthemesofrationalquestioningandbelief inprogress throughdialogue.
THEHIGHENLIGHTENMENT:1730-1780Centeredonthedialoguesandpublicationsof theFrench“philosophes” (Voltaire,Rousseau,Montesquieu,BuffonandDiderot),theHighEnlightenmentmightbestbesummedupbyonehistorian’ssummaryofVoltaire’s“PhilosophicalDictionary”:“achaosofclearideas.”Foremostamongthesewasthenotionthateverythingintheuniversecouldberationallydemystifiedandcataloged.ThesignaturepublicationoftheperiodwasDiderot’s“Encyclopédie”(1751-77),whichbroughttogether leadingauthors toproduceanambitious compilationofhumanknowledge.
ItwasanageofenlighteneddespotslikeFredericktheGreat,whounified,rationalizedandmodernizedPrussia inbetweenbrutalmulti-yearwarswithAustria,andofenlightenedwould-berevolutionarieslikeThomasPaineandThomasJefferson,whose“Declarationof Independence”(1776)framedtheAmericanRevolutionintermstakenfromofLocke’sessays.
Itwasalsoatimeofreligious(andanti-religious)innovation,asChristianssoughttorepositiontheirfaithalongrationallinesanddeistsandmaterialistsarguedthattheuniverseseemedtodetermineitsowncoursewithoutGod’s intervention.Secret societies—theFreemasons, theBavarian Illuminati, theRosicrucians—flourished,offeringEuropeanmen(andafewwomen)newmodesoffellowship,esotericritualandmutual
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assistance.Coffeehouses,newspapersandliterarysalonsemergedasnewvenuesforideastocirculate.THELATEENLIGHTENMENTANDBEYOND:1780-1815
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TheFrenchRevolutionof1789wastheculminationoftheHighEnlightenmentvisionofthrowingouttheoldauthoritiestoremakesocietyalongrationallines,butitdevolvedintobloodyterrorthatshowedthelimitsofitsownideasandled,adecadelater,totheriseofNapoleon.Still,itsgoalofegalitarianismattractedtheadmirationoftheearlyfeministMaryWollstonecraftandinspiredboththeHaitianwarof independenceandtheradical racial inclusivismofParaguay’s firstpost-independencegovernment.
Enlightenedrationalitygavewayto thewildnessofRomanticism,but19th-centuryLiberalismandClassicism—nottomention20th-centuryModernism—alloweaheavydebttothethinkersoftheEnlightenment."Source:ArticleTitle:Enlightenment;Author:History.comStaff;WebsiteName:History.com;YearPublished:2009
URL:http://www.history.com/topics/enlightenment
AccessDate: 1/11/17;Publisher:A+ENetworks
Usedwithpermissionperthewebsite
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SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceB WhatWastheEnlightenment?fromlivescience.com
Excerpt
ExcerptsfromWhatWastheEnlightenment?byJessieSzalay,LiveScienceContributor
July7,201611:56pmET
"TheEnlightenment,alsoknownastheAgeofReason,wasaphilosophicalmovementthattookplaceprimarilyinEuropeand,later,inNorthAmerica,duringthelate17thandearly18thcentury.Itsparticipantsthoughttheywereilluminatinghumanintellectandcultureafterthe"dark"MiddleAges.CharacteristicsoftheEnlightenmentincludetheriseofconceptssuchasreason,libertyandthescientificmethod.Enlightenment philosophywas skeptical of religion— especially the powerful Catholic Church—monarchiesandhereditary aristocracy. Enlightenment philosophywas influential in ushering in the French andAmericanRevolutions and constitutions.
HistoriansdisagreeonpreciselywhentheEnlightenmentbegan,thoughmostagreethattheEnlightenment'soriginsaretiedtotheScientificRevolutioninthe1600s,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.TheEnlightenmentculminated intheFrenchRevolution(1789-1799)andwasfollowedbytheRomantic period.
Major figuresof theEnlightenment includeVoltaire, JohnLocke,ThomasHobbes,DavidHume,Jean-JacquesRousseau,AdamSmith,ImmanuelKant,IsaacNewtonandThomasJefferson."
"PhilosophicalConcepts
DuringtheEnlightenment,therewasmoreemphasisonscientificmethods,secularizationof learning,religioustolerance,universaleducation, individual liberty,reason,progressandtheseparationofchurchandstate,"saidAbernethy.SomekeyEnlightenmentconceptsare:
Reason: Enlightenmentphilosophersbelievedthatrational thoughtcould leadtohuman improvementandwasthemostlegitimatemodeofthinking.Theysawtheabilitytoreasonasthemostsignificantandvaluablehumancapacity,accordingtoPBS.Reasoncouldhelphumansbreakfreefromignoranceandirrationality,andlearningtothinkreasonablycouldteachhumanstoactreasonably,aswell.Enlightenmentphilosopherssawreasonashavinganequalizingeffectonhumanity,becauseeveryone'sthoughtsandbehaviorwouldbeguidedbyreason.
Enlightenment intellectuals thought that all human endeavors should aim to increase knowledge and reason,rather than elicit emotional responses.They advocated for universal education and secularized learning, saidAbernethy.
Skepticism:Ratherthanbeingcontentwithblindfaith,Enlightenmentthinkerswantedproofthatsomethingwastrue.They testedpopularnotionswithscientificallycontrolledexperimentsandpersonalexperience,thoughskepticismofone'sownsenseswasanotherfactor inEnlightenmentthought,andcausedcomplicatedphilosophical conundrums,according to theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.
Enlightenmentintellectualswereskepticalofthedivinerightofkingsandmonarchies ingeneral,scientificclaimsaboutthenaturalworld,thenatureofrealityandreligiousdoctrine."TheologianssoughttoreformtheirfaithduringtheEnlightenmentwhilemaintainingatruefaithinGod,"saidAbernethy.ThedeistmovementbecamepopularduringtheEnlightenment.DeismholdsthatGodexistsbutdoesnotinterveneonEarth.Theuniverseproceedsaccordingtonatural,scientificallybased laws.SeveralofAmerica'sFoundingFathersweredeists, includingThomas Jefferson.
Religious tolerance:Thoughskepticalof religious institutions,manyEnlightenment thinkersbelieved thatpeopleshouldbefreetoworshipastheywished."TheintellectualsoftheEnlightenmentvigorouslysoughtto
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restrictthepoliticalpoweroforganizedreligioninanefforttocurtailtheoutbreakofintolerantreligiouswars," saidAbernethy.
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Liberty: TheEnlightenmenttoleranceofreligionisrelatedtothemovement'semphasisonpersonal liberty.ThisconceptholdsthatGodand/ornaturegaveallhumansbasicrightsandhumansshouldbefreetoactwithoutoppressiverestriction."Thesephilosophersemphasizedthatgovernmenthadnoauthorityoveranindividual'sconscience,"Abernethyexplained."Individualshadrights,allmenwereequaland legitimatepoliticalpowerisbasedontheconsentofthepeopleandisobligatedtoberepresentativeofthepeople'swill."
Progress: ThecenturiesbeforetheEnlightenmentwerecharacterizedbyrapidchanges,fromthediscoveriesoftheScientificRevolutiontotheexplorationoftheworldandtheadvancementinarttechniqueduringtheRenaissance.Largelybecauseof this,Enlightenmentthinkersbelievedthatthehumanconditionwasimprovingovertime.Philosophers likeDavidHumeandAdamSmith,bothScotsmen,tiedEnlightenmentidealstopolitics,economicpoliciesandmore,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.
Empiricismvs. rationalism: Empiricism isassociatedwithBritishEnlightenmentphilosophers, including JohnLocke,GeorgeBerkeleyandHume.Empiricistsarguedthatallhumanknowledgecomesthroughthesensesandsensoryexperiences.Rationalists,wholivedprimarily incontinentalEurope,arguedthatsenseswereuntrustworthyandknowledgecamefromthemind,throughconceivingofor intuitingideas,accordingtoLoyolaUniversityNewOrleans.
Towardtheendoftheperiod,philosophersbegantoconsiderexactlywhattheymeantbytheterm"enlightenment."GermanphilosopherImmanuelKantofferedthisdefinitioninhisessay"WhatIsEnlightenment?":
Enlightenment isman'semergence fromhisself-imposednonage[many interpretnonageas"immaturity"].Nonageistheinabilitytouseone'sownunderstandingwithoutanother'sguidance…Daretoknow!Havethecouragetouseyourownunderstanding," isthereforethemottooftheenlightenment.
Major FiguresAbernethydiscussedthe followingmenwhomadesignificantcontributions to theEnlightenment:
JohnComenius(1592-1670)wasaCzech intellectualwhoespouseduniversaleducationandpracticalinstruction.Hewasinstrumental in introducingpictorialtextbookswritteninthevernacularofthestudentratherthanLatin.Headvocatedforlifelonglearningandthedevelopmentoflogicalthinkingasopposedtomemorizationbyrote.Hewantededucationtobegiventowomenandimpoverishedchildren.
TheDutchmanHugoGrotius(1583-1645)wasaprodigiousintellectualwholaidthefoundationforinternationallawbasedontheconceptofnaturallaw.Hewasoneofthepioneersinputtingforththeideaofasocietyofstatesgovernednotbyforceandwarfarebutbylawsandmutualagreementtoenforcethoselaws.Healsoespousedtheideaofreligioustolerance.
Englishmenwhowere influential in theEnlightenment includeThomasHobbes(1588-1679)andJohnLocke (1632-1704).Hobbeschampionedabsolutismforthesovereignbuthebelievedintherightoftheindividualandtheequalityofallmen.Hestatedthatpoliticalcommunitiesshouldbebasedona"socialcontract"meaningindividualsconsenteitherexplicitlyortacitlytosurrendersomeoftheirfreedomsandsubmittotheauthorityoftheruler(ortothedecisionofthemajority)inexchangefortheprotectionoftheirremainingrights.Lockepromotedtheoppositetypeofgovernment,whichwasarepresentativegovernment.
TheFrenchPhilosophes(philosophers) tooktheEnlightenmenttonewheights.Charles-LouisdeSecondat,betterknownastheBarondeMontesquieu (1689-1755),developedtheworkofJohnLockeandespousedtheconceptof theseparationofpowerbycreatingdivisions ingovernment.François-MarieArouet(1694-1778),betterknownasVoltaire,wasaprolificwriterwhousedsatireandcriticismtoincitesocialandpoliticalchange.HewroteattacksontheCatholicChurchandexposedinjustices.Hepromotedtheconceptsoffreedomofreligion,freedomofexpressionandtheseparationofchurchandstate.Hiswritingswerepopularandreachedmanyreaders.Jean-JacquesRousseau(1712-1778)wrote thebook"TheSocialContract," inwhichhechampionedforaformofgovernmentbasedonsmall,directdemocracy,whichopenlysignifiesthewillofthepopulation.
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DenisDiderot(1713-1784)wasnotasinterestedinincitingrevolutionbutwantedtocollectanddisseminate
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Enlightenmentknowledge.Heembarkedonamammothprojecttocreatethe"Encyclopaedia,oraSystemicDictionaryoftheSciences,Arts,andCrafts."Manywriterscontributedtothe35-volumework,whichaseditedbyDiderotandJeanleRondd'Alembert.The"Encyclopaedia"wouldincorporatealloftheworld'sknowledgeandspreadittoothercountriesallovertheworld.
DavidHume(1711-1776)wasaScottishphilosopherwhogainedfameasanessayist,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Hewasahighlyinfluentialempiricistwhoarguedthathumanswereabundleofsensationswithnotrueselves(thisiscalledtheBundleTheory)andthatethicswerebasedonemotionrather thanmoralprinciples.
ImmanuelKant(1724-1804)wasaGermanphilosophercentral totheEnlightenment.Hesynthesizedrationalismandempiricismthroughhistheoriesabouthumanautonomyandsetthestageforlaterphilosophicalmovements,according to theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.
AdamSmith(1723-1790),aclosefriendofHume,wasaScottishphilosopherandeconomistmostfamousforhistheoryofthe"invisiblehandofthemarket,"accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Hisbook"TheWealthofNations"laidthefoundationforfreemarketeconomics.
IsaacNewton (1642-1727)wasanEnglishmathematicianandphysicistwholaidthefoundationforclassicalmechanicsandcalculus.Newtondevelopedthe lawsofmotionanduniversalgravitation,whichledtoimprovements inunderstanding theCopernicanheliocentricuniverse,according to the IsaacNewtonInstitute forMathematical Sciences.
Thomas Jefferson(1743-1826),anAmericanFoundingFather,washeavily influencedbyEnlightenmentphilosophyandspentseveralyearsinFrance.HewrotetheDeclarationofIndependence,whichstressedEnlightenmentideassuchasliberty,fundamentalhumanrightsandequality(thoughnotforslaves),accordingtotheThomasJeffersonFoundation."
"HowtheEnlightenmentchangedtheworld
"ItcannotbestressedenoughhowinstrumentaltheEnlightenmentideaswereinchanginghistoryandsocietyaroundtheglobe,"saidAbernethy.WestillholdmanyEnlightenmentidealsdear.Someofthescientifictheorieshaveevolved,butmanyremainastheirEnlightenmentauthorswrotethem.Theconceptsof liberty,reasonandequalityinfluencedearlyfeministMaryWollstonecraft[motherofMaryShelley,authorof "Frankenstein"],AmericanabolitionistFrederickDouglassandotherseminal leaders.
"Theideasofreligioustoleranceandtheseparationofchurchandstatedidindeedleadtoareductioninwarsduetoreligiousdifferences,"saidAbernethy.Asthepowerofthechurchwaned,societiesliketheFreemasonsandtheIlluminatigainedtraction.Literarysalonsandcoffeehousesemergedasnewplacestosocializeanddiscussideas.Educationforchildrenbecamemorewidespread,andmoreuniversitieswerefounded.Literacyrates increaseddramatically,andpublic librariesandmuseumswere introduced.
"TheconceptsoftheEnlightenmentledtomanyrevolutions,whichhadatremendouseffectonchanginghistoryandsociety,"saidAbernethy."In1688,EnglishProtestantswereinstrumental inoverthrowingtheCatholicmonarchJamesIIandinstallingtheProtestantmonarchsWilliamandMary.Afterwards,theEnglishParliamentratifiedanewBillofRightsgrantingmorepersonalfreedomsforEnglishmen."
Themost famousEnlightenment-influencedrevolutionswere theFrenchandAmerican.
TheAmericanRevolution"TheFoundingFathersadoptedmanyoftheideasoftheEnlightenmentphilosophersinwritingtheConstitutionandtheBillofRights,"saidAbernethy.Theygavelesspowertothegovernmentandmorepowertothepeople.SheaddedthattheyalsoestablisheduniversaleducationinAmerica.
TheFrenchRevolutionTheFrenchRevolutiontooktheEnglishcoupastepfurtherandeliminatedmonarchyaltogether.KingLouis
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XVIandhisqueen,MarieAntoinette,werebeheadedandaRepublicanformofgovernmentwasestablished.
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"There'sadebateaboutwhethertheEnlightenmentaffectedsociety,orwhetherasocietychangingthroughdifferentmeansaffectedtheEnlightenment,"saidWilde."Eitherway,theideasofEnlightenment…influencedaFrenchmiddleclasstowantavoiceingovernment.In1789,[thisdesire]producedaThirdEstate,whichbrokeawayfromroyalrule,andtriggeredtheFrenchRevolution."
ThoughEnlightenmentphilosophyemphasizedseeminglypositive ideals like libertyand tolerance,Wildenotedthatitcouldbetakentoextremes."It'simportanttostressthattheEnlightenmentthinkersweren'texactlystickingtotheidealsofothers…andtheextremesofEnlightenmentthought,suchasarejectionofthechurch,havebeenblamedfortheterrorintherevolution."ThebrutalityoftherevolutionandthesubsequentNapoleonicWarsdemonstratethe limitsofattemptingtoremakesocietyalongpurelyrationallines."Source:URL: http://www.livescience.com/55327-the-enlightenment..
Accessed: 1/11/17Title:WhatWastheEnlightenment?; Author: JessieSzalay,LiveScienceContributor;PublishedDate: July7,2016at11:56pmET
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SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceC TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsfromchnm.gmu.edu
Excerpt
EnlightenmentandHumanRights"IftheguillotineisthemoststrikingnegativeimageoftheFrenchRevolution,thenthemostpositiveissurelytheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,oneofthefoundingdocumentsinthehumanrightstradition.
ThelastingimportanceoftheDeclarationofRightsisimmediatelyevident:justcomparethefirstarticlefromAugust1789withthefirstarticleintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightspassedbytheUnitedNationsafterWorldWarII,on10December1948.Theyareverysimilar,thoughtheUNdocumentrefersto"humanbeings"inplaceof"men."(Did"men"meanwomentooin1789?Asweshallsee,thiswasfarfromclear.)
WhentheFrenchrevolutionariesdrewuptheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizeninAugust1789,theyaimedtotoppletheinstitutionssurroundinghereditarymonarchyandestablishnewonesbasedontheprinciplesof theEnlightenment,aphilosophicalmovementgatheringsteamintheeighteenthcentury.ThegoaloftheEnlightenment'sproponentswastoapplythemethodslearnedfromthescientificrevolutiontotheproblemsofsociety.Further, itsadvocatescommittedthemselvesto"reason"and"liberty."Knowledge,itsfollowersbelieved,couldonlycomefromthecarefulstudyofactualconditionsandtheapplicationofanindividual'sreason,not fromreligious inspirationortraditionalbeliefs.Libertymeant freedomofreligion,freedomofthepress,andfreedomfromunreasonablegovernment(torture,censorship,andsoon).Enlightenmentwriters, suchasVoltaire,Montesquieu,andRousseau, influencedordinary readers,politicians,andevenheadsofstateallovertheWesternworld.Kingsandqueensconsultedthem,governmentministersjoinedtheircause,andintheBritishNorthAmericancolonies,AmericanrevolutionariesputsomeoftheirideasintopracticeintheDeclarationofIndependenceandthenewConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.
TheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenof1789broughttogethertwostreamsofthought:onespringingfromtheAnglo-Americantraditionof legalandconstitutionalguaranteesof individual liberties, theotherfromtheEnlightenment'sbeliefthatreasonshouldguideallhumanaffairs.EnlightenmentwriterspraisedthelegalandconstitutionalguaranteesestablishedbytheEnglishandtheAmericans,buttheywantedtoseethemappliedeverywhere.TheFrenchrevolutionariesthereforewroteaDeclarationofRights that theyhopedwouldserveasamodel ineverycornerof theworld.Reasonrather thantraditionwouldbe its justification.Asaresult, "France"or"French"neverappears in thearticlesof thedeclarationitself,onlyinitspreamble.
TheAnglo-AmericantraditionoflegalguaranteesofrightsdatesbacktotheMagnaCarta,or"GreatCharter,"of1215.InitKingJohnofEnglandguaranteedcertainlibertiestothefreemenofhiskingdom.In1628theEnglishParliamentdrewupaPetitionofRightrestatingthe"rightsandlibertiesofthesubjects."CharlesIagreedtoit,andtherightswerefurtherextendedintheEnglishBillofRightsof1689.JohnLocke'swritingsonthenatureofgovernmentinthelate1600sgaveamoreuniversalandtheoreticalcastetotheideaoftherightsoffreebornEnglishmen,suggestingthatsuchrightsbelongednotjusttotheEnglish,buttoallproperty-owningadultmales.
UntilLocke,theEnglishtraditionofrightshadbeenjustthat,English.ThevariousEnglishparliamentarydocumentsonrightshadbeenspecificallylimitedtofreebornEnglishmen.Theymadenolargerclaims.TheEnlightenmenthelpedbroadentheclaims,anditseffectscanbeseenintheAmericanoffshootsoftheEnglishparliamentarytraditionofrights.ThomasJefferson'sDeclarationofIndependenceof1776claimedthat"inalienable"rightswerethefoundationofallgovernment,andhejustifiedAmericanresistancetoEnglishruleintheseterms.Jefferson's"declaration"isespeciallyimportantbecauseitarguedthatrightshadonlytobe"declared"tobeeffective.Thesamebeliefintheself-evidenceofrightscanbeseeninGeorgeMason'sdraftoftheBillofRightsforVirginia'sstateconstitution.ThesimilaritiestotheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenarenothardtofind,forboththeVirginiaBillofRightsandJefferson'sDeclarationof
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Independencehadan immediate influenceontheFrenchdeclaration.EnlightenmentwritershadpavedthewayforthereceptionoftheseideasontheEuropeancontinentand
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helpedtransformEnglishrights intomoreuniversallyapplicableones.TheycomplainedthatinFrancetheserightswerebeingviolatedbydespotic,absurd,superstitious,andfanatical institutions.Voltaire, inparticular,heldoutEnglishreligioustolerationasamodel.Intheircriticism,MontesquieuandRousseaumovedbeyondexisting institutions,proposingnewprinciplesofgovernmentbasedonreasonandcomparativestudy.BeginninginthelastyearsofthereignofLouisXIVandintensifyingthereafter,writersbothwithinandoutsideFrancebeganstronglydecryingthedespotismoftheFrenchmonarchy.In1721,Montesquieu,anoblemanandjudge,publishedananonymousnovel,ThePersianLetters,inwhichheusedfictionallettersbetweenvisitingPersianstolampoonFrenchcustoms,particularlythoseoftherecentlydeceasedLouisXIV.VoltaireheldFrenchpracticesupagainstthoseinEngland,China,andelsewhereandfoundcausetoridiculeFrench"fanaticism" in religion.Theseandothercriticismspavedthewayforamoretheoreticalconsiderationofgovernmentingeneral.OneofthemostinfluentialworksofthisnaturewasMontesquieu'sSpiritofLaws(1748),whichdevelopedacomparativepoliticalanalysisoftheconditionsmost favorableto liberty.TheAmericanFoundingFathersstudiedthisworkclosely.Rousseau,inhisSocialContractof1762,tooktheideasofMontesquieuandalsoLockeastepfurther;hearguedthatallgovernmentrestedonasocialcontract(notondivineright,nottheBible,nottraditionofanykind)inwhich"theassembledpeople"(democracy)determinedeverything.Forhim,"thepersonofthemeanestcitizenisassacredandinviolableasthatofthefirstmagistrate";inotherwords,Rousseau insistedoncompleteequality (betweenmen).AlthoughthemostdemocraticoftheEnlightenmentwriters,Rousseausaidrelatively littleaboutrights.Infact,oneofthemostenduringcriticismsofhisworkisthathefailedtoguaranteeindividualrightsunderthesocialcontract.Thecommunityapparentlytookprecedenceovertheindividual inRousseau'sview.OtherEnlightenmentwriterssteppedintothisgap.Voltairemadehisreputationdefendingthosewhohadbeenpersecutedfortheirreligiousopinions.Asyet,however,therewasmoretalkaboutrightsingeneralthanaboutspecificrights.Writersoftenreferredtorightsasifeveryoneknewwhattheymeant,butinfactmanyambiguitiesremained:ShouldProtestantsorJewshavethesamerightsasCatholicsinFrance?Shouldpoormenhavethesamerightsaspropertyowners?Shouldwomenenjoythesamerightsasmen?DespitethestrongeffortsoftheFrenchmonarchyandtheCatholicChurchtobantheworksofMontesquieu,Voltaire,andRousseau,theirinfluencesoonspread,eventothehighestechelonsofthestatethatoriginallyopposedthem.OthermonarchsinEuropeeagerlysoughtthefriendshipandadviceofEnlightenmentwriters,anditwasonlyamatteroftimebeforeleadingFrenchbureaucratsalsotookuptheirideas.AmongthemoststrikingcaseswasthatofTurgot,oneofthechiefministersofLouisXVI.HismemorandumtotheKingof1775showsthattalkofrightshadpermeatedthehighestlevelsofgovernment.Before theRevolutionbrokeout in1789,mostdiscussionof rights inFrance focusedon theplightof religiousminorities.Afteryearsof criticismanddiscussion, theFrenchcrowngranted certain civil rights toProtestantsin1787,butnotpoliticalones.OncecivilrightshadbeengrantedtoProtestants,itwasperhapsinevitablethatthequestionofJewishrightswouldberaised.ButtheFrenchmonarchydidnotofferanyreformsinthestatusofJews.Aparticularlycontentiousissueinthe1780swasthatofslavery.ApowerfulcurrentofantislaveryopinionwaswellingupinEngland,France,andthenewUnitedStates,abettedinpartbytheinfluentialanti-slaverytractsofaFrenchCatholicclergyman,AbbéRaynal.RaynaldenouncedslaveryalongwithmostEuropeancommercewiththecolonies.HisworkhadgreatimpactintheBritishNorthAmericancoloniesaswellasinEurope.Writers,philosophers,andclericshadlongdebatedthequestionofawoman'sroleinsociety,butthisdiscussiondidlittletoinspiregovernmentactionbefore1789,ortoprompttheformationofclubsorsocietiesconcernedwithimprovingthestatusofwomen.Enlightenmentwriters interestedinthesubjectfocusedontheeducationofwomen,ratherthanontheircivilorpoliticalrights.MostpeopleinFrance,menandwomenalike,believedthatawoman'splacewasinthehome,notinthepublicsphere.Thiswidelyheldviewhelpsexplaintheabsenceoforganizedwomen'sgroupsinFrancebeforetheoutbreakoftheRevolution.OncetheKingconvokedtheEstates-General in1789,however,womentooktheopportunitytosubmittheir
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ownpetitions,therebyhelpingplacetheirownconcernsontherevolutionaryagenda.
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Asthenotionofrightsspread,itbecameincreasinglyradical.WhenKingLouisXVIcalledtheEstates-Generaltomeetin1789,heinadvertentlyreleasedatorrentofcomplaintsaboutthefutureofthecountryintheformofpamphlets.Oneofthemostinfluentialofthesepamphletswaswrittenbyaclergyman,AbbéSieyès.In"WhatIstheThirdEstate?",heofferedafundamentallynewvisionofFrenchsocietyinwhichpositionwouldbedeterminedbyusefulness,notbirth.Inshort,heattackedtheconceptofahereditarynobility.Sieyès'spamphlethelpedclearthewayfortheviewsthatwouldbeexpressedintheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen.
