ENHANCING TEACHER PEDAGOGICAL TACT THROUGH ...

ENHANCING TEACHER PEDAGOGICAL TACT

THROUGH INTUITION: A DESIGN STUDY

Gerbert Sipman

ISBN978-90-365-5185-4

DOI10.3990/1.9789036551854

Cover design Conny Timmers – ‘t Hoen

Design/lay-out Promotie In Zicht (www.promotie-inzicht.nl)

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© 2021 Gerbert Sipman, The Netherlands.

All rights are reserved. No parts of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission of the author. Alle rechten voorbehouden. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden vermenigvuldigd, in enige vorm of op enige wijze, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de auteur.

DISSERTATION

to obtainthe degree of doctor at the University of Twente,

on the authority of the Rector Magnificus,prof. dr. ir. A. Veldkamp,

on account of the Doctorate Board,to be publicly defended

on Thursday July 1 2021 at 16:45 pm

by

Geurt Albertus Sipmanborn on the 28th of July 1976

in Oosterhout, the Netherlands

ENHANCING TEACHER PEDAGOGICAL TACT

THROUGH INTUITION: A DESIGN STUDY

DOCTORAL COMMITTEE

Chair:Prof. dr. T. Toonen – University of Twente

Promotors:Prof. Dr. S. McKenney – University of TwenteProf. Dr. R. Martens – Open University of the Netherlands

Co-promotor:Dr. J. Thölke – InHolland University of Applied Sciences

Committee members:Prof. Dr. N. Friesen – Boise State University Prof. Dr. G. Kelchtermans – Catholic University of LeuvenProf. Dr. J. Kerstholt – University of TwenteProf. Dr. E. Bohlmeijer – University of TwenteDr. K. Schildkamp – University of Twente Dr. N. Nieveen – University of Twente

Time for this research was made possible by the HAN University of Applied Sciences.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1INTRODUCTION

7

Chapter 2SUB-STUDY A: ANALYSIS

23

Chapter 3SUB-STUDY B: INITIAL PILOT

43

IntermezzoCAN I TRUST MY INTUITION?

63

Chapter 4SUB-STUDY C: FORMATIVE EVALUATION

71

Chapter 5SUB-STUDY D: SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

99

Chapter 6CONCLUSION

129

References

Appendix A: Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire

Appendix B: Practical guidelines for the PDP on Teacher Intuitive Pedagogical Tact

English summary

Nederlandse samenvatting

Academic output

Acknowledgments

151

161

166

173

177

183

187

Introduction

This chapter is partially based on:Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (under review). Enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition: Conceptual, pragmatic and effectiveness dimensions.

1

8

CHAPTER 1

Abstract

This dissertation was undertaken to gain understanding about how to support teachers in developing their intuition, in ways that enhance their abilities to address the complexity of classroom situations. This chapter is a prelude to the theoretical background that was used as the starting point for the work, and delineates the overall approach that was used. First, the importance of teacher pedagogical tact for handling complex classroom situations is introduced. Next, information is provided on the role of intuition in teacher decision making, enhancement of intuition, and the classroom effects of enhancing intuition needed for teacher pedagogical tact. The research challenges in relation to each of these are articulated. Stemming from the overarching goal and the research challenges described, three research objectives are introduced: (1) understanding the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact, (2) developing ways to enhance intuition needed for teacher pedagogical tact, and (3) ascertaining the effects of enhancing intuition on classroom practice, in particular, on teacher pedagogical tact. Thereafter, the choice of an educational design research approach is described and the four sub-studies that were undertaken are mapped onto the main phases of educational design research: one analysis study, two sub-studies that combined design and evaluation, and one evaluation study. The chapter concludes with an overview of the sub-studies that are described in the subsequent chapters and their relation to each other.

9

INTRODUCTION

1Positioning the study

Contemporary educational challenges Preparing today’s students for tomorrow’s world (Scott, 2017) is the challenge that teachers are facing in their classes. Teaching is an honorable and rewarding task, but it has also become increasingly complex, as greater demands are placed upon teachers to face the challenges of today’s society and the diversity of students (Flores, 2017). Social developments have made the teaching context more dynamic and unpredictable (Onderwijsraad, 2013); teachers are confronted with substantive educational innovations in quick succession one after the other (Bronneman-Helmers, 2011), and the levels of accountability and public scrutiny have been increasing for decades education (Estrela, 2001; Hargreaves, 2001). The regularity with which schools are expected to solve social problems is increasing, internationally (Hooge et al., 2011). Moreover, pupil behavior problems seem to be becoming more complex and diverse (Goei & Kleijnen, 2009), which can lead to teacher anxiety, perceived loss of control (Geving, 2007), and stress (Taylor, 2011). The pressure on schools and teachers is growing, which has led to a decrease in teacher motivation and job satisfaction, and increased levels of fatigue and burnout (Flores, 2014).

Classroom complexity requires pedagogical tactFor any teacher, the sheer complexity of teaching is obvious, because classroom events are inherently volatile (Wolff et al., 2020). Teachers need to accommodate the needs of diverse student populations in alignment with the demands of 21st century education (Flores, 2017). Dealing with the complexity of classroom situations is a major challenge on multiple fronts, including for instance, classroom management (Wolff et al., 2020); teaching is not a matter of following recipes or rules (Biesta, 2018). Within all the constraints and demands that are placed upon education, teachers must constantly be able to act in split seconds to address complex classroom situations. This ability – pedagogical tact – is a crucial teacher quality (Juuso & Laine, 2004; Vagle, 2011), and means ‘doing the right thing at the right time’ (Bors & Stevens, 2013, p. 3). Pedagogically tactful actions are sudden, immediate, situational, and often improvised, because teachers do not have time to weigh various alternatives (van Manen, 2015). Teachers who have developed this kind of ‘practical wisdom’, know intuitively what to do, and are able to act quickly when a situation requires it (Schwartz & Sharpe, 2010). The Dutch Educational Council (Onderwijsraad, 2013) endorsed the importance of pedagogical tact for teaching practice, and in the Netherlands there is increasing interest in the concept of pedagogical tact (e.g., Middendorp, 2015).

10

CHAPTER 1

About pedagogical tact While few would dispute the notion that pedagogical tact is a key teacher quality, the term can mean different things to different people. The term pedagogical needs to be understood in the broad perspective of its use in the continental language area of Europe. In Anglo-Saxon language areas, this term is used in relation to learning strategies and instructional forms or methods, which in the Continental-European language area is called didactics (van Kan, 2013). For many, the term pedagogical refers more broadly to any aspects of raising children, which can take place at home and also in school. The term tact derives from the Latin word tactus, which means to touch or sense of touch. Early uses of the term derive from the upheaval of the French revolution, in which tact referred to a person’s capacity to feel his way (Russel, 2013). In the pedagogical context, the term tact is used to describe the sensitivity of the educator (Middendorp, 2015). Over the years, scholars have attempted to elaborate and articulate the concept of pedagogical tact. The term pedagogical tact was first introduced by Herbart (1887), who argued that teachers’ pedagogical tact is the distinguishing feature between competent and incompetent educators. It took until the second half of the 20th century before scholars started to explore the concept of pedagogical tact more systematically. For instance, according to Muth (1962), teachers express pedagogical tact in protection of the necessary distance in pedagogical relations, the binding character and naturalness of teacher speech, and prevention of harm to the child. A leading author on pedagogical tact (van Manen, 1991) portrayed one aspect of tact as holding back to give learners their own space and time to develop, an openness to the child’s experience, being attuned to subjectivity, exercising subtle influence, situational confidence, and an improvisational gift. He conceptualized pedagogical tact as follows:

But we can say that pedagogical tact (1) manifests itself in everyday life as instant action; (2) forms a way of acting that is first of all dependent on an intuitive sensibility and sensitivity – in other words, a feeling-understanding; (3) is sensitive to the uniqueness of the child or young person; (4) is sensitive to the particularities and context of the situation; and (5) is unique also to the personal character of the teacher, the mother, the father, the psychologist, and to their personal pedagogies (interpretive sensibilities, attentiveness, existential values, life meanings, ways of standing in life, ontotheologies, etc.). (van Manen, 2015, pp. 78-79)

Another recent description of the concept of pedagogical tact came from Middendorp (2015), who wrote in her dissertation that:

From connecting theory and experience it appears that the pedagogical relationship is the foundation of the concept of pedagogical tact. The optimum of pedagogical tact manifests itself in the teacher’s ‘in the moment’ actions:

11

INTRODUCTION

1then the practical wisdom of the teacher comes forward, since she feels appealed to (the vocative), and her responsibility. At the risk of reification the teacher interrupts (intermezzo): she stands still, surprises and takes the child through the place of effort. With her actions she embodies her normativity: she makes clear what she stands for by connecting herself with herself in such a way, that her thinking and acting form a congruent whole. (p. 36)

Other scholars have also investigated the concept of pedagogical tact (e.g., Brown et al., 2007; Cangelosi, 2004; Cuenca, 2010; Høiseth et al., 2014; Løndal & Greve, 2015; Sorrell & Redmond, 1997). While detailed conceptual consensus is lacking, there is broadly held acceptance of the notion that, fundamentally, teacher pedagogical tact concerns the ability to considerately and appropriately handle complex classroom situations in split seconds (Middendorp, 2015; van Manen, 2015). Therefore, this broadly held definition of pedagogical tact is the one used throughout this dissertation. Scholars of pedagogical tact have noted that it correlates highly with intuition (e.g., Bors & Stevens, 2013; Vagle, 2011; van Manen, 2015). Intuition seems to support the ability to sense what needs to be done (Kennedy, 2002), as well as in-the-moment creative decision-making and problem solving (Dane & Pratt, 2009). In ancient times, philosophers long ago mentioned the importance of intuition for dealing with complex situations. For instance, Plato described intuition as a supreme kind of knowledge for defining essences through the immediate perception of ideas, and Aristotle’s interpretation of intuition has been described as a form of perception or understanding (Piętka, 2015). Intuition in its broadest sense can be defined as direct knowing without conscious information processing (Sinclair, 2011), which seems to be a crucial asset for teacher pedagogical tact. Thus, it seems prudent that research aimed at understanding pedagogical tact should also attend to the role of intuition.

Aim of the dissertationUnfortunately, despite a great deal of attention being given to the presence and importance of pedagogical tact (as described above), comparatively little scholarship has been devoted to enhancing it. From a scientific perspective, this is a problem, as knowledge on how to support teacher pedagogical tact could serve theory-building related to key competencies or how to develop them. From a practical perspective, this is really worrisome, because handling of complex classroom situations is one of teachers’ biggest challenges. Research is needed to understand how to support teachers’ teacher pedagogical tact through developing their intuition. The goal of this doctoral study is to increase insight into the nature and development of teachers’ intuitive abilities to handle complex classroom situations. Further, it aims to contribute to dialogue on the role of

12

CHAPTER 1

intuition in teaching, and potential the implications hereof for teacher learning. The remainder of this chapter describes the approach taken to achieve this aim, beginning with a brief portrayal of (gaps in) the existing literature with regard to intuition’s role in teacher pedagogical tact, enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through explicit attention to intuition, and ascertaining the outcomes thereof in classroom practice.

Literature review

Intuition and teacher decision-makingHumans often rely upon intuition for judgment and decision making (Evans, 2007), and its role has been explored in several occupations that require instant actions, such as firefighting (Murgalis, 2005), air traffic control (Flora, 2007), aviation (Bangs, 2004), the military (Reinwald, 2000), emergency medicine (Harteis et al., 2011), and crisis management (Bakken & Haerem, 2011). In fact, intuition has consistently been shown to be essential in such occupations (Langan-Fox & Vranic, 2011). Even though teaching also requires acting instantly upon the complexity of classroom situations, scholars have argued that intuition seems to have been forgotten in education (Waks, 2006). This is unfortunate, because intuition can expand the capacity to learn (Claxton et al., 2011) and overcome the limitations of analytical thinking (Iannello et al., 2011). Moreover, teachers’ intuition is extremely important for their actions: “Teachers who use intuition as a method are aware of the uniqueness in every situation. This means that the situation supplies what has to be handled with teaching-intuition” (Johansson & Kroksmark, 2004, p. 375). In other words, intuition can help teachers to sense what is happening in their classes (Kennedy, 2002). Interestingly, despite the wealth of literature stressing the key role of intuition for decision making, hardly any empirically-based knowledge is available about how intuition actually supports teacher decision-making. Broadly speaking, intuition literature describes both cognitive and non-cognitive bases for intuition. The most commonly referred to source of intuition concerns cognitive processes that build on prior knowledge or experiences. Often referred to as local intuition, this includes tacit knowledge and (intuitive) expertise. Additionally, scholars suggest that intuition is based on non-cognitive sources, using terms such as nonlocal (Bradley, 2011), classical (Anthony, 2006), or noetic (Radin, 2011) intuition to describe this. It has been argued that only more experienced professionals (e.g. with 10 years of experience) can make use of local intuition (Pretz, 2011), whereas both novice and experienced teachers can draw on non- cognitive sources of intuition (Duggan & Mason, 2011). From a practical perspective, both sources of intuition have the potential to support teacher pedagogical tact

13

INTRODUCTION

1in particular. To explore this further, empirical research is needed to describe and explain the actual role of intuition in teacher decision-making.

Enhancing intuition Recommendations for enhancing intuition (based on cognitive or non-cognitive sources) have been given. For instance, French philosopher Henri Bergson viewed intuition as knowing things and their uniqueness, and described a method for making use of intuition based on a simple experience of sympathy. Just as is seen in the intuition literature, several mystics, but also other philosophers such as Spinoza or Boehme, have endorsed meditation for enhancing intuition (Stokes, 2002). According to Kant, intuition requires receiving sensations through what he calls sensibility, the capacity to be affected by things (Bengtsson, 2003). In this line of thinking, practicing mindfulness, with its Buddhistic backgrounds, has been endorsed as a viable approach for increasing awareness of intuitive insights (Dane, 2011). Empirical research shows that such mindfulness techniques, among others, can positively influence aspects related to one’s intuitive abilities, such as wellbeing (Subramaniam et al., 2009), self-awareness, emotional balance, and mental clarity (Childre & Rozman, 2002). The literature on developing intuition in the context of education is limited, although some work has been done in higher education, focusing on enhancing forms of intuition that build on prior knowledge or experiences through personal reflection. For instance, Hogarth (2001) recommended screening automatic actions before following them, and Sadler-Smith and Burke (2009) recommended recognizing and countering confirmation bias and other sources of error. Further, intuitions based on non-cognitive sources emerge with subtle signals (Damasio, 1999; Evans, 2003) and people often fail to attend to them (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010), yet this can be trained by sensitizing one’s awareness (Sinclair, 2010). In particular, meditative exercises are recommended for developing intuition based on non-cognitive sources (e.g., Anthony, 2006; Claxton et al., 2011). Such exercises are known to support a focus on being in the here-and-now (Dane, 2011). When a teacher is in the moment, a connective resonance between teachers and pupils can open up (Korthagen et al., 2014). Unfortunately, empirical research on the use of such approaches for improving teacher intuition is limited. While the approaches for enhancing different forms of intuition have the potential to complement each other (van Riel & Hórvath, 2014), empirical investigation is needed to develop and test such complementary approaches, attuned to the context of education in general and to the role of intuition in pedagogical tact in particular. Such work can provide robust evidence for guiding teacher development trajectories, as well as for developing theories about teacher professional growth and how to support it.

14

CHAPTER 1

Classroom effectsAccording to the Dutch Educational Council (Onderwijsraad, 2013), new (policy) initiatives for strengthening the professionalism of teachers should focus on the actions of individual teachers in their daily teaching practice:

In their occupational practice, teachers are regularly confronted with situations involving specific pupils, groups, associates, and goals that present complicated questions. No ready-made answers to these questions are available to guide teachers’ practice. Teachers are themselves continually required to make (quick) choices in their specific practice situation about what is the most suitable action. From teachers this calls for a well-developed capacity to make judgments: practical wisdom. This practical wisdom is not directly available as a matter of course, but develops in the interaction between experience and theory, and enables teachers to sharply perceive what is going on in situations and what is the essence of them. From this sensitivity to the situation teachers are able to come (quickly) to a decision and to act constructively. (p. 7)

Teachers’ practical wisdom has often been described as a form of Aristotle’s phronesis (e.g., Bors & Stevens, 2013), which concerns the ability to aptly judge what needs to be done (Biesta, 2014). Phronesis, in turn, has direct connections to pedagogical tact, which can: (1) preserve a child’s place (i.e., create space in which the pupil is enabled to make decisions), (2) protect what is vulnerable, (3) prevent hurt, (4) make whole what is broken, (5) strengthen what is good, (6) enhance what is unique, and (7) sponsor personal growth and learning (van Manen, 1991). In the literature, indications can be found of the positive effects that enhancing intuition might have on teacher pedagogical tact. For instance, intuition seems to facilitate split-second problem-solving, decision making and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009), and enhancing it can promote more effective communication, smoother social interactions and positive relations with others (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). While several scholars have hypothesized that (enhancing) intuition will have positive effects on classroom practice (e.g., Johansson & Kroksmark, 2004; Kennedy, 2002), empirical studies in this area are lacking. Hence, empirical research is needed to ascertain if enhanced intuition indeed yields (positive) impacts on classroom practice in general and on teacher pedagogical tact, in particular. Given that intuition research is a relatively young field of inquiry (Sinclair, 2011), this work also requires the development of methods for investigating (use of) intuition in relation to teacher pedagogical tact.

15

INTRODUCTION

1Shaping the study

Research contextThis overall study was carried out in primary, secondary, and higher education in the Netherlands. Over the course of the study, in total 161 educational professionals participated: 23 pre-service teachers in primary education, 42 in-service teachers in primary education, 22 in-service teachers in secondary education, 45 in-service teachers in higher education, and 29 educational leaders (Board members, school principals, team leaders/ coaches). At first, the research project emerged from collaboration with two boards of primary schools, the members of both of which were at a loss because they could not find teachers who are able to deal with the diverse populations at their schools (which are situated in urban areas and, according to the board members, require teachers to possess high levels of pedagogical tact). After hearing about the dissertation study (at a conference), two secondary schools joined the research project. The leaders of these schools perceived that more and more teachers were having difficulties running their classes, and acknowledged the value of exploring ways to enhance teachers’ intuition in order to improve their pedagogical tact. Two teacher education institutes learned of the work, and also decided to participate. Their goal was to (better) support innovative approaches to teaching and for dealing with diverse school populations. They recognized the problems teachers are facing in primary and secondary education, and realized that they needed to prepare their students better for being able to do their challenging job.

Research objectives and overall approachThe present study was undertaken to develop knowledge on supporting teacher abilities for handling complex classroom situations through intuition, which is referred to as teacher pedagogical tact. Based on the gaps in the literature presented in (in italics at the end of) the three sections above, three research objectives (ROs) were formulated:- RO1: to better understand the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact- RO2: to develop ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact- RO3: to ascertain the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tactGiven these research objectives, an educational design research approach was used (McKenney & Reeves, 2012, 2019). Educational design research is the systematic study of designing, developing and evaluating educational interventions (such as programs, teaching-learning strategies, materials, products); it focuses on educational problems for which no or only a few validated principles are available to structure and support design and development activities (Plomp & Nieveen, 2010). One goal of educational design research is to change and improve (educational) experiences

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CHAPTER 1

(Burton & Bartlett, 2009; van Aken & Andriessen, 2011), while at the same time deriving scientific understanding that can serve the work of others (McKenney & Reeves, 2021). This was an appropriate approach for this study, because limited knowledge on improving teacher pedagogical tact through enhancing their intuition is available, while at the same time, practitioners want interventions that support teachers in dealing with the complexity in their classrooms. Further, educational design research affords opportunities to learn both through and about the designed interventions (McKenney & Reeves, 2019), as was the case with this study. Three core processes are central to the work of educational design research in general, and to this study in particular. Analysis was undertaken to deepen insight into the gap between the existing situation (‘what is’) and the desired situation (‘what can be’). Subsequently, the design work yielded a well-considered intervention grounded in both theory and reality through a deliberative- generative process (McKenney & Reeves, 2021), namely a professional development program (PDP) focused on enhancing intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. This was subsequently refined based on evaluation, which focused on empirical testing of the designed interventions to further refine (theoretical) understanding about whether, how, and why the intervention features work. With an eye toward implementation, each of these core processes was undertaken with explicit attention to the real-world opportunities and constraints present in the target setting.

Research designWhile mixed methods were used, this dissertation study was dominated by qualitative approaches. Qualitative approaches are not only appropriate for new topics in science, but also help the researcher to stay close to the stakeholders (de Boer & Smaling, 2011). To achieve the aforementioned objectives, four sub-studies (A, B, C, and D) were undertaken. Figure 1 previews the sub-studies and shows their relationship with the research objectives. Thereafter, the relationship between the research objectives and the sub-studies is elaborated upon. The first research objective (RO1) – understanding the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact – was addressed primarily by sub-studies A and B, and secondarily by sub-study C. Sub-study A focused on investigating the perceptions of educators on the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact. Sub-study B further contributed to the understanding of the role of intuition by exploring elements of teacher intuition in teacher pedagogical tact. Here, the experiences of teachers during a PDP that focused on intuition were investigated. Finally, in sub-study C, participant reflections revealed how teachers perceive the effects of a PDP focused on intuition for teacher pedagogical tact on themselves and their classroom practice.

17

INTRODUCTION

1

The second research objective (RO2) – developing ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact – was addressed primarily by two sub-studies (B and C), through the development and investigation of a PDP for this. Sub-study B explored exercises that focus on enhancing intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. Building on those insights, sub-study C used participant reflection logs and group discussions to better understand the experiences of participants during the exercises and to learn about their effects. The third research objective (RO3) – ascertaining the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact – was addressed most directly by sub-study D, though sub-studies B and C also contribute to this objective. In sub-studies B and C, teacher reflection logs revealed the perceived effects of the PDP on themselves and their classroom practice. Sub-study D explicitly investigated the presence and nature of PDP effects on teacher pedagogical tact, by means of participant questionnaires and dyad interviews (PDP participants plus one of their close colleagues). Table 1.1 previews the sub-studies in relation to the methods, data sources and participants. The next section elaborates on this preview.

Figure 1.1. Relationship between research objectives and sub-studies

Study BParticipant experiencesof their intuition duringa PDP, and the e�ectsthereof on theirclassroom practice

Study CHow PDP designfeatures contribute toteacher and learneroutcomes

Study DE�ects ofthe PDP onteachers’pedagogical tact

Study AEducator perceptionsof the role ofintuition in teacherpedagogical tact

Legendunderstanding the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact (RO1)developing ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact (RO2)ascertaining the e�ects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact (RO3)

RO1

RO2

RO3

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CHAPTER 1

Overview of dissertation As described previously, four sub-studies (A, B, C and D) were undertaken to achieve the purpose of supporting teachers’ intuitive abilities in order to enhance their pedagogical tact. In this section, brief descriptions of each chapter are given. Thereafter, a visual overview of the dissertation is given in Table 3. Chapter 1 provides the rationale for the study and sketches the overall approach. Through a brief literature review, the purpose and the research objectives of the dissertation are introduced. The reasons for and application of an educational design research approach are given, along with an overview of the four sub-studies that form the backbone of this dissertation. Chapter 2 (sub-study A) is entitled, The role of intuition in pedagogical tact: Educator views. This chapter reports educator views with regard to the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact and if or why teachers are encouraged to develop this key quality. After describing the conceptual framework, this chapter describes how qualitative data were gathered during 10 focus group discussions with educational leaders, teacher educators, school principals, in-service teachers and pre-service teachers in primary education (n = 55). Chapter 2 was published in the British Educational Research Journal (Sipman et al., 2019). Chapter 3 (sub-study B), Exploring teacher awareness of intuition and how it affects classroom practices: Conceptual and pragmatic dimensions, inductively explores the ways in which teachers perceive and use their intuition, and how this affects their classroom practices. Qualitative data were gathered through participant reflection logs from two groups of in-service teachers (n = 17) while they participated in a PDP that aimed to improve their intuition. Chapter 3 has been published in Professional Development in Education (Sipman et al., 2021). Chapter 4 (sub-study C), Awareness of intuitions serves pedagogical tact: A systemic-phenomenological teacher professional development program, explains the development and testing of a usable design framework to improve teacher sensitivity to intuition, and through that, their pedagogical tact. Pre-service and in-service teachers in primary, secondary and higher education participated

Table 1.1 Relationship between sub-studies and methodological approach

Core processes Methods Data sources N

A Analysis Qualitative Focus group discussions 55

B Design, evaluation Qualitative Participant reflection logs 17

C Design, evaluation Qualitative Participant reflection logsParticipant group discussions

64

D Evaluation Mixed Participant questionnairesDyadic interviews

73

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INTRODUCTION

1in a PDP (n = 64). Qualitative data were gathered through participant reflection logs and participant group discussions. Chapter 4 has been accepted for publication in Systemic Practice and Action Research (Sipman et al., in press). Chapter 5 (sub-study D), Professional development focused on intuition can enhance teacher pedagogical tact, focused on measuring the enhancement of teacher pedagogical tact through conscious attention to intuition and the classroom outcomes hereof. In this mixed methods study the presence of effects was investigated though a questionnaire, and the nature of the effects was investigated through interviews with participants and their colleagues (n = 73). Chapter 5 is currently under review. Finally, Chapter 6 synthesizes the sub-studies that are presented in this dissertation in order to draw a final conclusion in relation to the three research objectives. Further, a general discussion reflects on the research approach and the findings; limitations are considered and suggestions for further research are provided. Finally, the closing considerations provide recommendations for policy, practice and further research, as well as discussing the contribution and wider implications of this dissertation.

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CHAPTER 1

Tabl

e 1.2

Ove

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w o

f the

dis

serta

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Cha

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Focu

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the

diss

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tion;

intro

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sear

ch o

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; ove

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sign

and

sub

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2. S

ub-s

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A

RO

1

Educ

ator

pe

rcep

tions

of

the

role

of

intu

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in te

ache

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t

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grou

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s w

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s, p

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pals

, pre

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an

d in

-ser

vice

teac

hers

, and

te

ache

r edu

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prim

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educ

atio

n (n

= 5

5)

Indu

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in te

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out

enha

ncin

g te

ache

r ped

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ta

ct

3. S

ub-s

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B

RO

1-RO

2-RO

3

Parti

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nt

expe

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es o

f ch

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and

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Inta

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d re

flect

ion

logs

dur

ing

a PD

P w

ith in

-se

rvic

e pr

imar

y te

ache

rs (n

= 17

)

Com

paris

on o

f int

ake

ques

tionn

aire

sum

mar

ies

and

indu

ctiv

e fra

mew

ork

anal

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of

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n lo

gs

Empi

rical

ly d

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once

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l fra

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ork

for t

each

er in

tuiti

on

used

in h

andl

ing

com

plex

cl

assr

oom

situ

atio

ns

4. S

ub-s

tudy

C

RO

1-RO

2-RO

3

How

PD

P de

sign

fe

atur

es c

ontri

bute

to

teac

hers

’ pr

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sion

al

deve

lopm

ent a

nd

thei

r lea

rner

s’ ou

tcom

es

Qua

litat

ive:

Refl

ectio

n lo

gs

and

grou

p di

scus

sion

s w

ith

pre-

serv

ice

and

in-s

ervi

ce

teac

hers

in p

rimar

y, se

cond

ary

and

high

er e

duca

tion,

focu

sing

on

how

a P

DP

cont

ribut

ed to

te

ache

r lea

rnin

g pr

oces

ses

(n

= 22

) and

effe

cts

on te

ache

r de

velo

pmen

t and

ped

agog

ical

ta

ct (n

= 4

2)

Ded

uctiv

e an

alys

is o

f log

s an

d di

scus

sion

s fo

r PD

P co

ntrib

utio

n to

env

isio

ned

lear

ning

pro

cess

es, a

nd

indu

ctiv

e an

alys

is o

f log

s an

d di

scus

sion

s fo

r effe

cts

on

teac

hers

’ per

form

ance

and

the

clas

sroo

m e

nviro

nmen

t.

A us

able

des

ign

fram

ewor

k fo

r en

hanc

ing

teac

her i

ntui

tion,

an

d a

taxo

nom

y of

the

effec

ts th

ereo

f on

teac

hers

’ de

velo

pmen

t in

gene

ral

and

thei

r dev

elop

men

t of

peda

gogi

cal t

act i

n pa

rticu

lar

5. S

ub-s

tudy

D

RO

3

Effec

ts o

f the

PD

P on

teac

hers

’ pe

dago

gica

l tac

t

Mixe

d m

etho

ds: Q

uest

ionn

aire

fo

cuse

d on

pre

senc

e of

PD

P eff

ects

, com

plet

ed b

y (p

re-s

ervi

ce) t

each

ers

in

prim

ary,

seco

ndar

y an

d hi

gher

ed

ucat

ion

(n =

61)

and

12

inte

rvie

ws

focu

sed

on n

atur

e of

effe

cts

with

teac

hers

and

th

eir c

olle

ague

s in

prim

ary,

seco

ndar

y an

d hi

gher

ed

ucat

ion

(n =

24)

Stat

istic

al a

naly

sis

of

ques

tionn

aire

dat

a th

roug

h pa

ired

sam

ples

t-te

st, P

ears

on’s

corre

latio

n co

effici

ent,

MAN

OVA

/ AN

OVA

, and

de

duct

ive

anal

ysis

of t

he

inte

rvie

w d

ata

A ne

w, v

alid

ated

que

stio

nnai

re

and

know

ledg

e ab

out t

he

impa

ct o

f enh

anci

ng te

ache

r in

tuiti

on o

n th

eir p

edag

ogic

al

tact

and

cla

ssro

om o

utco

mes

6. C

oncl

usio

nSy

nthe

sizi

ng fi

ndin

gs; r

eflec

ting

on th

e fin

ding

s an

d m

etho

ds; r

ecom

men

datio

ns fo

r fut

ure

rese

arch

, pra

ctic

e, a

nd p

olic

y;

clos

ing

cons

ider

atio

ns

21

INTRODUCTION

1

Tabl

e 1.2

Ove

rvie

w o

f the

dis

serta

tion

Cha

pter

Focu

sM

etho

dsD

ata

anal

ysis

Scie

ntifi

c co

ntrib

utio

n

1. In

trodu

ctio

nPo

sitio

ning

the

diss

erta

tion;

intro

duct

ion

of re

sear

ch o

bjec

tives

; ove

rvie

w o

f res

earc

h de

sign

and

sub

-stu

dies

2. S

ub-s

tudy

A

RO

1

Educ

ator

pe

rcep

tions

of

the

role

of

intu

ition

in te

ache

r pe

dago

gica

l tac

t

Qua

litat

ive:

10 fo

cus

grou

p di

scus

sion

s w

ith e

duca

tiona

l le

ader

s, p

rinci

pals

, pre

-ser

vice

an

d in

-ser

vice

teac

hers

, and

te

ache

r edu

cato

rs in

prim

ary

educ

atio

n (n

= 5

5)

Indu

ctiv

e da

ta a

naly

sis

of

trans

crib

ed fo

cus

grou

p di

scus

sion

s an

d co

mpa

rison

of

mem

ber-c

heck

ed re

ports

Cla

rifyi

ng th

e im

porta

nce

of

intu

ition

in te

ache

r ped

agog

ical

ta

ct, a

nd e

duca

tor n

eeds

/w

ishe

s in

ord

er to

lear

n ab

out

enha

ncin

g te

ache

r ped

agog

ical

ta

ct

3. S

ub-s

tudy

B

RO

1-RO

2-RO

3

Parti

cipa

nt

expe

rienc

es o

f ch

ange

s in

thei

r in

tuiti

on d

urin

g a

PDP,

and

the

effec

ts

ther

eof o

n th

eir

clas

sroo

m p

ract

ice

Qua

litat

ive:

Inta

ke

ques

tionn

aire

s an

d re

flect

ion

logs

dur

ing

a PD

P w

ith in

-se

rvic

e pr

imar

y te

ache

rs (n

= 17

)

Com

paris

on o

f int

ake

ques

tionn

aire

sum

mar

ies

and

indu

ctiv

e fra

mew

ork

anal

ysis

of

refle

ctio

n lo

gs

Empi

rical

ly d

eriv

ed c

once

ptua

l fra

mew

ork

for t

each

er in

tuiti

on

used

in h

andl

ing

com

plex

cl

assr

oom

situ

atio

ns

4. S

ub-s

tudy

C

RO

1-RO

2-RO

3

How

PD

P de

sign

fe

atur

es c

ontri

bute

to

teac

hers

’ pr

ofes

sion

al

deve

lopm

ent a

nd

thei

r lea

rner

s’ ou

tcom

es

Qua

litat

ive:

Refl

ectio

n lo

gs

and

grou

p di

scus

sion

s w

ith

pre-

serv

ice

and

in-s

ervi

ce

teac

hers

in p

rimar

y, se

cond

ary

and

high

er e

duca

tion,

focu

sing

on

how

a P

DP

cont

ribut

ed to

te

ache

r lea

rnin

g pr

oces

ses

(n

= 22

) and

effe

cts

on te

ache

r de

velo

pmen

t and

ped

agog

ical

ta

ct (n

= 4

2)

Ded

uctiv

e an

alys

is o

f log

s an

d di

scus

sion

s fo

r PD

P co

ntrib

utio

n to

env

isio

ned

lear

ning

pro

cess

es, a

nd

indu

ctiv

e an

alys

is o

f log

s an

d di

scus

sion

s fo

r effe

cts

on

teac

hers

’ per

form

ance

and

the

clas

sroo

m e

nviro

nmen

t.

A us

able

des

ign

fram

ewor

k fo

r en

hanc

ing

teac

her i

ntui

tion,

an

d a

taxo

nom

y of

the

effec

ts th

ereo

f on

teac

hers

’ de

velo

pmen

t in

gene

ral

and

thei

r dev

elop

men

t of

peda

gogi

cal t

act i

n pa

rticu

lar

5. S

ub-s

tudy

D

RO

3

Effec

ts o

f the

PD

P on

teac

hers

’ pe

dago

gica

l tac

t

Mixe

d m

etho

ds: Q

uest

ionn

aire

fo

cuse

d on

pre

senc

e of

PD

P eff

ects

, com

plet

ed b

y (p

re-s

ervi

ce) t

each

ers

in

prim

ary,

seco

ndar

y an

d hi

gher

ed

ucat

ion

(n =

61)

and

12

inte

rvie

ws

focu

sed

on n

atur

e of

effe

cts

with

teac

hers

and

th

eir c

olle

ague

s in

prim

ary,

seco

ndar

y an

d hi

gher

ed

ucat

ion

(n =

24)

Stat

istic

al a

naly

sis

of

ques

tionn

aire

dat

a th

roug

h pa

ired

sam

ples

t-te

st, P

ears

on’s

corre

latio

n co

effici

ent,

MAN

OVA

/ AN

OVA

, and

de

duct

ive

anal

ysis

of t

he

inte

rvie

w d

ata

A ne

w, v

alid

ated

que

stio

nnai

re

and

know

ledg

e ab

out t

he

impa

ct o

f enh

anci

ng te

ache

r in

tuiti

on o

n th

eir p

edag

ogic

al

tact

and

cla

ssro

om o

utco

mes

6. C

oncl

usio

nSy

nthe

sizi

ng fi

ndin

gs; r

eflec

ting

on th

e fin

ding

s an

d m

etho

ds; r

ecom

men

datio

ns fo

r fut

ure

rese

arch

, pra

ctic

e, a

nd p

olic

y;

clos

ing

cons

ider

atio

ns

Sub-study A: Analysis

This chapter is based on: Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (2019).Intuition’s role in pedagogical tact: Educator views. British Educational Research Journal, 45(6), 1186–1202.

2

24

CHAPTER 2

Abstract

Pedagogical tact concerns a teacher’s ability to considerately handle complex classroom situations that require immediate action. As such, pedagogical tact can be viewed as an enactment of teachers’ intuition. While most teachers, teacher educators, educational leaders, and scholars readily recognize the importance of pedagogical tact (and by extension, intuition), few pre-service or in-service programs devote explicit attention to developing this important teacher quality. This study set out to understand why. Specifically, data were collected to investigate how educators perceive intuition, and its role in teacher pedagogical tact. Ten focus group discussions were held with school board members, teacher educators, school principals, in-service teachers, and pre-service teachers. Participants recognized two types of intuition commonly described in literature (local and nonlocal), and affirmed the importance of intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. These educators also noted that teachers are rarely if ever encouraged to make conscious use of their intuition, let alone develop it. There was consensus that teachers differ in how well they are able to tune into their intuition. Though the scale of the study is small, the findings suggest that more attention should be given to developing teacher intuition and pedagogical tact than is currently the case.