BeforetherevolutionariescouldestablishtheDeclarationofRightsasthefountofgoverningauthority,however,theyhadtoteardowntheancientedifice.Theydidnotimmediatelyabolishmonarchyitself;insteadtheytriedtoputitonadifferentfoundationofconstitutionalism.Buttheydidabolishtheoldsystemofspecialprivileges.Inonelongsession(throughoutthenightof4August1789),thedeputiestothenewNationalAssemblyvoluntarilyrenouncedtheprivilegesof theirtowns,provinces,andvarioussocialgroups.Nobles,clergy,judges,andevenordinarytaxpayerslostwhateverspecialstandingtheyhadgainedoverthecenturies.Fromnowon,everyonewastobeidenticalbeforethelaw.Thisconceptofequalitybecameoneofthecardinalprinciplesofthenewdeclaration,passedonlythreeweekslater.Thedeclarationgavebirthtothefamousrevolutionarytriad:Liberty,Equality,andFraternity.Inallimagesofthetime,theseprincipleswererepresentedbyfemalefigures—butthatdidnotmeanwomenwereabouttogainequalaccesstotherightsthetriadembodied.Thedeclarationsaidnothingaboutwomen,oraboutreligiousminorities,ormenwhodidnotownproperty,orslaves.Notsurprisingly,themomentthedeclarationpassed,thestatusofallthesegroupsbecamethesubjectofheateddebate.Thefirstissuetakenupwasthequestionofpropertyqualificationsforfullcitizenship.TheNationalAssemblyinstitutedpropertyqualificationsonlytorescindthemin1792andreinstitutethemafter1795.Whenthequestionofreligiousminoritiescameup,theassemblyreadilyagreedtograntfullrightstoProtestantsbuthesitatedtodosoforJews.Jewspetitionedforfullrightsandfinallygainedthemon27September1791.Thequestionofslaverywasmorecomplicatedstill,ifonlybecausealargeproportionofFrenchcommercedependedonthecolonies,whoseagrarianeconomyrestedheavilyonthatinstitution.IntheFrenchcolonies,mulattosandfreeblackshadbegunagitatingforrights,butanysuchmovewasfiercelyresistedbywhiteplanters,whofeareditwouldunderminetheentireslavesystem.TheNationalAssemblytriedtotakeamiddlecourse,stillsupportingtheslavesystembutgrantingrightstocertainfreeblacksandmulattos(inMay1791).Somedeputieswantedtoabolishtheslavetradeandslaveryitself.WhenamassiveslaverevoltbrokeoutinthelargestFrenchcolony,SaintDomingue(present-dayHaiti;seeChapter8),thedeputiesrescindedtherightsoffreeblacksandmulattos,onlytoreinstitutethemafewmonthslater(March1792).Theassemblyoriginallytriedtosuppresstheslaverevolt,butratherthanlosethecolonyaltogetherwhentheslavesthreatenedtoallywithGreatBritainandSpain,theNationalConvention,on4February1794,finallyabolishedslaveryinallthecolonies.ItwouldbereestablishedunderNapoleonin1802.OncetheFrenchRevolutiongotunderway,itsparkedthefirstexplicitfeministmovementinhistory.Membersofbothsexeswerenowarguingthatwomenshouldenjoythesamerightsasmen,buttheyweredefinitelyintheminority.Theprevailingviewwasstillthatwomenwerefundamentallydifferentfrommenandshouldconfinethemselvestodomesticconcerns.Nevertheless,asmallnumberofwomensetuptheirownclubsand,thoughtheyhesitatedtoaskforthevoteandotherpoliticalrights,theyinsistedthatwomenshouldbeeducatedtobegoodrepublicansandshouldparticipateintheRevolutionasmuchaspossible,whetherby ferretingoutcounterrevolutionaries,watchingthemarketplaces for infractionsagainst thenewpricecontrols,makingbandagesforthewareffort,orevenonsomerareoccasionsarmingthemselvestogotothefront.Inresponsetotheupsurgeinfemalepoliticalactivity,theNationalConventionofficiallybannedallwomen'spoliticalclubson29–30October1793.Althoughwomencontinuedtobedeniedpoliticalrights,theyhadacquiredmorecivilrightsthaneverbefore.Newlawsestablisheddivorceforthefirsttimeandgavewomenequalaccesstoit;otherlawsinsistedthatgirlshavethesameinheritancerightsasboyswhenfamiliespassedontheirproperty.
Afterallthedebates,theDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenremainedopentomodificationastheRevolutionchangedcourse.In1793theNationalConventionofferedanewconstitution,whichincludeda
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modifiedDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen.Thenewdeclarationrepeatedmanyoftheprovisionsofthefirstonebutaddedanemphasisonsocialwelfare(Article21:"Societyowesmaintenanceto
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unfortunatecitizens").Althoughthenewconstitutionneverwentintoeffect(itwasshelvedwhilethecountrywasatwar),itandthedeclarationreflectedagrowingtensionthatwouldhenceforthaccompanythediscussionofrights.Manyquestionsremainedtobeanswered:Shouldtheserightsbesimpleguaranteesoflegalfreedomandequality,orshouldtheyencompassmoreambitiousprospectsofsocial improvementandamelioration?Didrightsapplyjusttolegalandpoliticalactivities,ordidtheyalsoextendtothesocialandeconomicsphereoflife?Didpeoplehavearighttohelpformtheirgovernment?
In1795theNationalConventionwroteyetanotherconstitution,andthisoneactuallydidgointoeffect.ThedeputiesalsopreparedaDeclarationoftheRightsandDutiesofManandCitizen,therebyrespondingtoacurrentofopinionthathadalreadygatheredsomestrengthduringthe1789discussions.Shouldadeclarationofrightsnotbeaccompaniedbyadeclarationofduties?Thedutieslistedherehaveamodernresonance:theyincludewhatwewouldcall"familyvalues,"adefenseofproperty,andacalltomilitaryservice.Still,thedeclarationofdutiesmadequiteclearthatbothrightsanddutiespertainedonlytomen."Source:URL:Liberty,Equality,Fraternity:Exploring theFrenchRevolution,
https://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html
SiteCredits:LIBERTY,EQUALITY,FRATERNITY:EXPLORINGTHEFRENCHREVOUTIONThissite isacollaborationoftheRoyRosenzweigCenterforHistoryandNewMedia(GeorgeMasonUniversity)andtheAmericanSocialHistoryProject(CityUniversityofNewYork),supportedbygrantsfromtheFlorenceGouldFoundationandtheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,anIndependentFederalAgency.Editorsandprincipalauthors:JackR.CenserandLynnHuntProducedby:PenneeBender,JoshuaBrown,RoyRosenzweigAssociateProducers:JackR.Censer,LynnHuntExecutiveProducers:StephenBrier,JoshuaBrown,RoyRosenzweigMultimediaProduction:PenneeBender, JoshuaBrownAssociateEditors:GregoryBrownandJeffHorn."HowtoReadImages"byPhilippeBordes"SongsoftheRevolution"byLauraMasonDesigners:JoshuaBrownandFernandoAzevedoGraphicsandArtWork:FernandoAzevedo,JoshuaBrown,AndreaAdesVásquezDatabasedevelopment:ElenaRazlogovaWebProgramming: JenniferMin,BurçAcar,ChristopherHefner,ElenaRazlogova,PeterStrongTranslations:ThomasMorgan,LeeAnnGhajar,EmanuelleM.MosinskiCopyediting:VickyMacintyre,SusieLeBlancResearchandTechnicalAssistance: JessicaFinnefrock,PeterStrong,GideonBrown,ElenaRazlogova,TuVinhVuong,AlanGevinson,JulieCarpenter,DeborahGómez,LynneZegeer,CathieBoivin,ClaireTaylor,ElizabethHarden,ChrisMoore,LouiseVis,NathanHamilton,JosephRinehart,ErinMiller,TomMcMurrer,SanchiaSpence,StevePaxton,JenniferSessions,MichaelLaine,DanMaxwell,TroyLaChance
"Liberty,Equality,Fraternity"©2001AmericanSocialHistoryProductions, Inc
Usedwithpermissionper:
PenneeBender--AssociateDirectorCityUniversityofNewYork—TheGraduateCenterNewYork,NY10016
http://www.ashp.cuny.edu
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SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceD FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenmentfrombiography.com
Excerpt
FamousPeopleof theEnlightenment
"TheEnlightenmentor‘AgeofReason’ wasaperiodinthelateseventeenthcenturyandearlyeighteenthcentury,whereagroupofphilosophers,scientistsandthinkersadvocatednewideasbasedonreason.Thisperiodsawadeclineinthepowerofabsolutemonarchies,adeclineinthepre-eminenceofthechurchandariseofmodernpolitical ideologies,suchas liberalism,republicanismandgreater independenceofthought.TheEnlightenment idealswere influential forcesbehindtheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.
FrancisBacon(1561– 1626)Englishphilosopher,statesman,oratorandscientist.Baconisconsideredthe‘fatherofempiricism’ forhisworkandadvocacyofscientificmethodandmethodicalscientificinquiryininvestigatingscientificphenomena.Heencouragedanempiricalapproachboththroughhisownexampleandphilosophically.AkeyfigureintheScientificrevolutionofthe17thCentury.
ReneDescartes(1596–1650)ReneDescarteswasaFrenchphilosopherandmathematician.Descartesmadeasignificantcontribution to thephilosophyof rationalism.Descartes’ Meditationswasground-breakingbecausehewaswillingtodoubtpreviouscertaintiesandtriedtoprovetheirvaliditythroughlogic.LaterempiricistsdisagreedwithDescartesmethods,buthisphilosophyopenedupmanytopicstogreaterdiscussion.AlthoughDescartes‘proved’ theexistenceofGod,hisdoubtwasanimportantstepinpromotingreasonoverfaith.Descartesalsomadeimportantdiscoveries inanalyticalgeometry,calculusandmathematics.
BaruchSpinoza (1632-1677)Spinozawasa Jewish-Dutchphilosopher.Hewasan influentialrationalist,whosawtheunderlyingunityintheuniverse.Hewascriticalofreligiousscriptures,andpromotedaviewthattheDivinewasinall,andtheUniversewasordered,despiteitsapparentcontradictions.Hisphilosophyinfluencedlaterphilosophers,writersandromanticpoets,suchasShelleyandColeridge.
ImmanuelKant(1724–1804)ImmanuelKantwasaninfluentialGermanphilosopherwhose ‘CritiqueofPureReason’ soughttounitereasonwithexperienceandmovephilosophyonfromthedebatebetweenrationalistsandempiricists.Kant’sphilosophywas influentialon futureGerman idealistsandphilosophers,suchasShellingandSchopenauer.
JohnLocke(1632–1704)Lockewasaleadingphilosopherandpoliticaltheorist,whohadaprofoundimpactonliberalpoliticalthought.Heiscreditedwithideas,suchasthesocialcontract–theideagovernmentneedstobewiththeconsentofthegoverned.Lockealsoarguedforliberty,religioustoleranceandrightstolifeandproperty.LockewasaninfluentialfigureonthoseinvolvedintheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions,suchasJefferson,MadisonandVoltaire.
SirIsaacNewton (1642-1726)Newtonmadestudies inmathematics,optics,physics,andastronomy.InhisPrincipiaMathematica,publishedin1687,helaidthefoundationsforclassicalmechanics,explaininglawofgravityandtheLawsofMotion.
Voltaire (1694–1778)–Frenchphilosopherandcritic.BestknownforhisworkCandide(1762)whichepitomiseshissatireandcriticismsofsocialconvention.Voltairewas instrumental inpromotingrepublicanideasduetohiscriticismoftheabsolutemonarchyofFrance.
JeanJacquesRousseau (1712-1778)RousseauwasapoliticalphilosopherwidelyknownforhisS‘ocialContract‘(1762),whichsoughttopromoteamoreegalitarianformofgovernmentbyconsentandformedthebasisofmodernrepublicanism.Hisideaswereinfluential intheFrenchandAmericanrevolutions.
BenjaminFranklin(1706-1790)OneoftheAmericanFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates.Hewasanauthor,politician,diplomat,scientistandstatesman.HewasakeyfigureintheAmericanenlightenment,
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whichsawmajorbreakthroughsinscienceandideasofpoliticalrepublicanism.FranklinwasanearlysupporterofcolonialunityandtheUnitedStates.
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ThomasJefferson(1743-1826)wasanAmericanFoundingFatherandtheprincipleauthorofTheDeclarationofIndependence(1776)Inthisdeclaration,JeffersonlaidoutthefundamentalprinciplesofAmerica,callingforequalityandliberty.Healsoadvocatedendingslaveryandpromotingreligioustolerance."Source:Citation:Pettinger,Tejvan.+“FamouspeopleofTheEnlightenment”,Oxford,www.biographyonline.net,4thJune,2013
UsedwithpermissionbytheAuthor4/13/17
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SupportingQuestion2SupportingQuestion
Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?
FormativePerformanceTask
MatchmajorEnlightenmentwriterswiththesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemspointedoutintheirwritings.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.comSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufromconstitution.orgSourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmithfromeconlib.org
AfterhavingdiscoveredwhattheEnlightenmentwasandwhatthewritersoftheperiodviewedabouthumanrights,youngscholarsmustthenpointoutspecificallywhatthesocial,economic,andpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutintheperiodthisinquiryiscriticallyanalyzing.Thisstageoftheinquirywilltakeatleast2daystoaccomplishthisformativeperformancetaskandanswerthesupportingquestioncorrectly.
FormativePerformanceTask
Sincepeerteamstudyandevaluationsareveryimportanttoyoungscholarsanditencouragesownershipintheoverallmasteryofallthescholars, youryoungscholarswillcreateamatchingassessmenttestformasteryofthematerialofwhattheEnlightenmentwriterswerepointingoutintheirwritingsforotherscholarswhoarealsoparticipatinginthisinquiry. Itisimportantthatthesescholarsnotonlymakeouttheassessmentexams,buthaveakeytogradethemasteryoftheotherscholarstoprovidepeerfeedback.Whenthesescholarshavetomakeouttheexamsandprepareforsomeoneelse'srandomexam,itiscleartheywillstudyveryhardtomasterthisformativeperformancetask.
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SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.com
Excerpt
ExcerptsfromChapter2:Thestateofnature"4.Tounderstandpoliticalpowercorrectlyandderiveitfromitspropersource,wemustconsiderwhatstateallmenarenaturallyin.Inthisstatemenareperfectlyfreetoordertheiractions,anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandthemselves,inanywaytheylike,withoutaskinganyone’spermission—subjectonlyto limitssetbythelawofnature.Itisalsoastateofequality,inwhichno-onehasmorepowerandauthoritythananyoneelse;becauseitissimplyobviousthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandstatus,allborntoallthesameadvantagesofnatureandtotheuseofthesameabilities,shouldalsobeequal·inotherways·,withno- onebeingsubjectedtoorsubordinatetoanyoneelse,unless·God·,thelordandmasterofthemall,weretodeclareclearlyandexplicitlyhiswishthatsomeonepersonberaisedabovetheothersandgivenanundoubtedright todominionandsovereignty
6. Butthoughthisisastateof•liberty,itisn’tastateof•licence·inwhichtherearenoconstraintsonhowpeoplebehave·.Amaninthatstateisabsolutelyfreetodisposeofhimselforhispossessions,butheisn’tatlibertytodestroyhimself,oreventodestroyanycreatedthinginhispossessionunlesssomethingnoblerthanitsmerepreservationisatstake.Thestateofnatureisgovernedbyalawthatcreatesobligationsforeveryone.Andreason,whichisthatlaw,teachesanyonewhotakesthetroubletoconsultit,thatbecauseweareallequalandindependent,no-oneoughttoharmanyoneelseinhislife,health,liberty,orpossessions.Thisisbecause•wearealltheworkofoneomnipotentandinfinitelywisemaker;•wearealltheservantsofonesovereignmaster,sentintotheworldbyhisordertodohisbusiness;•weareallthepropertyofhimwhomadeus,andhemadeustolastaslongashechooses,notaslongaswechoose;•wehavethesameabilities,andshareinonecommonnature,sotherecan’tbeanyrank-orderingthatwouldauthorizesomeofustodestroyothers,asifweweremadetobeusedbyoneanother,asthelowerkindsofcreaturesaremadetobeusedbyus.Everyoneisobligedtopreservehimselfandnotoptoutoflifewillfully,soforthesamereasoneveryoneought,whenhisownsurvivalisn’tatstake,todoasmuchashecantopreservetherestofmankind;andexceptwhenit’samatterofpunishinganoffender,no-onemaytakeawayordamageanythingthatcontributestothepreservationofsomeoneelse’slife,liberty,health,limb,orgoods.
7. Sothat•allmenmaybeheldbackfrominvadingtherightsofothersandfromharmingoneanother,andsothat•thelawofnaturethataimsatthepeaceandpreservationofallmankindmaybeobeyed,theenforcementofthatlawofnature(inthestateofnature)isineveryman’shands,sothateveryonehasarighttopunishlaw-breakersasseverelyasisneededtohindertheviolationofthelaw.Forthelawofnature,likeeverylawconcerningmeninthisworld,wouldbefutileifno-onehadpowertoenforceitandtherebypreservetheinnocentandrestrainoffenders.Andinthestateofnatureifanyonemaypunishsomeoneforsomethingbadthathehasdone,theneveryonemaydoso....
13.Tothisstrangedoctrine·ofmine·,namelythatinthestateofnatureeveryonehasthepowertoenforcethelawofnature,Iexpectthisobjectiontoberaised:Itisunreasonableformentobejudgesintheirowncases,becauseself- lovewillbiasmeninfavourofthemselvesandtheirfriends.Andontheotherside,hostility,passionandrevengewillleadthemtopunishotherstooseverely.Sonothingbutconfusionanddisorderwillfollow,andthatiswhyGodhas—ashecertainlyhas—establishedgovernmenttorestrainthepartialityandviolenceofmen.Ifreelyallowthatcivilgovernmentistheproperremedyforthedrawbacksofthestateofnature.Theremustcertainlybegreatdisadvantagesinastatewheremenmaybejudgesintheirowncase;someonewhowasso•unjustastodohisbrotheraninjurywill(wemaywellsuppose)hardlybeso•justastocondemnhimselfforit!ButIrespondtotheobjectorasfollows:Ifthestateofnatureisintolerablebecauseoftheevilsthatareboundtofollowfrommen’sbeingjudgesintheirowncases,andgovernmentistobetheremedyforthis,·letusdoacomparison·.Ontheonesidethereisthe•stateofnature;ontheotherthereis•governmentwhereoneman—and remember that absolutemonarchs areonlymen!—commandsamultitude,isfreetobethejudgeinhisowncase,andcandowhathelikestoallhissubjects,withno-onebeingallowedtoquestionorcontrolthosewhocarryouthiswishes,andeveryonehavingtoputupwith
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whateverhedoes,whetherheisledbyreason,mistakeorpassion.Howmuchbetteritisinthestateofnature,wherenomanisobligedtosubmittotheunjustwillofsomeoneelse,andsomeonewhojudges
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wrongly(whetherornotitisinhisowncase)isanswerableforthattotherestofmankind!"ExcerptsfromChapter3:Thestateofwar"16.Thestateofwarisastateofenmityanddestruction.Sowhensomeonedeclaresbywordoraction—notinasuddenoutburstofrage,butasamatterofcalmsettleddesign—thatheintendstoendanotherman’slife,heputshimselfintoastateofwaragainsttheotherperson;andhetherebyexposeshislifetotheriskoffallingtothepowerofthe•otherpersonoranyonethatjoinswith•himinhisdefenceandtakesuphisquarrel.ForitisreasonableandjustthatIshouldhavearighttodestroyanythingthatthreatensmewithdestruction,becausethefundamentallawofnaturesaysthatmenaretobepreservedasmuchaspossible,andthatwhennoteveryonecanbepreservedthesafetyoftheinnocentistobepreferred.·Inlinewiththis·,Imaydestroyamanwhomakeswaronmeorhasrevealedhimselfasanenemytomylife,forthesamereasonthatImaykillawolforalion;becausesuchmenarenotunderthetiesofthecommonlawofreason,havenoruleexceptthatofforceandviolence,andsomaybetreatedasbeastsofprey—dangerouscreaturesthatwillcertainlydestroymeifIfallintotheirpower.
17. Soitcomesaboutthatsomeonewhotriestogetanothermanintohisabsolutepowertherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwiththeother,forsuchanattemptamountstoadeclarationofaplanagainstthelifeoftheotherman.Ifsomeonewantstogetme•intohispowerwithoutmyconsent,Ihavereasontoconcludethatwouldusemeashepleasedwhenhehadgotme•there,andwoulddestroymeifhewantedto;forno-onecanwanttohavemeinhisabsolutepowerunlessit’stocompelmebyforcetosomethingthatisagainsttherightofmyfreedom,i.e.tomakemeaslave.TobesureofmyownsurvivalImustbefreefromsuchforce;andreasontellsmetolookonhim—thepersonwhowants7SecondTreatiseJohnLocke3:Thestateofmeinhispower—asanenemytomysurvival,wantingtotakeawaythefreedomthatisthefencetoit.Sosomeonewhotriestoenslavemetherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwithme.Someonewantstotakeaway•thefreedomofsomeoneelsemustbesupposedtohaveaplantotakeaway•everythingelsefromtheperson,becausefreedomisthefoundationofalltherest;andthatholdsinacommonwealthaswellasinthestateofnature.
18. Thismakesitlawfulformetokillathiefwhohasn’tdonemeanyharmordeclaredanyplanagainstmylife,otherthanusingforcetogetmeinhispowersoastotakeawaymymoneyorwhateverelsehewants.Nomatterwhatheclaimsheisupto,heisusingforcewithoutright,togetmeintohispower;soIhavenoreasontothinkthathewon’t,whenhehasmeinhispower,takeeverythingelseawayfrommeaswellasmyliberty.Soitislawfulformetotreathimassomeonewhohasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithme,i.e.tokillhimifIcan;forthatistheriskheranwhenhestartedawarinwhichheistheaggressor.
19. This is theplaindifferencebetweenthestateof•natureandthestateof•war.Somemen—·notablyHobbes·—havetreatedthemasthesame;butinfacttheyareasdistantfromoneanotherasastateof•peace,goodwill,mutualassistanceandpreservation isdistant fromastateof•enmity,malice,violenceandmutualdestruction.Astateofnature,properlyunderstood,involvesmenlivingtogetheraccordingtoreason,withno-oneonearthwhostandsabovethembothandhasauthoritytojudgebetweenthem.Whereasinastateofwaramanusesordeclareshisintentiontouseforceagainstanotherman,withno-oneonearthtowhomtheothercanappealforrelief.Itisthelackofsuchanappealthatgivesamantherightofwaragainstanaggressor,·notonlyinastateofnaturebut·eveniftheyarebothsubjectsinasinglesociety. IfathiefhasalreadystolenallthatIamworthandisnotacontinuingthreattome,Imaynotharmhimexceptthroughanappealtothelaw.Butifheisnowsettingonmetorobme—evenifit’sjustmyhorseormycoatthatheisafter—Imaykillhim.Thereisthelaw,whichwasmadeformyprotection,butthereisnotimeforittointervenetosavemefromlosingmygoodsandperhapslosingmylife(andifIlosethatthereisnoreparation).Furthermore,itisthethief’sfaultthatthereisnotimeforanappealtothejudgethatstandsoverhimandme—namely,thelaw—andsoIamallowedtomakemyowndefence,andtobeatwarwiththethiefandtokillhimifIcan.Whatputsmenintoastateofnatureisthelackofacommonjudgewhohasauthority;theuseofunlawfulforceagainstaman’spersoncreatesastateofwar,whetherornotthereisacommonjudgeand(therefore)whetherornottheyareinastateofnature.
20. Butformenwhoareinasociety·underagovernment·,thestateofwarendswhentheactualforceends;andthenthoseoneachside·ofthetrouble·shouldequallysubmittothefairdeterminationofthelaw....But
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inthestateofnature,wheretherearenopositivelawsorjudgeswithauthoritytoappealto,onceastateofwarhasbegunitcontinues—withtheinnocentpartyhavingarighttodestroytheotherifhecan—untilthe
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aggressorofferspeace,andseeksreconciliationontermsthatwillmakeupforanywrongshehasdoneandwillgivetheinnocentpersonsecurityfromthenon.Whatifthesituationislikethis?Thereistimeandopportunityforanappealtothelaw,andtolegallyconstitutedjudges,buttheremedyisnotavailablebecauseofamanifestpervertingofjustice,abarefacedtwistingofthelawssothattheyprotectorevenrewardtheviolenceorinjuriesperpetratedbysomemenorsomepartyofmen.Insuchacaseitishardtothinkwehaveanythingbutastateofwar.Forwhereverviolenceisusedandinjurydone,evenifitisdonebypeopleappointedtoadministerjusticeandisdressedupinthename,claims,orformsoflaw,itisstillviolenceandinjury.Thepurposeofthelawistoprotectandgetcompensationfortheinnocent,byanunbiasedtreatmentofallwhocomeunderit;andwhenthisisnotgenuinelydone,warismadeuponthesufferers,andthey—havingnowhereonearthtoappealtoforjustice—arelefttotheonlyremedyinsuchcases,anappealtoheaven."
ExcerptsfromChapter4:Slavery"22.The•naturallibertyofmanistobefreefromanysuperiorpoweronearth,andnottobeunderthewillorlegislativeauthorityofmenbuttoberuledonlybythelawofnature.Thelibertyofman•insocietyistobeundernolegislativepowerexcepttheoneestablishedbyconsentinthecommonwealth;andnotunderthepowerofanywillorunderrestraintfromanylawexceptwhatisenactedbythelegislatureinaccordancewithitsmandate.FreedomthenisnotwhatSirRobertFilmertellsus(ObservationsonHobbes,Milton,etc.,page55),namelyalibertyforeveryonetodowhathewants,liveashepleases,andnotbetiedbyanylaws.Rather,·freedomisoneoftwothings·.•Freedomofnatureisbeingundernorestraintexceptthelawofnature.•Freedomofmenundergovernmentishavingastandingruletoliveby,commontoeveryoneinthesocietyinquestion,andmadebythelegislativepowerthathasbeensetupinit;alibertytofollowone’sownwillinanythingthatisn’tforbiddenbytherule,andnottobesubjecttotheinconstant,uncertain,unknown,arbitrarywillofanotherman.
23…Thisfreedomfromabsolute,arbitrarypower,issonecessarytoaman’ssurvival,sotightlytiedtoit,thatlosingitinvolveslosing·allcontrolover·hisownlife.·That’swhyno-onecanvoluntarilyenterintoslavery·.Amandoesn’thavethepowertotakehisownlife,sohecan’tvoluntarilyenslavehimselftoanyone,orputhimselfundertheabsolute,arbitrarypowerof•someoneelsetotakeawayhislifewhenever•hepleases.Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehas;sosomeonewhocannottakeawayhisownlifecannotgivesomeoneelsesuchapoweroverit.Ifsomeoneperformsanactthatdeservesdeath,hehasbyhisownfaultforfeitedhisownlife;thepersontowhomhehasforfeiteditmay(whenhehashiminhispower)delaytakingitandinsteadmakeuseoftheoffendingmanforhisownpurposes;andthisisn’tdoinghimanywrong,becausewheneverhefindsthehardshipofhisslaverytooutweighthevalueofhislife,hehasthepowertoresistthewillofhismaster,thusbringingthedeaththathewants.