25

SUB-STUDY A: ANALYSIS

2

Introduction

Teaching has become more and more complex, since greater demands are placed upon teachers to face the challenges of today’s society and the diversity of expectations of students (Flores, 2017). For many teachers, the biggest challenge is now dealing with pupil problem behavior, as these are becoming more prevalent, complex and diverse (Goei & Kleijnen, 2009). Research shows that the effects of teacher training initiatives that aim at improving social, emotional and behavioral outcomes of pupils in primary education, are limited (Whear et al., 2013). Classroom events are only partially predictable and controllable (Wolff, 2015), and guidelines that adequately prescribe what teachers should do in specific situations do not exist (Bakx, 2015). In this line of reasoning it is not easy to skilfully use multiple classroom strategies (Heikonen et al., 2017), since teaching requires being able to act upon large amounts of factors at once, many times a day. Education serves the purposes of qualification, subjectification, and socialization (Biesta, 2014), and pedagogical tact is an important quality for serving each of these purposes. Tactful teaching is aimed at leading the learner toward growth (van Manen, 1991). Van Manen (2015) relates to qualification and subjectification by stating that pedagogically tactful teachers share what they know, and create conditions in which young people can take their process of becoming into their own hands. The three educational purposes can lead to synergy, but also to conflicts. In particular, teachers constantly need to judge how to adjust the purposes to each other or how to prioritize them (Biesta, 2014). These decisions often have to be made in the moment and manifest in teachers’ pedagogical tact. Pedagogical tact supports teachers’ judgment for weaving these three purposes instantly and adequately in the process of everyday teaching. However, given that teachers make relatively few conscious decisions while teaching (Korthagen, 2017), what does enable teachers to act instantly in complex classroom situations? Teachers’ ability to sense and act both swifly and considerately in relation to large amounts of input at once, constitutes pedagogical tact. Pedagogical tact enables adequate actions, that are sudden, immediate, situational, improvised (van Manen, 2015), and only indirectly connected with ideas that are consciously derived from theories (Juuso & Laine, 2004). Other scholars (e.g., Winch et al., 2015) have similarly observed that human performance relies on more than technical know-how alone. In this context, several scholars on pedagogical tact (e.g., van Manen, 2015) refer to Aristotle to explain that besides techne (craftsmanship) teaching also requires phronesis (colloquial wisdom). Techne refers to actively using principles, methods and materials productively, while phronesis concerns the virtue to aptly judge what needs to be done (Biesta, 2014). Both are needed to enable praxis, principled action, or in this case: pedagogical tact. Techne enables

26

CHAPTER 2

teachers to envision, predict, explain and mediate the consequences of interventions, while phronesis supports teachers in negotiating the complexity of classroom decision- making in situations where there may be no clear-cut answers (Winch et al., 2015). According to Fuglseth (2017), in its modern form, phronesis is said to be an alternative to behavioristic, naturalistic, instrumentalist or foundationalist approaches in cultural sciences. We assert that both techne and phronesis are enriched by intuition. Further, in the case of classroom performance, some scholars note that pedagogical tact correlates highly with a strong intuitive sense of when to respond in what way (Vagle, 2011), and argue that developed intuition is the driving force behind pedagogical tact (Bors & Stevens, 2013). We consider intuition to be crucial for teacher’s pedagogical tact, and describe the theoretical and empirical justifications for doing so next.

Literature

Pedagogical tactThe concept of pedagogical tact concerns the artistic ability of teachers to instantly act upon the complexity of classroom situations. Experts who investigate pedagogical tact mostly build on van Manen (1991), who himself builds on scholars such as Herbart and Muth. As early as 1802, Herbart stated that handling complex classroom situations requires receiving, apperceiving, feeling, and judging, as well as letting go of routines and being freed from the influence of habit. Muth (1962) spoke in this context about the ‘unverfügbarkeit’ of pedagogical tact, which in English can be translated as ‘elusive intangibility’. Muth’s use of the German term stresses the fact that tact cannot be learned and reproduced at will, because it goes beyond skills or tricks. It therefore is not possible to ‘own’ and ‘steer’ tactful behavior, but one can be prepared and be open for it to happen. Accordingly, Muth claims that teachers express their pedagogical tact during instructional engagement in situational confidence, dramaturgical capability, improvisation, and spontaneity. Additionally, Muth suggests that teachers can express pedagogical tact through the binding character of their speech, their naturalness of action, their avoidance of any injury to the child and their maintenance of the distance that is necessary in the pedagogical relation too. Along similar lines, van Manen (1991, p. 146) describes pedagogical tact as a quality of being: “To exercise tact means to see a situation calling for sensitivity, to understand the meaning of what is seen, to sense the significance of this situation, to know how and what to do, and to actually do something right”. In later work, van Manen (2015) describes the concept as a kind of empathic sensibility and wisdom about people, which supports an instant understanding and therefore pedagogically tactful actions.

27


2

Several scholars build van Manen’s early work (1991) for gaining deeper conceptual understanding about pedagogical tact. For instance, according to Juuso and Laine (2004), pedagogical tact is a situation-specific form of action based on sensitivity, which is only remotely connected with ideas that are derived consciously. Similar to this, van der Wolf and van Beukering (2011) write that pedagogical tact is about ‘reading the situation’, and suggest that the professional unconscious provides information about what is important and what should be done. Several scholars relate pedagogical tact to intuitive qualities, including intuitive attunement to students (Vagle, 2011) and acting on developed intuition (Bors & Stevens, 2013). They also note that this is supported by knowing oneself, experiencing the other, and remaining sensitive in a given situation (Bors & Stevens, 2013; van Manen, 2015).

IntuitionFor acting upon complex situations that require immediate actions, intuition has been shown to be indispensable in occupations such as emergency nursing, firefighting, aviation, the military and law enforcement (Langan-Fox & Vranic, 2011). Although teaching is not about life-threatening situations, it does require split- second actions in complex classroom situations many times a day. Because intuition can spontaneously generate ideas, alternatives or solutions (Sadler-Smith, 2004), it predominantly serves decision-making, problem-solving, and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009). Therefore, intuition seems indispensable for teacher pedagogical tact too. Conceptualizations of intuition vary greatly, which explains why Sinclair (2011) offers a view of intuition in its broadest sense: as direct knowing without conscious information processing. Its importance is demonstrated by the now commonly accepted dual-process theory, which explains that humans process information through two independent, but also seamlessly interacting systems: ratio and intuition. Ratio aligns with the Aristotlean notion of episteme, and concerns the slow, effortful and analytical processes (Stanovich & West, 2000), which seek understanding (e.g., of a problem) by breaking things down into components and then performing logical or mathematical operations on them (Klein, 2004). By contrast, intuition processes effortlessly and associatively running parallel to ratio. Indeed, research has shown that humans can consciously think about only a few factors at once (Dijksterhuis, 2007), whereas intuition weighs and integrates many factors in split seconds. We are aware that in the field of education, using intuition is often judged as intangible and even somewhat suspicious. However, research suggests that intuition can be more accurate than rationality, particularly in complex situations (Pretz, 2011). Within the perspective of intuitive information processing, two forms of intuition are commonly distinguished in literature: inferential and holistic intuition. Inferential

28

CHAPTER 2

intuition relies on automated responses based on quick recognition/matching of memory patterns which are accumulated through experience, not unlike background information processing of computers (Radin, 2011). By contrast, holistic intuition emerges through synthesis of otherwise unconnected memory fragments into new information structures (Mintzberg et al., 1998). Pretz (2011) argues that inferential intuition is likely to emerge when problems are relatively simple, and that holistic intuition comes into play to address high complexity problems. This would suggest that dealing with complex classroom situations requires the use of holistic intuition, but that teachers also rely on inferential intuition for less complex situations. These perspectives on intuition are commonly accepted, but a more controversial one also bears mention which goes beyond cognitive information processing. In her framework, Sinclair (2011) positions inferential and holistic intuition together and refers to them both as forms of local intuition, because they both build on prior knowledge and experiences. At the same time, she posits the existence of a nonlocal dimension to intuition, the basis of which is not understood, but does not appear to be the same as for holistic or inferential intuition. Nonlocal intuition has been defined as “the knowledge or sense of something that cannot be explained by past or forgotten knowledge or environmental signals” (McCraty & Zayas, 2014, p. 58). While many scholars would endorse the basic notion of nonlocal intuition, there is no consensus on precisely what it is. For instance, Dane (2010) writes about radical intuiting, which departs dramatically from existing knowledge patterns. Radin (2011) writes about noetic intuition, which refers to ways of knowing based on inner wisdom, direct understanding, or impressions that transcend rational analysis. While debates continue over the precise nature and causes of nonlocal intuition, increasing empirical evidence suggests that nonlocal intuition is a real and measurable phenomenon (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). For instance, Bradley (2011) shows empirical evidence that people are able to accurately perceive information from distant or future sources, and McCraty and Childre (2014) found that human brains and hearts receive pre-stimulus information 4 to 5 seconds before any known emotional stimulus. Evidence like this requires entirely new ways of understanding (Radin, 2011), and experts have argued that this type of ‘sixth sense’ is not a special gift which is only available to a limited group, but is actually a quality of every human being (e.g., Tomasino, 2011). Moreover, enhancing one’s nonlocal intuitive capacities is said to lead to more effective communication, smooth social interactions and positive relations (McCraty & Zayas), which are important aspects of teacher pedagogical tact. Intuition, in this sense, is not only instant cognitive information processing based on prior knowledge and experiences, but also – as Anthony (2006, p. 28) puts it – “can transcend the confines of the individual mind and the limits of the sensory organs”. We submit

29


2

that research on local and nonlocal forms of intuition open up possibilities for understanding and possibly even developing teachers’ intuition.

Intuitive pedagogical tactIn this study, we define pedagogical tact as a teacher’s ability to instantly and adequately act upon the complexity of classroom situations. Particularly for actions that emerge in the moment, intuition is crucial. In this study, we define intuition as a personal quality for reaching insights or conclusions instantly without conscious reasoning. In line with the previous discussion on intuition, our view on teacher pedagogical tact explicitly acknowledges that local and nonlocal forms of intuition are indispensable. This is why we use the term intuitive pedagogical tact - to stress the conviction that intuition is crucial for pedagogical tact. (NB: We do not view the converse to be true – tact is not essential for intuition.)

Limited research on intuition in teachingSeveral researchers have endorsed the integration of intuition in education for enhancing learning processes (e.g., Anthony, 2006; Kuhnle, 2011), but only few have focused on teaching skills. Exceptions are Johansson and Kroksmark (2004) who argue that teachers who use intuition are aware of the uniqueness in situations. Moreover, Kennedy (2002) argues that intuition helps teachers to be aware of environmental cues and to sense what happens in their classrooms. And studies of teacher pedagogical performance have suggested that intuition plays an important role. For example, in her study on ‘with-it-ness’, Wolff (2015) argues that the ability to maintain an ongoing awareness of what is happening in the classroom is a crucial variable for effective classroom management. Iannello et al. (2011) argue that intuition is useful to bolster the teaching process, since intuition gives the possibility of overcoming the limitations of analytical thinking. The effectiveness of intuition depends on the extent to which one is able to access and utilize the non-conscious mind (Strick & Dijksterhuis, 2011), and some experts argue that this can be enhanced (e.g., Tamasino, 2011). For local intuition, this can be accomplished through practice, reflection and personal development focusing on the quality of interactions between teachers and pupils (Valle, 2017). Further, becoming aware of intuitions requires automating routines and practices (Kennedy, 2002). For enhancing nonlocal intuition, exercises related to mindfulness might be helpful, as one’s intuitive perception is more sensitive when one is relaxed (e.g., Claxton et al., 2011). We are aware that intuition is not the answer for all educational challenges. Winch et al. (2015) point to the importance of technical know-how and critical reflection, alongside intuitive knowledge, as aspects of teachers’ professional knowledge. On the one hand they note that none of these aspects on its own

30

CHAPTER 2

proves sufficient, but on the other hand they argue that good teaching draws on a body of theory and reflection. They warn for the dangers of relying on intuitive knowledge and propose research for enriching teachers’ professional knowledge and practice. Indeed, there is a wealth of research showing the importance of rational decision-making for teaching in general (e.g., Rata, 2017), but also for swift, in-the-moment decision-making in particular (e.g., Levin & Nolan, 2014). Therefore, we conjecture that both rationality and intuition facilitate teachers’ pedagogical tact, and note that the role of rationality is much better understood than that of intuition. Given that the importance of intuition in professional practice, it seems odd that that the literature on teaching gives it so little attention. One explanation is that intuition is not valued or cultivated in educational organizations, which has been considered a pre-requisite for intuition to flourish (Burke & Miller, 1999). In intuition literature, it is frequently mentioned that education focus on rationality too much (e.g., Anthony 2006; Iannello et al., 2011). In fact, according to van Manen (2015, p. 88) “contemporary policy perspectives tend to be result driven, evidence based, and accountability oriented”, yet these orientations, discourses, and perspectives do not necessarily or adequately reflect how teachers experience their daily practice. It therefore seems prudent to investigate: how educators view the role of intuition for teaching and especially pedagogical tact; factors that might promote or prevent teachers’ use of it; and their perspectives on developing it.

Methods

To understand the perspectives of educators regarding intuition and pedagogical tact, we sought answers to three research questions: Q1: How do educators perceive the role of intuition in teachers’ pedagogical tact?Q2: What helps or hinders teachers to use their intuitive pedagogical tact?Q3: What are educator views about strengthening teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact?A qualitative approach was used because this has been deemed appropriate for new topics and also helps to stay close to the stakeholders (de Boer & Smaling, 2011). Specifically, focus group discussions were used to explore how the educational professionals perceive and give meaning to the role of intuition in teaching. Focus group discussions were selected since they are appropriate for generating ideas when no personal interests are at stake, and have the advantage that reactions of some participants can evoke new ideas in others (Baarda et al., 2013).

31


2

ParticipantsTen focus group discussions were conducted with a total of 55 professionals in primary education (18 men and 37 women, aged 21 to 63 years). Participants were affiliated with three school districts and one teacher training college in the Netherlands. Educators with differing roles were purposefully sampled. In this way, we hoped to enable all relevant stakeholders to tell their story (Boog, 2011). All participation was voluntary. The ten focus groups consisted of: one group of managers of the participating organizations (n = 5), two groups of teacher educators (n = 21), three groups of school principals (n = 16), three groups of teachers (n = 11) and one group of teacher trainees (n = 3). The number of participants per focus group discussion ranged from 2 to 12. In the invitations to participate, it was emphasized that opposing voices were welcome, given our expectation that research about intuition in education would likely meet some resistance.

ProcedureThe focus group discussions lasted 72 minutes on average, ranging from 56 to 87 minutes. Each group discussion started with an introduction of the persons present, an overview of the research (focus, aim, design), and an explanation of procedures (including data-management, anonymity, and the option to discontinue participation). The intangibility of the concept of pedagogical tact was introduced by placing cards on the table containing features of the concept as described previously: quality of being, sensitivity, intuitive sensibility (van Manen, 1991), reading the situation, professional unconsciousness (van der Wolf & van Beukering, 2011), knowing yourself, experiencing others from within, full attention for the moment, solutions emerge spontaneous (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Then the participants were invited to react to three open questions, one in relation to each main research question:1. To what extent do you recognize intangible processes as part of teachers’

pedagogical tact? 2. What conditions in practice support or undermine the use of these intangible

processes?3. What interventions or approaches are already in use for enhancing these

intangible processes?Deliberately, the questions used the term, ‘intangible’ instead of ‘intuitive’ (in Dutch, the word used was ‘ongrijpbaar’, which is in line with Muth’s (1962) “unverfügbarkeit” and means that the concept is difficult to grasp). This term was chosen because it is typically perceived to be quite broad, to open up a discussion that does not depend on the specific term, ‘intuition’. Doing so was a form of using the language of the educational professionals whose perspectives were being studied, as advocated in research literature (e.g., McKenney & Reeves, 2012).

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All focus group discussions were facilitated by the first author of this paper. During the group discussion, the researcher emphatically invited the participants to share opinions. All participants were welcomed to email any changes or additions to what they had shared in the sessions to obviate negative effects of peer pressure, but none did so. Reflection on the findings and research process took place regularly through peer debriefing sessions, in lieu of joint coding or intercoder reliability tests (Evers, 2015). In the first two group discussions, it became clear that the participants perceive differences between teachers in their ability to tune into their intuitive pedagogical tact, and it therefore was decided to also discuss this theme in all groups.

Data analysisAfter completing all focus group discussions, the recordings were transcribed. The ten verbatim transcripts (ranging from 9037-13419 words) were analyzed separately through an inductive approach, which is appropriate when a research topic is new (Evers, 2015). Meaningful words and sentences were selected and coded with the aid of Atlas.ti software (version 7) (Friese, 2015). Saturation, (meaning that new data do not lead to new insights), seemed to be reached after group discussion eight, as no new patterns, themes or findings emerged. Still the last two group discussions that were already scheduled were conducted, which confirmed saturation. The themes that emerged within individual groups by categorizing the codes were processed into reports. The reports were member-checked with the participants of that group, to guard both validity and reliability (Santiago-Delefosse et al., 2015). The member-checks did not lead to new information and therefore it was possible to comparatively analyze the group reports for similarities and differences in order to let overarching themes emerge. Due to length restrictions, the full codebook is not presented here. However, Table 2.1 shows the subthemes that emerged within the theme ‘value of intuition in education’.

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Results

How do educators perceive the role of intuition in teachers’ pedagogical tact?The educational professionals argued that, due to societal changes, using intuition is becoming increasingly important for teachers’ pedagogical tact. Their descriptions aligned with local as well as nonlocal forms of intuition, and they attributed positive qualities to teachers who are able to use their intuition. Further, they emphasized risks when teachers are non- or less intuitive. A prominent finding of this study is that all educational professionals that participated in the focus group discussions acknowledge intuition as important for acting instantly upon complex classroom situations. As one participant (manager) mentioned: ‘I think we’ve agreed, in different words, that these intangible processes are the heart of our job’. In two groups of principals, participants even argued that teachers will not stay in education if they are not intuitive (two principals): A: ‘You say everybody has “it”? B: I think otherwise you would have been sifted out, somewhere in the process’. The participants seem to refer to local forms of intuition (teacher): ‘You immediately turn over to intuition, you start up the

Table 2.1 Example analysis (numbers in parentheses indicate the number of group discussions in which this sub-theme was mentioned)

Emerging themes (and # of discussions in which mentioned)

Example quote

Value of intuition in education

- Intangible/ intuitive processes are part of the educational process (10)

- Intangible/ intuitive processes are the essence of teaching (4)

- Many pedagogical actions occur intuitively, as there is no time to consciously consider what to do (3)

- Both educational professionals as well as pupils feel it whether a teacher uses intangible/ intuitive processes or not (2)

- Without the ability to use intangible/ intuitive processes you will not make it in education (2)

- This has become more crucial because we want to do justice to differences in the classroom.

- I think we’ve agreed, in different words, that these intangible processes are the heart of our job.

- You often have to act so quickly that you just act from yourself, from your own me.

- In those classes you sense a relaxed, safe atmosphere in which pupils feel that they are heard.

- A: You say everybody has “it”? B: I think otherwise you would have been sifted out, somewhere in the process.