24.WhatIhavebeendiscussingistheconditionofcompleteslavery,whichisjustacontinuationofthestateofwarbetweenalawfulconquerorandacaptive.Iftheyenterintoanykindofpact—agreeingtolimitedpowerontheonesideandobedienceontheother—thestateofwarandslaveryceasesforaslongasthepactisineffect.For,asIhavesaid,nomancanbyanagreementpassovertosomeoneelsesomethingthathedoesn’thimselfhave,namelyapoweroverhisownlife.IadmitthatwefindamongtheJews,aswellasothernations,caseswheremensoldthemselves;butclearlytheysoldthemselvesonlyintodrudgery,notslavery.Itisevidentthatthepersonwhowassoldwasn’ttherebyputatthemercyofanabsolute,arbitrary,despoticpower;forthemasterwasobligedatacertaintimetolettheothergofreefromhisservice,andsohecouldn’tatanytimehavethepowertokillhim.Indeedthemasterofthiskindofservantwassofarfromhavinganarbitrarypoweroverhis•lifethathecouldn’tarbitrarilyeven•maimhim:thelossofaneyeoratoothsethimfree(Exodusxxi)."
ExcerptfromChapter6:Paternalpower"61.Thusweareborn•free,asweareborn•rational;notthatweasnewbornbabiesactuallyhavetheuseofeither:agethatbrings•reasonbrings•freedomwithit."
ExcerptsfromChapter7:PoliticalorCivilSociety
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"90.Thismakesitevidentthatabsolutemonarchy,whichsomepeopleregardastheonly·genuine·governmentintheworld,isactuallyinconsistentwithcivilsocietyandsocan’tbeaformofcivilgovernment
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atall!Considerwhatcivilsocietyisfor.Itissetuptoavoidandremedythedrawbacksofthestateofnaturethatinevitablyfollowfromeveryman’sbeingjudgeinhisowncase,bysettingupaknownauthoritytowhicheverymemberofthatsocietycanappealwhenhehasbeenharmedorisinvolvedinadispute—anauthoritythateveryoneinthesocietyoughttoobey.Soanypeoplewhodon’thavesuchanauthoritytoappealtoforthesettlementoftheirdisputesarestillinthestateofnature.Thus,everyabsolutemonarchisinthestateofnaturewithrespecttothosewhoareunderhisdominion.
91.Foranabsolutemonarchissupposedtohavebothlegislativeandexecutivepowerinhimselfalone;sothereisnojudgeorcourtofappealthatcanfairly,impartially,andauthoritativelymakedecisionsthatcouldprovidereliefandcompensationforanyharmthatmaybeinflictedbythemonarchoronhisorders.Sosuchaman—callhimCzarorGrandSeigniororwhatyouwill—isasmuchinthestateofnaturewithrespecttohissubjectsasheiswithrespecttotherestofmankind.·Thisisaspecialcaseofthestateofnature,becausebetweenitandtheordinarystateofnaturethereis·thisdifference,awoefuloneforthesubject(really,theslave)ofanabsolutemonarch:•intheordinarystateofnatureamanisfreetojudgewhathehasarightto,andtousethebestofhispowertomaintainhisrights;whereas•inanabsolutemonarchy,whenhispropertyisinvadedbythewillofhismonarch,henotonlyhasno-onetoappealtobutheisn’tevenfreetojudgewhathisrightsareortodefendthem(asthoughhewereacatoradog,thatcan’tthinkforitself).Heis,inshort,exposedtoallthemiseryandinconveniencesthatamancanfearfromsomeonewhoisintheunrestrainedstateofnatureandisalsocorruptedwithflatteryandarmedwithpower."
ExcerptsfromChapter8:Thebeginningofpoliticalsocieties"95.Menallbeingnaturallyfree,equal,andindependent,no-onecanbedeprivedofthisfreedometc.andsubjectedtothepoliticalpowerofsomeoneelse,withouthisownconsent.Theonlywayanyonecanstripoffhisnaturallibertyandclothehimselfinthebondsofcivilsocietyisforhimtoagreewithothermentouniteintoacommunity,soastolivetogethercomfortably,safely,andpeaceably,inasecureenjoymentoftheirpropertiesandagreatersecurityagainstoutsiders.Anynumberofmencandothis,becauseitdoesnoharmtothefreedomoftherest;theyareleftwiththelibertyofthestateofnature,whichtheyhadallalong.Whenanynumberofmenhaveinthiswayconsentedtomakeonecommunityorgovernment,thatimmediatelyincorporatesthem,turnsthemintoasinglebodypoliticinwhichthemajorityhavearighttoactonbehalfoftherestandtobindthembyitsdecisions.
99.Sothosewhooutofastateofnatureuniteintoacommunitymustbeunderstoodtogiveupallthepowerrequiredtosecureitspurposestothemajorityofthecommunity(unlesstheyexplicitlyagreeonsomenumbergreaterthanthemajority).Theyachievethissimplybyagreeingtouniteintoonepoliticalsociety;that’sallthecompactthatisneededbetweentheindividualsthatcreateorjoinacommonwealth.Thus,whatbeginsapoliticalsocietyandkeepsitinexistenceisnothingbuttheconsentofanynumberoffreemencapableofamajoritytouniteandincorporateintosuchasociety.Thisistheonlythingthatdidorcouldgiveabeginningtoanylawfulgovernmentintheworld."
ExcerptfromChapter18:Tyranny"202.Whereverlawends,tyrannybegins,ifthebreachofthelawbringsharmtosomeoneelse;andanyoneinauthoritywhoexceedsthepowergivenhimbythelaw,usingtheforceathisdisposaltodotothesubjectthingsthataren’tallowedbythelaw,therebystopsbeinganofficerofthelaw;andbecauseheactswithoutauthorityhemay·rightly·beopposed,asmayanyothermanwhobyforceinvadestherightofsomeoneelse."
ExcerptsfromChapter19:Thedissolutionofgovernment"229.Thepurposeofgovernmentisthegoodofmankind.Whichisbetterformankind:thatthepeoplebealwaysexposedtothelimitlesswilloftyranny,orthattherulersbesometimesliabletomeetwithoppositionwhentheygrowexorbitantintheuseoftheirpoweranduseitforthedestructionandnotthepreservationofthepropertiesoftheirpeople?
232.Anyonewhousesforcewithoutright(aseveryoneinsocietydoesifheusesforcewithoutlaw)putshimselfintoa•stateofwarwiththoseagainstwhomheusesit;andin•thatstateall formerbondsarecancelled,allotherrightscease,andeveryonehasarighttodefendhimself,andtoresisttheaggressor.Thisis
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soobviousthatBarclayhimself,thatgreatassertorofthepowerandsacrednessofkings,isforcedtoadmitthatitissometimeslawfulforthepeopletoresisttheirking;andhesaysit,what’smore,inachapterin
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whichheofferstoshowthatthedivinelawblocksthepeoplefromeverykindof•rebellion!Infacthisowndoctrinemakesitclearthatsincethepeoplemay•resistinsomecases,notallresistancetomonarchsisrebellion.Hiswordsarethese.
240. Atthispointyouarelikelytoask:Whoistobethejudgeofwhetherthemonarchorlegislaturehaveactedcontrarytotheirtrust?Thattheyhavesoactedisthesortofthingthatcanbespreadaroundamongthepeoplebydiscontentedandfactiousmen,whenallthekinghasdoneistomakeuseofhislegitimateprerogative.TothisIreply,Thepeopleshouldbejudge;forwhoshouldjudgewhetheratrusteeordeputyhasactedwellandaccordingtothetrustreposedinhim,ifnotthepersonwhodeputeshim?Havingdeputedhim,hemusthavestillapowertodiscardhimwhenhefailsinhistrust.Ifthisisreasonableinparticularcasesofprivatemen,whyshoulditbeotherwiseinthismostimportantcasewherethewelfareofmillionsisconcerned,andwherethethreatenedevilisgreater,andredressingitisverydifficult,costly,anddangerous?
241. Furthermore,thequestion‘Whoistobethejudge?’ can’tmeanthatthereisnojudgeatall;forwhenthereisnojudicatureonearthtodecidecontroversiesamongmen,Godinheavenisthejudge.ItistruethatGodaloneisthejudgeofwhatisright.Buteverymanisjudgeforhimself,inthiscaseasinallothers,ofwhetheranothermanhasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithhim,andwhetherheshouldappealtothesupreme judge.
242. Ifacontroversyarisesbetweenakingandsomeofthepeople,inamatterofgreatimportancewherethelawissilent,ordoubtful,Ithinktherightumpirewouldbethebodyofthepeople.Forincaseswherethekinghasatrustplacedinhimandisdispensedfromthecommonordinaryrulesofthelaw,ifany·private·menareaggrievedandthinkthatthekingactsbeyondthattrustorcontrarytoit,thebodyofthepeoplewhofirstplacedthattrustinhimareclearlythebestjudgesofhowfartheymeantthetrusttoextend.Ifthatwayofsettlingthematteristurneddownbytheking,orwhoeverisadministeringthegovernment,theonlycourtofappealisinheaven....·Whatwehavehereis·properlyastateofwar,inwhichtheonlyappealistoheaven;andinthatstatetheinjuredpartymustjudgeforhimselfwhenitisfitforhimtomakesuchanappeal."
Source:URL: http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1..
SecondTreatiseofGovernmentbyJohnLockeCopyright©2010–2015Allrightsreserved. JonathanBennett
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceB ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufrom
constitution.org
Excerpt
ExcerptsfromBookXI:OftheLaws,WhichEstablishPoliticalLiberty,withRegardtotheConstitution"2.DifferentSignificationsofthewordLiberty.Thereisnowordthatadmitsofmorevarioussignifications,andhasmademorevariedimpressionsonthehumanmind,thanthatofliberty.Somehavetakenitasameansofdeposingapersononwhomtheyhadconferredatyrannicalauthority;othersforthepowerofchoosingasuperiorwhomtheyareobligedtoobey;othersfortherightofbearingarms,andofbeingtherebyenabledtouseviolence;others,infine,fortheprivilegeofbeinggovernedbyanativeoftheirowncountry,orbytheirownlaws.[1]Acertainnationforalongtimethoughtlibertyconsistedintheprivilegeofwearingalongbeard.[2]Somehaveannexedthisnametooneformofgovernmentexclusiveofothers:thosewhohadarepublicantasteappliedittothisspeciesofpolity;thosewholikedamonarchicalstategaveittomonarchy.[3]Thustheyhaveallappliedthenameoflibertytothegovernmentmostsuitabletotheirowncustomsandinclinations:andasinrepublicsthepeoplehavenotsoconstantandsopresentaviewofthecausesoftheirmisery,andasthemagistratesseemtoactonlyinconformitytothelaws,hencelibertyisgenerallysaidtoresideinrepublics,andtobebanishedfrommonarchies.Infine,asindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactalmostastheyplease,thissortofgovernmenthasbeendeemedthemostfree,andthepowerofthepeoplehasbeenconfoundedwith their liberty.
3. InwhatLibertyconsists.Itistruethatindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactastheyplease;butpoliticallibertydoesnotconsistinanunlimitedfreedom.Ingovernments,thatis,insocietiesdirectedbylaws,libertycanconsistonlyinthepowerofdoingwhatweoughttowill,andinnotbeingconstrainedtodowhatweoughtnottowill.Wemusthavecontinuallypresenttoourmindsthedifferencebetweenindependenceandliberty.Libertyisarightofdoingwhateverthelawspermit,andifacitizencoulddowhattheyforbidhewouldbenolongerpossessedofliberty,becauseallhisfellow-citizenswouldhavethesamepower.
4. ThesameSubjectcontinued.Democraticandaristocraticstatesarenotintheirownnaturefree.Politicallibertyistobefoundonlyinmoderategovernments;andevenintheseitisnotalwaysfound.Itisthereonlywhenthereisnoabuseofpower.Butconstantexperienceshowsusthateverymaninvestedwithpowerisapttoabuseit,andtocarryhisauthorityasfarasitwillgo.Isitnotstrange,thoughtrue,tosaythatvirtueitselfhasneedoflimits?Topreventthisabuse,itisnecessaryfromtheverynatureofthingsthatpowershouldbeachecktopower.Agovernmentmaybesoconstituted,asnomanshallbecompelledtodothingstowhichthelawdoesnotobligehim,norforcedtoabstainfromthingswhichthelawpermits.
6.OftheConstitutionofEngland.Ineverygovernmenttherearethreesortsofpower:thelegislative;theexecutiveinrespecttothingsdependentonthelawofnations;andtheexecutiveinregardtomattersthatdependonthecivillaw.Byvirtueofthefirst,theprinceormagistrateenactstemporaryorperpetuallaws,andamendsorabrogatesthosethathavebeenalreadyenacted.Bythesecond,hemakespeaceorwar,sendsorreceivesembassies,establishesthepublicsecurity,andprovidesagainstinvasions.Bythethird,hepunishescriminals,ordeterminesthedisputesthatarisebetweenindividuals.Thelatterweshallcallthejudiciarypower,andtheothersimplytheexecutivepowerofthestate.Thepoliticallibertyofthesubjectisatranquilityofmindarisingfromtheopinioneachpersonhasofhissafety.Inordertohavethisliberty,itisrequisitethegovernmentbesoconstitutedasonemanneednotbeafraidofanother.Whenthelegislativeandexecutivepowersareunitedinthesameperson,apprehensionsmayarise,lestthesamemonarchorsenateshouldenacttyrannicallaws,toexecutetheminatyrannicalmanner.Again,thereisnoliberty,ifthejudiciarypowerbenotseparatedfromthelegislativeandexecutive.Wereitjoinedwiththelegislative,thelifeandlibertyofthesubjectwouldbeexposedtoarbitrarycontrol;forthejudgewouldbethenthelegislator.Wereit joinedtotheexecutivepower,thejudgemightbehavewithviolenceandoppression.Therewouldbeanendofeverything,werethesamemanorthesamebody,thatofenactinglaws,thatofexecutingthepublicresolutions,andoftryingthecausesofindividuals. Thejudiciarypoweroughtnottobegiventoastandingsenate;itshouldbeexercisedbypersonstakenfromthebodyofthepeople[7]atcertaintimesofthe
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year,andconsistentlywithaformandmannerprescribedbylaw,inordertoerectatribunalthatshouldlastonlysolongasnecessityrequires. Bythismethodthejudicialpower,soterribletomankind,notbeing
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annexedtoanyparticularstateorprofession,becomes,asitwere,invisible.Peoplehavenotthenthejudgescontinuallypresenttotheirview;theyfeartheoffice,butnotthemagistrate. Inaccusationsofadeepandcriminalnature,itisproperthepersonaccusedshouldhavetheprivilegeofchoosing,insomemeasure,hisjudges,inconcurrencewiththelaw;oratleastheshouldhavearighttoexceptagainstsogreatanumberthattheremainingpartmaybedeemedhisownchoice.Theothertwopowersmaybegivenrathertomagistratesorpermanentbodies,becausetheyarenotexercisedonanyprivatesubject;onebeingnomorethanthegeneralwillofthestate,andtheothertheexecutionofthatgeneralwill.Butthoughthetribunalsoughtnottobefixed,thejudgmentsought;andtosuchadegreeastobeeverconformabletotheletterofthelaw.Weretheytobetheprivateopinionofthejudge,peoplewouldthenliveinsociety,withoutexactlyknowingthenatureoftheirobligations.Thejudgesoughtlikewisetobeofthesamerankastheaccused,or,inotherwords,hispeers;totheendthathemaynotimagineheisfallenintothehandsofpersonsinclinedtotreathimwithrigour. Ifthelegislatureleavestheexecutivepowerinpossessionofarighttoimprisonthosesubjectswhocangivesecurityfortheirgoodbehaviour,thereisanendofliberty;unlesstheyaretakenup,inordertoanswerwithoutdelaytoacapitalcrime,inwhichcasetheyarereallyfree,beingsubjectonlytothepowerofthelaw."
ExcerptsfromBookXII.OftheLawsThatFormPoliticalLiberty,inRelationtotheSubject"12.OfindiscreetSpeeches.Nothingrendersthecrimeofhightreasonmorearbitrarythandeclaringpeopleguiltyofitforindiscreetspeeches.Speechissosubjecttointerpretation;thereissogreatadifferencebetweenindiscretionandmalice;andfrequentlysolittleisthereofthelatterinthefreedomofexpression,thatthelawcanhardlysubjectpeopletoacapitalpunishmentforwordsunlessitexpresslydeclareswhatwordstheyare.[34] Wordsdonotconstituteanovertact;theyremainonlyinidea.Whenconsideredbythemselves,theyhavegenerallynodeterminatesignification;forthisdependsonthetoneinwhichtheyareuttered. Itoftenhappensthatinrepeatingthesamewordstheyhavenotthesamemeaning;thisdependsontheirconnectionwithotherthings,andsometimesmoreissignifiedbysilencethanbyanyexpressionwhatever. Sincetherecanbenothingsoequivocalandambiguousasallthis,howisitpossibletoconvertitintoacrimeofhightreason?Whereverthislawisestablished,thereisanendnotonlyofliberty,butevenofitsveryshadow.
13.OfWritings.Inwritingsthereissomethingmorepermanentthaninwords,butwhentheyareinnowaypreparativetohightreasontheycannotamounttothatcharge."
ExcerptsfromBookXV.InWhatMannertheLawsofCivilSlaveryRelatetotheNatureoftheClimate"1.OfcivilSlavery.Slavery,properlysocalled,istheestablishmentofarightwhichgivestoonemansuchapoweroveranotherasrendershimabsolutemasterofhislifeandfortune.Thestateofslaveryisinitsownnaturebad.Itisneitherusefultothemasternortotheslave;nottotheslave,becausehecandonothingthroughamotiveofvirtue;nortothemaster,becausebyhavinganunlimitedauthorityoverhisslavesheinsensiblyaccustomshimselftothewantofallmoralvirtues,andthencebecomesfierce,hasty,severe,choleric,voluptuous,andcruel. Indespoticcountries,wheretheyarealreadyinastateofpoliticalservitude,civilslaveryismoretolerablethaninothergovernments. Everyoneoughttobesatisfiedinthosecountrieswithnecessariesandlife.Hencetheconditionofaslaveishardlymoreburdensomethanthatofasubject.Butinamonarchicalgovernment,whereitisoftheutmostimportancethathumannatureshouldnotbedebasedordispirited,thereoughttobenoslavery.Indemocracies,wheretheyarealluponequality;andinaristocracies,wherethelawsoughttousetheirutmostendeavorstoprocureasgreatanequalityasthenatureofthegovernmentwillpermit,slaveryiscontrarytothespiritoftheconstitution:itonlycontributestogiveapowerandluxurytothecitizenswhichtheyoughtnottohave.Neitherisittruethatafreemancansellhimself.Saleimpliesaprice;nowwhenapersonsellshimself,hiswholesubstanceimmediatelydevolvestohismaster;themaster,therefore,inthatcase,givesnothing,andtheslavereceivesnothing.Youwillsayhehasapeculium.Butthispeculiumgoesalongwithhisperson.Ifitisnotlawfulforamantokillhimselfbecauseherobshiscountryofhisperson,forthesamereasonheisnotallowedtobarterhisfreedom.Thefreedomofeverycitizenconstitutesapartofthepublicliberty,andinademocraticstateisevenapartofthesovereignty.Tosellone'sfreedom[3]issorepugnanttoallreasonascanscarcelybesupposedinanyman.Iflibertymayberatedwithrespecttothebuyer,itisbeyondallpricetotheseller.Thecivillaw,whichauthorisesadivisionofgoodsamongmen,cannotbethoughttorankamongsuchgoodsapartofthemen
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whoweretomakethisdivision.Thesamelawannulsalliniquitouscontracts;surelythenitaffordsredressinacontractwherethegrievanceismostenormous.Thethirdwayisbirth,whichfallswiththetwoformer;for
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ifamancouldnotsellhimself,muchlesscouldhesellanunborninfant.Ifaprisonerofwarisnottobereducedtoslavery,muchlessarehischildren. Ifitbepretendedthatithasbeenbeneficialtohim,ashismasterhasprovidedforhissubsistence,slavery,atthisrate,shouldbelimitedtothosewhoareincapableofearningtheirlivelihood.Butwhowilltakeupwithsuchslaves?Astoinfants,nature,whohassuppliedtheirmotherswithmilk,hadprovidedfortheirsustenance;andtheremainderoftheirchildhoodapproachessoneartheageinwhichtheyaremostcapableofbeingofservicethathewhosupportsthemcannotbesaidtogivethemanequivalentwhichcanentitlehimtobetheirmaster.Norisslaverylessopposedtothecivillawthantothatofnature.Whatcivillawcanrestrainaslavefromrunningaway,sinceheisnotamemberofsociety,andconsequentlyhasnointerestinanycivilinstitutions?Hecanberetainedonlybyafamilylaw,thatis,bythemaster'sauthority.Butasallmenarebornequal,slaverymustbeaccountedunnatural,thoughinsomecountriesitbefoundedonnaturalreason;andawidedifferenceoughttobemadebetweensuchcountries,andthoseinwhichevennaturalreasonrejectsit,asinEurope,whereithasbeensohappilyabolished."Source:URL:http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol.txt
Author:JonRoland,founderandPresidentofConstitutionSociety
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceC ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith
fromeconlib.org
Excerpt
BookIOftheCausesofImprovementintheproductivePowersofLabour,andoftheOrderaccordingtowhichitsProduceisnaturallydistributedamongthedifferentRanksofthePeople
BookI,ChapterIOftheDivisionofLabor*16
I.1.1Thegreatest improvement*17 in theproductivepowersof labour, and the greaterpart of the skill, dexterity,andjudgmentwithwhichit isanywheredirected,orapplied,seemtohavebeentheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour.
I.1.2
Theeffectsofthedivisionoflabour,inthegeneralbusinessofsociety,willbemoreeasilyunderstood,byconsideringinwhatmanneritoperates insomeparticularmanufactures.
I.1.3
Totakeanexample,therefore,*19fromaverytriflingmanufacture;butoneinwhichthedivisionoflabourhasbeenveryoftentakennoticeof,thetradeofthepin-maker;aworkmannoteducatedtothisbusiness(whichthedivisionoflabourhasrenderedadistincttrade),*20noracquaintedwiththeuseofthemachineryemployedinit(totheinventionofwhichthesamedivisionoflabourhasprobablygivenoccasion),couldscarce,perhaps,withhisutmostindustry,makeonepininaday,andcertainlycouldnotmaketwenty.Butinthewayinwhichthisbusinessisnowcarriedon,notonlythewholeworkisapeculiartrade,butitisdividedintoanumberofbranches,ofwhichthegreaterpartarelikewisepeculiartrades.Onemandrawsoutthewire,anotherstraightsit,athirdcutsit,afourthpointsit,afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceivingthehead;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;toputiton,isapeculiarbusiness,towhitenthepinsisanother;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothepaper;andtheimportantbusinessofmakingapinis,inthismanner,dividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations,which,insomemanufactories,areallperformedbydistincthands,thoughinothersthesamemanwillsometimesperformtwoorthreeof them.*21Ihaveseenasmallmanufactoryofthiskindwheretenmenonlywereemployed,andwheresomeofthemconsequentlyperformedtwoorthreedistinctoperations.Butthoughtheywereverypoor,andthereforebut indifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessarymachinery,theycould,whentheyexertedthemselves,makeamongthemabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday.Thereareinapoundupwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize.Thosetenpersons,therefore,couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty- eightthousandpinsinaday.Eachperson,therefore,makingatenthpartofforty-eightthousandpins,mightbeconsideredasmakingfourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday.Butiftheyhadallwroughtseparatelyandindependently,andwithoutanyofthemhavingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness,theycertainlycouldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty,perhapsnotonepininaday;thatis,certainly,notthetwohundredandfortieth,perhapsnotthefourthousandeighthundredthpartofwhattheyareatpresentcapableofperforming,inconsequenceofaproperdivisionandcombinationoftheirdifferentoperations.
I.1.5
Thisgreatincreaseofthequantityofworkwhich,inconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour,thesamenumberofpeoplearecapableofperforming,*26isowingtothreedifferentcircumstances;firsttotheincreaseofdexterityineveryparticularworkman;secondly,tothesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylostinpassing
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fromonespeciesofworktoanother;andlastly,totheinventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateandabridgelabour,andenableonemantodotheworkofmany.*27
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BookI,ChapterVOftheRealandNominalPriceofCommodities,oroftheirPriceinLabour,andtheirPriceinMoney
I.5.1
Everymanisrichorpooraccordingtothedegreeinwhichhecanaffordtoenjoythenecessaries,conveniencies,andamusementsofhumanlife.*1Butafterthedivisionof labourhasoncethoroughlytakenplace,itisbutaverysmallpartofthesewithwhichaman'sownlabourcansupplyhim.Thefargreaterpartofthemhemustderivefromthelabourofotherpeople,andhemustberichorpooraccordingtothequantityofthatlabourwhichhecancommand,orwhichhecanaffordtopurchase.Thevalueofanycommodity,therefore,tothepersonwhopossessesit,andwhomeansnottouseorconsumeithimself,buttoexchangeitforothercommodities,isequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Labour,therefore,istherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities.
I.5.2
Therealpriceofeverything,whateverythingreallycoststothemanwhowantstoacquireit,isthetoilandtroubleofacquiringit.Whateverythingisreallyworthtothemanwhohasacquiredit,andwhowantstodisposeofitorexchangeitforsomethingelse,isthetoilandtroublewhichitcansavetohimself,andwhichitcanimposeuponotherpeople.Whatisboughtwithmoneyorwithgoodsispurchasedbylabour,*2asmuchaswhatweacquirebythetoilofourownbody.Thatmoneyorthosegoodsindeedsaveusthistoil.Theycontainthevalueofacertainquantityoflabourwhichweexchangeforwhatissupposedatthetimetocontainthevalueofanequalquantity.Labourwasthefirstprice,theoriginalpurchase-moneythatwaspaidforallthings.Itwasnotbygoldorbysilver,butbylabour,thatallthewealthoftheworldwasoriginallypurchased;anditsvalue,tothosewhopossessit,andwhowanttoexchangeitforsomenewproductions,ispreciselyequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitcanenablethemtopurchaseorcommand.
I.5.3
Wealth,asMr.Hobbessays,ispower.*3Butthepersonwhoeitheracquires,orsucceedstoagreatfortune,doesnotnecessarilyacquireorsucceedtoanypoliticalpower,eithercivilormilitary.Hisfortunemay,perhaps,affordhimthemeansofacquiringboth,butthemerepossessionofthatfortunedoesnotnecessarilyconveytohimeither.Thepowerwhichthatpossessionimmediatelyanddirectlyconveystohim,isthepowerofpurchasing;acertaincommandoverallthelabour,oroveralltheproduceoflabourwhichistheninthemarket.Hisfortuneisgreaterorless,preciselyinproportiontotheextentofthispower;ortothequantityeitherofothermen'slabour,or,whatisthesamething,oftheproduceofothermen'slabour,whichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Theexchangeablevalueofeverythingmustalwaysbepreciselyequaltotheextentofthispowerwhichitconveystoitsowner.*4
I.5.4Butthoughlabourbetherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities,itisnotthatbywhichtheirvalueiscommonlyestimated.Itisoftendifficulttoascertaintheproportionbetweentwodifferentquantitiesoflabour.Thetimespentintwodifferentsortsofworkwillnotalwaysalonedeterminethisproportion.Thedifferentdegreesofhardshipendured,andof ingenuityexercised,mustlikewisebetakenintoaccount.Theremaybemorelabourinanhour'shardworkthanintwohourseasybusiness;orinanhour'sapplicationtoatradewhichitcosttenyearslabourtolearn,thaninamonth'sindustryatanordinaryandobviousemployment.Butitisnoteasytofindanyaccuratemeasureeitherofhardshiporingenuity.Inexchangingindeedthedifferentproductionsofdifferentsortsoflabourforoneanother,someallowanceiscommonlymadeforboth.Itisadjusted,however,notbyanyaccuratemeasure,butbythehigglingandbargainingofthemarket,accordingtothatsortofroughequalitywhich,thoughnotexact,issufficientforcarryingonthebusinessofcommonlife.*5
I.5.5Everycommoditybesides, ismorefrequentlyexchangedfor,andtherebycomparedwith,othercommodities
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thanwithlabour.Itismorenaturaltherefore,toestimateitsexchangeablevaluebythequantityofsomeothercommoditythanbythatofthelabourwhichitcanpurchase.Thegreaterpartofpeopletoounderstand
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betterwhatismeantbyaquantityofaparticularcommodity,thanbyaquantityoflabour.Theoneisaplainpalpableobject;theotheranabstractnotion,which,thoughitcanbemadesufficientlyintelligible,isnotaltogethersonaturalandobvious.I.5.6Butwhenbarterceases,andmoneyhasbecomethecommoninstrumentofcommerce,everyparticularcommodityismorefrequentlyexchangedformoneythanforanyothercommodity.Thebutcherseldomcarrieshisbeeforhismuttontothebaker,orthebrewer,inordertoexchangethemforbreadorforbeer;buthecarriesthemtothemarket,whereheexchangesthemformoney,andafterwardsexchangesthatmoneyforbreadandforbeer.Thequantityofmoneywhichhegetsforthemregulatestoothequantityofbreadandbeerwhichhecanafterwardspurchase.Itismorenaturalandobvioustohim,therefore,toestimatetheirvaluebythequantityofmoney,thecommodityforwhichheimmediatelyexchangesthem,thanbythatofbreadandbeer,thecommoditiesforwhichhecanexchangethemonlybytheinterventionofanothercommodity;andrathertosaythathisbutcher'smeatisworththreepenceorfourpenceapound,thanthatitisworththreeorfourpoundsofbread,orthreeorfourquartsofsmallbeer.Henceitcomestopass,thattheexchangeablevalueofeverycommodityismorefrequentlyestimatedbythequantityofmoney,thanbythequantityeitheroflabourorofanyothercommoditywhichcanbehadinexchangeforit.I.5.7Goldandsilver,however,likeeveryothercommodity,varyintheirvalue,aresometimescheaperandsometimesdearer,sometimesofeasierandsometimesofmoredifficultpurchase.Thequantityoflabourwhichanyparticularquantityofthemcanpurchaseorcommand,orthequantityofothergoodswhichitwillexchangefor,dependsalwaysuponthefertilityorbarrennessofthemineswhichhappentobeknownaboutthetimewhensuchexchangesaremade.ThediscoveryoftheabundantminesofAmericareduced,inthesixteenthcentury,thevalueofgoldandsilverinEuropetoaboutathirdofwhatithadbeenbefore.*6Asitcostlesslabourtobringthosemetalsfromtheminetothemarket,sowhentheywerebroughtthither*7theycouldpurchaseorcommandlesslabour;andthisrevolutionintheirvalue,thoughperhapsthegreatest,isbynomeanstheonlyoneofwhichhistorygivessomeaccount.Butasameasureofquantity,suchasthenaturalfoot,fathom,orhandful,whichiscontinuallyvaryinginitsownquantity,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthequantityofotherthings;soacommoditywhichisitselfcontinuallyvaryinginitsownvalue,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthevalueofothercommodities.Equalquantitiesoflabour,atalltimesandplaces,maybesaidtobe*8ofequalvaluetothelabourer.Inhisordinarystateofhealth,strengthandspirits;intheordinarydegreeofhisskillanddexterity,*9hemustalwayslaydownthesameportionofhisease,hisliberty,andhishappiness.Thepricewhichhepaysmustalwaysbethesame,whatevermaybethequantityofgoodswhichhereceivesinreturnforit.Ofthese,indeed,itmaysometimespurchaseagreaterandsometimesasmallerquantity;butitistheirvaluewhichvaries,notthatofthelabourwhichpurchasesthem.Atalltimesandplacesthatisdearwhichitisdifficulttocomeat,orwhichitcostsmuchlabourtoacquire;andthatcheapwhichistobehadeasily,orwithverylittlelabour.Labouralone,therefore,nevervaryinginitsownvalue,isalonetheultimateandrealstandardbywhichthevalueofallcommoditiescanatalltimesandplacesbeestimatedandcompared.Itistheirrealprice;moneyistheirnominalpriceonly.I.5.8Butthoughequalquantitiesoflabourarealwaysofequalvaluetothelabourer,yettothepersonwhoemployshimtheyappearsometimestobeofgreaterandsometimesofsmallervalue.Hepurchasesthemsometimeswithagreaterandsometimeswithasmallerquantityofgoods,andtohimthepriceoflabourseemstovarylikethatofallotherthings.Itappearstohimdearintheonecase,andcheapintheother.Inreality,however,itisthegoodswhicharecheapintheonecase,anddearintheother.I.5.9Inthispopularsense,therefore,labour,likecommodities,maybesaidtohavearealandanominalprice.Itsrealpricemaybesaidtoconsistinthequantityofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewhicharegivenforit;itsnominalprice,inthequantityofmoney.Thelabourerisrichorpoor,iswellorillrewarded,in
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proportiontothereal,nottothenominalpriceofhislabour.I.5.10
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Thedistinctionbetweentherealandthenominalpriceofcommoditiesandlabour,isnotamatterofmerespeculation,butmaysometimesbeofconsiderableuseinpractice.Thesamerealpriceisalwaysofthesamevalue;butonaccountofthevariationsinthevalueofgoldandsilver,thesamenominalpriceissometimesofverydifferentvalues.Whenalandedestate,therefore,issoldwithareservationofaperpetualrent,ifitisintendedthatthisrentshouldalwaysbeofthesamevalue,itisofimportancetothefamilyinwhosefavouritisreserved,thatitshouldnotconsistinaparticularsumofmoney.*10Itsvaluewouldinthiscasebeliabletovariationsoftwodifferentkinds;first,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentquantitiesofgoldandsilverwhicharecontainedatdifferenttimesincoinofthesamedenomination;and,secondly,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentvaluesofequalquantitiesofgoldandsilveratdifferenttimes.
BookI,ChapterVIIOftheNaturalandMarketPriceofCommodities*65
I.7.1Thereisineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraverageratebothofwagesandprofitineverydifferentemploymentoflabourandstock.Thisrateisnaturallyregulated,asIshallshowhereafter,*66partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesociety,theirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;andpartlybytheparticularnatureofeachemployment.
I.7.2
Thereislikewiseineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraveragerateofrent,whichisregulatedtoo,asIshallshowhereafter,*67partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesocietyorneighbourhoodinwhichthelandissituated,andpartlybythenaturalorimprovedfertilityoftheland.
I.7.3
Theseordinaryoraverageratesmaybecalledthenaturalratesofwages,profit,andrent,atthetimeandplaceinwhichtheycommonlyprevail.
I.7.4
Whenthepriceofanycommodityisneithermorenorlessthanwhatissufficienttopaytherentoftheland,thewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockemployedinraising,preparing,andbringingittomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates,thecommodityisthensoldforwhatmaybecalleditsnaturalprice.
I.7.5
Thecommodityisthensoldpreciselyforwhatitisworth,orforwhatitreallycoststhepersonwhobringsittomarket;forthoughincommonlanguagewhatiscalledtheprimecostofanycommoditydoesnotcomprehendtheprofitofthepersonwhoistosellitagain,yetifhesellsitatapricewhichdoesnotallowhimtheordinaryrateofprofitinhisneighbourhood,heisevidentlyaloserbythetrade;sincebyemployinghisstockinsomeotherwayhemighthavemadethatprofit.Hisprofit,besides,ishisrevenue,theproperfundofhissubsistence.As,whileheispreparingandbringingthegoodstomarket,headvancestohisworkmentheirwages,ortheirsubsistence;soheadvancestohimself,inthesamemanner,hisownsubsistence,whichisgenerallysuitabletotheprofitwhichhemayreasonablyexpectfromthesaleofhisgoods.Unlesstheyyieldhimthisprofit,therefore,theydonotrepayhimwhattheymayveryproperlybesaidtohavereallycosthim.
I.7.6
Thoughtheprice,therefore,whichleaveshimthisprofit,isnotalwaysthelowestatwhichadealermaysometimessellhisgoods,itisthelowestatwhichheislikelytosellthemforanyconsiderabletime;atleastwherethereisperfectliberty,*68orwherehemaychangehistradeasoftenashepleases.
I.7.7
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Theactualpriceatwhichanycommodityiscommonlysoldiscalleditsmarketprice.Itmayeitherbeabove,orbelow,orexactlythesamewithitsnaturalprice.
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I.7.8Themarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisregulatedbytheproportionbetweenthequantitywhichisactuallybroughttomarket,andthedemandofthosewhoarewillingtopaythenaturalpriceofthe commodity,orthewholevalueoftherent,labour,andprofit,*69whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Suchpeoplemaybecalledtheeffectualdemanders,andtheirdemandtheeffectualdemand;sinceitmaybesufficienttoeffectuatethebringingofthecommoditytomarket.Itisdifferentfromtheabsolutedemand.Averypoormanmaybesaidinsomesensetohaveademandforacoachandsix;hemightliketohaveit;buthisdemandisnotaneffectualdemand,asthecommoditycanneverbebroughttomarketinordertosatisfyit.I.7.9Whenthequantityofanycommoditywhichisbroughttomarketfallsshortoftheeffectualdemand,allthosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wages,andprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither,cannotbesuppliedwiththequantitywhichtheywant.Ratherthanwantitaltogether,someofthemwillbewillingtogivemore.Acompetitionwillimmediatelybeginamongthem,andthemarketpricewillrisemoreorlessabovethenaturalprice,accordingaseitherthegreatnessofthedeficiency,orthewealthandwantonluxuryofthecompetitors,happentoanimatemoreorlesstheeagernessofthecompetition.Amongcompetitorsofequalwealthandluxurythesamedeficiency*70willgenerallyoccasionamoreorlesseagercompetition,accordingastheacquisitionofthecommodityhappenstobeofmoreorlessimportancetothem.*71Hencetheexorbitantpriceofthenecessariesoflifeduringtheblockadeofatownorinafamine.I.7.10Whenthequantitybroughttomarketexceedstheeffectualdemand,itcannotbeallsoldtothosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wagesandprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Somepartmustbesoldtothosewhoarewillingtopayless,andthelowpricewhichtheygiveforitmustreducethepriceofthewhole.Themarketpricewillsinkmoreorlessbelowthenaturalprice,accordingasthegreatnessoftheexcessincreasesmoreorlessthecompetitionofthesellers,oraccordingasithappenstobemoreorlessimportanttothemtogetimmediatelyridofthecommodity.Thesameexcessintheimportationofperishable,willoccasionamuchgreatercompetitionthaninthatofdurablecommodities; intheimportationoforanges,forexample,thaninthatofoldiron.I.7.11Whenthequantitybroughttomarketisjustsufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemandandnomore,themarketpricenaturallycomestobeeitherexactly,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thewholequantityuponhandcanbedisposedofforthisprice,andcannotbedisposedofformore.Thecompetitionofthedifferentdealersobligesthemalltoacceptofthisprice,butdoesnotobligethemtoacceptofless.I.7.12Thequantityofeverycommoditybroughttomarketnaturallysuitsitselftotheeffectualdemand.Itistheinterestofallthosewhoemploytheirland,labour,orstock,inbringinganycommoditytomarket,thatthequantitynevershouldexceedtheeffectualdemand;anditistheinterestofallotherpeoplethatitnevershouldfallshortofthatdemand.*72
I.7.13Ifatanytimeitexceedstheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustbepaidbelowtheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofthelandlordswillimmediatelypromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirland;andifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofthelabourersintheonecase,andoftheiremployersintheother,willpromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirlabourorstockfromthisemployment.Thequantitybroughttomarketwillsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillrisetotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.
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I.7.14
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If,onthecontrary,thequantitybroughttomarketshouldatanytimefallshortoftheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustriseabovetheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofallotherlandlordswillnaturallypromptthemtopreparemorelandfortheraisingofthiscommodity;ifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofallotherlabourersanddealerswillsoonpromptthemtoemploymorelabourandstockinpreparingandbringingittomarket.Thequantitybroughtthitherwillsoonbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillsoonsinktotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.I.7.15Thenaturalprice,therefore,is,asitwere,thecentralprice,towhichthepricesofallcommoditiesarecontinuallygravitating.Differentaccidentsmaysometimeskeepthemsuspendedagooddealaboveit,andsometimesforcethemdownevensomewhatbelowit.Butwhatevermaybetheobstacleswhichhinderthemfromsettlinginthiscenterofreposeandcontinuance,theyareconstantlytendingtowardsit.I.7.16Thewholequantityofindustryannuallyemployedinordertobringanycommoditytomarket,naturallysuitsitselfinthismannertotheeffectualdemand.Itnaturallyaimsatbringingalwaysthatprecisequantitythitherwhichmaybesufficienttosupply,andnomorethansupply,thatdemand.I.7.17Butinsomeemploymentsthesamequantityofindustrywillindifferentyearsproduceverydifferentquantitiesofcommodities;*73whileinothersitwillproducealwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame.Thesamenumberoflabourersinhusbandrywill,indifferentyears,produceverydifferentquantitiesofcorn,wine,oil,hops,&c.Butthesamenumberofspinnersandweaverswilleveryyearproducethesameorverynearlythesamequantityoflinenandwoollencloth.Itisonlytheaverageproduceoftheonespeciesofindustrywhichcanbesuitedinanyrespecttotheeffectualdemand;andasitsactualproduceisfrequentlymuchgreaterandfrequentlymuchlessthanitsaverageproduce,thequantityofthecommoditiesbroughttomarketwillsometimesexceedagooddeal,andsometimesfallshortagooddealoftheeffectualdemand.Eventhoughthatdemandthereforeshouldcontinuealwaysthesame,theirmarketpricewillbeliabletogreatfluctuations,willsometimesfallagooddealbelow,andsometimesriseagooddealabove,theirnaturalprice.Intheotherspeciesofindustry,theproduceofequalquantitiesoflabourbeingalwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame,itcanbemoreexactlysuitedtotheeffectualdemand.Whilethatdemandcontinuesthesame,therefore,themarketpriceofthecommoditiesislikelytodosotoo,andtobeeitheraltogether,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thatthepriceoflinenandwoollenclothisliableneithertosuchfrequentnortosuchgreatvariationsasthepriceofcorn,everyman'sexperiencewillinformhim.Thepriceoftheonespeciesofcommoditiesvariesonlywiththevariationsinthedemand:Thatoftheothervariesnotonlywiththevariationsinthedemand,butwiththemuchgreaterandmorefrequentvariationsinthequantityofwhatisbroughttomarketinordertosupplythatdemand.I.7.18Theoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofanycommodityfallchieflyuponthosepartsofitspricewhichresolvethemselvesintowagesandprofit.Thatpartwhichresolvesitselfintorentislessaffectedbythem.Arentcertaininmoneyisnotintheleastaffectedbythemeitherinitsrateorinitsvalue.Arentwhichconsistseitherinacertainproportionorinacertainquantityoftherudeproduce,isnodoubtaffectedinitsyearlyvaluebyalltheoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofthatrudeproduce;butitisseldomaffectedbytheminitsyearlyrate.Insettlingthetermsofthelease,thelandlordandfarmerendeavour,accordingtotheirbestjudgment,toadjustthatrate,nottothetemporaryandoccasional,buttotheaverageandordinarypriceoftheproduce.I.7.19Suchfluctuationsaffectboththevalueandtherateeitherofwagesorofprofit,accordingasthemarkethappenstobeeitherover-stockedorunder-stockedwithcommoditiesorwithlabour;withworkdone,or
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withworktobedone.Apublicmourningraisesthepriceofblackcloth*74(withwhichthemarketisalmostalwaysunder-stockeduponsuchoccasions)andaugmentstheprofitsofthemerchantswhopossessany
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considerablequantityofit.Ithasnoeffectuponthewagesoftheweavers.Themarketisunder-stockedwithcommodities,notwithlabour;withworkdone,notwithworktobedone.Itraisesthewagesofjourneymentaylors.Themarketishereunder-stockedwithlabour.Thereisaneffectualdemandformore*75labour,formoreworktobedonethancanbehad.Itsinksthepriceofcolouredsilksandcloths,andtherebyreducestheprofitsofthemerchantswhohaveanyconsiderablequantityofthemuponhand.Itsinkstoothewagesoftheworkmenemployedinpreparingsuchcommodities,forwhichalldemandisstoppedforsixmonths,perhapsforatwelvemonth.Themarketishereover-stockedwithcommoditiesandwithlabour.I.7.20Butthoughthemarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisinthismannercontinuallygravitating,ifonemaysayso,towardsthenaturalprice,yetsometimesparticularaccidents,sometimesnaturalcauses,andsometimesparticularregulationsofpolice,may,inmanycommodities,keepupthemarketprice,foralongtimetogether,agooddealabovethenaturalprice.I.7.21Whenbyanincreaseintheeffectualdemand,themarketpriceofsomeparticularcommodityhappenstoriseagooddealabovethenaturalprice,thosewhoemploytheirstocksinsupplyingthatmarketaregenerallycarefultoconcealthischange.Ifitwascommonlyknown,theirgreatprofitwouldtemptsomanynewrivalstoemploytheirstocksinthesameway,that,theeffectualdemandbeingfullysupplied,themarketpricewouldsoonbereducedtothenaturalprice,andperhapsforsometimeevenbelowit.Ifthemarketisatagreatdistancefromtheresidenceofthosewhosupplyit,theymaysometimesbeabletokeepthesecretforseveralyearstogether,andmaysolongenjoytheirextraordinaryprofitswithoutanynewrivals.Secretsofthiskind,however,itmustbeacknowledged,canseldombelongkept;andtheextraordinaryprofitcanlastverylittlelongerthantheyarekept.I.7.22Secretsinmanufacturesarecapableofbeinglongerkeptthansecretsintrade.Adyerwhohasfoundthemeansofproducingaparticularcolourwithmaterialswhichcostonlyhalfthepriceofthosecommonlymadeuseof,may,withgoodmanagement,enjoytheadvantageofhisdiscoveryaslongashelives,andevenleaveitasalegacytohisposterity.Hisextraordinarygainsarisefromthehighpricewhichispaidforhisprivatelabour.Theyproperlyconsistinthehighwagesofthatlabour.Butastheyarerepeateduponeverypartofhisstock,andastheirwholeamountbears,uponthataccount,aregularproportiontoit,theyarecommonlyconsideredasextraordinaryprofitsofstock.*76
I.7.23Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectsofparticularaccidents,ofwhich,however,theoperationmaysometimeslastformanyyearstogether.I.7.24Somenaturalproductionsrequiresuchasingularityofsoilandsituation,thatallthelandinagreatcountry,whichisfitforproducingthem,maynotbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Thewholequantitybroughttomarket,therefore,maybedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivemorethanwhatissufficienttopaytherentofthelandwhichproducedthem,togetherwiththewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockwhichwereemployedinpreparingandbringingthemtomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates.Suchcommoditiesmaycontinueforwholecenturiestogethertobesoldatthishighprice;*77andthatpartofitwhichresolvesitselfintotherentoflandisinthiscasethepartwhichisgenerallypaidaboveitsnaturalrate.Therentofthelandwhichaffordssuchsingularandesteemedproductions,liketherentofsomevineyardsinFranceofapeculiarlyhappysoilandsituation,bearsnoregularproportiontotherentofotherequallyfertileandequallywell-cultivatedlandinitsneighbourhood.Thewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedinbringingsuchcommoditiestomarket,onthecontrary,areseldomoutoftheirnaturalproportiontothoseoftheotheremploymentsoflabourandstockintheirneighbourhood.
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I.7.25
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Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectofnaturalcauseswhichmayhindertheeffectualdemandfromeverbeingfullysupplied,andwhichmaycontinue,therefore,tooperatefor-ever.I.7.26Amonopolygrantedeithertoanindividualortoatradingcompanyhasthesameeffectasasecretintradeormanufactures.Themonopolists,bykeeping themarketconstantlyunder-stocked,bynever fullysupplyingtheeffectualdemand,selltheircommoditiesmuchabovethenaturalprice,andraisetheiremoluments,whethertheyconsistinwagesorprofit,greatlyabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.27Thepriceofmonopolyisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbegot.Thenaturalprice,orthepriceoffreecompetition,onthecontrary,isthelowestwhichcanbetaken,notuponeveryoccasionindeed,butforanyconsiderabletimealtogether.Theoneisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbesqueezedoutofthebuyers,orwhich,itissupposed,theywillconsenttogive:Theotheristhelowestwhichthesellerscancommonlyaffordtotake,andatthesametimecontinuetheirbusiness.I.7.28Theexclusiveprivilegesofcorporations,statutesofapprenticeship*,78andall thoselawswhichrestrain,inparticularemployments,thecompetitiontoasmallernumberthanmightotherwisegointothem,havethesametendency,thoughinalessdegree.Theyareasortofenlargedmonopolies,andmayfrequently,foragestogether,andinwholeclassesofemployments,keepupthemarketpriceofparticularcommoditiesabovethenaturalprice,andmaintainboththewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedaboutthemsomewhatabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.29Suchenhancementsofthemarketpricemaylastaslongastheregulationsofpolicewhichgiveoccasiontothem.I.7.30Themarketpriceofanyparticularcommodity,thoughitmaycontinuelongabove,canseldomcontinuelongbelow,itsnaturalprice.Whateverpartofitwaspaidbelowthenaturalrate,thepersonswhoseinterestitaffectedwouldimmediatelyfeeltheloss,andwouldimmediatelywithdraweithersomuchland,orsomuchlabour,orsomuchstock,frombeingemployedaboutit,thatthequantitybroughttomarketwouldsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Itsmarketprice,therefore,wouldsoonrisetothenaturalprice.Thisatleastwouldbethecasewheretherewasperfectliberty.*79
I.7.31Thesamestatutesofapprenticeshipandothercorporationlawsindeed,which,whenamanufactureisinprosperity,enabletheworkmantoraisehiswagesagooddealabovetheirnaturalrate,sometimesobligehim,whenitdecays,toletthemdownagooddealbelowit.Asintheonecasetheyexcludemanypeoplefromhisemployment,sointheothertheyexcludehimfrommanyemployments.Theeffectofsuchregulations,however,isnotnearsodurableinsinkingtheworkman'swagesbelow,asinraisingthemabovetheirnaturalrate.Theiroperationintheonewaymayendureformanycenturies,butintheotheritcanlastnolongerthanthelivesofsomeoftheworkmenwhowerebredtothebusinessinthetimeofitsprosperity.Whentheyaregone,thenumberofthosewhoareafterwardseducatedtothetradewillnaturallysuititselftotheeffectualdemand.ThepolicemustbeasviolentasthatofIndostanorantientEgypt*80(whereeverymanwasboundbyaprincipleofreligiontofollowtheoccupationofhisfather,andwassupposedtocommitthemosthorridsacrilegeifhechangeditforanother),whichcaninanyparticularemployment,andforseveralgenerationstogether,sinkeitherthewagesoflabourortheprofitsofstockbelowtheirnaturalrate.I.7.32
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ThisisallthatIthinknecessarytobeobservedatpresentconcerningthedeviations,whetheroccasionalorpermanent,ofthemarketpriceofcommoditiesfromthenaturalprice.
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I.7.33Thenaturalpriceitselfvarieswiththenaturalrateofeachofitscomponentparts,ofwages,profit,andrent;andineverysocietythisratevariesaccordingtotheircircumstances,accordingtotheirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition.Ishall, inthefourfollowingchapters,endeavourtoexplain,asfullyanddistinctlyasIcan,thecausesofthosedifferentvariations.
I.7.34
First,Ishallendeavourtoexplainwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofwages,andinwhatmannerthosecircumstancesareaffectedbytherichesorpoverty,bytheadvancing,stationaryordecliningstateofthesociety.
I.7.35
Secondly,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofprofit,andinwhatmannertoothosecircumstancesareaffectedbythelikevariationsinthestateofthesociety.
I.7.36
Thoughpecuniarywagesandprofitareverydifferentinthedifferentemploymentsoflabourandstock;yetacertainproportionseemscommonlytotakeplacebetweenboththepecuniarywagesinallthedifferentemploymentsof labour,andthepecuniaryprofitsinallthedifferentemploymentsofstock.Thisproportion,itwillappearhereafter,dependspartlyuponthenatureofthedifferentemployments,andpartlyuponthedifferentlawsandpolicyofthesocietyinwhichtheyarecarriedon.Butthoughinmanyrespectsdependentuponthelawsandpolicy,thisproportionseemstobelittleaffectedbytherichesorpovertyofthatsociety;byitsadvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;buttoremainthesameorverynearlythesameinallthosedifferentstates.Ishall,inthethirdplace,endeavourtoexplainallthedifferentcircumstanceswhichregulatethis proportion.
I.7.37
Inthefourthandlastplace,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichregulatetherentofland,andwhicheitherraiseorlowertherealpriceofallthedifferentsubstanceswhichitproduces.
Source:Smith,Adam.AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations.EdwinCannan,ed.London:Methuen&Co.,Ltd.1904.LibraryofEconomicsandLiberty[Online]availablefromhttp://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN0.html; accessed 17 January 2017; Internet.