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automatic pilot and you react. It is not really an automatic pilot, but you do recognize certain situations. Situations don’t just fall out of the sky, so you build on prior knowledge’. In addition, nonlocal forms of intuition can also be recognized in their talk (teacher educator): ‘Yes, trust plays a big role, a trust to tap into the nourishing field and to feel what moves you’ or (teacher trainee): ‘I would rather say that you act from your soul’. The educational professionals argued that teaching requires being intuitive, as teachers do not have time to deliberate how to act upon the complexity of classroom situations (teacher trainee):‘You often have to act so quickly that you just act from yourself, from your gut’. In particular, the educational leaders argued that intuition is becoming increasingly important due to societal changes (principal): ‘Due to the complexity of the current society, the need for intuitive qualities that have always existed come more to the fore, since the job of a teacher is becoming more and more complex’. An important aspect of this increasing complexity is ‘a growing diversity of pupils in my classroom’ (teacher). Education’s growing focus on differentiation seems to raise awareness that intuition is becoming more and more important (manager): ‘This has become more crucial because we want to do justice to differences in the classroom’. Some participants argued that it is becoming increasingly necessary to acknowledge intuition in education (manager): ‘Pupils are more demanding, their needs have changed. I think that teachers – to prevent collective burnouts because of what they need to deal with – really need to learn this, much more then in former times’. Intuition, for instance, might help to act instantly and effortlessly (teacher): ‘Then solutions just emerge naturally. There is also no fear about what to do’. Intuition also seems to enable teachers to sense pupils’ educational needs (manager): ‘Each pupil has something to trigger, touch or hurt them, to be able to sense this’, and to prevent conflicts (principal): ‘Those teachers do not get into crises, they see things grow and react in advance’. Due to teachers’ intuitive capacities, a positive pedagogical climate seems to emerge (teacher educator): ‘In those classes you sense a relaxed and safe atmosphere in which pupils feel that they are heard’. At the same time, the educational professionals shared the consequences of when teachers are not or less able to react intuitively upon classroom situations (teacher educator): ‘I think that what we are talking about is the fundament of education. If teachers don’t have it – when they’ve only got skills to keep order – then they need power and force’. These teachers were also described as less flexible (teacher): ‘This teacher sticks close to the class rules. It’s difficult to explain what I mean when we talk about intuition’. Lacking this intuitive capacity seems to interfere with the pedagogical relation between teachers and pupils (principal): ‘The harmony isn’t there, this click that “yes we do understand each other”’.

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What helps or hinders teachers to use their intuitive pedagogical tact?According to the educational professionals in this study, teachers are becoming less and less intuitive. They suggest that the fields of education as well as educational research somehow inhibit use of intuition. They note that adequate language for discussing this is lacking. In contrast with all positive features attributed to intuition, participants in all groups except the teacher trainees argued that teachers nowadays are becoming less intuitive (teacher educator): ‘In the past years I have seen teachers losing this more and more due to the madness of the day’. Teachers who are open about using intuition, seem to meet resistance (principal): ‘When people constantly tell you, what you are talking about is nonsense, you’re acting stupid. After a while, you start believing that it really is stupid’. This critical stance towards intuition seems a result of education’s increasing focus on evidence-based actions and results (principal): ‘We ignore what we can’t measure. This side, this sensing, remains invisible’. The managers and principals attribute this trend to science (principal): ‘According to science this doesn’t exist, large parts of science deny it altogether’. The data also illustrate how much the participants struggle to discuss intangible concepts such as intuition (manager): ‘Yes it all sounds so incredibly vague. It makes me feel like a hippie’. Some participants postulated that their knowledge is insufficient to discuss intuition (teacher): ‘I actually do not have enough knowledge about what it is’. Intuition seems too intangible to grasp (teacher educator): ‘For some teachers this is really like abracadabra’, and not practically applicable enough (teacher educator): ‘Some people think this is too esoteric, not at all important, or…uhm, yes, not hands-on’. The participants seem to meet a great deal of judgment regarding intuition in their daily practice (teacher): ‘Some people, if I may be blunt, will say “what a load of crap is this”’. The participants deal in different ways with the difficulty to find words to express themselves with regard to intuition. Many participants referred to intuition using pronouns such as ‘it, this, that’, or searched for language that opposes or differentiates from intuition such as quick thinking, routines, automatisms and repertoire (teacher educator): ‘What we are talking about is situations in which, based on our repertoire, we don’t know what to do; and intuitively, we do something’. The participants also used other abstract language to express themselves, such as ‘feeling, sensing, tuning in, reading/ seeing the child, connecting’, etc. However, despite a lack of language and knowledge, one seems to sense intuitively that intuition is part of teaching (teacher): ‘When you talk about this with colleagues, everybody senses what you mean’. Finally, the data suggest that it is difficult to pinpoint intuitive actions, since intuitive actions often are small and unconscious

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(teacher): ‘You often act unconsciously, and somehow things turn out nice. It is in the small things, a glance or something like that. It’s not just one thing that works’.

What are educator perceptions about strengthening teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact? The educational professionals perceived differences between intuitive capacities of teachers and questioned whether or not it is possible to enhance teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact. They argued that the need to learn about consciously enhancing teachers’ intuitive capacities is high, as interventions or approaches for this seem to be lacking. All groups mentioned that the intuitive capacities of teachers differ. Our data analysis distinguished three main characterizations of teacher intuitive capacity. The first characterization concerns teachers who are able to tune into intuition naturally, (manager): ‘Some people are good at this from day one, they just see the pupil. They feel that they have an overview of the class and maintain a relation with pupils without effort, naturally’. The second characterization is of teachers who are unable or less able to tune into intuition, (principal): ‘It will be difficult for both teachers as well as their pupils if they can’t learn this. I guess they will also have difficulties in their team’. The third characterization concerns teacher difficulties regulating their intuitions: ‘One can be too sensitive. They are able to connect incredibly with their pupils, but have difficulties to distinguish between themselves and others’. According to the educational professionals, one just knows intuitively whether a teacher is more or less intuitive (teacher): ‘You can sense whether it’s there or not it in the atmosphere of the classroom’. In each group discussion, the question was raised as to whether or not it is possible to enhance teachers’ intuition (teacher): ‘I wonder if this can be trained; and if so, how?’. They argued that teacher education does not pay any attention to training intuition (principal): ‘Teachers do not get educated in this’. All groups wished to learn about consciously enhancing teachers’ intuitive capacities to act instantly (principal): ‘More and more teachers come to me that they are not able to deal with their pupils. Many teachers are in search for tools, something to develop teachers’ intuitive capacities would be golden’. In nine of the ten groups, participants pointed out that learning to consciously use intuition benefits education (principal): ‘This would benefit wellbeing of both pupils as well as teachers’. Acknowledging intuition in education might open up new possibilities (principal): ‘This can add a deeper dimension to education and help to reach pupils more deeply; I think this is needed in contemporary society’.

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Discussion

ConclusionsThis study investigated educator perceptions concerning the role of intuition in pedagogical tact. Across diverse roles, educators acknowledged the intuitive dimension of pedagogical tact, and deemed it a crucial asset. The participants interpreted the concept of intuition differently, and these differences aligned with both the local as well as nonlocal forms of intuition that have been described in literature. Further, intuition was viewed to help teachers to sense pupils’ needs, engage more easily and effortlessly with pupils, and prevent conflicts. Participants described differences between teacher abilities to tune into their intuition, noting that some come to it naturally, others have difficulties getting in touch with it, and still others may struggle to regulate their intuitions. Finally, participants felt that developing teacher intuitive capacities should be prioritized, and described to the lack of interventions for this as problematic.

Limitations and future researchSeveral limitations bear mention. First, it has to be noted that the results of our study are based solely on focus group opinions. Moreover, it is possible that we have missed perspectives on the role of intuition in pedagogical tact. We invited opposing voices to join the focus group discussions and the results show that the participants in the discussions do have colleagues who are skeptical about intuition. However, it seemed that these opposing voices were not present, which may have yielded biased results. At the same time it was not difficult to obtain voluntary participation by professionals of varying roles, which aligns with the fact that more and more scholars (e.g., Kennedy, 2002; Johansson & Kroksmark, 2004) underline the importance of researching intuition’s role in teaching. Alongside scientists who note that teaching goes beyond technical know-how (e.g., Biesta, 2014), we consider our study as an alert that attention to this area is needed. Future research could explicitly aim to portray and position differing views on intuition in pedagogical tact, which would require the use of representative or purposeful sampling. Second, our choice to use the term ‘intangible processes’ instead of ‘intuition’ may have compromised the findings, to some extent. We purposefully chose this term to open up a broad discussion and to learn about the language of educational professionals regarding the concept of intuition. But this might have been problematic for two reasons. First, this choice might have introduced unnecessary digressions. Second, it might have undermined clarity in communication. For the researcher, it was rather challenging to keep focus in de the group discussions, although having features of pedagogical tact as printed cards on the table helped

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with this. Despite the possible confounds, we do consider that this approach allowed us to portray how educators view the role of intuition in pedagogical tact. Third, discussing intuition was challenging. The participants experienced a lack of language as they searched for words and many of them acknowledged that it was difficult to express their thoughts. This is in line with literature (e.g., Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2004), which mentions that we lack the language to capture intuition. This showed in the focus group discussions, as the words that were used by the participants tended to remain vague (e.g., ‘feeling, sensing, connecting’, etc.). The researcher had to ask repeatedly what the participants meant with words such as ‘it, this, that’, etc. In addition, the participants interpreted the concept of intuition differently, though in ways that aligned with the different forms of intuition that we found in literature. Moreover, participants felt that the concept of intuition is related, but also overlapping with other concepts such as ‘quick thinking, repertoire and routines’. Further, the results show that participants lack knowledge and language to help describe intuition. While this study sought to obtain participant views without influencing them, future research may benefit from presenting specific models or theories of intuition to participants first, to provide conceptual and linguistic handholds that might support clarity during discussions.

ReflectionsThe participating educational professionals recognized intuition as a crucial asset for teachers’ pedagogical tact. They agreed that intuition seems to help teachers sense pupils’ needs, engage more easily and effortlessly with them, and prevent conflicts. Sensing pupil needs requires awareness for sensing situations in general (Johansson & Kroksmark, 2004). However, research suggests that people often struggle to attend to their gut feelings (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010), which might explain the differences between the three groups of teachers that are distinguished in the results: those who come to intuition naturally, those who have difficulties getting in touch with it, and those who struggle to regulate their intuitions. Still, for all three groups, it might be beneficial to become more consciously aware of the role intuition plays in being able to react with pedagogical tact in complex classroom situations. In their own words, participants recognized the differentiation between local and nonlocal intuition. According to them, both forms of intuition seem important for teachers’ abilities to handle complex classroom situations. We consider the distinction noteworthy, in particular because enhancing these two forms of intuition might require different approaches. Developing local intuition seems to require personal development, as prejudices, fears, and wishful thinking can negatively influence good intuitive judgment (Sadler-Smith, 2010). By contrast,

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nonlocal intuition seems to require ‘becoming aware’ of intuitive signals, because these intuitions emerge subtly (Sadler-Smith, 2010). Meditative exercises and mindfulness, when done frequently, can help in this regard (Dane, 2011). The importance of intuition in professional practice is apparent, for example, by the fact that Dutch medical tribunals have mentioned it (under the term ‘gut feelings’) in documentation of formal judgments (Stolper et al., 2010). This has broader implications, since these judgments set precedents for medical professional standards. For example, doctors are frequently taught to explicitly listen to their gut feelings (alongside their observations and analytical reasoning), since these intuitions can prompt analytical reflection and improve diagnostic reasoning (Stolper et al., 2015). Similarly, the role of intuition has become increasingly recognized in decision-making in undefined, people-related, and/ or time-pressured situations in business management; and several techniques have been developed for business management education for enhancing students’ intuitive awareness and skills (Burke & Sadler-Smith, 2011). This includes for instance, learning from experience (Hogarth, 2001) as well as building knowledge and understanding of intuition’s distinctive features and improving self-awareness (Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2010). Unfortunately, it does not seem that teachers receive similar advice. In fact, educational research has widely neglected the relevance of intuition for teaching (Harteis & Gruber, 2008). In this respect, even though experts have argued that developing intuitive action should be emphasized more in teacher education (Valle, 2017), education and training have been deficient (Sadler-Smith, 2008). While some experts focus on local intuition (e.g., Iannello et al., 2011), others emphasize the importance of integrating nonlocal forms of intuition in education (e.g., Anthony, 2006). It is clear that this area warrants attention. It remains challenging to grasp intuition empirically (Harteis, 2014), but this should not prevent the scientific field from developing new approaches to investigate this important area. Closing remarksFor good reasons, the last 15 years have witnessed increased attention for (supporting) teachers to build their daily classroom practice on both scientific evidence as well as practical wisdom (e.g., Mejlgaard et al., 2018), with good results (e.g., Marzano, 2003). At the same time, literature suggests that both rational and intuitive processes are needed (e.g., Kennedy, 2002; Johansson & Kroksmark, 2004). This study showed that educators wholeheartedly agree. Specifically, this study found that educational practitioners view intuition as crucial for teachers’ pedagogical tact. They are concerned that rational processes overshadow intuitive ones in unproductive ways, and are eager to pursue a

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healthy balance. Doing so requires deliberate support for developing (the use of) intuition, which is currently not common in education. Further research should endeavour to portray and measure the role of intuition in teachers’ pedagogical tact, and understand how to develop it. Such work would contribute to the quality of instruction and classroom climate, thereby directly serving learners. It is time to take a closer look at the use of intuition in education, we owe this to both our teachers as well as their pupils.

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Sub-study B: Initial pilot

This chapter is based on: Sipman, G., Martens, R., Thölke, J., & McKenney, S. (2021). Exploring teacher awareness of intuitions and how it affects classroom practices: Conceptual and pragmatic dimensions. Professional Development in Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2021.1902839

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Abstract

This study explores teachers’ awareness of intuition, and how that awareness affects their classroom practices both conceptually and pragmatically. Scholars have long supported the notion that intuition is a crucial form of knowing that supports teaching. Teachers rely heavily on their intuition to deal with complex classroom situations, especially those that require on-the-spot problem solving, decision making, and creativity. Yet, how they do so has rarely been the topic of empirical investigation. In this study, qualitative data were gathered from two groups of in-service teachers (17 in total) while they participated in a professional development program designed to improve their awareness of intuitions through meditative and embodied exercises. Reflection log entries revealed that teachers’ awareness of intuitions includes preparing for, sensing, and considering intuitive signals. Furthermore, participants perceived increased awareness of intuitions as well as perceived positive effects on individual pupils, groups of pupils, and on themselves. This study reveals teacher experiences in their journey to becoming aware of their intuition, developing it, and putting it to use in the classroom. Recommendations are given for further inquiry into the crucial teacher quality of intuition.

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SUB-STUDY B: INITIAL PILOT

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Introduction

Teaching is a rich, but multifaceted and complex practice, which relies heavily on the use of intuition. Classroom situations are only partly predictable and controllable (Wolff, 2015), hence teachers have to act in split-seconds on complex and contingent classroom situations continuously (Eaude, 2014). Teachers make relatively few decisions consciously while teaching (Korthagen, 2017), since it takes too much time and effort to deliberate on what to do in the heat of the moment (van Manen, 2015). Moreover, people can think consciously about only a handful of factors at once, while their intuition can weigh and integrate large numbers of factors in split seconds (Dijksterhuis, 2007). Intuition plays a dominant role in teachers’ judgment (Vanlommel et al., 2018), and intuitive decision making can supplement and complement rational decision making (Coget & Keller, 2010). As such, intuition is a crucial quality which (often unconsciously) supports teachers’ handling of complex classroom situations (e.g., Kennedy, 2002). For these reasons, scholars have advocated for studies on intuition’s role in teacher decision making (Vanlommel et al., 2017), and argued that teachers can benefit from consciously integrating the use of intuition into both teacher education (e.g., Valle, 2017) and in classroom practice (e.g., Anthony, 2006). In response to these calls, the study reported here inductively explored intuition’s role in handling complex classroom situations.

IntuitionWhile it is difficult to isolate a single feature of intuition that elicits unanimous agreement (Nado, 2015), many would agree that intuition is a crucial human quality that has a role to play in many situations, including teaching. Most literature interprets intuition as a mental faculty, building on prior knowledge and/or experiences. Such intuitions, often referred to as local intuition, result from automated thinking processes through repetition (Pretz, 2011), or synthesis of unconnected memory fragments into new information structures (Mintzberg et al., 1998). In the context of classroom situations this can, for instance, lead to confirmation bias when teachers focus their attention on what they expect to see (Vanlommel et al., 2018). Far less scholars devote attention to what is called nonlocal intuition, which cannot be explained by past knowledge or environmental signals (McCraty & Zayas, 2014), and implies receiving information from external sources (Sinclair, 2011). Such intuitions emerge subtly (Sadler-Smith, 2010), and hence are often overlooked. Both forms of intuition have been characterized as rapid and spontaneous understanding (e.g., Dörfler & Eden, 2014), or the spontaneous generation of ideas, alternatives or solutions (e.g., Sadler-Smith, 2004), without the need for conscious thought. In light of the warning that ‘as educational problems are reduced to “brain problems”, we encounter all sorts of

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conceptual impasses and stumbling blocks for appreciating the complexity of education and human formation’ (di Paolantonio, 2019, p. 603), this study embraces all aspects of intuition described above.

Enhancing intuitionEffectively using intuition depends on the extent to which one is able to access and utilize the non-conscious mind (Strick & Dijksterhuis, 2011). Intuition literature therefore endorses concentrative and/or meditative exercises for improving awareness of intuitions (e.g., Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007). As such, practicing mindfulness has been endorsed as a viable approach for becoming aware of intuitions (Dane, 2011). Such techniques appear to increase self-awareness, emotional balance, and mental clarity (Childre & Rozman, 2002), and help teachers to become more aware of their unskillful emotional and mental patterns, and how to manage stress (Le & Alefaio, 2019). Further, embodied exercises, mostly known as systemic constellations (Cohen, 2006) hold promise for enhancing (awareness of) intuition. In these exercises people physically embody (represent) persons/elements of social systems, thereby creating an invisible, yet noticeable, ‘field’ of information (Thölke & Herder-Wynne, 2013), which enables them to intuitively perceive thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and/or intentions that are related to the person/element that they represent. Evidence supports both the existence of this ‘field’, and the hypothesis that human nervous systems are able to detect and react to this field (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). Meditative and embodied exercises might support teachers’ awareness of intuitions, and could consequently empower teachers to (better) handle complex classroom situations. Intuition can support split-second problem solving, decision making and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009), and improving awareness of intuitions has been said to lead to more effective communication, smoother social interactions, and positive relations (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). It therefore comes as no surprise that implications for classroom practices have also been considered. With regard to teachers’ intuitive handling of complex classroom situations, two concepts have been particularly prominent. First, intuition has been said to be a form of Schön’s reflection-in-action (van Seggelen-Damen & Westerveld, 2020). Reflection-in- action refers to when professionals act and that doing so generates an effect in the situation which is feedback for the professional to reaffirm, modify or reframe his approach. Second, teachers’ pedagogical tact manifests in teacher improvisation within teacher-student-content relations (Friesen & Osguthorpe, 2018). Teachers who have developed this – so-called – ‘practical wisdom’ well are able to know intuitively what is the right thing to do in specific situations (Schwartz & Sharpe, 2010). While there is no disputing that reasoning abilities are crucial for teaching (Scheffler, 1973), or that it would be unwise to allow intuition to overshadow more

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considered responses (Orchard & Winch, 2015), it does seem important to acknowledge that split-second teacher action can be enhanced by (the use of) intuition.