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion3SupportingQuestion
WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?
FormativePerformanceTask
Inashortessay,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritingsandsuggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.comSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufromconstitution.orgSourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmithfromeconlib.org
Afterhavingaccomplishedsupportingquestion2formativeperformancetask,youngscholarswillusetheprovideddocumentstothinkaboutwhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidthatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,political,andeconomiccondition. Thisquestionisgearednotonlyatthetimeperiodinvolved,butalsoforthepresenttimeinAmerica. Thisstageoftheinquirywilltake2daystoaccomplishthe formativeperformancetask.
FormativePerformanceTask
Youngscholarswillexpressananswertotheformativeperformancetaskusingthesourcesprovided,andalsoincludehowthiscanbeattachedtocurrentconditionsofpeoplesintheUnitedStatessocially,politically,andeconomicallyintheformofanessay.
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SupportingQuestion3FeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.com
Excerpt
ExcerptsfromChapter2:Thestateofnature"4.Tounderstandpoliticalpowercorrectlyandderiveitfromitspropersource,wemustconsiderwhatstateallmenarenaturallyin.Inthisstatemenareperfectlyfreetoordertheiractions,anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandthemselves,inanywaytheylike,withoutaskinganyone’spermission—subjectonlyto limitssetbythelawofnature.Itisalsoastateofequality,inwhichno-onehasmorepowerandauthoritythananyoneelse;becauseitissimplyobviousthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandstatus,allborntoallthesameadvantagesofnatureandtotheuseofthesameabilities,shouldalsobeequal·inotherways·,withno- onebeingsubjectedtoorsubordinatetoanyoneelse,unless·God·,thelordandmasterofthemall,weretodeclareclearlyandexplicitlyhiswishthatsomeonepersonberaisedabovetheothersandgivenanundoubtedright todominionandsovereignty
6. Butthoughthisisastateof•liberty,itisn’tastateof•licence·inwhichtherearenoconstraintsonhowpeoplebehave·.Amaninthatstateisabsolutelyfreetodisposeofhimselforhispossessions,butheisn’tatlibertytodestroyhimself,oreventodestroyanycreatedthinginhispossessionunlesssomethingnoblerthanitsmerepreservationisatstake.Thestateofnatureisgovernedbyalawthatcreatesobligationsforeveryone.Andreason,whichisthatlaw,teachesanyonewhotakesthetroubletoconsultit,thatbecauseweareallequalandindependent,no-oneoughttoharmanyoneelseinhislife,health,liberty,orpossessions.Thisisbecause•wearealltheworkofoneomnipotentandinfinitelywisemaker;•wearealltheservantsofonesovereignmaster,sentintotheworldbyhisordertodohisbusiness;•weareallthepropertyofhimwhomadeus,andhemadeustolastaslongashechooses,notaslongaswechoose;•wehavethesameabilities,andshareinonecommonnature,sotherecan’tbeanyrank-orderingthatwouldauthorizesomeofustodestroyothers,asifweweremadetobeusedbyoneanother,asthelowerkindsofcreaturesaremadetobeusedbyus.Everyoneisobligedtopreservehimselfandnotoptoutoflifewillfully,soforthesamereasoneveryoneought,whenhisownsurvivalisn’tatstake,todoasmuchashecantopreservetherestofmankind;andexceptwhenit’samatterofpunishinganoffender,no-onemaytakeawayordamageanythingthatcontributestothepreservationofsomeoneelse’slife,liberty,health,limb,orgoods.
7. Sothat•allmenmaybeheldbackfrominvadingtherightsofothersandfromharmingoneanother,andsothat•thelawofnaturethataimsatthepeaceandpreservationofallmankindmaybeobeyed,theenforcementofthatlawofnature(inthestateofnature)isineveryman’shands,sothateveryonehasarighttopunishlaw-breakersasseverelyasisneededtohindertheviolationofthelaw.Forthelawofnature,likeeverylawconcerningmeninthisworld,wouldbefutileifno-onehadpowertoenforceitandtherebypreservetheinnocentandrestrainoffenders.Andinthestateofnatureifanyonemaypunishsomeoneforsomethingbadthathehasdone,theneveryonemaydoso....
13.Tothisstrangedoctrine·ofmine·,namelythatinthestateofnatureeveryonehasthepowertoenforcethelawofnature,Iexpectthisobjectiontoberaised:Itisunreasonableformentobejudgesintheirowncases,becauseself- lovewillbiasmeninfavourofthemselvesandtheirfriends.Andontheotherside,hostility,passionandrevengewillleadthemtopunishotherstooseverely.Sonothingbutconfusionanddisorderwillfollow,andthatiswhyGodhas—ashecertainlyhas—establishedgovernmenttorestrainthepartialityandviolenceofmen.Ifreelyallowthatcivilgovernmentistheproperremedyforthedrawbacksofthestateofnature.Theremustcertainlybegreatdisadvantagesinastatewheremenmaybejudgesintheirowncase;someonewhowasso•unjustastodohisbrotheraninjurywill(wemaywellsuppose)hardlybeso•justastocondemnhimselfforit!ButIrespondtotheobjectorasfollows:Ifthestateofnatureisintolerablebecauseoftheevilsthatareboundtofollowfrommen’sbeingjudgesintheirowncases,andgovernmentistobetheremedyforthis,·letusdoacomparison·.Ontheonesidethereisthe•stateofnature;ontheotherthereis•governmentwhereoneman—and remember that absolutemonarchs areonlymen!—commandsamultitude,isfreetobethejudgeinhisowncase,andcandowhathelikestoallhissubjects,withno-onebeingallowedtoquestionorcontrolthosewhocarryouthiswishes,andeveryonehavingtoputupwith
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whateverhedoes,whetherheisledbyreason,mistakeorpassion.Howmuchbetteritisinthestateofnature,wherenomanisobligedtosubmittotheunjustwillofsomeoneelse,andsomeonewhojudges
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wrongly(whetherornotitisinhisowncase)isanswerableforthattotherestofmankind!"ExcerptsfromChapter3:Thestateofwar"16.Thestateofwarisastateofenmityanddestruction.Sowhensomeonedeclaresbywordoraction—notinasuddenoutburstofrage,butasamatterofcalmsettleddesign—thatheintendstoendanotherman’slife,heputshimselfintoastateofwaragainsttheotherperson;andhetherebyexposeshislifetotheriskoffallingtothepowerofthe•otherpersonoranyonethatjoinswith•himinhisdefenceandtakesuphisquarrel.ForitisreasonableandjustthatIshouldhavearighttodestroyanythingthatthreatensmewithdestruction,becausethefundamentallawofnaturesaysthatmenaretobepreservedasmuchaspossible,andthatwhennoteveryonecanbepreservedthesafetyoftheinnocentistobepreferred.·Inlinewiththis·,Imaydestroyamanwhomakeswaronmeorhasrevealedhimselfasanenemytomylife,forthesamereasonthatImaykillawolforalion;becausesuchmenarenotunderthetiesofthecommonlawofreason,havenoruleexceptthatofforceandviolence,andsomaybetreatedasbeastsofprey—dangerouscreaturesthatwillcertainlydestroymeifIfallintotheirpower.
17. Soitcomesaboutthatsomeonewhotriestogetanothermanintohisabsolutepowertherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwiththeother,forsuchanattemptamountstoadeclarationofaplanagainstthelifeoftheotherman.Ifsomeonewantstogetme•intohispowerwithoutmyconsent,Ihavereasontoconcludethatwouldusemeashepleasedwhenhehadgotme•there,andwoulddestroymeifhewantedto;forno-onecanwanttohavemeinhisabsolutepowerunlessit’stocompelmebyforcetosomethingthatisagainsttherightofmyfreedom,i.e.tomakemeaslave.TobesureofmyownsurvivalImustbefreefromsuchforce;andreasontellsmetolookonhim—thepersonwhowants7SecondTreatiseJohnLocke3:Thestateofmeinhispower—asanenemytomysurvival,wantingtotakeawaythefreedomthatisthefencetoit.Sosomeonewhotriestoenslavemetherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwithme.Someonewantstotakeaway•thefreedomofsomeoneelsemustbesupposedtohaveaplantotakeaway•everythingelsefromtheperson,becausefreedomisthefoundationofalltherest;andthatholdsinacommonwealthaswellasinthestateofnature.
18. Thismakesitlawfulformetokillathiefwhohasn’tdonemeanyharmordeclaredanyplanagainstmylife,otherthanusingforcetogetmeinhispowersoastotakeawaymymoneyorwhateverelsehewants.Nomatterwhatheclaimsheisupto,heisusingforcewithoutright,togetmeintohispower;soIhavenoreasontothinkthathewon’t,whenhehasmeinhispower,takeeverythingelseawayfrommeaswellasmyliberty.Soitislawfulformetotreathimassomeonewhohasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithme,i.e.tokillhimifIcan;forthatistheriskheranwhenhestartedawarinwhichheistheaggressor.
19. This is theplaindifferencebetweenthestateof•natureandthestateof•war.Somemen—·notablyHobbes·—havetreatedthemasthesame;butinfacttheyareasdistantfromoneanotherasastateof•peace,goodwill,mutualassistanceandpreservation isdistant fromastateof•enmity,malice,violenceandmutualdestruction.Astateofnature,properlyunderstood,involvesmenlivingtogetheraccordingtoreason,withno-oneonearthwhostandsabovethembothandhasauthoritytojudgebetweenthem.Whereasinastateofwaramanusesordeclareshisintentiontouseforceagainstanotherman,withno-oneonearthtowhomtheothercanappealforrelief.Itisthelackofsuchanappealthatgivesamantherightofwaragainstanaggressor,·notonlyinastateofnaturebut·eveniftheyarebothsubjectsinasinglesociety. IfathiefhasalreadystolenallthatIamworthandisnotacontinuingthreattome,Imaynotharmhimexceptthroughanappealtothelaw.Butifheisnowsettingonmetorobme—evenifit’sjustmyhorseormycoatthatheisafter—Imaykillhim.Thereisthelaw,whichwasmadeformyprotection,butthereisnotimeforittointervenetosavemefromlosingmygoodsandperhapslosingmylife(andifIlosethatthereisnoreparation).Furthermore,itisthethief’sfaultthatthereisnotimeforanappealtothejudgethatstandsoverhimandme—namely,thelaw—andsoIamallowedtomakemyowndefence,andtobeatwarwiththethiefandtokillhimifIcan.Whatputsmenintoastateofnatureisthelackofacommonjudgewhohasauthority;theuseofunlawfulforceagainstaman’spersoncreatesastateofwar,whetherornotthereisacommonjudgeand(therefore)whetherornottheyareinastateofnature.
20. Butformenwhoareinasociety·underagovernment·,thestateofwarendswhentheactualforceends;andthenthoseoneachside·ofthetrouble·shouldequallysubmittothefairdeterminationofthelaw....But
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inthestateofnature,wheretherearenopositivelawsorjudgeswithauthoritytoappealto,onceastateofwarhasbegunitcontinues—withtheinnocentpartyhavingarighttodestroytheotherifhecan—untilthe
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aggressorofferspeace,andseeksreconciliationontermsthatwillmakeupforanywrongshehasdoneandwillgivetheinnocentpersonsecurityfromthenon.Whatifthesituationislikethis?Thereistimeandopportunityforanappealtothelaw,andtolegallyconstitutedjudges,buttheremedyisnotavailablebecauseofamanifestpervertingofjustice,abarefacedtwistingofthelawssothattheyprotectorevenrewardtheviolenceorinjuriesperpetratedbysomemenorsomepartyofmen.Insuchacaseitishardtothinkwehaveanythingbutastateofwar.Forwhereverviolenceisusedandinjurydone,evenifitisdonebypeopleappointedtoadministerjusticeandisdressedupinthename,claims,orformsoflaw,itisstillviolenceandinjury.Thepurposeofthelawistoprotectandgetcompensationfortheinnocent,byanunbiasedtreatmentofallwhocomeunderit;andwhenthisisnotgenuinelydone,warismadeuponthesufferers,andthey—havingnowhereonearthtoappealtoforjustice—arelefttotheonlyremedyinsuchcases,anappealtoheaven."
ExcerptsfromChapter4:Slavery"22.The•naturallibertyofmanistobefreefromanysuperiorpoweronearth,andnottobeunderthewillorlegislativeauthorityofmenbuttoberuledonlybythelawofnature.Thelibertyofman•insocietyistobeundernolegislativepowerexcepttheoneestablishedbyconsentinthecommonwealth;andnotunderthepowerofanywillorunderrestraintfromanylawexceptwhatisenactedbythelegislatureinaccordancewithitsmandate.FreedomthenisnotwhatSirRobertFilmertellsus(ObservationsonHobbes,Milton,etc.,page55),namelyalibertyforeveryonetodowhathewants,liveashepleases,andnotbetiedbyanylaws.Rather,·freedomisoneoftwothings·.•Freedomofnatureisbeingundernorestraintexceptthelawofnature.•Freedomofmenundergovernmentishavingastandingruletoliveby,commontoeveryoneinthesocietyinquestion,andmadebythelegislativepowerthathasbeensetupinit;alibertytofollowone’sownwillinanythingthatisn’tforbiddenbytherule,andnottobesubjecttotheinconstant,uncertain,unknown,arbitrarywillofanotherman.
23…Thisfreedomfromabsolute,arbitrarypower,issonecessarytoaman’ssurvival,sotightlytiedtoit,thatlosingitinvolveslosing·allcontrolover·hisownlife.·That’swhyno-onecanvoluntarilyenterintoslavery·.Amandoesn’thavethepowertotakehisownlife,sohecan’tvoluntarilyenslavehimselftoanyone,orputhimselfundertheabsolute,arbitrarypowerof•someoneelsetotakeawayhislifewhenever•hepleases.Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehas;sosomeonewhocannottakeawayhisownlifecannotgivesomeoneelsesuchapoweroverit.Ifsomeoneperformsanactthatdeservesdeath,hehasbyhisownfaultforfeitedhisownlife;thepersontowhomhehasforfeiteditmay(whenhehashiminhispower)delaytakingitandinsteadmakeuseoftheoffendingmanforhisownpurposes;andthisisn’tdoinghimanywrong,becausewheneverhefindsthehardshipofhisslaverytooutweighthevalueofhislife,hehasthepowertoresistthewillofhismaster,thusbringingthedeaththathewants.
24.WhatIhavebeendiscussingistheconditionofcompleteslavery,whichisjustacontinuationofthestateofwarbetweenalawfulconquerorandacaptive.Iftheyenterintoanykindofpact—agreeingtolimitedpowerontheonesideandobedienceontheother—thestateofwarandslaveryceasesforaslongasthepactisineffect.For,asIhavesaid,nomancanbyanagreementpassovertosomeoneelsesomethingthathedoesn’thimselfhave,namelyapoweroverhisownlife.IadmitthatwefindamongtheJews,aswellasothernations,caseswheremensoldthemselves;butclearlytheysoldthemselvesonlyintodrudgery,notslavery.Itisevidentthatthepersonwhowassoldwasn’ttherebyputatthemercyofanabsolute,arbitrary,despoticpower;forthemasterwasobligedatacertaintimetolettheothergofreefromhisservice,andsohecouldn’tatanytimehavethepowertokillhim.Indeedthemasterofthiskindofservantwassofarfromhavinganarbitrarypoweroverhis•lifethathecouldn’tarbitrarilyeven•maimhim:thelossofaneyeoratoothsethimfree(Exodusxxi)."
ExcerptfromChapter6:Paternalpower"61.Thusweareborn•free,asweareborn•rational;notthatweasnewbornbabiesactuallyhavetheuseofeither:agethatbrings•reasonbrings•freedomwithit."
ExcerptsfromChapter7:PoliticalorCivilSociety
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"90.Thismakesitevidentthatabsolutemonarchy,whichsomepeopleregardastheonly·genuine·governmentintheworld,isactuallyinconsistentwithcivilsocietyandsocan’tbeaformofcivilgovernment
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atall!Considerwhatcivilsocietyisfor.Itissetuptoavoidandremedythedrawbacksofthestateofnaturethatinevitablyfollowfromeveryman’sbeingjudgeinhisowncase,bysettingupaknownauthoritytowhicheverymemberofthatsocietycanappealwhenhehasbeenharmedorisinvolvedinadispute—anauthoritythateveryoneinthesocietyoughttoobey.Soanypeoplewhodon’thavesuchanauthoritytoappealtoforthesettlementoftheirdisputesarestillinthestateofnature.Thus,everyabsolutemonarchisinthestateofnaturewithrespecttothosewhoareunderhisdominion.
91.Foranabsolutemonarchissupposedtohavebothlegislativeandexecutivepowerinhimselfalone;sothereisnojudgeorcourtofappealthatcanfairly,impartially,andauthoritativelymakedecisionsthatcouldprovidereliefandcompensationforanyharmthatmaybeinflictedbythemonarchoronhisorders.Sosuchaman—callhimCzarorGrandSeigniororwhatyouwill—isasmuchinthestateofnaturewithrespecttohissubjectsasheiswithrespecttotherestofmankind.·Thisisaspecialcaseofthestateofnature,becausebetweenitandtheordinarystateofnaturethereis·thisdifference,awoefuloneforthesubject(really,theslave)ofanabsolutemonarch:•intheordinarystateofnatureamanisfreetojudgewhathehasarightto,andtousethebestofhispowertomaintainhisrights;whereas•inanabsolutemonarchy,whenhispropertyisinvadedbythewillofhismonarch,henotonlyhasno-onetoappealtobutheisn’tevenfreetojudgewhathisrightsareortodefendthem(asthoughhewereacatoradog,thatcan’tthinkforitself).Heis,inshort,exposedtoallthemiseryandinconveniencesthatamancanfearfromsomeonewhoisintheunrestrainedstateofnatureandisalsocorruptedwithflatteryandarmedwithpower."
ExcerptsfromChapter8:Thebeginningofpoliticalsocieties"95.Menallbeingnaturallyfree,equal,andindependent,no-onecanbedeprivedofthisfreedometc.andsubjectedtothepoliticalpowerofsomeoneelse,withouthisownconsent.Theonlywayanyonecanstripoffhisnaturallibertyandclothehimselfinthebondsofcivilsocietyisforhimtoagreewithothermentouniteintoacommunity,soastolivetogethercomfortably,safely,andpeaceably,inasecureenjoymentoftheirpropertiesandagreatersecurityagainstoutsiders.Anynumberofmencandothis,becauseitdoesnoharmtothefreedomoftherest;theyareleftwiththelibertyofthestateofnature,whichtheyhadallalong.Whenanynumberofmenhaveinthiswayconsentedtomakeonecommunityorgovernment,thatimmediatelyincorporatesthem,turnsthemintoasinglebodypoliticinwhichthemajorityhavearighttoactonbehalfoftherestandtobindthembyitsdecisions.
99.Sothosewhooutofastateofnatureuniteintoacommunitymustbeunderstoodtogiveupallthepowerrequiredtosecureitspurposestothemajorityofthecommunity(unlesstheyexplicitlyagreeonsomenumbergreaterthanthemajority).Theyachievethissimplybyagreeingtouniteintoonepoliticalsociety;that’sallthecompactthatisneededbetweentheindividualsthatcreateorjoinacommonwealth.Thus,whatbeginsapoliticalsocietyandkeepsitinexistenceisnothingbuttheconsentofanynumberoffreemencapableofamajoritytouniteandincorporateintosuchasociety.Thisistheonlythingthatdidorcouldgiveabeginningtoanylawfulgovernmentintheworld."
ExcerptfromChapter18:Tyranny"202.Whereverlawends,tyrannybegins,ifthebreachofthelawbringsharmtosomeoneelse;andanyoneinauthoritywhoexceedsthepowergivenhimbythelaw,usingtheforceathisdisposaltodotothesubjectthingsthataren’tallowedbythelaw,therebystopsbeinganofficerofthelaw;andbecauseheactswithoutauthorityhemay·rightly·beopposed,asmayanyothermanwhobyforceinvadestherightofsomeoneelse."
ExcerptsfromChapter19:Thedissolutionofgovernment"229.Thepurposeofgovernmentisthegoodofmankind.Whichisbetterformankind:thatthepeoplebealwaysexposedtothelimitlesswilloftyranny,orthattherulersbesometimesliabletomeetwithoppositionwhentheygrowexorbitantintheuseoftheirpoweranduseitforthedestructionandnotthepreservationofthepropertiesoftheirpeople?
232.Anyonewhousesforcewithoutright(aseveryoneinsocietydoesifheusesforcewithoutlaw)putshimselfintoa•stateofwarwiththoseagainstwhomheusesit;andin•thatstateall formerbondsarecancelled,allotherrightscease,andeveryonehasarighttodefendhimself,andtoresisttheaggressor.Thisis
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soobviousthatBarclayhimself,thatgreatassertorofthepowerandsacrednessofkings,isforcedtoadmitthatitissometimeslawfulforthepeopletoresisttheirking;andhesaysit,what’smore,inachapterin
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whichheofferstoshowthatthedivinelawblocksthepeoplefromeverykindof•rebellion!Infacthisowndoctrinemakesitclearthatsincethepeoplemay•resistinsomecases,notallresistancetomonarchsisrebellion.Hiswordsarethese.
240. Atthispointyouarelikelytoask:Whoistobethejudgeofwhetherthemonarchorlegislaturehaveactedcontrarytotheirtrust?Thattheyhavesoactedisthesortofthingthatcanbespreadaroundamongthepeoplebydiscontentedandfactiousmen,whenallthekinghasdoneistomakeuseofhislegitimateprerogative.TothisIreply,Thepeopleshouldbejudge;forwhoshouldjudgewhetheratrusteeordeputyhasactedwellandaccordingtothetrustreposedinhim,ifnotthepersonwhodeputeshim?Havingdeputedhim,hemusthavestillapowertodiscardhimwhenhefailsinhistrust.Ifthisisreasonableinparticularcasesofprivatemen,whyshoulditbeotherwiseinthismostimportantcasewherethewelfareofmillionsisconcerned,andwherethethreatenedevilisgreater,andredressingitisverydifficult,costly,anddangerous?
241. Furthermore,thequestion‘Whoistobethejudge?’ can’tmeanthatthereisnojudgeatall;forwhenthereisnojudicatureonearthtodecidecontroversiesamongmen,Godinheavenisthejudge.ItistruethatGodaloneisthejudgeofwhatisright.Buteverymanisjudgeforhimself,inthiscaseasinallothers,ofwhetheranothermanhasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithhim,andwhetherheshouldappealtothesupreme judge.
242. Ifacontroversyarisesbetweenakingandsomeofthepeople,inamatterofgreatimportancewherethelawissilent,ordoubtful,Ithinktherightumpirewouldbethebodyofthepeople.Forincaseswherethekinghasatrustplacedinhimandisdispensedfromthecommonordinaryrulesofthelaw,ifany·private·menareaggrievedandthinkthatthekingactsbeyondthattrustorcontrarytoit,thebodyofthepeoplewhofirstplacedthattrustinhimareclearlythebestjudgesofhowfartheymeantthetrusttoextend.Ifthatwayofsettlingthematteristurneddownbytheking,orwhoeverisadministeringthegovernment,theonlycourtofappealisinheaven....·Whatwehavehereis·properlyastateofwar,inwhichtheonlyappealistoheaven;andinthatstatetheinjuredpartymustjudgeforhimselfwhenitisfitforhimtomakesuchanappeal."
Source:URL: http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1..
SecondTreatiseofGovernmentbyJohnLockeCopyright©2010–2015Allrightsreserved. JonathanBennett
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SupportingQuestion3FeaturedSourceB ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufrom
constitution.org
Excerpt
ExcerptsfromBookXI:OftheLaws,WhichEstablishPoliticalLiberty,withRegardtotheConstitution"2.DifferentSignificationsofthewordLiberty.Thereisnowordthatadmitsofmorevarioussignifications,andhasmademorevariedimpressionsonthehumanmind,thanthatofliberty.Somehavetakenitasameansofdeposingapersononwhomtheyhadconferredatyrannicalauthority;othersforthepowerofchoosingasuperiorwhomtheyareobligedtoobey;othersfortherightofbearingarms,andofbeingtherebyenabledtouseviolence;others,infine,fortheprivilegeofbeinggovernedbyanativeoftheirowncountry,orbytheirownlaws.[1]Acertainnationforalongtimethoughtlibertyconsistedintheprivilegeofwearingalongbeard.[2]Somehaveannexedthisnametooneformofgovernmentexclusiveofothers:thosewhohadarepublicantasteappliedittothisspeciesofpolity;thosewholikedamonarchicalstategaveittomonarchy.[3]Thustheyhaveallappliedthenameoflibertytothegovernmentmostsuitabletotheirowncustomsandinclinations:andasinrepublicsthepeoplehavenotsoconstantandsopresentaviewofthecausesoftheirmisery,andasthemagistratesseemtoactonlyinconformitytothelaws,hencelibertyisgenerallysaidtoresideinrepublics,andtobebanishedfrommonarchies.Infine,asindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactalmostastheyplease,thissortofgovernmenthasbeendeemedthemostfree,andthepowerofthepeoplehasbeenconfoundedwith their liberty.
3. InwhatLibertyconsists.Itistruethatindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactastheyplease;butpoliticallibertydoesnotconsistinanunlimitedfreedom.Ingovernments,thatis,insocietiesdirectedbylaws,libertycanconsistonlyinthepowerofdoingwhatweoughttowill,andinnotbeingconstrainedtodowhatweoughtnottowill.Wemusthavecontinuallypresenttoourmindsthedifferencebetweenindependenceandliberty.Libertyisarightofdoingwhateverthelawspermit,andifacitizencoulddowhattheyforbidhewouldbenolongerpossessedofliberty,becauseallhisfellow-citizenswouldhavethesamepower.
4. ThesameSubjectcontinued.Democraticandaristocraticstatesarenotintheirownnaturefree.Politicallibertyistobefoundonlyinmoderategovernments;andevenintheseitisnotalwaysfound.Itisthereonlywhenthereisnoabuseofpower.Butconstantexperienceshowsusthateverymaninvestedwithpowerisapttoabuseit,andtocarryhisauthorityasfarasitwillgo.Isitnotstrange,thoughtrue,tosaythatvirtueitselfhasneedoflimits?Topreventthisabuse,itisnecessaryfromtheverynatureofthingsthatpowershouldbeachecktopower.Agovernmentmaybesoconstituted,asnomanshallbecompelledtodothingstowhichthelawdoesnotobligehim,norforcedtoabstainfromthingswhichthelawpermits.
6.OftheConstitutionofEngland.Ineverygovernmenttherearethreesortsofpower:thelegislative;theexecutiveinrespecttothingsdependentonthelawofnations;andtheexecutiveinregardtomattersthatdependonthecivillaw.Byvirtueofthefirst,theprinceormagistrateenactstemporaryorperpetuallaws,andamendsorabrogatesthosethathavebeenalreadyenacted.Bythesecond,hemakespeaceorwar,sendsorreceivesembassies,establishesthepublicsecurity,andprovidesagainstinvasions.Bythethird,hepunishescriminals,ordeterminesthedisputesthatarisebetweenindividuals.Thelatterweshallcallthejudiciarypower,andtheothersimplytheexecutivepowerofthestate.Thepoliticallibertyofthesubjectisatranquilityofmindarisingfromtheopinioneachpersonhasofhissafety.Inordertohavethisliberty,itisrequisitethegovernmentbesoconstitutedasonemanneednotbeafraidofanother.Whenthelegislativeandexecutivepowersareunitedinthesameperson,apprehensionsmayarise,lestthesamemonarchorsenateshouldenacttyrannicallaws,toexecutetheminatyrannicalmanner.Again,thereisnoliberty,ifthejudiciarypowerbenotseparatedfromthelegislativeandexecutive.Wereitjoinedwiththelegislative,thelifeandlibertyofthesubjectwouldbeexposedtoarbitrarycontrol;forthejudgewouldbethenthelegislator.Wereit joinedtotheexecutivepower,thejudgemightbehavewithviolenceandoppression.Therewouldbeanendofeverything,werethesamemanorthesamebody,thatofenactinglaws,thatofexecutingthepublicresolutions,andoftryingthecausesofindividuals. Thejudiciarypoweroughtnottobegiventoastandingsenate;itshouldbeexercisedbypersonstakenfromthebodyofthepeople[7]atcertaintimesofthe
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year,andconsistentlywithaformandmannerprescribedbylaw,inordertoerectatribunalthatshouldlastonlysolongasnecessityrequires. Bythismethodthejudicialpower,soterribletomankind,notbeing
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annexedtoanyparticularstateorprofession,becomes,asitwere,invisible.Peoplehavenotthenthejudgescontinuallypresenttotheirview;theyfeartheoffice,butnotthemagistrate. Inaccusationsofadeepandcriminalnature,itisproperthepersonaccusedshouldhavetheprivilegeofchoosing,insomemeasure,hisjudges,inconcurrencewiththelaw;oratleastheshouldhavearighttoexceptagainstsogreatanumberthattheremainingpartmaybedeemedhisownchoice.Theothertwopowersmaybegivenrathertomagistratesorpermanentbodies,becausetheyarenotexercisedonanyprivatesubject;onebeingnomorethanthegeneralwillofthestate,andtheothertheexecutionofthatgeneralwill.Butthoughthetribunalsoughtnottobefixed,thejudgmentsought;andtosuchadegreeastobeeverconformabletotheletterofthelaw.Weretheytobetheprivateopinionofthejudge,peoplewouldthenliveinsociety,withoutexactlyknowingthenatureoftheirobligations.Thejudgesoughtlikewisetobeofthesamerankastheaccused,or,inotherwords,hispeers;totheendthathemaynotimagineheisfallenintothehandsofpersonsinclinedtotreathimwithrigour. Ifthelegislatureleavestheexecutivepowerinpossessionofarighttoimprisonthosesubjectswhocangivesecurityfortheirgoodbehaviour,thereisanendofliberty;unlesstheyaretakenup,inordertoanswerwithoutdelaytoacapitalcrime,inwhichcasetheyarereallyfree,beingsubjectonlytothepowerofthelaw."
ExcerptsfromBookXII.OftheLawsThatFormPoliticalLiberty,inRelationtotheSubject"12.OfindiscreetSpeeches.Nothingrendersthecrimeofhightreasonmorearbitrarythandeclaringpeopleguiltyofitforindiscreetspeeches.Speechissosubjecttointerpretation;thereissogreatadifferencebetweenindiscretionandmalice;andfrequentlysolittleisthereofthelatterinthefreedomofexpression,thatthelawcanhardlysubjectpeopletoacapitalpunishmentforwordsunlessitexpresslydeclareswhatwordstheyare.[34] Wordsdonotconstituteanovertact;theyremainonlyinidea.Whenconsideredbythemselves,theyhavegenerallynodeterminatesignification;forthisdependsonthetoneinwhichtheyareuttered. Itoftenhappensthatinrepeatingthesamewordstheyhavenotthesamemeaning;thisdependsontheirconnectionwithotherthings,andsometimesmoreissignifiedbysilencethanbyanyexpressionwhatever. Sincetherecanbenothingsoequivocalandambiguousasallthis,howisitpossibletoconvertitintoacrimeofhightreason?Whereverthislawisestablished,thereisanendnotonlyofliberty,butevenofitsveryshadow.
13.OfWritings.Inwritingsthereissomethingmorepermanentthaninwords,butwhentheyareinnowaypreparativetohightreasontheycannotamounttothatcharge."
ExcerptsfromBookXV.InWhatMannertheLawsofCivilSlaveryRelatetotheNatureoftheClimate"1.OfcivilSlavery.Slavery,properlysocalled,istheestablishmentofarightwhichgivestoonemansuchapoweroveranotherasrendershimabsolutemasterofhislifeandfortune.Thestateofslaveryisinitsownnaturebad.Itisneitherusefultothemasternortotheslave;nottotheslave,becausehecandonothingthroughamotiveofvirtue;nortothemaster,becausebyhavinganunlimitedauthorityoverhisslavesheinsensiblyaccustomshimselftothewantofallmoralvirtues,andthencebecomesfierce,hasty,severe,choleric,voluptuous,andcruel. Indespoticcountries,wheretheyarealreadyinastateofpoliticalservitude,civilslaveryismoretolerablethaninothergovernments. Everyoneoughttobesatisfiedinthosecountrieswithnecessariesandlife.Hencetheconditionofaslaveishardlymoreburdensomethanthatofasubject.Butinamonarchicalgovernment,whereitisoftheutmostimportancethathumannatureshouldnotbedebasedordispirited,thereoughttobenoslavery.Indemocracies,wheretheyarealluponequality;andinaristocracies,wherethelawsoughttousetheirutmostendeavorstoprocureasgreatanequalityasthenatureofthegovernmentwillpermit,slaveryiscontrarytothespiritoftheconstitution:itonlycontributestogiveapowerandluxurytothecitizenswhichtheyoughtnottohave.Neitherisittruethatafreemancansellhimself.Saleimpliesaprice;nowwhenapersonsellshimself,hiswholesubstanceimmediatelydevolvestohismaster;themaster,therefore,inthatcase,givesnothing,andtheslavereceivesnothing.Youwillsayhehasapeculium.Butthispeculiumgoesalongwithhisperson.Ifitisnotlawfulforamantokillhimselfbecauseherobshiscountryofhisperson,forthesamereasonheisnotallowedtobarterhisfreedom.Thefreedomofeverycitizenconstitutesapartofthepublicliberty,andinademocraticstateisevenapartofthesovereignty.Tosellone'sfreedom[3]issorepugnanttoallreasonascanscarcelybesupposedinanyman.Iflibertymayberatedwithrespecttothebuyer,itisbeyondallpricetotheseller.Thecivillaw,whichauthorisesadivisionofgoodsamongmen,cannotbethoughttorankamongsuchgoodsapartofthemen
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whoweretomakethisdivision.Thesamelawannulsalliniquitouscontracts;surelythenitaffordsredressinacontractwherethegrievanceismostenormous.Thethirdwayisbirth,whichfallswiththetwoformer;for
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ifamancouldnotsellhimself,muchlesscouldhesellanunborninfant.Ifaprisonerofwarisnottobereducedtoslavery,muchlessarehischildren. Ifitbepretendedthatithasbeenbeneficialtohim,ashismasterhasprovidedforhissubsistence,slavery,atthisrate,shouldbelimitedtothosewhoareincapableofearningtheirlivelihood.Butwhowilltakeupwithsuchslaves?Astoinfants,nature,whohassuppliedtheirmotherswithmilk,hadprovidedfortheirsustenance;andtheremainderoftheirchildhoodapproachessoneartheageinwhichtheyaremostcapableofbeingofservicethathewhosupportsthemcannotbesaidtogivethemanequivalentwhichcanentitlehimtobetheirmaster.Norisslaverylessopposedtothecivillawthantothatofnature.Whatcivillawcanrestrainaslavefromrunningaway,sinceheisnotamemberofsociety,andconsequentlyhasnointerestinanycivilinstitutions?Hecanberetainedonlybyafamilylaw,thatis,bythemaster'sauthority.Butasallmenarebornequal,slaverymustbeaccountedunnatural,thoughinsomecountriesitbefoundedonnaturalreason;andawidedifferenceoughttobemadebetweensuchcountries,andthoseinwhichevennaturalreasonrejectsit,asinEurope,whereithasbeensohappilyabolished."Source:URL:http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol.txt
Author:JonRoland,founderandPresidentofConstitutionSociety
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SupportingQuestion3FeaturedSourceC ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith
fromeconlib.org
Excerpt
BookIOftheCausesofImprovementintheproductivePowersofLabour,andoftheOrderaccordingtowhichitsProduceisnaturallydistributedamongthedifferentRanksofthePeople
BookI,ChapterIOftheDivisionofLabor*16
I.1.1Thegreatest improvement*17 in theproductivepowersof labour, and the greaterpart of the skill, dexterity,andjudgmentwithwhichit isanywheredirected,orapplied,seemtohavebeentheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour.
I.1.2
Theeffectsofthedivisionoflabour,inthegeneralbusinessofsociety,willbemoreeasilyunderstood,byconsideringinwhatmanneritoperates insomeparticularmanufactures.
I.1.3
Totakeanexample,therefore,*19fromaverytriflingmanufacture;butoneinwhichthedivisionoflabourhasbeenveryoftentakennoticeof,thetradeofthepin-maker;aworkmannoteducatedtothisbusiness(whichthedivisionoflabourhasrenderedadistincttrade),*20noracquaintedwiththeuseofthemachineryemployedinit(totheinventionofwhichthesamedivisionoflabourhasprobablygivenoccasion),couldscarce,perhaps,withhisutmostindustry,makeonepininaday,andcertainlycouldnotmaketwenty.Butinthewayinwhichthisbusinessisnowcarriedon,notonlythewholeworkisapeculiartrade,butitisdividedintoanumberofbranches,ofwhichthegreaterpartarelikewisepeculiartrades.Onemandrawsoutthewire,anotherstraightsit,athirdcutsit,afourthpointsit,afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceivingthehead;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;toputiton,isapeculiarbusiness,towhitenthepinsisanother;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothepaper;andtheimportantbusinessofmakingapinis,inthismanner,dividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations,which,insomemanufactories,areallperformedbydistincthands,thoughinothersthesamemanwillsometimesperformtwoorthreeof them.*21Ihaveseenasmallmanufactoryofthiskindwheretenmenonlywereemployed,andwheresomeofthemconsequentlyperformedtwoorthreedistinctoperations.Butthoughtheywereverypoor,andthereforebut indifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessarymachinery,theycould,whentheyexertedthemselves,makeamongthemabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday.Thereareinapoundupwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize.Thosetenpersons,therefore,couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty- eightthousandpinsinaday.Eachperson,therefore,makingatenthpartofforty-eightthousandpins,mightbeconsideredasmakingfourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday.Butiftheyhadallwroughtseparatelyandindependently,andwithoutanyofthemhavingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness,theycertainlycouldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty,perhapsnotonepininaday;thatis,certainly,notthetwohundredandfortieth,perhapsnotthefourthousandeighthundredthpartofwhattheyareatpresentcapableofperforming,inconsequenceofaproperdivisionandcombinationoftheirdifferentoperations.
I.1.5
Thisgreatincreaseofthequantityofworkwhich,inconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour,thesamenumberofpeoplearecapableofperforming,*26isowingtothreedifferentcircumstances;firsttotheincreaseofdexterityineveryparticularworkman;secondly,tothesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylostinpassing
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fromonespeciesofworktoanother;andlastly,totheinventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateandabridgelabour,andenableonemantodotheworkofmany.*27
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BookI,ChapterVOftheRealandNominalPriceofCommodities,oroftheirPriceinLabour,andtheirPriceinMoney
I.5.1
Everymanisrichorpooraccordingtothedegreeinwhichhecanaffordtoenjoythenecessaries,conveniencies,andamusementsofhumanlife.*1Butafterthedivisionof labourhasoncethoroughlytakenplace,itisbutaverysmallpartofthesewithwhichaman'sownlabourcansupplyhim.Thefargreaterpartofthemhemustderivefromthelabourofotherpeople,andhemustberichorpooraccordingtothequantityofthatlabourwhichhecancommand,orwhichhecanaffordtopurchase.Thevalueofanycommodity,therefore,tothepersonwhopossessesit,andwhomeansnottouseorconsumeithimself,buttoexchangeitforothercommodities,isequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Labour,therefore,istherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities.
I.5.2
Therealpriceofeverything,whateverythingreallycoststothemanwhowantstoacquireit,isthetoilandtroubleofacquiringit.Whateverythingisreallyworthtothemanwhohasacquiredit,andwhowantstodisposeofitorexchangeitforsomethingelse,isthetoilandtroublewhichitcansavetohimself,andwhichitcanimposeuponotherpeople.Whatisboughtwithmoneyorwithgoodsispurchasedbylabour,*2asmuchaswhatweacquirebythetoilofourownbody.Thatmoneyorthosegoodsindeedsaveusthistoil.Theycontainthevalueofacertainquantityoflabourwhichweexchangeforwhatissupposedatthetimetocontainthevalueofanequalquantity.Labourwasthefirstprice,theoriginalpurchase-moneythatwaspaidforallthings.Itwasnotbygoldorbysilver,butbylabour,thatallthewealthoftheworldwasoriginallypurchased;anditsvalue,tothosewhopossessit,andwhowanttoexchangeitforsomenewproductions,ispreciselyequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitcanenablethemtopurchaseorcommand.
I.5.3
Wealth,asMr.Hobbessays,ispower.*3Butthepersonwhoeitheracquires,orsucceedstoagreatfortune,doesnotnecessarilyacquireorsucceedtoanypoliticalpower,eithercivilormilitary.Hisfortunemay,perhaps,affordhimthemeansofacquiringboth,butthemerepossessionofthatfortunedoesnotnecessarilyconveytohimeither.Thepowerwhichthatpossessionimmediatelyanddirectlyconveystohim,isthepowerofpurchasing;acertaincommandoverallthelabour,oroveralltheproduceoflabourwhichistheninthemarket.Hisfortuneisgreaterorless,preciselyinproportiontotheextentofthispower;ortothequantityeitherofothermen'slabour,or,whatisthesamething,oftheproduceofothermen'slabour,whichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Theexchangeablevalueofeverythingmustalwaysbepreciselyequaltotheextentofthispowerwhichitconveystoitsowner.*4
I.5.4Butthoughlabourbetherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities,itisnotthatbywhichtheirvalueiscommonlyestimated.Itisoftendifficulttoascertaintheproportionbetweentwodifferentquantitiesoflabour.Thetimespentintwodifferentsortsofworkwillnotalwaysalonedeterminethisproportion.Thedifferentdegreesofhardshipendured,andof ingenuityexercised,mustlikewisebetakenintoaccount.Theremaybemorelabourinanhour'shardworkthanintwohourseasybusiness;orinanhour'sapplicationtoatradewhichitcosttenyearslabourtolearn,thaninamonth'sindustryatanordinaryandobviousemployment.Butitisnoteasytofindanyaccuratemeasureeitherofhardshiporingenuity.Inexchangingindeedthedifferentproductionsofdifferentsortsoflabourforoneanother,someallowanceiscommonlymadeforboth.Itisadjusted,however,notbyanyaccuratemeasure,butbythehigglingandbargainingofthemarket,accordingtothatsortofroughequalitywhich,thoughnotexact,issufficientforcarryingonthebusinessofcommonlife.*5
I.5.5Everycommoditybesides, ismorefrequentlyexchangedfor,andtherebycomparedwith,othercommodities
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thanwithlabour.Itismorenaturaltherefore,toestimateitsexchangeablevaluebythequantityofsomeothercommoditythanbythatofthelabourwhichitcanpurchase.Thegreaterpartofpeopletoounderstand
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betterwhatismeantbyaquantityofaparticularcommodity,thanbyaquantityoflabour.Theoneisaplainpalpableobject;theotheranabstractnotion,which,thoughitcanbemadesufficientlyintelligible,isnotaltogethersonaturalandobvious.I.5.6Butwhenbarterceases,andmoneyhasbecomethecommoninstrumentofcommerce,everyparticularcommodityismorefrequentlyexchangedformoneythanforanyothercommodity.Thebutcherseldomcarrieshisbeeforhismuttontothebaker,orthebrewer,inordertoexchangethemforbreadorforbeer;buthecarriesthemtothemarket,whereheexchangesthemformoney,andafterwardsexchangesthatmoneyforbreadandforbeer.Thequantityofmoneywhichhegetsforthemregulatestoothequantityofbreadandbeerwhichhecanafterwardspurchase.Itismorenaturalandobvioustohim,therefore,toestimatetheirvaluebythequantityofmoney,thecommodityforwhichheimmediatelyexchangesthem,thanbythatofbreadandbeer,thecommoditiesforwhichhecanexchangethemonlybytheinterventionofanothercommodity;andrathertosaythathisbutcher'smeatisworththreepenceorfourpenceapound,thanthatitisworththreeorfourpoundsofbread,orthreeorfourquartsofsmallbeer.Henceitcomestopass,thattheexchangeablevalueofeverycommodityismorefrequentlyestimatedbythequantityofmoney,thanbythequantityeitheroflabourorofanyothercommoditywhichcanbehadinexchangeforit.I.5.7Goldandsilver,however,likeeveryothercommodity,varyintheirvalue,aresometimescheaperandsometimesdearer,sometimesofeasierandsometimesofmoredifficultpurchase.Thequantityoflabourwhichanyparticularquantityofthemcanpurchaseorcommand,orthequantityofothergoodswhichitwillexchangefor,dependsalwaysuponthefertilityorbarrennessofthemineswhichhappentobeknownaboutthetimewhensuchexchangesaremade.ThediscoveryoftheabundantminesofAmericareduced,inthesixteenthcentury,thevalueofgoldandsilverinEuropetoaboutathirdofwhatithadbeenbefore.*6Asitcostlesslabourtobringthosemetalsfromtheminetothemarket,sowhentheywerebroughtthither*7theycouldpurchaseorcommandlesslabour;andthisrevolutionintheirvalue,thoughperhapsthegreatest,isbynomeanstheonlyoneofwhichhistorygivessomeaccount.Butasameasureofquantity,suchasthenaturalfoot,fathom,orhandful,whichiscontinuallyvaryinginitsownquantity,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthequantityofotherthings;soacommoditywhichisitselfcontinuallyvaryinginitsownvalue,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthevalueofothercommodities.Equalquantitiesoflabour,atalltimesandplaces,maybesaidtobe*8ofequalvaluetothelabourer.Inhisordinarystateofhealth,strengthandspirits;intheordinarydegreeofhisskillanddexterity,*9hemustalwayslaydownthesameportionofhisease,hisliberty,andhishappiness.Thepricewhichhepaysmustalwaysbethesame,whatevermaybethequantityofgoodswhichhereceivesinreturnforit.Ofthese,indeed,itmaysometimespurchaseagreaterandsometimesasmallerquantity;butitistheirvaluewhichvaries,notthatofthelabourwhichpurchasesthem.Atalltimesandplacesthatisdearwhichitisdifficulttocomeat,orwhichitcostsmuchlabourtoacquire;andthatcheapwhichistobehadeasily,orwithverylittlelabour.Labouralone,therefore,nevervaryinginitsownvalue,isalonetheultimateandrealstandardbywhichthevalueofallcommoditiescanatalltimesandplacesbeestimatedandcompared.Itistheirrealprice;moneyistheirnominalpriceonly.I.5.8Butthoughequalquantitiesoflabourarealwaysofequalvaluetothelabourer,yettothepersonwhoemployshimtheyappearsometimestobeofgreaterandsometimesofsmallervalue.Hepurchasesthemsometimeswithagreaterandsometimeswithasmallerquantityofgoods,andtohimthepriceoflabourseemstovarylikethatofallotherthings.Itappearstohimdearintheonecase,andcheapintheother.Inreality,however,itisthegoodswhicharecheapintheonecase,anddearintheother.I.5.9Inthispopularsense,therefore,labour,likecommodities,maybesaidtohavearealandanominalprice.Itsrealpricemaybesaidtoconsistinthequantityofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewhicharegivenforit;itsnominalprice,inthequantityofmoney.Thelabourerisrichorpoor,iswellorillrewarded,in
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proportiontothereal,nottothenominalpriceofhislabour.I.5.10
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Thedistinctionbetweentherealandthenominalpriceofcommoditiesandlabour,isnotamatterofmerespeculation,butmaysometimesbeofconsiderableuseinpractice.Thesamerealpriceisalwaysofthesamevalue;butonaccountofthevariationsinthevalueofgoldandsilver,thesamenominalpriceissometimesofverydifferentvalues.Whenalandedestate,therefore,issoldwithareservationofaperpetualrent,ifitisintendedthatthisrentshouldalwaysbeofthesamevalue,itisofimportancetothefamilyinwhosefavouritisreserved,thatitshouldnotconsistinaparticularsumofmoney.*10Itsvaluewouldinthiscasebeliabletovariationsoftwodifferentkinds;first,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentquantitiesofgoldandsilverwhicharecontainedatdifferenttimesincoinofthesamedenomination;and,secondly,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentvaluesofequalquantitiesofgoldandsilveratdifferenttimes.
BookI,ChapterVIIOftheNaturalandMarketPriceofCommodities*65
I.7.1Thereisineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraverageratebothofwagesandprofitineverydifferentemploymentoflabourandstock.Thisrateisnaturallyregulated,asIshallshowhereafter,*66partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesociety,theirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;andpartlybytheparticularnatureofeachemployment.
I.7.2
Thereislikewiseineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraveragerateofrent,whichisregulatedtoo,asIshallshowhereafter,*67partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesocietyorneighbourhoodinwhichthelandissituated,andpartlybythenaturalorimprovedfertilityoftheland.
I.7.3
Theseordinaryoraverageratesmaybecalledthenaturalratesofwages,profit,andrent,atthetimeandplaceinwhichtheycommonlyprevail.
I.7.4
Whenthepriceofanycommodityisneithermorenorlessthanwhatissufficienttopaytherentoftheland,thewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockemployedinraising,preparing,andbringingittomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates,thecommodityisthensoldforwhatmaybecalleditsnaturalprice.
I.7.5
Thecommodityisthensoldpreciselyforwhatitisworth,orforwhatitreallycoststhepersonwhobringsittomarket;forthoughincommonlanguagewhatiscalledtheprimecostofanycommoditydoesnotcomprehendtheprofitofthepersonwhoistosellitagain,yetifhesellsitatapricewhichdoesnotallowhimtheordinaryrateofprofitinhisneighbourhood,heisevidentlyaloserbythetrade;sincebyemployinghisstockinsomeotherwayhemighthavemadethatprofit.Hisprofit,besides,ishisrevenue,theproperfundofhissubsistence.As,whileheispreparingandbringingthegoodstomarket,headvancestohisworkmentheirwages,ortheirsubsistence;soheadvancestohimself,inthesamemanner,hisownsubsistence,whichisgenerallysuitabletotheprofitwhichhemayreasonablyexpectfromthesaleofhisgoods.Unlesstheyyieldhimthisprofit,therefore,theydonotrepayhimwhattheymayveryproperlybesaidtohavereallycosthim.
I.7.6
Thoughtheprice,therefore,whichleaveshimthisprofit,isnotalwaysthelowestatwhichadealermaysometimessellhisgoods,itisthelowestatwhichheislikelytosellthemforanyconsiderabletime;atleastwherethereisperfectliberty,*68orwherehemaychangehistradeasoftenashepleases.
I.7.7
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Theactualpriceatwhichanycommodityiscommonlysoldiscalleditsmarketprice.Itmayeitherbeabove,orbelow,orexactlythesamewithitsnaturalprice.
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I.7.8Themarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisregulatedbytheproportionbetweenthequantitywhichisactuallybroughttomarket,andthedemandofthosewhoarewillingtopaythenaturalpriceofthe commodity,orthewholevalueoftherent,labour,andprofit,*69whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Suchpeoplemaybecalledtheeffectualdemanders,andtheirdemandtheeffectualdemand;sinceitmaybesufficienttoeffectuatethebringingofthecommoditytomarket.Itisdifferentfromtheabsolutedemand.Averypoormanmaybesaidinsomesensetohaveademandforacoachandsix;hemightliketohaveit;buthisdemandisnotaneffectualdemand,asthecommoditycanneverbebroughttomarketinordertosatisfyit.I.7.9Whenthequantityofanycommoditywhichisbroughttomarketfallsshortoftheeffectualdemand,allthosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wages,andprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither,cannotbesuppliedwiththequantitywhichtheywant.Ratherthanwantitaltogether,someofthemwillbewillingtogivemore.Acompetitionwillimmediatelybeginamongthem,andthemarketpricewillrisemoreorlessabovethenaturalprice,accordingaseitherthegreatnessofthedeficiency,orthewealthandwantonluxuryofthecompetitors,happentoanimatemoreorlesstheeagernessofthecompetition.Amongcompetitorsofequalwealthandluxurythesamedeficiency*70willgenerallyoccasionamoreorlesseagercompetition,accordingastheacquisitionofthecommodityhappenstobeofmoreorlessimportancetothem.*71Hencetheexorbitantpriceofthenecessariesoflifeduringtheblockadeofatownorinafamine.I.7.10Whenthequantitybroughttomarketexceedstheeffectualdemand,itcannotbeallsoldtothosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wagesandprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Somepartmustbesoldtothosewhoarewillingtopayless,andthelowpricewhichtheygiveforitmustreducethepriceofthewhole.Themarketpricewillsinkmoreorlessbelowthenaturalprice,accordingasthegreatnessoftheexcessincreasesmoreorlessthecompetitionofthesellers,oraccordingasithappenstobemoreorlessimportanttothemtogetimmediatelyridofthecommodity.Thesameexcessintheimportationofperishable,willoccasionamuchgreatercompetitionthaninthatofdurablecommodities; intheimportationoforanges,forexample,thaninthatofoldiron.I.7.11Whenthequantitybroughttomarketisjustsufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemandandnomore,themarketpricenaturallycomestobeeitherexactly,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thewholequantityuponhandcanbedisposedofforthisprice,andcannotbedisposedofformore.Thecompetitionofthedifferentdealersobligesthemalltoacceptofthisprice,butdoesnotobligethemtoacceptofless.I.7.12Thequantityofeverycommoditybroughttomarketnaturallysuitsitselftotheeffectualdemand.Itistheinterestofallthosewhoemploytheirland,labour,orstock,inbringinganycommoditytomarket,thatthequantitynevershouldexceedtheeffectualdemand;anditistheinterestofallotherpeoplethatitnevershouldfallshortofthatdemand.*72
I.7.13Ifatanytimeitexceedstheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustbepaidbelowtheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofthelandlordswillimmediatelypromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirland;andifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofthelabourersintheonecase,andoftheiremployersintheother,willpromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirlabourorstockfromthisemployment.Thequantitybroughttomarketwillsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillrisetotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.