Aim of the studyEmpirical work on the role of intuition in handling complex classroom situations is limited. Moreover, literature provides barely any guidance on supporting teachers in their development of awareness of intuitions and conscious use of intuition. The present study was undertaken to address these gaps by aiming to: (1) develop a conceptual framework for teachers’ awareness and use of intuition; and (2) explore how to pragmatically enhance intuition through a practical learning experience based on meditative and embodied exercises. To achieve these aims, a professional development (PD) program focused on improving teachers’ awareness of intuitions was designed. Participant experiences and perceptions, both during the PD program and in their classrooms, were investigated. Two main research questions (RQs) guided the study:RQ1: After participation in the PD program, what characterizes participants’ experience of their awareness of intuitions?RQ2: In what ways (if any) do participants perceive that their own awareness of intuitions shapes their classroom practices?

Methods

To answer the research questions, a small intervention study was undertaken. The intervention was a six-session PD program on improving awareness of intuitions through meditative and embodied exercises. A qualitative approach was chosen, which is appropriate for new topics and helps the researchers to stay close to the participants (de Boer & Smaling, 2011). Intake questionnaires gathered background information about the participants at the start of the study. Moreover, the main data source for this investigation was a set of 75 reflection logs, completed individually by participants after each session of the PD program, and examined through framework analysis.

ParticipantsThe participants were from two different school communities in the east of the Netherlands; both of these communities partner with the teacher education institute at which the first author of this article is affiliated. Through this network, principals provided their teachers a short description of the goals, structure and approach to be used in the PD program, and invited them to participate on a

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volunteer basis. In total, 17 participants joined the program, ranging in age from 23 to 55 years old. To diminish the possibility of group-specific effects, two consecutive cohorts were formed; cohort 1 had 9 participants (0 men and 9 women), and cohort 2 had 8 participants, (2 men and 6 women).

ProceduresWhen invited to join, it was explained to the participants that the PD program and the flanking research focused on developing teacher abilities for handling complex classroom situations by improving awareness of intuitions. To improve teachers’ awareness of intuitions, the program used approaches chosen in accordance with the literature. Each of the six biweekly sessions of three hours started with a meditative exercise in the form of visualizations. Each visualization started with four phases for becoming more aware of oneself: (1) getting into a comfortable pose, (2) deepening breath, (3) heightening senses by becoming aware of external signals (e.g. sounds), and (4) becoming aware of inner signals by scanning one’s own body. Thereafter, participants joined in embodied exercises, in which they physically represented persons of social systems. For instance, a participant laid placemats opposite to each other on the floor to indicate the perceived relationships between the members of their nuclear family (without explanation). Then, another participant stood on the placemats one by one, and shared the emerging intuitions, emotions, sensations, and perceived intentions. By sharing the emerging information about elements that are represented, hidden patterns can be revealed (Jurg, 2010). Thereafter, the participants were asked to reflect on their experiences, first in pairs and then in the group. Per group, the same two facilitators verbally guided the activities in each session. To mitigate the possibility of facilitator-specific effects, a total of 3 facilitators were involved, each of whom had gone through training for facilitating the PD program.

Data sourcesAfter giving their informed consent and prior to the start of the program, the participants were asked to complete an intake questionnaire. After some personal details (date of birth, years of experience in education, etc.), five open questions were posed to investigate participants’ initial perceptions regarding (improving) their awareness of intuitions: previous education, present strengths and weaknesses, future learning wishes and obstacles. To capture participants’ experiences both during and after the sessions, a week after each PD session the participants received a request to write and hand in reflection logs before the next PD session. The reflection was prompted by two open-ended questions; participants were asked to describe their (learning) experiences during the PD sessions, and effects hereof after the PD sessions on

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their teaching practice (themselves, pupils, groups). To encourage natural, authentic responses, no further guidelines were given. The participants therefore were free to share whatever had touched or struck them in or after the PD sessions (or not). All participants were offered the opportunity to email the researcher to supplement, change, or delete any of their reflections.

Data analysisThe intake questionnaires were analyzed inductively by comparing participants’ answers. Per open question, similarities and differences in participants’ answers were noted. This yielded general characteristics concerning their initial situation regarding improving their awareness of intuitions. For the reflection logs, we made use of framework analysis, which is a form of applied qualitative research aiming, among others, to define concepts, map the nature of phenomena, create typologies, and/or develop new ideas (Ritchie & Spencer, 1994). Ten of the reflection logs were not completed due to absence or administrative error (no pattern was found in the missing logs), thus 75 reflection logs (411-5928) words were analyzed with the aid of Atlas.ti software version 7. After familiarization with the data, an initial framework with 11 themes was identified inductively. Thereafter, the data were indexed/coded deductively, on basis of the thematical framework. Next, to build up a picture of the data as a whole, the coded data were charted according to the appropriate thematic reference. Finally, for interpreting the data set as a whole, we mapped the themes in five successive categories, and we created typologies of the participants (see Results). Table 3.1 shows the categorized final themes, their definitions, and example quotes per code. For increasing the reliability and the validity, the data from the first teacher cohort (n = 9) were analyzed independently by two researchers, and then discussed until consensus was reached about the thematic framework.

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Table 3.1 Thematic framework with definitions and example quotes

Categories Theme Definition Example

Awareness of intuitions

Preparing Being in the moment

A state of mind in which one is aware of oneself

Sensing requires a certain concentration; emptying and returning to myself is not easy for me.

Withholding judgment

Further assessment is put on hold, acceptance of ‘what is’

It felt vulnerable to express the things I sensed, I did not want to be judgmental.

Feeling relaxed A positive state of mind (e.g. leaving worries behind or settling down)

I could leave the hustle and bustle of the morning behind, due to the meditation.

Sensing Becoming aware of intuitions, thoughts, or emotions

Receiving signals I learned that little signals in my body can tell a lot, even about people who are not there or who I don’t know.

Considering Distinguishing signals

Separating intuitions from thoughts and/or emotions

I’m working on the distinction between sensing and interpreting, for instance in case that I think that a pupil is angry…do I think or sense it?

Attending to emergent insights

To trust, express or follow emerging intuitions

I sensed that I needed to go home, so I left a meeting early. My intuition was right, my son needed me.

Classroom practices

Action Pedagogical actions

Any overt action, including doing nothing (consciously), taken with regard to individual pupils, small groups or the whole class

Instead of just helping pupils, I took time to sense who really needed me. Astonishing, particularly pupils of who I had not expected it!?!

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Results

As part of the framework analysis, the intake questionnaires revealed three profiles in relation to participants’ expectations with respect to using and improving their intuition. Four participants described themselves as cognitively oriented, for example: ‘I do think a lot and doubt what the right approach is, my head sometimes gets “full”’. Three other participants considered themselves overly sensitive, one of them wrote: ‘I am not able to shut myself off for emotions of pupils/people’. Five others described themselves as naturally intuitive, for instance: ‘I act a lot upon my intuitions, although often unconsciously’. There were also five participants whose responses did not seem to align with any profile. The remainder of this section presents the results of the framework analysis, clustered by the themes that emerged. As a visual preview, these themes are shown in Figure 3.1. The findings are presented per column, from left to right.

Table 3.1 Continued

Categories Theme Definition Example

Classroom practices

Effects Effects on individual pupils

Positive/negative effects of the action taken on individual pupils in the classroom

Instead of being strict with a disturbing toddler, I made inner contact. He turned around and behaved better!

Effects on group Positive/negative effects of the action taken on the class as a whole

There is more ease in my class, which helps me to be significant for more pupils instead of focusing on one single pupil.

Effects on teacher perception of self

Positive/negative effects of on teachers’ state of being

Due to the PD program I feel much more relaxed; I’m better able to focus on what pupils need of me.

Effects on teacher perception of role

Attention for supporting the development of pupils as individuals

My biggest wish is that in education focus shifts to the pupils’ self-understanding.

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Teacher awareness of intuitionsPreparingIn their reflection logs, the participants mentioned three themes that helped them to prepare for becoming aware of signals: being in the moment, withholding judgment, and feeling relaxed. First, seven participants mentioned that particularly meditative exercises supported being in the moment for becoming more aware of themselves. They described this state of being with words such as ‘settling’, ‘concentrating’ and ‘getting into contact with yourself’. One participant specifically mentioned that these exercises helped to ‘open up for signals about others’. It appeared that, for three participants, it took time to get used to meditative exercises: ‘Visualizing still is difficult for me, but it is not frustrating any more’. According to another participant ‘the degree of shifting to intuition depends on the moment’. Second, participants mentioned the ability to withhold judgment as a preparatory condition, generally in relation to an overall attitude toward life: ‘it is what it is’. In both meditative and embodied exercises, pupils’ perspectives were explored, through which participants’ judgments concerning their pupils seemed to alter: ‘I experienced how he feels (heavy head, tingling feet), now I understand him’. Nine participants mentioned that ‘I have gained insight in my judgments’. This attitude seemed to prevent biased local intuitions, as it was said to help to look at others, situations and oneself from an accepting stance: ‘The things that my buddy sensed when she represented the pupil have made me milder towards her’ or ‘I was able to see myself with soft eyes’. Third, five participants specifically indicated that the meditative exercises lead to feeling relaxed, which may have promoted intuitive processing. They described having become more ‘relaxed’ or ‘at ease’. For example, a participant

Figure 3.1. Map of themes that emerged from the framework analysis

Being in the moment

Attending to emergent insights

Becoming awareof intuitions, thoughts,or emotions

Feeling relaxed


Pedagogical actions- none action- subtle action- overt action

- split-second- planned

Awareness of intuitions Classroom practice

E�ects on group

E�ects on individual pupils

E�ects on teacher- perception of self- perception of role

Distinguishing signals (intuitions, thoughts, and emotions)

Preparing Sensing Considering Action E�ects

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mentioned ‘The visualization quieted my mind’, and another wrote ‘I was able to let go some inner tension’. Participants also referred to feeling relaxed indirectly, by using words such as ‘emptying’, ‘not pressuring yourself’, or ‘taking time’.

SensingParticipants described that they became aware of intuitions, thoughts, or emotions. All participants referred to intuitions in the reflection logs, which were particularly sensed in embodied exercises. Many also mentioned receiving thoughts or emotions, mostly in relation to intuitions, for example: ‘It was chaos in my head, how to integrate these intuitive experiences?’, or ‘I was [affectively] touched by what I sensed’. Furthermore, they learned that intuitions can emerge in different forms, for instance: ‘I was totally surprised by the emotions, the small details I felt in my body, and the words that came to my mind’. Particularly in the embodied exercises the participants experienced gut feelings (intuitions). All participants except one wrote in reflections about intuitions that emerged. For instance, participants wrote about representing people whom they had never met, and therefore could not be related to prior knowledge or experiences; for example: ‘It was as if I stood in her shoes’. It impressed the participants how much they were able to sense, a participant wrote: ‘I had no idea that I am able to sense so strongly what another person feels, even if you are not open to it like me’. For instance, the participants intuitively explored their pupils’ perspective in the embodied exercises: ‘I started moving back and forth, it just didn’t feel right. Then my practice buddy said: ‘That is exactly what this pupil does!’ After the first PD sessions, eight participants used words such as ‘intangible’, ‘unreal’ and ‘bizarre’, to describe their intuitive experiences. However, the PD approach seemed to become natural in the second half of the PD program, for example: ‘I am surprised that the PD program method already has become natural’. Over the course of the PD program, participants’ appreciation for intuitions increased, for instance a participant wrote: ‘It remains special to feel and experience a bit more every time’.

ConsideringThe data showed how participants considered signals particularly during embodied exercises. Two main challenges were revealed: distinguishing signals, and attending to emergent insights. First, it appeared that thoughts, emotions, and intuitions can be intertwined. The four participants who described themselves as more cognitively oriented in their intake questionnaires struggled to distinguish between thoughts and intuitions, but they seemed able to get into contact with their intuition; for example: ‘I do not want to lose contact with intuition anymore’. Three participants who considered themselves as overly sensitive indicated that they were often challenged to distinguish their own feelings from intuitions about feelings of others.

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They reported getting more grip on this distinction, but as a participant mentioned ‘to distinguish intuitions from emotions remains difficult’. Two of the five participants who described themselves as naturally intuitive in the intake questionnaires wondered whether their classroom actions emerged from assumptions that were based on prior experiences or from gut feelings. For instance, one of them wrote: ‘I am searching for the distinction between real intuitions and interpretations’. Although this distinction remained a challenge, they learned to trust their gut feelings,for example: ‘I learned that my first hunch often is my intuition. In practice I often ignore this.’ Second, in the PD sessions it appeared that participants struggled to learn to attend to the signals and insights that emerged. This challenge was particularly encountered in the embodied exercises, for example: ‘It feels bizarre that you really sense things in the [embodied] exercise. I was afraid that I was wrong, but I wasn’t’. Twelve participants had to learn to follow subtle signals, for instance a participant wrote: ‘I shared the “wobbles” I sensed, they were minimal. The “wobbles” were no surprise to my buddy’. Five participants shared that it sometimes felt uncomfortable to express emerging insights, for instance a participant wrote: ‘Questions came into my head, but I thought it wasn’t the time or place to express them’. However, over the course of the PD program, this seemed to become easier: ‘I noticed that I dared to express what I sensed more easily; it helped me that I did not know what/who I was representing’.

Classroom practiceAs hoped, practicing awareness of intuitions in the PD sessions led to applications in the classroom. In their reflection logs, twelve participants described an increased trust in their intuition due to the PD program, although two of them added that they still doubt when to trust their intuitions. For three participants, the PD program endorsed their use of intuition in practice, which helped them to do this more consciously. For example, one of them wrote: ‘I am used to sensing my pupils’ signals, so the things we did in the session were not new to me; confirmatory though’. The participants explicitly referred to sensing intuitive signals in classroom. For instance, a participant wrote that ‘I listened to the words behind the story’ and another shared that ‘I sensed what he needed, I just “knew”’. Eight participants also noted that they had applied their “considering” abilities in practice too. A participant wrote, for instance, that she had learned to distinguish her own emotions from intuitions about others, which in practice led to ‘less loss of energy’. Another participant referred to consciously attending to emergent insights by writing that ‘I intuitively observed who needed my help’.

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Acting In the reflection logs, all participants described pedagogical actions, which can be clustered into three forms: none, overt split-second actions, and overt planned actions. One participant explained her overt choice to take no action: ‘I intuitively sensed what a pupil would need of me; he, totally unexpected, needed nothing’. Almost all described pedagogical actions pertained to overt actions. Thirteen participants described overt actions were taken in split-seconds, for instance: ‘I instantly made a decision which I normally would not make’. Some of these split-second actions were about expressing intuitions in classroom, for example: ‘I used my intuition consciously when I talked with pupils, which has led to beautiful and deep conversations’. Eleven participants also described actions that were planned, for instance:‘In the exercise I started to understand the frustrations my pupil had; I gave her other assignments to reduce these frustrations’. Further, it should be noted that three participants indicated that: ‘acting upon intuition remains difficult’.

EffectsThe participants described effects of their classroom actions on three levels: individual pupils, groups/classes, and on teachers themselves. First, according to eight participants, the intuitively-informed pedagogical actions had positive effects on individual pupils in the form of improved relationships or better behavior in classroom. For instance, a participant mentioned that ‘I sensed the distance he needs between us; respecting this distance improved our relationship’, and another participant even noted that ‘The PD session helped me to understand a pupil’s behavioral problems; the next day he behaved himself excellently’. Some actions seemed to aim more at the teachers themselves than at the pupils, for instance: ‘My pupils are more relaxed when I distinguish between my emotions and intuitions’. Second, participants reported that their increased awareness of intuitions had positive effects on their groups/classes. Again, the effects referred to improved relationships and better behavior in classroom. Ten participants reported perceiving something in the line of ‘better contact with the pupils in my class’. They mentioned improvements in the classroom due to the PD sessions, such as: ‘My class just runs smoothly due to the PD program’ or ‘I had a good day with this normally challenging group’. Third, all participants except one reported positive effects on how they perceive themselves to be integrating the use of intuition into their teaching, for example: ‘I want to listen to intuition more; it makes me happy to see that pupils are happier when I react from my heart’. In reflection logs, participants mentioned that improving awareness of intuitions had confronted them with personal issues,

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such as ‘wanting to be perfect’, or ‘taking over responsibilities’. They reported personal growth such as ‘I feel more relaxed’ or ‘I’m better able to stand up for myself’. Participants explained why they felt that such personal development positively affected their professional performance, for example: ‘I am better able to focus on what is needed in my class’, ‘I now stand more firmly in my class’, or ‘I’m more flexible when I rely on my intuition’. Finally, in relation to the effects on the teachers’ themselves nine participants reported (re-)engagement with how they perceived their teacher role in relation to their pupils. Eight of them mentioned (wanting to) to pay more attention to pupils’ emotional and/or intuitive life, for instance: ‘With intuitive exercises I would like to contribute to the development of my pupils’ personality’. Participants also mentioned other forms of (re-)engagement with their teacher role such as ‘I truly want to see and hear my pupils’, or ‘I want pupils to be able to be themselves’. Five of these participants described how they transferred their teacher role into practice; for example: ‘The day after the session I invited pupils to share their feelings’, or ‘Today I invited my pupils to stand firmly behind their chair. Eyes closed, taking time to feel where your breath is’.

Conclusions

This study explored both the experiences engendered (RQ1) and the classroom effects (RQ2) of a PD program that focused on improving teachers’ awareness of intuitions. Here, the research questions are answered.

What characterizes participants’ experience of their awareness of intuitions?The data revealed that teacher awareness of intuitions seems to consist of three sequential stages: (1) preparing by being in the moment, withholding judgment and feeling relaxed; (2) sensing intuitions, thoughts, and emotions; and (3) considering by distinguishing between these signals, and attending to emergent insights. Further, participants reported conscious use of their awareness of intuitions, which yielded non- or overt actions, the latter of which can be split- second intuitive actions or planned actions. In terms of effects, they perceived an increased sensitivity to pupils and their needs; some even noted better behavior of problematic pupils or groups due to the PD program. Further, the PD approach seemed to generate a more accepting stance toward pupils and the participants themselves. Most participants reported personal growth related to their professional performance, in terms of their own state of being or how they perceived their role in supporting pupil development.

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How does awareness of intuitions shape classroom practice?Finally, the data also suggest that, although it takes time to learn to become aware of intuitions, teachers’ use of intuition can be enhanced through professional development. Meditative exercises appear to prepare participants to become aware of intuitions by being in the moment and feeling relaxed, whereas embodied exercises seem to instigate withholding judgment, but sensing and considering signals too. Participants who initially described themselves as more cognitively oriented did struggle, but were able to get into contact with their intuition. Participants who considered themselves to be naturally intuitive learned to use their intuition more consciously, whereas participants who described themselves as overly sensitive learned to (better) distinguish between their own emotions and intuitions about (emotions of) others.