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I.7.14
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If,onthecontrary,thequantitybroughttomarketshouldatanytimefallshortoftheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustriseabovetheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofallotherlandlordswillnaturallypromptthemtopreparemorelandfortheraisingofthiscommodity;ifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofallotherlabourersanddealerswillsoonpromptthemtoemploymorelabourandstockinpreparingandbringingittomarket.Thequantitybroughtthitherwillsoonbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillsoonsinktotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.I.7.15Thenaturalprice,therefore,is,asitwere,thecentralprice,towhichthepricesofallcommoditiesarecontinuallygravitating.Differentaccidentsmaysometimeskeepthemsuspendedagooddealaboveit,andsometimesforcethemdownevensomewhatbelowit.Butwhatevermaybetheobstacleswhichhinderthemfromsettlinginthiscenterofreposeandcontinuance,theyareconstantlytendingtowardsit.I.7.16Thewholequantityofindustryannuallyemployedinordertobringanycommoditytomarket,naturallysuitsitselfinthismannertotheeffectualdemand.Itnaturallyaimsatbringingalwaysthatprecisequantitythitherwhichmaybesufficienttosupply,andnomorethansupply,thatdemand.I.7.17Butinsomeemploymentsthesamequantityofindustrywillindifferentyearsproduceverydifferentquantitiesofcommodities;*73whileinothersitwillproducealwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame.Thesamenumberoflabourersinhusbandrywill,indifferentyears,produceverydifferentquantitiesofcorn,wine,oil,hops,&c.Butthesamenumberofspinnersandweaverswilleveryyearproducethesameorverynearlythesamequantityoflinenandwoollencloth.Itisonlytheaverageproduceoftheonespeciesofindustrywhichcanbesuitedinanyrespecttotheeffectualdemand;andasitsactualproduceisfrequentlymuchgreaterandfrequentlymuchlessthanitsaverageproduce,thequantityofthecommoditiesbroughttomarketwillsometimesexceedagooddeal,andsometimesfallshortagooddealoftheeffectualdemand.Eventhoughthatdemandthereforeshouldcontinuealwaysthesame,theirmarketpricewillbeliabletogreatfluctuations,willsometimesfallagooddealbelow,andsometimesriseagooddealabove,theirnaturalprice.Intheotherspeciesofindustry,theproduceofequalquantitiesoflabourbeingalwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame,itcanbemoreexactlysuitedtotheeffectualdemand.Whilethatdemandcontinuesthesame,therefore,themarketpriceofthecommoditiesislikelytodosotoo,andtobeeitheraltogether,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thatthepriceoflinenandwoollenclothisliableneithertosuchfrequentnortosuchgreatvariationsasthepriceofcorn,everyman'sexperiencewillinformhim.Thepriceoftheonespeciesofcommoditiesvariesonlywiththevariationsinthedemand:Thatoftheothervariesnotonlywiththevariationsinthedemand,butwiththemuchgreaterandmorefrequentvariationsinthequantityofwhatisbroughttomarketinordertosupplythatdemand.I.7.18Theoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofanycommodityfallchieflyuponthosepartsofitspricewhichresolvethemselvesintowagesandprofit.Thatpartwhichresolvesitselfintorentislessaffectedbythem.Arentcertaininmoneyisnotintheleastaffectedbythemeitherinitsrateorinitsvalue.Arentwhichconsistseitherinacertainproportionorinacertainquantityoftherudeproduce,isnodoubtaffectedinitsyearlyvaluebyalltheoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofthatrudeproduce;butitisseldomaffectedbytheminitsyearlyrate.Insettlingthetermsofthelease,thelandlordandfarmerendeavour,accordingtotheirbestjudgment,toadjustthatrate,nottothetemporaryandoccasional,buttotheaverageandordinarypriceoftheproduce.I.7.19Suchfluctuationsaffectboththevalueandtherateeitherofwagesorofprofit,accordingasthemarkethappenstobeeitherover-stockedorunder-stockedwithcommoditiesorwithlabour;withworkdone,or
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withworktobedone.Apublicmourningraisesthepriceofblackcloth*74(withwhichthemarketisalmostalwaysunder-stockeduponsuchoccasions)andaugmentstheprofitsofthemerchantswhopossessany
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considerablequantityofit.Ithasnoeffectuponthewagesoftheweavers.Themarketisunder-stockedwithcommodities,notwithlabour;withworkdone,notwithworktobedone.Itraisesthewagesofjourneymentaylors.Themarketishereunder-stockedwithlabour.Thereisaneffectualdemandformore*75labour,formoreworktobedonethancanbehad.Itsinksthepriceofcolouredsilksandcloths,andtherebyreducestheprofitsofthemerchantswhohaveanyconsiderablequantityofthemuponhand.Itsinkstoothewagesoftheworkmenemployedinpreparingsuchcommodities,forwhichalldemandisstoppedforsixmonths,perhapsforatwelvemonth.Themarketishereover-stockedwithcommoditiesandwithlabour.I.7.20Butthoughthemarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisinthismannercontinuallygravitating,ifonemaysayso,towardsthenaturalprice,yetsometimesparticularaccidents,sometimesnaturalcauses,andsometimesparticularregulationsofpolice,may,inmanycommodities,keepupthemarketprice,foralongtimetogether,agooddealabovethenaturalprice.I.7.21Whenbyanincreaseintheeffectualdemand,themarketpriceofsomeparticularcommodityhappenstoriseagooddealabovethenaturalprice,thosewhoemploytheirstocksinsupplyingthatmarketaregenerallycarefultoconcealthischange.Ifitwascommonlyknown,theirgreatprofitwouldtemptsomanynewrivalstoemploytheirstocksinthesameway,that,theeffectualdemandbeingfullysupplied,themarketpricewouldsoonbereducedtothenaturalprice,andperhapsforsometimeevenbelowit.Ifthemarketisatagreatdistancefromtheresidenceofthosewhosupplyit,theymaysometimesbeabletokeepthesecretforseveralyearstogether,andmaysolongenjoytheirextraordinaryprofitswithoutanynewrivals.Secretsofthiskind,however,itmustbeacknowledged,canseldombelongkept;andtheextraordinaryprofitcanlastverylittlelongerthantheyarekept.I.7.22Secretsinmanufacturesarecapableofbeinglongerkeptthansecretsintrade.Adyerwhohasfoundthemeansofproducingaparticularcolourwithmaterialswhichcostonlyhalfthepriceofthosecommonlymadeuseof,may,withgoodmanagement,enjoytheadvantageofhisdiscoveryaslongashelives,andevenleaveitasalegacytohisposterity.Hisextraordinarygainsarisefromthehighpricewhichispaidforhisprivatelabour.Theyproperlyconsistinthehighwagesofthatlabour.Butastheyarerepeateduponeverypartofhisstock,andastheirwholeamountbears,uponthataccount,aregularproportiontoit,theyarecommonlyconsideredasextraordinaryprofitsofstock.*76
I.7.23Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectsofparticularaccidents,ofwhich,however,theoperationmaysometimeslastformanyyearstogether.I.7.24Somenaturalproductionsrequiresuchasingularityofsoilandsituation,thatallthelandinagreatcountry,whichisfitforproducingthem,maynotbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Thewholequantitybroughttomarket,therefore,maybedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivemorethanwhatissufficienttopaytherentofthelandwhichproducedthem,togetherwiththewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockwhichwereemployedinpreparingandbringingthemtomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates.Suchcommoditiesmaycontinueforwholecenturiestogethertobesoldatthishighprice;*77andthatpartofitwhichresolvesitselfintotherentoflandisinthiscasethepartwhichisgenerallypaidaboveitsnaturalrate.Therentofthelandwhichaffordssuchsingularandesteemedproductions,liketherentofsomevineyardsinFranceofapeculiarlyhappysoilandsituation,bearsnoregularproportiontotherentofotherequallyfertileandequallywell-cultivatedlandinitsneighbourhood.Thewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedinbringingsuchcommoditiestomarket,onthecontrary,areseldomoutoftheirnaturalproportiontothoseoftheotheremploymentsoflabourandstockintheirneighbourhood.
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I.7.25
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Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectofnaturalcauseswhichmayhindertheeffectualdemandfromeverbeingfullysupplied,andwhichmaycontinue,therefore,tooperatefor-ever.I.7.26Amonopolygrantedeithertoanindividualortoatradingcompanyhasthesameeffectasasecretintradeormanufactures.Themonopolists,bykeeping themarketconstantlyunder-stocked,bynever fullysupplyingtheeffectualdemand,selltheircommoditiesmuchabovethenaturalprice,andraisetheiremoluments,whethertheyconsistinwagesorprofit,greatlyabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.27Thepriceofmonopolyisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbegot.Thenaturalprice,orthepriceoffreecompetition,onthecontrary,isthelowestwhichcanbetaken,notuponeveryoccasionindeed,butforanyconsiderabletimealtogether.Theoneisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbesqueezedoutofthebuyers,orwhich,itissupposed,theywillconsenttogive:Theotheristhelowestwhichthesellerscancommonlyaffordtotake,andatthesametimecontinuetheirbusiness.I.7.28Theexclusiveprivilegesofcorporations,statutesofapprenticeship*,78andall thoselawswhichrestrain,inparticularemployments,thecompetitiontoasmallernumberthanmightotherwisegointothem,havethesametendency,thoughinalessdegree.Theyareasortofenlargedmonopolies,andmayfrequently,foragestogether,andinwholeclassesofemployments,keepupthemarketpriceofparticularcommoditiesabovethenaturalprice,andmaintainboththewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedaboutthemsomewhatabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.29Suchenhancementsofthemarketpricemaylastaslongastheregulationsofpolicewhichgiveoccasiontothem.I.7.30Themarketpriceofanyparticularcommodity,thoughitmaycontinuelongabove,canseldomcontinuelongbelow,itsnaturalprice.Whateverpartofitwaspaidbelowthenaturalrate,thepersonswhoseinterestitaffectedwouldimmediatelyfeeltheloss,andwouldimmediatelywithdraweithersomuchland,orsomuchlabour,orsomuchstock,frombeingemployedaboutit,thatthequantitybroughttomarketwouldsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Itsmarketprice,therefore,wouldsoonrisetothenaturalprice.Thisatleastwouldbethecasewheretherewasperfectliberty.*79
I.7.31Thesamestatutesofapprenticeshipandothercorporationlawsindeed,which,whenamanufactureisinprosperity,enabletheworkmantoraisehiswagesagooddealabovetheirnaturalrate,sometimesobligehim,whenitdecays,toletthemdownagooddealbelowit.Asintheonecasetheyexcludemanypeoplefromhisemployment,sointheothertheyexcludehimfrommanyemployments.Theeffectofsuchregulations,however,isnotnearsodurableinsinkingtheworkman'swagesbelow,asinraisingthemabovetheirnaturalrate.Theiroperationintheonewaymayendureformanycenturies,butintheotheritcanlastnolongerthanthelivesofsomeoftheworkmenwhowerebredtothebusinessinthetimeofitsprosperity.Whentheyaregone,thenumberofthosewhoareafterwardseducatedtothetradewillnaturallysuititselftotheeffectualdemand.ThepolicemustbeasviolentasthatofIndostanorantientEgypt*80(whereeverymanwasboundbyaprincipleofreligiontofollowtheoccupationofhisfather,andwassupposedtocommitthemosthorridsacrilegeifhechangeditforanother),whichcaninanyparticularemployment,andforseveralgenerationstogether,sinkeitherthewagesoflabourortheprofitsofstockbelowtheirnaturalrate.I.7.32
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ThisisallthatIthinknecessarytobeobservedatpresentconcerningthedeviations,whetheroccasionalorpermanent,ofthemarketpriceofcommoditiesfromthenaturalprice.
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I.7.33Thenaturalpriceitselfvarieswiththenaturalrateofeachofitscomponentparts,ofwages,profit,andrent;andineverysocietythisratevariesaccordingtotheircircumstances,accordingtotheirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition.Ishall, inthefourfollowingchapters,endeavourtoexplain,asfullyanddistinctlyasIcan,thecausesofthosedifferentvariations.
I.7.34
First,Ishallendeavourtoexplainwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofwages,andinwhatmannerthosecircumstancesareaffectedbytherichesorpoverty,bytheadvancing,stationaryordecliningstateofthesociety.
I.7.35
Secondly,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofprofit,andinwhatmannertoothosecircumstancesareaffectedbythelikevariationsinthestateofthesociety.
I.7.36
Thoughpecuniarywagesandprofitareverydifferentinthedifferentemploymentsoflabourandstock;yetacertainproportionseemscommonlytotakeplacebetweenboththepecuniarywagesinallthedifferentemploymentsof labour,andthepecuniaryprofitsinallthedifferentemploymentsofstock.Thisproportion,itwillappearhereafter,dependspartlyuponthenatureofthedifferentemployments,andpartlyuponthedifferentlawsandpolicyofthesocietyinwhichtheyarecarriedon.Butthoughinmanyrespectsdependentuponthelawsandpolicy,thisproportionseemstobelittleaffectedbytherichesorpovertyofthatsociety;byitsadvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;buttoremainthesameorverynearlythesameinallthosedifferentstates.Ishall,inthethirdplace,endeavourtoexplainallthedifferentcircumstanceswhichregulatethis proportion.
I.7.37
Inthefourthandlastplace,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichregulatetherentofland,andwhicheitherraiseorlowertherealpriceofallthedifferentsubstanceswhichitproduces.
Source:Smith,Adam.AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations.EdwinCannan,ed.London:Methuen&Co.,Ltd.1904.LibraryofEconomicsandLiberty[Online]availablefromhttp://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN0.html; accessed 17 January 2017; Internet.
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion4SupportingQuestion
HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinfluencepeopletoactionandrevolution?
FormativePerformanceTask
Developaclaimwhichissupportedbyevidencefromvariousdocuments,thatdemonstrateshowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution.
FeaturedSources
SourceA:SelectedExcerptsfromCommonSensebyThomasPainefromamericainclass.orgSourceB:PatrickHenry:"GiveMeLibertyorGiveMeDeath"!fromhistory.org
Atthispointintheinquiry,youngscholarsshouldbethinkingaboutwhattheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakerssaid,andhowtheyinfluencedpeopletoactionandrevolution. Thisactivityintheinquiryshouldtakeonly1dayorperhaps11/2daysofclasstime.
FormativePerformanceTask
Usingthesourcesprovidedinthisstageoftheinquiry,youngscholarsarerequiredtodevelopaclaimtobepresentedinvariousforms(scholarselection)todemonstratehowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution. Aseducators,itisimportanttoallowtheyoungscholarstoexpressananswertothisininnovativewaysandwhichmeetstheirownpersonalitiesforpresentation. Beingallowedtopresentthisformativeperformancetaskcreatesownershipintheinquiryandishighlyencouraged. Ofcourse,allpresentationsareatthediscretionoftheteacher/performancecoachinchargeofthis inquiry.
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SupportingQuestion4FeaturedSourceA SelectedExcerptsfromCommonSensebyThomasPainefromamericainclass.org
Excerpt
"III.THOUGHTSONTHEPRESENTSTATEOFAMERICANAFFAIRS.55 INthefollowingpagesIoffernothingmorethansimplefacts,plainarguments,andcommonsense:
andhavenootherpreliminariestosettlewiththereaderthanthathewilldivesthimselfofprejudice
andprepossession,andsuffer[allow]hisreasonandhisfeelingstodetermineforthemselves:that
hewillputon,orratherthathewillnotputoff,thetruecharacterofaman,andgenerouslyenlarge
hisviewsbeyondthepresentday.
56 VolumeshavebeenwrittenonthesubjectofthestrugglebetweenEnglandandAmerica.Menof
allrankshaveembarkedinthecontroversy,fromdifferentmotivesandwithvariousdesigns;butall
havebeenineffectual,andtheperiodofdebateisclosed.Armsasthelastresourcedecidethe
contest.Theappealwasthechoiceoftheking,andthecontinenthasacceptedthechallenge
58 Thesunnevershinedonacauseofgreaterworth.’Tisnottheaffairofacity,acounty,a
province,orakingdom,butofacontinent—ofatleastoneeighthpartofthehabitableglobe.’Tis
nottheconcernofaday,ayear,oranage;posterityarevirtuallyinvolvedinthecontest,andwillbe
moreorlessaffected,eventotheendoftime,bytheproceedingsnow.Nowistheseedtimeof
continentalunion,faithandhonor.Theleastfracturenowwillbelikeanameengravedwiththe
pointofapinonthetenderrindofayoungoak;thewoundwillenlargewiththetree,andposterity
readitinfullgrowncharacters.
59 Byreferringthematterfromargumenttoarms,aneweraforpoliticsisstruck:anewmethodof
thinkinghatharisen.Allplans,proposals,&c.[etc.]priortothenineteenthofApril,12i.e.,tothe
commencementofhostilities,arelikethealmanacsofthelastyearwhich,thoughproperthen
[correctforthatyear],aresupersededanduselessnow.Whateverwasadvancedbytheadvocates
oneithersideofthequestionthen,terminatedinoneandthesamepoint,viz.aunionwithGreat
Britain;theonlydifferencebetweenthepartieswasthemethodofeffectingit,theoneproposing
force,theotherfriendship;butithathsofarhappenedthatthefirsthathfailedandthesecondhath
withdrawnher influence.
60 Asmuchhathbeensaidoftheadvantagesofreconciliation,which,likeanagreeabledream,hath
passedawayandleftusaswewere,itisbutrightthatweshouldexaminethecontrarysideofthe
argumentandinquireintosomeofthemanymaterialinjurieswhichthesecoloniessustain,and
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alwayswillsustain,bybeingconnectedwithanddependentonGreatBritain.Toexaminethat
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connectionanddependence,ontheprinciplesofnatureandcommonsense,toseewhatwehaveto
trusttoifseparated,andwhatwearetoexpectifdependent.
61 IhavehearditassertedbysomethatasAmericahathflourishedunderherformerconnection
withGreatBritain,thatthesameconnectionisnecessarytowardsherfuturehappiness,andwill
alwayshavethesameeffect.Nothingcanbemorefallaciousthanthiskindofargument.Wemayas
wellassertthatbecauseachildhasthriveduponmilk,thatitisnevertohavemeat,orthatthefirst
twentyyearsofourlivesistobecomeaprecedentforthenexttwenty.Buteventhisisadmitting
morethanistrue;forIanswerroundlythatAmericawouldhaveflourishedasmuch,andprobably
muchmore,hadnoEuropeanpowerhadanythingtodowithher.Thecommercebywhichshehath
enrichedherselfarethenecessariesoflife,andwillalwayshaveamarketwhileeatingisthecustom
ofEurope.
62 Butshehasprotectedus,saysome.Thatshehathengrossed[monopolized]usistrue,and
defendedthecontinentatourexpenseaswellasherownisadmitted,andshewouldhavedefended
Turkeyfromthesamemotive,viz.forthesakeoftradeanddominion.
63 Alas,wehavebeenlongledawaybyancientprejudicesandmadelargesacrificestosuperstition.
WehaveboastedtheprotectionofGreatBritainwithoutconsideringthathermotivewasinterestnot
attachment;andthatshedidnotprotectusfromourenemiesonouraccount;butfromherenemieson
herownaccount,fromthosewhohadnoquarrelwithusonanyotheraccount,andwhowillalwaysbe
ourenemiesonthesameaccount.LetBritainwaiveherpretensions[claims]tothecontinent,orthe
continentthrowoffthedependence,andweshouldbeatpeacewithFranceandSpainweretheyatwar
withBritain.ThemiseriesofHanoverlastwaroughttowarnusagainstconnections.13
64 IthathlatelybeenassertedinParliamentthatthecolonieshavenorelationtoeachotherbut
throughtheparentcountry,i.e.,thatPennsylvaniaandtheJerseys,andsoonfortherest,aresister
coloniesbythewayofEngland.Thisiscertainlyaveryroundaboutwayofprovingrelationship,
butitisthenearestandonlytruewayofprovingenemyship,ifImaysocallit.FranceandSpain
neverwere,norperhapseverwillbe,ourenemiesasAmericans,butasourbeingthesubjectsof
Great Britain.
65 ButBritainistheparentcountry,saysome.Thenthemoreshameuponherconduct.Evenbrutes
donotdevourtheiryoung,norsavagesmakewarupontheirfamilies;14wherefore,theassertion,if
true,turnstoherreproach;butithappensnottobetrue,oronlypartlyso,andthephraseparentor
mothercountryhathbeenjesuiticallyadoptedbythekingandhisparasiteswithalowpapistical
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designofgaininganunfairbiasonthecredulousweaknessofourminds.15Europe,andnot
England,istheparentcountryofAmerica.Thisnewworldhathbeentheasylumforthepersecuted
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loversofcivilandreligiouslibertyfromeverypartofEurope.Hitherhavetheyfled,notfromthe
tenderembracesofthemother,butfromthecrueltyofthemonster;anditissofartrueofEngland
thatthesametyrannywhichdrovethefirstemigrantsfromhomepursuestheirdescendantsstill.
68But,admitting[assuming]thatwewereallofEnglishdescent,whatdoesitamountto?Nothing.
Britain,beingnowanopenenemy,extinguisheseveryothernameandtitle:andtosaythat
reconciliationisourdutyistrulyfarcical.ThefirstkingofEnglandofthepresentline(Williamthe
Conqueror)wasaFrenchman,andhalfthePeersofEnglandaredescendantsfromthesame
country;wherefore,bythesamemethodofreasoning,EnglandoughttobegovernedbyFrance.
71 Ichallengethewarmestadvocateforreconciliationtoshowasingleadvantagethatthiscontinent
canreapbybeingconnectedwithGreatBritain.Irepeatthechallenge:notasingleadvantageis
derived.OurcornwillfetchitspriceinanymarketinEurope,andourimportedgoodsmustbepaid
for,buythemwherewewill.
72 Buttheinjuriesanddisadvantageswesustainbythatconnectionarewithoutnumber,andour
dutytomankindatlarge,aswellastoourselves,instructustorenouncethealliance,becauseany
submissionto,ordependenceon,GreatBritain,tendsdirectlytoinvolvethiscontinentinEuropean
warsandquarrels,andsetsusatvariancewithnationswhowouldotherwiseseekourfriendship,
andagainstwhomwehaveneitherangernorcomplaint.AsEuropeisourmarketfortrade,we
oughttoformnopartialconnectionwithanypartofit.ItisthetrueinterestofAmericatosteer
clearofEuropeancontentions,whichshenevercando,while,byherdependenceonBritain,sheis
madethemakeweight16inthescaleofBritishpolitics.
73 Europeistoothicklyplantedwithkingdomstobelongatpeace,andwheneverawarbreaksout
betweenEnglandandanyforeignpower,thetradeofAmericagoestoruin,becauseofherconnection
withBritain.Thenextwarmaynotturnoutlikethelast,andshoulditnot,theadvocatesfor
reconciliationnowwillbewishingforseparationthen,becauseneutralityinthatcasewouldbeasafer
convoythanamanofwar[warship].Everythingthatisrightornaturalpleadsforseparation.Theblood
oftheslain,theweepingvoiceofnaturecries,’TISTIMETOPART.Eventhedistanceatwhichthe
AlmightyhathplacedEnglandandAmericaisastrongandnaturalproofthattheauthorityofthe
oneovertheotherwasneverthedesignofHeaven.Thetimelikewiseatwhichthecontinentwas
discoveredaddsweighttotheargument,andthemannerinwhichitwaspeopled,increasestheforceof
it.The[Protestant]ReformationwasprecededbythediscoveryofAmerica,asiftheAlmightygraciously
meanttoopenasanctuarytothepersecutedinfutureyears,whenhomeshouldaffordneitherfriendship
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norsafety.
74 TheauthorityofGreatBritainoverthiscontinentisaformofgovernmentwhichsoonerorlater
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musthaveanend,andaseriousmindcandrawnotruepleasurebylookingforward,underthe
painfulandpositiveconvictionthatwhathecalls“thepresentconstitution”ismerelytemporary.
Asparents,wecanhavenojoyknowingthatthisgovernmentisnotsufficientlylastingtoensure
anythingwhichwemaybequeathtoposterity[futuregenerations].Andbyaplainmethodof
argument,aswearerunningthenextgenerationintodebt,weoughttodotheworkofit,otherwise
weusethemmeanlyandpitifully.Inordertodiscoverthelineofourdutyrightly,weshouldtake
ourchildreninourhandandfixourstationafewyearsfartherintolife.Thateminence[perspective]
willpresentaprospectwhichafewpresentfearsandprejudicesconcealfromoursight.
75 ThoughIwouldcarefullyavoidgivingunnecessaryoffense,yetIaminclinedtobelievethatall
thosewhoespousethedoctrineofreconciliationmaybeincludedwithinthefollowingdescriptions.
Interestedmen,17whoarenottobetrusted;weakmenwhocannotsee;prejudicedmenwhowillnot
see;andacertainsetofmoderatemenwhothinkbetteroftheEuropeanworldthanitdeserves;and
thislastclass,byanill-judgeddeliberation,willbethecauseofmorecalamitiestothiscontinent
thanalltheotherthree.76 Itisthegoodfortuneofmanytolivedistantfromthesceneofpresentsorrow.Theevilisnot
sufficientlybroughttotheirdoorstomakethemfeeltheprecariousnesswithwhichallAmerican
propertyispossessed.ButletourimaginationstransportusafewmomentstoBoston,18thatseatof
wretchednesswillteachuswisdomandinstructusforevertorenounceapowerinwhomwecan
havenotrust.Theinhabitantsofthatunfortunatecitywho,butafewmonthsagowereineaseand
affluence,havenownootheralternativethantostayandstarve,orturnouttobeg.Endangeredby
thefireoftheir[Patriot]friendsiftheycontinuewithinthecity,andplunderedbythe[British]
soldieryiftheyleaveit,intheirpresentconditiontheyareprisonerswithoutthehopeof
redemption,andinageneralattackfortheirrelieftheywouldbeexposedtothefuryofbotharmies.
77MenofpassivetemperslooksomewhatlightlyovertheoffensesofBritain,and,stillhopingfor
thebest,areapttocallout,“Come,come,weshallbefriendsagainforallthis.”Butexaminethe
passionsandfeelingsofmankind.Bringthedoctrineofreconciliationtothetouchstone[test]of
nature,andthentellmewhetheryoucanhereafterlove,honor,andfaithfullyservethepowerthat
hathcarriedfireandswordintoyourland.Ifyoucannotdoallthese,thenareyouonlydeceiving
yourselves,andbyyourdelaybringingruinuponposterity?YourfutureconnectionwithBritain,
whomyoucanneitherlovenorhonor,willbeforcedandunnatural,andbeingformedonlyonthe
planofpresentconvenience,willinalittletimefallintoarelapsemorewretchedthanthefirst.Butif
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yousayyoucanstillpasstheviolationsover,thenIask,Hathyourhousebeenburnt?Hathyour
propertybeendestroyedbeforeyourface?Areyourwifeandchildrendestituteofabedtolieonor
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breadtoliveon?Haveyoulostaparentorachildbytheirhands,andyourselftheruinedand
wretchedsurvivor?Ifyouhavenot,thenareyounotajudgeofthosewhohave?Butifyouhave,
andstillcanshakehandswiththemurderers,thenareyouunworthythenameofhusband,father,
friend,orlover,andwhatevermaybeyourrankortitleinlife,youhavetheheartofacoward
andthespiritofasycophant.1978 Thisisnotinflamingorexaggeratingmatters,buttryingthembythosefeelingsandaffections
whichnaturejustifies,andwithoutwhichweshouldbeincapableofdischargingthesocialdutiesof
lifeorenjoyingthefelicitiesofit.Imeannottoexhibithorrorforthepurposeofprovoking
revenge,buttoawakenusfromfatalandunmanlyslumbers,thatwemaypursuedeterminately
somefixedobject.ItisnotinthepowerofBritainorofEuropetoconquerAmerica,ifshedonot
conquerherselfbydelayandtimidity.Thepresentwinterisworthanageifrightlyemployed,butif
lostorneglectedthewholecontinentwillpartakeofthemisfortune;andthereisnopunishment
whichthatmanwillnotdeserve,behewho,orwhat,orwherehewill,thatmaybethemeansof
sacrificingaseasonsopreciousanduseful.
79 Itisrepugnanttoreason,totheuniversalorderofthings,toallexamplesfromformerages,to
supposethatthiscontinentcanlongremainsubjecttoanyexternalpower.Themostsanguine
[optimistic]inBritaindoesnotthinkso.Theutmoststretchofhumanwisdomcannot,atthistime,
compassaplan,shortofseparation,whichcanpromisethecontinentevenayear’ssecurity.
Reconciliationisnowafallaciousdream.Naturehathdesertedtheconnection,andArtcannot
supplyherplace.For,asMiltonwiselyexpresses,“nevercantruereconcilementgrowwhere
woundsofdeadlyhatehavepiercedsodeep.”20
80 Everyquietmethodforpeacehathbeenineffectual. Ourprayershavebeenrejectedwithdisdain,
andonlytendedtoconvinceusthatnothingflattersvanityorconfirmsobstinacyinKingsmorethan
repeatedpetitioning—andnothinghathcontributedmorethanthatverymeasuretomaketheKingsof
Europeabsolute.WitnessDenmarkandSweden.Wherefore,sincenothingbutblowswilldo,forGod’s
sakeletuscometoafinalseparation,andnotleavethenextgenerationtobecuttingthroatsunderthe
violatedunmeaningnamesofparentandchild.
84 Iamnotinducedbymotivesofpride,[political]party,orresentmenttoespousethedoctrineof
separationandindependence.Iamclearly,positively,andconscientiouslypersuadedthatit isthe
trueinterestofthiscontinenttobeso;thateverythingshortofthatismerepatchwork,thatitcan
affordnolastingfelicity—thatitisleavingtheswordtoourchildren,andshrinkingbackatatime
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whenalittlemore,alittlefurther,wouldhaverenderedthiscontinentthegloryoftheearth.
85 AsBritainhathnotmanifestedtheleastinclinationtowardsacompromise,wemaybeassured
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thatnotermscanbeobtainedworthytheacceptanceofthecontinent,oranywaysequaltothe
expenseofbloodandtreasurewehavebeenalreadyputto.
86 Theobjectcontendedforoughtalwaystobearsomejustproportiontotheexpense.Theremoval
ofNorthorthewholedetestablejunto21isamatterunworthythemillionswehaveexpended.A
temporarystoppageoftradewasaninconveniencewhichwouldhavesufficientlybalancedthe
repealofalltheactscomplainedof,hadsuchrepealsbeenobtained;butifthewholecontinentmust
takeuparms,ifeverymanmustbeasoldier,itisscarcelyworthourwhiletofightagainsta
contemptibleministry[king’scabinet/advisers]only.Dearly,dearly,dowepayfortherepealofthe
acts,ifthatisallwefightfor;for,inajustestimationitisasgreatafollytopayaBunkerHillpricefor
lawasforland.22AsIhavealwaysconsideredtheindependenceofthiscontinentasanevent
whichsoonerorlatermustarrive,sofromthelaterapidprogressoftheContinenttomaturity,the
eventcouldnotbefaroff.Wherefore,onthebreakingoutofhostilities,itwasnotworththewhile
tohavedisputedamatterwhichtimewouldhavefinallyredressed,unlesswemeanttobein
earnest.Otherwiseitislikewastinganestateonasuitatlaw,toregulatethetrespassesofatenant
whose lease is justexpiring.Nomanwasawarmerwisher forareconciliationthanmyselfbefore the
fatalnineteenthofApril1775,*butthemomenttheeventof thatdaywasmadeknown,Irejectedthe
hardened,sullen-temperedPharaohofEnglandforever;anddisdainthewretch,thatwiththe
pretendedtitleofFATHEROFHISPEOPLEcanunfeelinglyhearoftheirslaughter,andcomposedlysleep
withtheirblooduponhissoul.
87 Butadmittingthatmatterswerenowmadeup,whatwouldbetheevent?23Ianswer,theruinofthe
continent.Andthatforseveralreasons.
88 First.Thepowersofgoverningstillremaininginthehandsoftheking,hewillhaveanegative24
overthewholelegislationofthiscontinent.Andashehathshownhimselfsuchaninveterateenemy
toliberty,anddiscoveredsuchathirstforarbitrarypower,ishe,orishenot,apropermantosayto
thesecolonies,“YoushallmakenolawsbutwhatIplease.”AndisthereanyinhabitantofAmerica
soignorantasnottoknowthataccordingtowhatiscalledthepresentconstitution,thiscontinent
canmakenolawsbutwhatthekinggivesleaveto[permits];andisthereanymansounwiseasnot
toseethat(consideringwhathashappened)hewillsuffer[permit]nolawtobemadeherebutsuch
assuitshispurpose.Wemaybeaseffectuallyenslavedbythewant[lack]oflawsinAmericaasby
submittingtolawsmadeforusinEngland.Aftermattersaremadeup(asitiscalled),cantherebe
anydoubtbutthewholepowerofthecrownwillbeexertedtokeepthiscontinentaslowand
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humbleaspossible?Insteadofgoingforwardweshallgobackward,orbeperpetuallyquarrelling
orridiculouslypetitioning.—Wearealreadygreaterthanthekingwishesustobe,andwillhenot
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hereafterendeavortomakeusless?Tobringthemattertoonepoint,Isthepowerwhoisjealousof
ourprosperityaproperpowertogovernus?WhoeversaysNotothisquestionisanindependent,
forindependencemeansnomorethanthis,whetherweshallmakeourownlawsorwhetherthe
king,thegreatestenemythiscontinenthathorcanhave,shalltellus“thereshallbenolawsbut
suchasIlike.
91 Secondly.Thataseventhebesttermswhichwecanexpecttoobtaincanamounttonomorethan
atemporaryexpedient,orakindofgovernmentbyguardianship,whichcanlastnolongerthantill
thecoloniescomeofage,sothegeneralfaceandstateofthingsintheinterimwillbeunsettledand
unpromising.Emigrantsofproperty[wealth]willnotchoosetocometoacountrywhoseformof
governmenthangsbutbyathread,andwhoiseverydaytotteringonthebrinkofcommotionand
disturbance;andnumbersofthepresentinhabitantswouldlayholdoftheintervaltodisposeof
theireffects[possessions]andquit[leave]theContinent.
92 Butthemostpowerfulofallargumentsisthatnothingbutindependence,i.e.,acontinentalformofgovernment,cankeepthepeaceof thecontinentandpreserve it inviolate fromcivilwars. Idreadthe
eventofareconciliationwithBritainnow,as it ismorethanprobablethat itwillbe followedbyarevolt
somewhereorother,theconsequencesofwhichmaybefarmorefatalthanallthemaliceofBritain.
96 Ifthereisanytruecauseoffearrespectingindependence,itisbecausenoplanisyetlaiddown.
Mendonotseetheirwayout.—Whereforeasanopeningintothatbusiness,Iofferthefollowing
hints,atthesametimemodestlyaffirmingthatIhavenootheropinionofthemmyselfthanthat
theymaybethemeansofgivingrisetosomethingbetter.Couldthestragglingthoughtsof
individualsbecollected,theywouldfrequentlyformmaterialsforwiseandablementoimprove
intousefulmatter.
97 LETtheassembliesbeannual,withaPresidentonly:therepresentationmoreequal,their
businesswhollydomesticandsubjecttotheauthorityofaContinentalCongress.
98 Leteachcolonybedividedintosix,eight,ortenconvenientdistricts,eachdistricttosenda
propernumberofdelegatestoCongress,sothateachcolonysendatleastthirty,thewholenumber
inCongresswillbeatleast390;eachCongresstosit26andtochooseapresidentby
thefollowingmethod.Whenthedelegatesaremet,letacolonybetakenfromthewholethirteen
coloniesbylot,afterwhichlettheCongresschoose(byballot)apresidentfromoutofthedelegates
ofthatprovince.InthenextCongress,letacolonybetakenbylotfromtwelveonly,omittingthat
colonyfromwhichthepresidentwastakenintheformerCongress,andsoproceedingontillthe
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wholethirteenshallhavehadtheirproperrotation.Andinorderthatnothingmaypassintoalaw
butwhatissatisfactorilyjust,notlessthanthreefifthsoftheCongresstobecalledamajority.—He
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thatwillpromotediscordunderagovernmentsoequallyformedasthiswouldhavejoinedLucifer
inhisrevolt.
103 Butwhere,saysome,istheKingofAmerica?I’lltellyou,friend,hereignsabove,anddothnot
makehavocofmankindliketheRoyalBruteofGreatBritain.Yetthatwemaynotappeartobe
defectiveeveninearthlyhonors,letadaybesolemnlysetapartforproclaimingthecharter;letitbe
broughtforthplacedonthedivinelaw,thewordofGod.Letacrownbeplacedthereon,bywhich
theworldmayknow,thatsofarasweapproveofmonarchy,thatinAmericaTHELAWISKING.Forasin
absolutegovernmentstheKingislaw,soinfreecountriesthelawoughttobeKing;andthereoughttobe
noother.Butlestanyilluseshouldafterwardsarise,letthecrownattheconclusionoftheceremony
bedemolished,andscatteredamongthepeoplewhoserightitis.
104 Agovernmentofourownisournaturalright,andwhenamanseriouslyreflectsonthe
precariousnessofhumanaffairs,hewillbecomeconvincedthatitisinfinitelywiserandsaferto
formaconstitutionofourowninacooldeliberatemanner,whilewehaveitinourpower,thanto
trustsuchaninterestingeventtotimeandchance.
105 Totalkoffriendshipwiththoseinwhomourreasonforbidsustohavefaith,andouraffections
woundedthroughathousandporesinstructustodetest,ismadnessandfolly.Everydaywearsout
thelittleremainsofkindredbetweenusandthem;andcantherebeanyreasontohopethat,asthe
relationshipexpires,theaffectionwillincrease,orthatweshallagreebetterwhenwehaveten
timesmoreandgreaterconcernstoquarreloverthanever?
106 Yethattellusofharmonyandreconciliation,canyerestoretousthetimethatispast?Canye
givetoprostitutionitsformerinnocence?NeithercanyereconcileBritainandAmerica.Thelast
cordnowisbroken,thepeopleofEnglandarepresentingaddressesagainstus.Thereareinjuries
whichnaturecannotforgive;shewouldceasetobenatureifshedid.Aswellcantheloverforgive
theravisherofhismistress,asthecontinentforgivethemurdersofBritain.TheAlmightyhath
implantedinustheseunextinguishablefeelingsforgoodandwisepurposes.Theyaretheguardians
ofhisimageinourhearts.Theydistinguishusfromtheherdofcommonanimals.Thesocial
compactwoulddissolve,andjusticebeextirpated[removed]fromtheearth,orhaveonlyacasual
existencewerewecalloustothetouchesofaffection.Therobberandthemurdererwouldoften
escapeunpunished,didnottheinjurieswhichourtemperssustainprovokeusintojustice.
107 Oye that lovemankind!Ye thatdareopposenotonly the tyrannybut the tyrant,stand forth!Every
spotof theoldworld is overrunwithoppression.Freedomhathbeenhunted round the globe.Asia and
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Africahavelongexpelledher.—Europeregardsherlikeastranger,andEnglandhathgivenherwarning
Todepart.O!receivethefugitive,andprepareintimeanasylumformankind.
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IV.OfthepresentABILITYOFAMERICA,withsomemiscellaneousREFLECTIONS.123Inalmosteveryarticleofdefenseweabound.Hempflourisheseventorankness,sothatweneed
notwant[lack]cordage.Ourironissuperiortothatofothercountries.Oursmallarmsequaltoany
intheworld.Cannonwecancastatpleasure. Saltpetreandgunpowderweareeverydayproducing.
Ourknowledgeishourlyimproving.Resolutionisourinherentcharacter,andcouragehathneveryet
forsakenus.Wherefore,whatisitthatwewant[lack/need]?Whyisitthatwehesitate? FromBritain
wecanexpectnothingbutruin. IfsheisonceadmittedtothegovernmentofAmericaagain,this
Continentwillnotbeworthlivingin.Jealousieswillbealwaysarising;insurrectionswillbeconstantly
happening;andwhowillgoforthtoquellthem?Whowillventurehislifetoreducehisowncountrymen
toa foreignobedience?ThedifferencebetweenPennsylvaniaandConnecticut,respectingsome
unlocatedlands,showstheinsignificanceofaBritishgovernment,andfullyprovesthatnothingbut
Continental authority can regulateContinentalmatters
125 TheinfantstateoftheColonies,asitiscalled,sofarfrombeingagainst,isanargumentinfavor
of independence
126 Youthistheseedtimeofgoodhabits,aswellinnationsasinindividuals.Itmightbedifficult,
ifnotimpossible,toformtheContinentintooneGovernmenthalfacenturyhence.
134TOCONCLUDE,howeverstrangeitmayappeartosome,orhoweverunwillingtheymaybetothink
so,mattersnot,butmanystrongandstrikingreasonsmaybegiventoshowthatnothingcansettleour
affairssoexpeditiouslyasanopenanddetermineddeclarationfor independence.
140Theseproceedingsmayatfirstseemstrangeanddifficult,but,likeallotherstepswhichwehave
alreadypassedover,willinalittletimebecomefamiliarandagreeable;anduntilanindependence
isdeclared,theContinentwillfeelitselflikeamanwhocontinuesputtingoffsomeunpleasantbusiness
fromdaytoday,yetknowsitmustbedone,hatestosetaboutit,wishesitover,andiscontinually
hauntedwiththethoughtsof itsnecessity."
Source:NationalHumanitiesCenter"AmericainClass" fromtheNationalHumanitiesCenter
Mainwebpage:http://americainclass.org/thomas-paine-common-sens..
Advisor:RobertA.Ferguson,GeorgeEdwardWoodberryProfessor inLaw,LiteratureandCriticism,ColumbiaUniversity,NationalHumanitiesCenter Fellow.
Document URL: http://americainclass.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/..
PublicDomainDocument
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SupportingQuestion4FeaturedSourceB PatrickHenry:"GiveMeLibertyorGiveMeDeath"!fromhistory.org
Excerpt
St. John'sChurch,Richmond,VirginiaMR.PRESIDENT:NomanthinksmorehighlythanIdoofthepatriotism,aswellasabilities,oftheveryworthygentlemenwhohavejustaddressedtheHouse.Butdifferentmenoftenseethesamesubjectindifferentlights;and,therefore,Ihopeitwillnotbethoughtdisrespectfultothosegentlemenif,entertainingasIdo,opinionsofacharacterveryoppositetotheirs,Ishallspeakforthmysentimentsfreely,andwithoutreserve.Thisisnotimeforceremony.ThequestionbeforetheHouseisoneofawfulmomenttothiscountry.Formyownpart,Iconsideritasnothinglessthanaquestionoffreedomorslavery;andinproportiontothemagnitudeofthesubjectoughttobethefreedomofthedebate.Itisonlyinthiswaythatwecanhopetoarriveattruth,andfulfilthegreatresponsibilitywhichweholdtoGodandourcountry.ShouldIkeepbackmyopinionsatsuchatime,throughfearofgivingoffence,Ishouldconsidermyselfasguiltyoftreasontowardsmycountry,andofanactofdisloyaltytowardthemajestyofheaven,whichIrevereaboveallearthlykings.
Mr.President,itisnaturaltomantoindulgeintheillusionsofhope.Weareapttoshutoureyesagainstapainfultruth,andlistentothesongofthatsirentillshetransformsusintobeasts.Isthisthepartofwisemen,engagedinagreatandarduousstruggleforliberty?Arewedisposedtobeofthenumberofthosewho,havingeyes,seenot,and,havingears,hearnot,thethingswhichsonearlyconcerntheirtemporalsalvation?Formypart,whateveranguishofspirititmaycost,Iamwillingtoknowthewholetruth;toknowtheworst,andtoprovideforit.
Ihavebutonelampbywhichmyfeetareguided;andthatisthelampofexperience.Iknowofnowayofjudgingofthefuturebutbythepast.Andjudgingbythepast,IwishtoknowwhattherehasbeenintheconductoftheBritishministryforthelasttenyears,tojustifythosehopeswithwhichgentlemenhavebeenpleasedtosolacethemselves,andtheHouse?Isitthatinsidioussmilewithwhichourpetitionhasbeenlatelyreceived?Trustitnot,sir;itwillproveasnaretoyourfeet.Suffernotyourselvestobebetrayedwithakiss.Askyourselveshowthisgraciousreceptionofourpetitioncomportswiththesewar-likepreparationswhichcoverourwatersanddarkenourland.Arefleetsandarmiesnecessarytoaworkofloveandreconciliation?Haveweshownourselvessounwillingtobereconciled,thatforcemustbecalledintowinbackourlove?Letusnotdeceiveourselves,sir.Thesearetheimplementsofwarandsubjugation;thelastargumentstowhichkingsresort.Iask,gentlemen,sir,whatmeansthismartialarray,ifitspurposebenottoforceustosubmission?Cangentlemenassignanyotherpossiblemotiveforit?HasGreatBritainanyenemy,inthisquarteroftheworld,tocallforallthisaccumulationofnaviesandarmies?No,sir,shehasnone.Theyaremeantforus;theycanbemeantfornoother.TheyaresentovertobindandrivetuponusthosechainswhichtheBritishministryhavebeensolongforging.Andwhathavewetoopposetothem?Shallwetryargument?Sir,wehavebeentryingthatforthelasttenyears.Haveweanythingnewtoofferuponthesubject?Nothing.Wehaveheldthesubjectupineverylightofwhichitiscapable;butithasbeenallinvain.Shallweresorttoentreatyandhumblesupplication?Whattermsshallwefindwhichhavenotbeenalreadyexhausted?Letusnot,Ibeseechyou,sir,deceiveourselves.Sir,wehavedoneeverythingthatcouldbedone,toavertthestormwhichisnowcomingon.Wehavepetitioned;wehaveremonstrated;wehavesupplicated;wehaveprostratedourselvesbeforethethrone,andhaveimploreditsinterpositiontoarrestthetyrannicalhandsoftheministryandParliament.Ourpetitionshavebeenslighted;ourremonstranceshaveproducedadditionalviolenceandinsult;oursupplicationshavebeendisregarded;andwehavebeenspurned,withcontempt,fromthefootofthethrone.Invain,afterthesethings,mayweindulgethefondhopeofpeaceandreconciliation.Thereisnolongeranyroomforhope.Ifwewishtobefree²ifwemeantopreserveinviolatethoseinestimableprivilegesforwhichwehavebeensolongcontending²ifwemeannotbaselytoabandonthenoblestruggleinwhichwehavebeensolongengaged,andwhichwehavepledgedourselvesnevertoabandonuntilthegloriousobjectofourcontestshallbeobtained,wemustfight!Irepeatit,sir,wemustfight!AnappealtoarmsandtotheGodofHostsisallthatisleftus!
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Theytellus,sir,thatweareweak;unabletocopewithsoformidableanadversary.Butwhenshallwebestronger?Willitbethenextweek,orthenextyear?Willitbewhenwearetotallydisarmed,andwhena
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Britishguardshallbestationedineveryhouse?Shallwegatherstrengthbyirresolutionandinaction?Shallweacquirethemeansofeffectualresistance,bylyingsupinelyonourbacks,andhuggingthedelusivephantomofhope,untilourenemiesshallhaveboundushandandfoot?Sir,wearenotweakifwemakeaproperuseofthosemeanswhichtheGodofnaturehathplacedinourpower.Threemillionsofpeople,armedintheholycauseofliberty,andinsuchacountryasthatwhichwepossess,areinvinciblebyanyforcewhichourenemycansendagainstus.Besides,sir,weshallnotfightourbattlesalone.ThereisajustGodwhopresidesoverthedestiniesofnations;andwhowillraiseupfriendstofightourbattlesforus.Thebattle,sir,isnottothestrongalone;itistothevigilant,theactive,thebrave.Besides,sir,wehavenoelection.Ifwewerebaseenoughtodesireit,itisnowtoolatetoretirefromthecontest.Thereisnoretreatbutinsubmissionandslavery!Ourchainsareforged!TheirclankingmaybeheardontheplainsofBoston!Thewarisinevitable²andletitcome!Irepeatit,sir,letitcome.
Itisinvain,sir,toextenuatethematter.Gentlemenmaycry,Peace,Peace²butthereisnopeace.Thewarisactuallybegun!Thenextgalethatsweepsfromthenorthwillbringtoourearstheclashofresoundingarms!Ourbrethrenarealreadyinthefield!Whystandwehereidle?Whatisitthatgentlemenwish?Whatwouldtheyhave?Islifesodear,orpeacesosweet,astobepurchasedatthepriceofchainsandslavery?Forbidit,AlmightyGod!Iknownotwhatcourseothersmaytake;butasforme,givemelibertyorgivemedeath!Source:PrimaryDocumentSource:Wirt,William.SketchesoftheLifeandCharacterofPatrickHenry.(Philadelphia)1836,asreproducedinTheWorld'sGreatSpeeches,LewisCopelandandLawrenceW.Lamm,eds.,(NewYork)1973.
From: TheColonialWilliamsburgFoundation:ColonialWilliamsburg:ThatTheFutureMayLearnFromThePast: URL: https://www.history.org/almanack/life/politics/giv..
Public Domain Document and used with permission from history.org website policy
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SummativePerformanceTaskCompellingQuestion HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?
Argument
HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?Constructanargumentthataddressesthecompellingquestionusingspecificclaimsandrelevantevidencefromhistoricalsourceswhileacknowledgingcompetingviews.
Extension Expresstheseargumentsinaperspective-takingexerciseusingsnapchat,topix.com,twitter,orothersocialmedia.
Argument
Afterhavingcompletely learnedabout theEnlightenment, theAmerican/FrenchRevolutions,anddoneintensiveanalysisofthewritingsprovidedinthisinquiryandalloftheformativeperformancetasks,youngscholarswillbeabletoanswerthecompellingquestionwhichwasattherootofthiswholeinquiry.Theargumentcanbeexpressedatteacher/performancecoachdiscretion,butisbestexpressedintheformofaminipaperinastyleconducivetowhatyouryoungscholarswillexperiencetheirfirstyearincollege/university. TwosuggestionsareMLA,APA,and/orTurabian(especiallyusedbyhistoryprofessors incollege/university). Themoreexperienceyouryoungscholarsgetdoingpapers,theeasieritwillbeforthemincollege/university.Thisexercisewillfacilitatethatprocess.Thispartoftheinquirymaytake2to3daysbecauseofthemakeupofthesummativeperformancetask. Ifmoretimeisneeded,thencertainlyonemoredaytofinalizetheirsummativeperformancetaskshouldbeenoughtime.
Extension
Forthemoretechnologicalyoungscholars,thisextensionwascreatedbecausetheyouthoftodayaremorecenteredonsocialmediaascomparedtotheyouthofevenjustafewyearsago.Someofyouryoungscholarsmayactuallypreferthisextensiontodoingtheformalpaper,buttheimportanceofdoingaformalpaperistoovaluableasanexperiencetosubstitutethisactivityforthesummativeperformancetask. Thisextensionwascreatedasaneffortforyoungscholarstohavefunwithsocialmediaandactuallydosomethingimportantratherthansomeofthemoremundanethingstheycomeupwithtocommenton.
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TakingInformedActionUnderstand InvestigatethecurrentdifficultiesbetweenpoliceandminoritygroupsintheBlackLivesMatter
socio-economicpoliticalrevolutioncurrentlyunderwayintheUnitedStates.
Assess Examinetheextenttowhichthiscurrentattemptatrevolutionisbeingsuccessfulandstateone'spersonalstanceonhowthisissueshouldberesolved.
Action
WritealettertotheeditorofthelocalorstatenewspapercomparingtheideasasexpressedbytheAgeofReasonwritersandtheviewsasexpressedbytheBlackLivesMattermovementandhowtheseissuesshouldberesolvedpeacefullyandrespectfullyasoutlinedbyEnlightenmentwritersratherthanthroughaviolentrevolution.
Activeinvolvementinourpoliticalprocessesandexpressingown'sviewsonimportantmattersisacommonvirtueofAmericans. Thisactionactivityrequiresscholarstobecomeactivelyinvolvedthroughanavenuewhichcanbereadbyothersandencouragecourageousconversationsamongmembersofsocietyandyoungscholarsingeneral. Theremaybeothermediumsthattheteacher/performancecoachcancomeupwiththatmayrivalanewspaper,buttheintentistodriveconversationsatthelocalandstatelevel. Ifthereisanothermediumthatcandothateasierandreachawideraudience,thenthatcertainlyisencouraged.
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