Discussion

Reflection on findings related to conceptual understandingThis study aimed to deepen conceptual understanding of intuition’s role in teachers’ abilities to handle complex classroom situations. This section reflects on the conceptual framework that emerged with regard to teacher awareness of intuitions (preparing, sensing, considering), commensurate classroom practices (actions, effects), and the themes within each. The themes were identified through a process which started with inductive analysis of the data, and was refined iteratively. We recognize that the framework categories and themes that emerged can hardly do complete justice to grasping a complex, elusive phenomenon such as intuition. For preparing to become aware of intuitions, three themes emerged. First, preparing to become aware of intuitions requires being in the moment, a state of mind in which one is aware of both oneself and one’s surroundings (Dane, 2011). High self-awareness helps people to better understand their own process of intuition (Burke & Sadler-Smith, 2011), and has been described as a quality of socially and emotionally competent teachers (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). Second, preparing to become aware of intuitions requires withholding judgment in the sense of an overall nonjudgmental attitude toward life (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Putting further assessment on hold can help prevent biased intuitive information processing (Sadler-Smith & Burke, 2009). Third, feeling relaxed, relates to participants’ well-being. Research has demonstrated that a positive emotional state can promote intuitive processing (Epstein, 2011), and also enhance the accuracy of intuitive judgments (Subramaniam et al., 2009). The integration of these preparatory aspects in education could address the plea for developing a present-dwelling orientation in education (e.g., Ergas, 2019), although the eastern

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paradigm that are often behind such approaches can oppose western paradigms. Dominant western rationalist worldviews often exclude intuitive ways of knowing (Anthony, 2006), which may explain why participants seemed to go through a paradigm shift to be able to integrate particularly intuitions beyond prior experiences or knowledge. The three aspects of preparing seem to support sensing of signals. In this study, sensing opposes views that sensing fundamentally is a relation to particulars and their features that could hold only in the presence of such things and features (O’Callaghan, 2017), since PD participants also sensed things that were not present. Our data showed that the participants perceived three types of signals: intuitions, thoughts, and emotions. Thoughts are rational signals, such as the didactic steps in teaching a certain lesson or signals that can be seen by others too (e.g., pupils talking, working, laughing), provide information about the present moment and can activate prior knowledge (Iannello et al., 2014). Personal emotions can positively influence teachers’ rational (Emmer & Stough, 2001) and intuitive functioning (Epstein 2011), but they can bias rational decision-making (Shiv et al., 2005) and negatively influence intuitive judgment (Sadler-Smith, 2010) too. Moreover, people often fail to notice intuitions (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010), hence the ability to sense intuitions seems crucial for using these signals positively in classroom practice. After sensing signals (consciously or not) humans can consider them, for which we found two themes: distinguishing signals (intuitions, thoughts, and emotions), and attending to emergent insights. Emotions can distort or overwhelm thoughts and intuitions, but to make it even more confusing, intuitions can emerge as thoughts or feelings. Finally, existing research shows that people often fail to attend to their intuitions (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010), and that it can be difficult to rely on intuitions due to the inability to rationally justify them (Epstein, 2011). This might explain why participants had difficulties to follow the insights that emerged through the integration of intuitions, thoughts, and emotions. Still, our data showed that participants of all profiles were able to learn to attend to emergent insights. Further, as hoped, improving awareness of intuitions seems to influence teachers acting in classroom. The finding that some teachers consciously choose to take no action (e.g., choosing to ignore pupil behavior), has been described as a key intervention. Longitudinal evidence shows that this can yield positive effects (Hester et al., 2009). Interestingly, in our data we did not come across references related to subtle actions such as physical gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, despite that this is a key characteristic of effective teachers (Steele, 2010). All these actions are important, since teacher quality is related to how they instruct and how they deal with their pupils’ behavior (Visscher, 2017).

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Teachers’ perceived that their actions led to effects on: individual and groups of pupils, as well as teacher perception of self and role. This is consistent with existing literature, as improving awareness of intuitions has been said to lead to more effective communication, smoother social interactions, and positive relations (McCraty & Zayas, 2014), which can help teachers to effectively manage social or emotional challenges in their classroom. When teachers are able to do so, pupils show higher levels of on-task behavior and performance (Marzano et al., 2003). Further, the positive effects on teachers’ self and role are important, as teacher’s self-understanding is an important source for personal learning (Hoveid & Honerød-Hoveid, 2008). It seems plausible that observing the positive results of their own actions bolstered teachers’ sense of self-efficacy, which is a well-recognized characteristic of effective teachers (Steele, 2010). This is noteworthy, because a powerful predictor of teachers’ commitment to teaching is the sense that they are making a positive difference in their pupils’ lives (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2000).

Reflection on findings related to pragmatic approachesBesides deepening conceptual understanding, we aimed to explore pragmatic approaches for improving teachers’ intuitive abilities to handle complex classroom situations. Teachers constantly wrestle with the distinction between what is desired and what is desirable (Biesta, 2013). Our findings suggest that it is possible to intentionally improve participants’ awareness of intuitions in practice situations, which can influence how they handle authentic classroom situations. This is in line with literature suggesting that one’s use of intuition can be trained like a muscle (e.g., Tomasino, 2011). Further, the map which emerged from the analysis (Figure 1) portraying awareness of intuitions (preparing, sensing, considering) and their affordances for classroom practice (acting and effects) may prove useful for teachers wishing to reflect on (what influences) their own performance, even without attending the PD program described here. Meditative exercises seem appropriate for preparing to become aware of intuitions, which is in line with the literature (e.g., Burke & Sadler-Smith, 2011). Such exercises seem to particularly instigate being in the moment as well as feeling relaxed. Embodied exercises seem particularly appropriate for learning: to withhold judgments (preparing stage); to become aware of intuitions, thoughts, and emotions (sensing stage); and to distinguish between those signals and to attend to emergent insights (considering stage). It seemed that such exercises particularly enhance awareness of intuitive signals that extend beyond prior knowledge or experiences. In literature, this form of intuition is often dismissed as ‘paranormal’, although increasing empirical evidence shows that it is real (Dossey, 2015) and a natural ability of people (e.g., Tomasino, 2011). Our results do not give

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reason to dismiss this form of intuition, although the study was not designed to investigate this per se. Another pragmatic approach for using intuition more consciously in handling of complex classroom situations, which received only indirect attention in our PD program, is reflection on personal emotions. This seems particularly important in relation to intuitions that build on prior experiences or knowledge, since they may be infused with fears, prejudices and wishful thinking (Sadler-Smith, 2010). For reflection in education, for instance, Procee (2006) refers to Kant’s ‘Urteilskraft’ (faculty of judgment) for developing a sense of what to do in specific situations. In a similar vein, the conceptual themes that emerged from our data, can also be used for reflection on teachers’ awareness of intuitions.

Future directionsFor future research we recommend using instruments that are more finely calibrated to capture intuitive experiences, such as retrospective protocol analysis (Baldacchino et al., 2014) or dialogical inquiry (Coget, 2014). Research instruments for investigating from the first-person perspective such as Husserl’s phenomeno-logical reduction or epoché (Gallagher & Zahavi, 2012) can be of use here too. While our open-ended approach was selected to stimulate but not to steer participants’ reflection on their perceived awareness of intuitions development, specialized instruments may offer new insights (albeit shaped by the interests manifested in those instruments). For instance, such instruments can investigate what PD approaches improve which form(s) of intuition. Next, we advise approaches that go beyond self-report to overcome limits of our findings. Direct observation (by researchers) or second-hand observation (e.g. gathering the views of those who know the PD participants) could be useful in ascertaining whether or not the results were noticeable beyond the personal experience of the participants. Further, rather than offering one pathway to enhancing awareness and use of intuition (as was the case in this study), further research might explore varied approaches. For instance, in light of the observation that humans make use of their intuition differently, future research might investigate which approaches for enhancing awareness of intuitions are attuned to each of the profiles encountered in this study (cognitively oriented, overly sensitive, or naturally intuitive). Such approaches can focus on enhancing awareness of intuitions in general, but also target specific elements of the stages preparing, sensing and considering of our conceptual framework. Finally, since all our PD participants joined voluntarily and hence were interested in learning about using intuition consciously (although two participants were openly skeptical about the PD sessions), our sample may have been inherently

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biased. For this reason, we recommend reaching out to participants who do not self-identify as being open to improving one’s awareness of intuitions by using randomized selection. Further, additional perspectives on how participants perceive and experience intuition might be captured through the use of narrative or contemplative methods.

Closing remarksAlthough preliminary, this study offers deepened conceptual understanding concerning the role of intuition role in handling complex classroom situations and practical recommendations for enhancing this crucial teacher ability. We do not view teachers’ awareness of intuitions as a panacea, but we do believe that this study provides justification for further research in this area, since (educational) research in many countries has largely neglected the relevance of intuition for teaching (Harteis & Gruber, 2008). Such work is important to help teachers in tackling today’s problems in education, such as the diversity of expectations of students to which teachers must attend (Flores, 2017). The call for intuitive approaches is growing, because of an increasing complexity in society and education (Sipman et al., 2019). While modest, we genuinely hope that the contribution of this study can support future work to understand and develop the crucial teacher quality of intuition.

IntermezzoCan I trust my intuition?

This intermezzo is translated from: Sipman, G. (2019). Mag ik op mijn intuïtie vertrouwen? [Can I trust my intuition?]. Van Twaalf tot Achttien, 29(7), 20-22.

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CAN I TRUST MY INTUITION?

‘The intuitive mind is a sacred gift and the rational mind a faithful servant’. Einstein thought that by honoring reason too highly, our society had forgotten the gift of intuition. But can those of us who work in education rely on our intuition? Gerbert Sipman, who is conducting his doctoral research on intuition in pedagogical tact, offers us a glimpse into the role that intuition can play in education.

IntroductionEveryone who works in education knows those moments: when you act without thinking and still do what was right in the situation. It is impossible to explain why you did what you did. You acted based on your gut feeling, your intuition. In education, there is a lot of emphasis on acting based on proven practice, whether evidence-based or evidence-informed. We seem to want to aim for ready-to-use ‘recipes’ with measurable effects. But we also know it does not work that way in practice. In this article, I want to draw attention to practices that seem less demonstrable and also less measurable: intuition. A topic that can be difficult to discuss, precisely because of its intangible nature. However, I believe we deny our teachers one of their strongest qualities if we simply dismiss intuitive action as lacking in value. In other professions - the fire service, air traffic control, and so forth - intuition has been shown to be an indispensable quality (Langan-Fox & Vranic, 2011). In this article, I will explain why intuition forms part of teachers’ actions. Drawing on my doctoral research, I will explain what I think is needed to use intuition effectively in everyday teaching practice.

Pedagogical tactThe art of teaching is being able to respond in real time to the many factors that influence a moment. This is also known as pedagogical tact: acting in the moment and acting considerately and appropriately. Acting in the moment gives little opportunity to use reason to weigh up, step by step, what would be wise or logical; there is simply no time for this. Moreover, research shows that when we use reason, we can only take a limited number of factors into account simultaneously, whereas intuition can weigh up and integrate numerous factors at the same time (Dijksterhuis, 2007). In complex teaching situations such as these, intuition seems crucial, because it leads to instant knowledge (Sinclair, 2011) and supports prob-lem-solving, decision-making, and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009). Research even shows that intuition can be more accurate than reason in complex situations (Pretz, 2011). In short, intuition is an important quality that allows teachers to act with pedagogical tact. Why, then, do we seem so ‘scared’ of intuition? In academia, it is usually assumed that intuition is based on previously gained knowledge and/or experiences. This can mean that acting on the basis of intuition means acting on the basis of

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prejudice, fear, or projections. This is not an unreasonable assumption. As teachers will always use their intuition in complex teaching situations, hence it makes more sense to investigate how intuition can be used as effectively as possible.

Forms of intuitionIn my doctoral research, I therefore sought to answer the following question: how can you enhance teachers’ pedagogical tact through intuition? I started from the assumption that the teacher possesses different forms of intuition. On the one hand, the more accepted form of intuition based on previously acquired knowledge and/or experiences; automated thought processes or previously gained knowledge/ experiences are linked to form new insights. These intuitions constantly ‘adapt’ as you add new knowledge and/or reflect on previous experiences. The other kind of intuition is trickier, because it is not directly linked to previously acquired knowledge and/or experiences. We do not actually know where these intuitions come from. This is a form of intuition that seems to work at a deeper subconscious level. Scientists have not yet managed to measure this form of intuition or make it visible, and that naturally raises a number of questions. Nevertheless, more than enough research studies (e.g., McCraty & Zayas, 2014) show indirectly that this form of intuition exists (Dossey, 2015). For example, our bodies (e.g., heart, pupils) can respond to an emotional event that takes place five to seven seconds later.

Enhancing intuitionThe first form of intuition, as explained above, can be enhanced by reflecting on our actions and gaining new knowledge; something that is already integrated in our teacher education. In the doctoral research, we paid attention to this by investigating personal patterns and by gaining knowledge about the behavior and needs of pupils and groups. The second form of intuition can also be trained as a kind of muscle (Tomasino, 2011), and requires a positive state of being and a high level of physical awareness. For this reason, the literature usually recommends concentration exercises, such as mindfulness or meditation (e.g., Dane, 2011). This brings about a more relaxed state of being, in which subtle signals in the form of thoughts, emotions, physical experiences, etc., can be perceived more effectively. In the doctoral research, we also trained this form of intuition by training teachers to be present in the moment, a state that would allow them to observe inner signals such as thoughts, feelings, and also intuitions. Many people are unaware of the difference between these signals, because intuitions can also present themselves as thoughts or feelings. These signals are different, however, and you can learn to distinguish between them. For example, feelings – which are often stronger – say something about you, whereas intuitions say something

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about others and/or the surroundings. The next step is to dare to trust the intuitive signals and follow them. This requires you to withhold your judgment about what emerges. To train all this, we worked with concentration exercises in the sessions, as well as systemic exercises (exercises related to family or organizational constellations).

Impact of the training Some of the teachers experienced the training process as being decidedly easier than others. For a number of teachers, the training felt like a second nature; they are used to trusting their intuition. Other teachers, however, said that they are not intuitive and that they act based on reason – something that is often encouraged in our society, of course. Fortunately, my research showed that almost all teachers were able to reconnect with their intuition. Other teachers found it difficult to regulate the many signals they picked up. These teachers often confuse their personal feelings and intuitions about others. So, they no longer know what relates to whom, and which signals to respond to. In the training, they learned to distinguish between feelings and intuitions, allowing them to focus more effectively on their work. The training aimed at enhancing intuition appears to have had a number of effects. Many teachers reported a higher level of intuitive awareness, and other participants said the training had confirmed their intuition. Almost all of the teachers reported some level of personal development, whether or not this was linked to their profession, such as being able to regulate their emotions more effectively, defining their boundaries more clearly, being more flexible, and having more focus. In addition, according to the participating teachers, the training helped them understand the behavior of pupils and groups, meaning they could respond more effectively to their needs. The big question, of course, is whether all this had an impact on the teaching practice. The participating teachers reported better relationships with pupils, difficult classes running more smoothly, and even a reduction in problem behavior. Strikingly, a number of teachers were also inclined to grant the pupils more autonomy. They also had more faith that they would be able to respond to what happened in the moment. Finally, the teachers said that they felt more relaxed and positive when teaching.

In conclusionMy research was an initial exploration into a field that has barely been studied to date. This exploration showed, in any case, that it is possible to train our different forms of intuition, and that this has positive effects on teachers and their teaching practice. Much more research is needed, certainly in relation to intuition that is not based on previously acquired knowledge and experiences. It is precisely this form that offers many more potential gains when it comes to the pedagogical tact of

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teachers. The question ‘Can I trust my intuition?’ cannot be answered simply with a wholehearted ‘yes’. Although there are ifs and buts, at the very least let us ensure this ‘sacred gift’ no longer eludes our attention in education.

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Sub-study C: Formative evaluation

This chapter is based on: Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (in press). Can a systemic-phenomenological teacher professional development program enhance awareness of intuitions and serve pedagogical tact? Systemic Practice and Action Research.

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Abstract

In all levels of education, teachers’ abilities to deal with complex classroom situations in split-seconds concerns pedagogical tact, a crucial quality which relies, in part, on intuition. Developing the ability to appropriately handle the complexity of classroom situations requires a systemic approach. This study aimed to explore the experiences in and effects of a systemic-phenomenological professional development program for enhancing teacher abilities to handle complex (classroom) situations through conscious attention for intuition. In the present study, 64 teachers from primary, secondary, and higher education participated in a twelve-week professional development program featuring systemic-phenomenological exercises, such as meditations and embodied simulations. By increasing understanding of the complexity of social systems and sensitizing awareness of intuitive signals, the program aimed to improve teachers’ use of intuition, and through that, their handling of classroom situations. Data were gathered through participant reflection logs and focus group discussions, which were analyzed both deductively and inductively. The findings suggest that the program helped heighten teacher awareness of intuitions, and individual awareness in the classroom, yielding positive effects on teacher abilities to take appropriate split-second action in complex classroom situations. While further research is needed, the results of this study include practices for enhancing teacher awareness of intuition through systemic- phenomenological exercises which proved to be promising, and a taxonomy of effects related to pedagogical tact in the classroom.

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SUB-STUDY C: FORMATIVE EVALUATION

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Introduction

In occupations that require handling the complexity of situations in split-seconds (e.g., army commanders, emergency room nurses, firefighters, and air traffic controllers) intuition has shown to be an important quality (Langan-Fox & Vranic, 2011). Intuition is often defined as a form of understanding that is rapid and spontaneous, without the need for conscious thought (e.g., Dörfler & Eden, 2014), which can facilitate split-second problem solving, decision making, and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009). Intuition can process information quickly and effortlessly, while reasoning takes time and effort (Sinclair, 2011). Moreover, humans can think consciously about only a handful of factors at once, whereas intuition can weigh and integrate many factors in split-seconds (Dijksterhuis, 2007). Despite research that shows that intuition can be more accurate than reasoning in complex situations (Pretz, 2011), and that deliberation can hinder te quality of judgment and choice (Dijkstra et al., 2012), scholars have also warned about the dangers of relying on intuition (e.g., Winch et al., 2015). This may explain why limited scholarship has been devoted to developing intuitive qualities. The present study hence aimed to investigate if and how to develop one’s intuitive qualities for split-second acting. For this purpose, a systemic-phenomeno-logical approach was chosen. On the one hand, occupations that require split- second handling of complex situations are multifaceted, and therefore require systemic rather than singular or simplistic approaches. Systemic approaches can help to acknowledge real needs of and to find essential solutions in social systems (Thölke, 2007). On the other hand, effectively using intuition depends on the extent to which people are able to access and utilize their non-conscious mind (Strick & Dijksterhuis, 2011). As people often fail to attend to their intuitions (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010), for enhancing one’s awareness of intuitions a phenom-enological approach can be of use. Intuitions have a phenomenological character (Koksvik, 2017), and phenomenologists particularly investigate inner experiences (Maso et al., 2004). The study was set in the context of primary, secondary and higher education. Teachers face the day-by-day and minute-by-minute challenge of responding appropriately and in split-seconds to the diverse and often complex situations arising in their classrooms (Eaude, 2014). Classroom situations are dynamic (learning) systems in which the context plays a determining role (Ell et al., 2017), because educational realities are constructed by different social actors in complex interaction processes (Astaíza-Martínez et al., 2020). Guidelines for dealing with the system dynamics that emerge through these complex interaction processes rarely exist (Bakx, 2015), because classroom events are only partially predictable and controllable (Wolff, 2015). This is a serious issue, because it is both crucial and

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challenging to prepare (future) teachers to perform this elusive aspect of their job. Doing so depends on judgment, a capacity which typically requires practice over time (Sinclair, 2011) and yet, teachers require this ability from the very start of their careers. The ability of teachers to appropriately handle such complex classroom situations, which has been conceptualized as pedagogical tact, is a key competence for teachers which heavily depends on an intuitive sensibility and sensitivity (van Manen, 2015). In fact, given that, for instance, up to 31% of the Dutch teachers in secondary education abandons education within the first five years of their careers (Kennisrotonde, 2019), it seems crucial to find ways to support teachers to develop their abilities for acting in the heat of the moment. Existing literature on enhancing teachers’ pedagogical tact focuses primarily on learning about the philosophy of education (Fišer, 1972), self-examination to overcome compulsions (Vagle, 2011), or reflecting on experiences in practice (van Manen, 2015). However, literature on improving intuition for teacher pedagogical tact is extremely limited. The present study was undertaken to address this gap. Specifically, this study explored how a systemic-phenomenological professional development program (PDP) could increase teachers’ intuitive qualities, and inventoried the kinds of effects this could have on teachers’ pedagogical tact in the classroom. The following section reviews the systemic-phenomenological literature, on which the PDP was based.

Literature review

With the ultimate goal of supporting teachers in developing their pedagogical tact, this section begins by reviewing literature on how a systemic approach and its phenomenological character can enhance intuition. Subsequently, it explains how such exercises can improve the use of two different forms of intuition. Thereafter, it describes five learning processes for developing intuition, and specific practices to trigger them.

Systemic-phenomenological exercisesIn the PDP we chose to apply a systemic-phenomenological approach (Roevens, 2008), which diverges from other systemic approaches such as structuralist community psychology (Seidman, 1988), critical systems thinking (Midgley, 1996), or interpretive systemology (Fuenmayor et al., 1991). In general, systemic approaches aim to grasp the complexity of social systems by investigating interaction-patterns (Cohen, 2006) that underly, drive and govern them. Social systems need to be interpreted as integrated wholes of which its components interact and conjoin in such a way that they cannot be reduced to smaller units without losing their

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properties (Capra, 1996). In complex systems such as classroom settings non- systemic approaches are less appropriate, because for understanding and/or changing behavior one needs to be able to identify the web of relationships and interconnections within the system (de Rosnay, 1997). Systemic approaches aim to make visible the emergence of qualities that cannot be identified from analytical observation (Bertalanffy, 1989), emphasize intersubjective understanding and empathy (Bruyn, 1966), and require both synthesis through intuition and logical deduction, with the latter being needed to classify and debug the contents of such intuitive apprehensions (Terra & Passador, 2015). Systemic-phenomenological approaches can also be distinguished from other systemic approaches. Based on the existential-phenomenology of scholars such as Brentano, Husserl, Merleau-Ponty and Heidegger, phenomenologists aim to study pre-reflective experiences (van Manen, 2011) by focusing on the content of inner experiences (Maso et al., 2004). In Husserl’s phenomenology, the gaps in an intentional act of judgement must be filled through intuition and not with sensorial perceptions (Husserl, 1982). In this context intuitions should not be seen as the opposite of ratio, but as the opposite of the senses (Terra & Passador, 2015). The use of intuition for sensing the essence of a whole therefore plays a key role in phenomenological approaches. As such, systemic-phenomenological approaches focus on the investigation of social systems through the direct experience of sensations, reflections, and intuitions (Thölke et al., 2013). Systemic-phenomenological exercises can include meditation, but are mostly known as embodied exercises, in which people physically represent elements of social systems by embodying, for instance, persons of a family, organization, etc. These exercises build on the premise that an invisible field of information exists in social systems (Horn & Brick, 2009). Human nervous systems are able to detect and react to signals from this field, which operates influentially yet subtly just below our conscious level of awareness (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). In these exercises, by physically representing system elements, this invisible yet phenom-enologically noticeable field of information is created (Thölke & Herder-Wynne, 2013). This field can be investigated by sharing intuitive sensations, feelings and reflections that emerge (Thölke et al., 2013). By sharing the emerging intuitive information about the elements that are represented, hidden patterns can be revealed (Jurg, 2010). While such exercises have been criticized as purely being role play and not being genuine representations of systems, experts recognize that participants reported great accuracy and new insights that have been provided (DGSF, 2003). From the exercises participants gain new viewpoints, a deeper understanding of the complexity of social systems, and often an increased level of respect for that particular system (Emberger, 2010). Systemic-phenomeno-logical exercises have been shown to help foster awareness of and sensitivity to

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issues that arise in classrooms (Ingham & James, 2004). The method section (see especially Box 4.1) describes how embodied exercises were used in the PDP.

Enhancing two main forms of intuition Systemic-phenomenological exercises might support the development of two main forms of intuition, each of which is relevant to this study. On the one hand, systemic approaches (in general) can improve the use of intuitions that build on prior knowledge or experiences, also known as ‘local’ intuition. This form of intuition can result from automated thinking processes (Pretz, 2011) or connection of memory fragments into new information structures (Sinclair, 2011). Building on prior experiences, local intuitions may be infused with personal feelings, which, for instance, can lead to confirmation bias (Vanlommel et al., 2018). This kind of intuition can be developed by focusing on conscious inhibition of information processes by screening automatic actions before following them (Hogarth, 2001), or recognizing and countering confirmation bias and other sources of error (Sadler-Smith & Burke, 2009). Since systemic exercises can offer deeper under -standing of social systems (Emberger, 2010), they can instigate new perspectives during reflection, for example, on teachers’ personal behavior patterns or how social systems (e.g., pupils, classes) work. Reflection on personal behavior patterns can improve automated thinking processes, while increasing knowledge of social systems can also lead to new connections of information structures. At the same time, systemic-phenomenological approaches can enhance the conscious use of ‘gut feelings’, referred to in intuition literature as ‘nonlocal’ intuitions. These intuitions cannot be explained by past knowledge or environmental signals (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). They emerge subtly (Sadler-Smith, 2010), and therefore require increasing awareness of intuitive signals through, as is recommended mostly, meditative exercises (e.g., Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007). Alternatively, as mentioned above, embodied exercises can help people become aware of their gut feelings by representing social system elements. By increasing awareness of these intuitions, it can become possible to take these signals into account. Recognizing that gut feelings are not infallible, the goal is merely to extend one’s receptive capabilities for sensing what is needed in social systems (Thölke, 2007).

Five learning processes for developing intuition through systemic-phenomenological approaches While through the combination of increasing teachers’ understanding of the complexity of social systems and sensitizing awareness of intuitive signals systemic- phenomenological exercises seem to be promising for improving participants’ awareness of (local and nonlocal) intuitions, their potential depends on how the exercises are enacted. Based on the literature described subsequently,

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we distinguish five kinds of learning processes that are crucial for heightening awareness of intuitions: being in the moment; sensing intuitive signals; distinguishing between rational, affective and intuitive signals; questioning behavior patterns of self and others; and withholding judgment. First, gut feelings often emerge subtly (Sadler-Smith, 2010) and being in the moment sensitizes one’s intuitive perception (Claxton et al., 2011). Second, since people often fail to attend to their intuitions (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010) it is important to learn to sense those signals. Third, one needs to learn to distinguish between rational, affective and intuitive signals (Sipman et al., 2021). This is because intuitive signals can be overwhelmed by the stronger effects of personal emotions (Sadler-Smith, 2010), and intuitions can emerge in the form of thoughts and feelings. Fourth, literature endorses understanding of the situation in which pupil’s behavior occurs for improving teachers’ pedagogically tactful handling of complex classroom situations (e.g., van Manen, 2015), and teachers need to overcome personal compulsions by constantly examining who they are in relation to their pupils within the teaching context (Vagle, 2011). This requires questioning behavior patterns in relation to oneself as well as social systems such as pupil(s) and class(es). Fifth, withholding judgment can support teacher handling of complex classroom situations, as nonjudgmental understanding can help teachers to build relationships with their pupils (van Manen, 1991). Furthermore, putting further assessment on hold can help mitigate biased intuitive information processing (Sadler-Smith & Burke, 2009).

Specific practices to trigger the learning processesLiterature was also reviewed to identify practices that could engender the aforementioned learning processes. Five practices were identified, and we present them here in the sequence that we believe could be the most productive: check-in, meditative exercise, theory, embodied exercise, and check-out. First, during the check-in, the participants come together as a group and develop their sense of belonging, which is an important pre-requisite for systemic-phenomeno-logical exercises (Genee & Konsten, 2017). The second activity is what we call shifting to intuition through meditative exercises, which is recommended in the literature for being in the moment (e.g., Anthony, 2006; Burke & Sadler-Smith, 2011). Frequent practice of shifting to intuition can ease the transition into this state in other contexts (Tomasino, 2011). Third, participants require knowledge of the theory behind the systemic approach, since this can offer new viewpoints on and deeper understanding of the behavior of themselves, pupils and classes (Emberger, 2010). This can support questioning behavior patterns of self and others, as well as withholding judgment. Fourth, participants represent behavior patterns of self and others in embodied exercises, which can increase awareness for both sensing intuitive signals and distinguishing between rational, affective

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and intuitive signals; embodied exercises can extend one’s receptive capabilities (Thölke, 2007). In pairs the participants investigate personal cases, through which behavior patterns of self and others are questioned. Emerging new viewpoints on the behavior of both the teachers themselves, and their pupils/classes (Emberger, 2010) can support withholding judgment. By questioning personal behavioral patterns and other social systems, the use of local forms of intuition can be improved. Fifth, at the end of the session, participants need to check out from the relatively vulnerable session mode.

Method

Aim and approachAs described above, we reviewed literature on improving intuition to identify potential pathways for enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact. This resulted in a basic understanding of how systemic-phenomenological exercises can support the development of two forms of intuition. Digging deeper, we came to understand that these exercises can bring about five learning processes, and we derived five sequential practices from the literature which seem essential for stimulating those learning processes. This section describes how we explored the application of these insights in a PDP. It begins with the research questions and an overview of the approach, before detailing the PDP intervention and describing the participants, instruments, and data analysis. The study consisted of two phases, each guided by a separate research question. The first phase was based on the literature review described above, and investigated whether, how and to what extent the systemic-phenomenological exercises, when enacted according to the five sequential practices, yielded the intended learning processes for teacher awareness of (the two forms of) intuition. This was guided by the first research question:RQ1: What practices contribute to the envisioned learning processes for enhancing teacher awareness of intuitions?The second phase speaks directly to the gap in existing literature, as it explored if and how these activities impacted the classroom. This was guided by the second research question:RQ2: What types of effects does the PDP yield on teachers’ pedagogically tactful handling of complex classroom situations? For both phases, a qualitative approach was chosen, since this is appropriate for exploring new topics (de Boer & Smaling, 2011). Table 4.1 gives a preview of the methods used, which will be elaborated upon in the sections below.

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4The PDP interventionBased on the learning processes and practices that are described in the literature review, a PDP was developed. The resulting PDP was implemented over six biweekly sessions of three hours each. During the check-in for each session, participants were welcomed and invited to share how they felt ‘in the now’. The structure and focus of the session were explained, and rules - particularly self-leadership and privacy - were repeated. For the shift toward intuition, participants were offered meditative exercises. Then, in the theoretical segments, the complexity of a systemic perspective on social systems was explained in an interactive lecture, with increasing depth across the sessions. This aligned with the background reading participants had received prior to the start, which explained systemic perspectives on behavior of social systems in the educational context. Systemic principles were related to family systems in session 1, to help understand the behavior of individuals. This kind of understanding is needed for grasping similar principles with regard to class or team systems (session 2: groups). This in turn helps for transfer to school systems (session 3: organizations), which helps to understanding pupils’ behavioral problems from a systemic point of view (session 4). In session 5, in embodied exercises participants investigated for themselves how to transfer what they had learned into practice, and session 6

Table 4.1 Methodological preview

Phase 1 (RQ1) Phase 2 (RQ2)

Primary focus Investigating which practices contributed to the envisioned learning processes

Exploring the PDP effects on teachers’ in the classroom

Participants - PI: Primary education In-service teachers (n = 17)

- PP: Primary education Pre-service teachers (n = 5)

- PI: Primary education In-service teachers (n = 7)

- PP: Primary education Pre-service teachers (n = 10)

- SI: Secondary education In-service teachers (n = 20)

- HI: Higher education In-service teachers (n = 5)

Data sources - Participant reflection logs (during the intervention)

- Participant focus group discussions

- Participant reflection logs (during the intervention)

- Participant focus group discussions

Data analysis Deductive analysis after PDP:- practices- learning processes

Inductive analysis focused on: - Teacher performance - Classroom outcomes

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was about reflection on personal learning and how the PDP contributed to that (or not). After the theory in each session, the participants investigated cases of the participants themselves related to the theme of the session in embodied exercises (e.g. their family or class system). They worked in pairs, each session with a different ‘buddy’ (exercise partner). Box 4.1 provides an example of an embodied exercise. Finally, in the check-out the participants shared experiences and insights, discussed questions, and so forth before looking forward to the next session and saying goodbye.

Box 4.1 Anecdote of embodied exercise example from PDP session 4

The PDP participants practice pairwise (A and B) in designated parts of the drama room. B thinks of a pupil who challenges her pedagogical tact and intuitively lays placemats on the floor, opposite to each other to represent the pupil and herself. The placemats indicate the location of each person and the emotional distance between them. Before A and B start to explore the social system, they take some time for being in the moment. Then, B steps on her own placemat and A steps on the placemat of the pupil. Both take the time to sense emerging intuitions and try to distinguish these from other signals. They start sharing the emerging intuitions, by expressing the thoughts, feelings, sensations and tendencies that emerge from the placemat, and what happens when they make contact. A moves her placemat, and is invited to follow the emerging intuitions. In the second phase, one by one, the nuclear families of B and the pupil are added with additional placemats, as in a systemic-phenomenological approach one’s behavior patterns are often related to the behavior patterns that one has developed in the nuclear family. Then both A and B share the changes they perceive because of the added elements of the social system. B stays on her own placemat, whereas A explores B’s nuclear family (not the pupil’s nuclear family, since this is considered to be unethical). In the third phase, again one by one, placemats for elements of the pupil’s class are added, such as a co-teacher, the pupils in 3-4 groups, etc. A represents these elements for investigating the interaction with the other elements, while B investigates the impact of the (interaction of the) elements on her thoughts, feelings, sensations and tendencies. When necessary, B is encouraged to withhold his/her judgments. In the fourth phase, the school team is added (in parts) to explore its influences on the other elements of the classroom practice. At the end of the exercise, A and B reflect together by combining their experiences to the theory of the theoretical segment of the session. Thereafter, A and B change roles.

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Participants This research was carried out in primary, secondary and higher education in the Netherlands. Two school districts from Arnhem joined the project, as they had been struggling to recruit teachers who are able to deal with the diversity of their urban schools. Two schools for secondary education in Nijmegen and Eindhoven requested to participate, because they were in search for ways to support their teachers in dealing with the complex diversity of their pupil population. Furthermore, two higher education institutes in Arnhem, Nijmegen and Eindhoven invited teachers to engage, since they recognized the potential of enhancing intuition for teachers’ pedagogical tact. Four kinds of teachers participated in this study, namely in-service primary teachers (PI) pre-service primary teachers (PP), in-service secondary teachers (SI), and in-service teachers in higher education (HI). All participants, except the SIs, were partners of the teacher education college in which the first author of this article works. The PIs were invited to participate in the PDP through the principals of their schools, the PPs and HIs could choose the PDP from optional courses within the institute. The SIs were invited through contact persons at their schools, which were acquaintances of the first author. All participants could decide whether to participate in the PDP after reading a short description of the goals, structure and approach to be used in the PDP. Participation was with permission of their executives and outside of the school hours. The groups were deliberately small (5-11 participants), because the embodied exercises require a lot of space and the facilitation is intensive. Phase 1 participants included: two groups of in-service primary teachers (PI-1A, n = 9; PI-1B, n = 8) and one group of pre-service primary teachers (PP-1, n = 5) for a total of 20 women and two men, ranging in age from 20 to 55 years. Five groups participated in phase 2: one group of in-service primary teachers (PI-2; n = 7), one group of pre-service primary teachers (PP-2; n = 10), two groups of in-service secondary teachers (SI-2A, n = 9; SI-2B, n = 11) and a group of in-service teachers in higher education (HI-2; n = 5). In total, 36 women and 6 men, aged 19 to 62 years participated in phase 2. Across both phases, each group was led by pairs of facilitators of which there were 7 in total (3 women and 4 men, aged 28 to 63). The facilitators were colleagues of the first author of this article, who had invited all of his colleagues who had previously been trained in the use of systemic approaches. The first author trained these colleagues to facilitate the PDP, and the facilitators were purposefully assigned to different groups to mitigate the chance that effects were based on facilitator characteristics.

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Data sources In phases 1 and 2, participants wrote reflection logs after PDP sessions 1 through 5. This approach has been recommended for evaluating the process of professional development programs (Baarda et al., 2013), as reflection logs allow participants to step back from the action and inquire into what is happening in oneself, and in relation to others (Stefanac & Krot, 2015). In contrast to other data sources (e.g. interviews or observations), the use of reflection logs enabled us to capture the participant experiences in the PDP sessions (relevant to RQ1) as well as outside of the PDP sessions (relevant to RQ2). Further, because they prompted reflection, they supported participants’ learning processes. The participants were asked to digitally hand in their reflection logs before the next session, and they were purposely invited to freely share in these logs whatever had struck or touched them to be able to explore the operation and effects of the PDP broadly. To encourage natural, authentic responses and mitigate risk of steering participant reactions, only limited guidelines were given. Specifically related to RQ1, participants were requested to respond to open-ended questions concerning their experiences in the different PDP exercises and their learning moments during the PDP session. Related to RQ2, they were asked to describe any transfer of PDP insights into practice after the session and or any effects on themselves, pupil(s) or class. Further, after reflecting on their personal learning processes at the end of session 6, the participants were invited to comment on the structure, meetings, content, facilitators, and other aspects of the PDP in a focus group discussion. This was deemed the most feasible approach to ensure that all voices would be heard (given the heterogeneous groups, 100% representation seemed prudent). Such focus group discussions are appropriate when no personal interests are at stake, as is the case in this study, but also have the advantage participants can evoke new ideas in each other (Baarda et al., 2013). A research assistant took notes during the discussion and member checking was undertaken by giving a verbal summary of the main feedback points at the end of the session. The participants were invited to correct, supplement, or omit any of the points made. Further, preparatory to data analysis, facilitators participated in focus group discussions (separate from the PDP participants) after each group’s completion of the PDP. These semi-structured discussions focused on the PDP practices and learning processes. While these discussions were not used as primary data sources, they did provide contextual clarification which aided data analysis. The discussions were recorded, and summaries of the facilitator group interviews were member-checked to guard their validity and reliability (Santiago-Delefosse et al., 2015).

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Data analysisThe reflection logs and reports of the participant focus group discussions were first analyzed separately, and later the findings were compared. The analysis of both data sources in both phases was qualitative. However, the specific analysis approach used in phase 1 differed from that used in phase 2. To answer the first research question, deductive analysis was undertaken on the data gathered in phase 1 to understand if and how the PDP practices influenced participant learning experiences. In the deductive analysis, i.e. top-down approach that starts from a priori theoretical structures (van Staa & Evers, 2010), we first coded for relevance to the five learning processes or practices that could trigger them, as described in the literature review. Next, any relevant connections between the learning and practices were identified. Table 4.2 shows example quotes from reflection logs for each of the five learning processes; texts in italics constitute connections with PDP practices. This approach was chosen because we wanted to investigate if and how the PDP practices contributed to participant awareness of intuitions.

Table 4.2 Example quotes of deductive analysis from participant reflection logs phase 1 (italicized text denotes connection with PDP practices)

PDP learning processes Example quotes

Being in the moment HI-2: The bustle of the morning was still in my head. I could quickly leave this behind in the meditation. Relaxed but also curious, I entered into the rest of the meeting.

Sensing intuitive signals PI-1b: When the facilitator explained the [embodied] exercise I could not imagine that I would be able to sense anything at all about my buddy’s family. Extraordinary to experience how a family that I do not know is related to each other.

Distinguishing between rational, affective and intuitive signals

SI-2b: In the [embodied] exercise I learned ‘to leave what’s there’s and to take what’s mine’; a practical tool that I can use in practice.

Questioning behavior patterns of self and others

PI-1b: I keep a pupil who constantly needs my attention close to me in class. In the [embodied] exercise I learned that he needs more space. I gave it a try, which led to success…the lesson with his class was great.

Withholding judgment HI-2: In an [embodied] exercise about a student in my class, I met ‘the judgment’ in my life; the effect was that I became more accessible and softer toward him.

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Table 4.3 Example quotes of inductive analysis from participant reflection logs phase 2

Types of effects Example quotes

Awar

enes

s


Noticing automated thinking processes

SI-2a: I realized that I was projecting the system of my own nuclear family on a pupil; I now doubt whether I act professionally enough and try to look at this pupil differently.

Connecting (new) memory fragments

PI-2: During lessons I am more aware of the roles pupils have in class and my influence on these processes.

Acknowledging gut feelings

SI-2a: In the session I noticed that my intuition is right rather often, that I ‘just already know things’; in classroom I now dare to rely on them more.

Individual awareness

Personal well-being HI-2: We started with a meditation about our ancestors, which made me feel good: firm, connected, positive; I still feel these positive qualities in me.

Professional self PP-2: My mentor said to me that she had noticed that I am more at ease during my lessons. This certainly has to do with the PDP, it becomes more and more clear what place I have to take in class.

Understanding pupils SI-2a: In the [embodied] exercise I saw that my pupil’s problem behavior is the only way she can react and that it frustrates her when I address this behavior; in classroom, I now have an eye for her side more.

Impa

ct

Classroom performance

Seeking pupils’ needs PI-1: When my pupils enter the classroom after the weekend, I sense how they are doing. I sat next to a girl and just “knew” that something was wrong.

Appropriate (split-second) pedagogical actions

PP-2: In the [embodied] exercise I realized that the pupil and I have comparable backgrounds, which helped me to establish a more professional distance; I am better able to react to him in a more relaxed and positive way, I remain calmer when his behavior troubles me.

Classroom outcomes

Positive relationships with pupils

PP-1: I have gained insight into my relation with R., at first he was far from me. Now, he searches for contact and even is happy when I am in front of the class.

Balanced interactions HI-2: When I feel tired, I try to take a moment to rebalance myself and that helps to deal better with my pupils; I am a ‘nicer teacher’.

Attending to pupils’ autonomy

PI-2: I try to give my pupils a bit more space, without me being in the lead and taking over control constantly.

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In phase 2, the goal was to inventory types of PDP effects that transferred to the classroom. Rather than work from a priori assumptions, we opted for inductive analysis, i.e. a bottom-up approach (van Staa & Evers, 2010), to answer the second research question. Namely, codes for text fragments were generated based on what was found in the data that were gathered in phase 2, and iteratively refined as the analysis ensued. Subsequently, individual codes were categorized into themes, and the themes were grouped in overarching types of effects in relation to teachers’ awareness and impact. Table 4.3 shows two main types of effects within awareness and impact, respectively, and gives examples of the themes identified within each. To establish coding reliability, Atlas.ti (version 7) was used in both phases. Peer debriefing sessions took place regularly to ensure that coding was consistent. These sessions serve as a viable alternative for joint coding or inter-coder reliability checks (Evers, 2015).

Results

This section describes the results of research phases 1 and 2. The results of research phase 1 are structured in accordance with the essential learning processes that were used for the deductive analysis. The themes that emerged in research phase 2 after inductive analysis were categorized in four main groups: awareness of intuitions, individual awareness, classroom performance, and classroom outcomes. The results section is structured accordingly, and in Figure 4.1 the (hypothesized) relationships between these main groups are visualized in a taxonomy of PDP effects. The solid arrows indicate relationships that were clearly identified in the results, while the dashed arrows denote hypotheses based on the findings, which warrant further investigation.

RQ 1: What practices contribute to the learning processes for enhancing teachers’ awareness of intuitions? Being in the momentIn the reflection logs, 11 participants (50%) referred to being in the moment, which seemed particularly instigated by the meditative exercises. For instance, a participant wrote: ‘Taking time to get into contact with yourself, helps me becoming aware of my feelings and to open up for others’ (PI-1b). For three other participants the meditative exercises were rather challenging, which they described with comments such as: ‘I tried to relax and let things be, but it seemed as if I was blocking myself’ (PI-1a). Still, other PIs indicated that such exercises ‘open up connections with others’ (PI-1a), ‘support settling in the moment’ (PI-1b), or ‘help to

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register my intuitions’ (PI-1b); while PP-1s thought the exercises, for instance, ‘lead to inner peace and concentration’ and ‘increase my bodily awareness’.

Sensing intuitive signalsNext, all participants wrote about sensing intuitive signals in the embodied exercises. On the one hand, participants sensed intuitive signals of their buddy, who was, of course, present in the room; for example: ‘My buddy tried to sense what is going on in my class. It was extraordinary that she could describe how I feel toward certain pupils’ (PI-1a). On the other hand, the participants sensed intuitive signals of persons of their buddy’s social systems who were not present in the room; for example: ‘My buddy sensed my mom and expressed literally a sentence which she often uses; I was touched’ (PI-1a), or ‘I represented my buddy’s “problem pupil” and just naturally started moving back and forth; I just knew that he felt uncomfortable in that place’ (PI-1b). Most participants seemed to experience a paradigm shift, some small and other larger due to the representing exercises. These were at first described as ‘mind blowing’ (PI-1a) or ‘out of this world’ (PI-1b), but this changed in the second half of the PDP into ‘amazing’ (PI-1a), ‘valuable’ (PI-1b), or ‘beautiful’ (PP-1).

Distinguishing signalsIn the embodied exercises, participants also practiced distinguishing between rational, affective and intuitive signals, which they described with comments such as: ‘I learned to distinguish between my own emotions and intuitions about others’

Figure 4.1. Taxonomy of effects with identified (solid) and hypothesized (dashed) relationships

Classroom outcomes- positive (improved) relationships with pupils- balanced interactions- attending to pupils’ autonomy

Classroom performance- seeking pupils’ needs- appropriate (split-second) pedagogicalactions

Awareness of intuitions- automated thinking processes- (new) memory fragments- gut feelings

Individual awareness- personal well-being- professional self- understanding pupils

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(PI-1b), or ‘I had no idea how intuitions feel’ (PP-1). Representation in embodied exercises seems to particularly contribute to registering and distinguishing gut feelings, for example: ‘Emotions, images, words emerged in me’ (PI-1b). In the systemic-phenomenological exercises, participants learn to recognize the subtlety of intuitions. For instance, a participant wrote: ‘Each session I register more signals in the exercises’ (PI-1a). It appeared that distinguishing signals is challenging for some participants. Four participants (18%) specifically noted difficulties with distinguishing between intuitive and rational signals: ‘I struggled to get out of my head and into my body’ (PI-1b), while five other participants (23%) acknowledged that distinguishing between intuitive and affective signals is not easy: ‘It remains difficult to distinguish feelings from intuitions’ (PP-1b).

Questioning behavior patternsAfter, as well as during the embodied exercises, the participants questioned behavior patterns of self and others. First, all participants except two (91%) mentioned questioning of personal behavior patterns in their reflection logs; the PDP exercises led to ‘emotions’ (PP-1) and therefore ‘you need to be open for this’ (PI-1a). In this context the safety in the group was emphasized in the participant focus group discussions, for example: ‘due to the safety in the group, I dared to open up and express my feelings’ (PP-2). For instance, three participants referred to the rule of self-leadership: ‘Knowing that I am in charge helped me to stay in the PDP’ (PI-1a). Further, all sets of cohorts emphasized the importance of two facilitators and a small group: ‘You get more attention and that is needed’ (PI-1b). Application of the systemic principles that were introduced in the theoretical session segments to personal cases during embodied exercises was noted in this regard by 15 of the 20 participants, for example: ‘The exercise provided insight into relations within my nuclear family and made me think a lot about why I do the things that I do the way that I do them’ (PI-1a), or ‘By relating personal insights from the exercises to my job I was able to establish a professional distance’ (PI-1b). Second, the reflection logs of 18 participants (82%) contained references to questioning other social systems than the system of oneself, such as pupils and classes. For instance, a participant shared: ‘My buddy represented how my pupil feels, which helped me to understand what he needs’ (PI-1b). Here, too, the embodied exercises were mentioned as helping them to understand the behavior and needs of pupils or classes, for example: ‘This boy needed some space, so I told his classmates to give him some slack’ (PI-1a), or ‘I finally understand why this group behaves rebelliously, colleagues of mine have cast them out ’ (PI-1b). According to 14 participants the systemic theory offers new perspectives on the complex interaction of systems, which was described with comments such as: ‘I now understand that my pupils’ behavioral problems can have a function for the

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systems he lives in’ (PI-1a), or ‘I now understand this class’s behavior in relation to my role as a substitute teacher’ (PI-1b). It takes time to fully grasp the complexity of the systemic theory, but ‘the theory becomes tangible’ (PI-1b) in the embodied exercises.

Withholding judgmentNone of the participants directly referred to withholding judgment in their reflection logs. However, four participants (18%) reported (in the same or similar terms): ‘I have become milder towards myself and others’ (PI-1a). The need for facilitators to model a nonjudgmental attitude was mentioned in all the focus group discussions, for example: ‘It helps when facilitators go first in being nonjudgmental’ (PI-1b). According to participants a nonjudgmental atmosphere can be created, for instance, when: ‘everything is okay’ (PI-1a), or ‘there are no mistakes’ (PI-1b). This helps, as a participant mentioned ‘to feel free to explore and to experiment’ (PI-1b).

RQ 2: What types of effects does the PDP yield on teachers’ handling of complex classroom situations?Awareness of intuitionsSeven participants (17%) commented in their reflection that the PDP contributed to noticing automated thinking processes, for example: ‘I realized that I have quite some presumptions about pupils’ (SI-2b). Three of these participants cited this noticing as being instigated by questioning personal behavior patterns, which they described with comments such as: ‘I make eye-contact with pupils consciously now, before I did this as a sort of habit’ (SI-2b), or ‘I try to realize that each behavior hides a story, before I start reacting’ (HI-2). Nine participants (21%) referred to connecting (new) memory fragments in reflection logs, for example: ‘I am more aware of systems; not in actions, more a kind of alertness’ (HI-2), or ‘I pay more attention to the group dynamics in class’ (PP-2). The two of them who commented on causes of their establishing these connections both related this to questioning behavior patterns of self and others. For instance, one of them shared: ’Due to the exercise I started seeing certain students as a person again instead of a problem’ (HI-2). The majority of participants (67%) referred to acknowledging gut feelings in reflection logs, for example: ‘I listen to my intuition more’ (PP-2). The data showed that consciously using intuition is complex, as it is not easy to distinguish where intuitions come from. For instance, a participant wrote: ‘I do sense something, but I doubt whether intuitions are gut feelings or infused with prejudices’ (HI-2). The 28 participants who described this output were often not used to relying on their gut feelings. For instance, a participant noted: ‘I have always been a rational person and then you shut off your intuition; I try to be open for it, but it’s really hard’ (SI-2a).

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Still, it was possible to get into contact with intuition, for example: ‘I learned that it is much easier than expected to put on my antennas; I know much more than I’m aware of’ (SI-2b), or ‘I dare to respond to what I sense in groups; I express what I sense and check if I’m right’ (HI-2). Of the 28, 11 participants suggested that this output was evoked by representing behavior patterns of self and others in embodied exercises, which they described with comments such as: ‘In the exercises, I experienced how it feels to trust my intuitions’ (SI-2a), or ‘By experiencing intuitions in exercises, it becomes easier to work with intuition in practice’ (SI-2b). By contrast, five of the 28 participants mentioned that they were able to do this as a result of becoming sensitized to distinguishing signals, for example: ‘When I feel something unpleasant, I’m better able to distinguish what belongs to me or to others’ (SI-2b), or ‘By being aware of what I felt, taking this seriously instead of ignoring it, I was able to confront him’ (HI-2).

Individual awarenessIn the reflection logs, about half of the participants (48%) claimed that the PDP influenced their personal well-being. For instance, participants mentioned ‘At times I still feel insecure, but I’m less upset and get myself back on my feet quicker’ (PI-2), or ‘I am more “me” now’ (PP-2). Eight of these 20 participants referred to questioning personal behavior patterns as instigating this output, for example: ‘I became aware of the role I have in my family, which helped me to understand my behavior; I feel richer, more complete’ (SI-2a), ‘I now understand why others drain me out and started taking better care of myself’ (PI-2), or ‘I was able to let go of my mom’s grief; I feel liberated and that I can stand up for myself’ (SI-2a). The PDP was described with words such as ‘emotional’ (SI-2b) and ‘confronting’ (HI-2). Further, 79% of participants reported positive effects on their professional self (in various forms), such as: ‘I am more secure and relaxed in working with the pupils’ (PP-2), ‘I am better able to set boundaries’ (SI-2a), ‘I’m not going to be a copy of my colleague anymore’ (PI-2), ‘I now feel more supported by my mentor’ (PP-2), or ‘I realized that my influence as a teacher is limited, somehow this brings peace’ (HI-2). Of the 33 participants who mentioned this output, 17 suggested that questioning personal behavior patterns contributed to this, while 11 referred to the role played by questioning other social systems; for example: ‘I can react from my nuclear system or my professional system; when I react from the latter I can park personal stuff and react to behavior of pupils without annoying myself’ (SI-2a), ‘I am aware that my pupils sense the lack of balance in our team, which I can’t solve; I try to focus on what I can do’ (SI-2a), or ‘I now understand what went wrong between me and the class I took over’ (SI-2a). For three participants, being in the moment improved their professional self, which they described with comments such as: ‘Prior to difficult lessons or meetings I take time to shift to stay close to

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myself’ (PI-2), or ‘Somehow I can stay out of my irritation better when I work more intuitively in class’ (PI-2). For 13 participants (31%), the combination of representing and questioning of behavior patterns of self and others in the embodied exercises yielded positive effects on understanding the perspectives of individual pupils. For instance, participants shared: ‘The systemic approach offers me new perspectives on my pupils’ behavior, which helps me to attune to their needs’ (PI-2), or ‘In the PDP exercise I learned that I should not be so much on top of her, she needs me to think along with her’ (SI-2b). These new perspectives seemed to support participants to attend to their pupils’ needs in classroom. For instance, participants shared: ‘Due to the PDP session I know why he behaves the way he behaves, I now am better able to help him’ (PP-2), or ‘My view of this pupil has changed, in the classroom I empathize with her more’ (SI-2b).

Classroom performanceSix participants (14%) mentioned using intuition consciously in practice for seeking pupils’ needs. For instance, participants mentioned: ‘I intuitively scanned the pupil and sensed a sore throat, which he confirmed’ (PI-2), or ‘I sensed what he needed and felt very clearly that I could not help this boy, I referred him to specialized aid’ (HI-2). Five of the 19 participants said they could do so because they were attuned to the moment by shifting to intuition, for example: ‘By scanning my body before lessons, I was able to sense better and quicker what he needed of me’ (PP-2).Furthermore, the clear majority of participants (86%) wrote in their reflection logs about appropriate (split-second) pedagogical actions in many forms such as: ‘I now succeed in remaining friendly although he defies me’ (PP-2), ‘I try to pay attention to all pupils, especially to those I tend to forget’ (SI-2a), ‘For the sense of safety of other pupils I excluded this boy’ (SI-2b), or ‘I express my expectations more clearly’ (HI-2). Thirteen of these 36 participants explicitly related actions to intuition, for example: ‘I had unexplainable gut feelings about this girl; when I asked her, it appeared that her granny is very sick’ (PP-2), ‘I intuitively gave a difficult pupil my chair in front of the class instead of isolating him’ (SI-2b), or ‘I expressed my intuitions and all of a sudden she opened up’ (SI-2b). Two others said in similar words that the PDP helped them realize ‘that my pupils can “absorb” my negative emotions and I don’t want that; I started using positive approaches even more’ (PP-2). Seven participants also mentioned other actions related to PDP exercises such as: ‘When my pupils are restless, I do some breathing exercises with them to calm them down’ (PP-2), ‘I use the meditations from the PDP in my class; the pupils even ask for it, they like it’ (SI-2a), or ‘I used embodied exercises in my lessons, which led to beautiful conversations about education’ (HI-2).

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Classroom outcomesTwelve participants (29%) wrote about positive (improved) relationships with pupils in their reflection logs, for example: ‘I feel more connected with pupils’ (PI-2), ‘Our relationship is restored, he now laughs and makes jokes’ (SI-2a), or ‘I feel better able to tune in to my students’ (HI-2). One participant related the improved relationship to using intuition in practice: ‘Contact with my pupils has changed, as I try to rely on my intuition more’ (SI-2b), and another participant mentioned that ‘By approaching a girl without judging, an open and honest conversation emerged’ (SI-2b). Also, four participants reported having paid more attention to their relationships with pupils due to the PDP. For instance, one of them shared: ‘I gave a problem pupil some extra attention and now we trust each other more’ (PP-2). Ten participants (24%) referred to balanced interactions, particularly in the second half of the PDP. Some mentioned that their classroom runs more smoothly due to the PDP, for example: ‘I am more clear, which helps the pupils to know what I expect of them’ (SI-2a). Others noticed less problem behavior in their classes. For instance, participants shared: ‘I asked an angry boy how he felt and he started crying; thereafter he behaved excellently’ (PI-2), or ‘I let him know more that he belongs to the group and his negative behavior seems to diminish’ (SI-2a). Seven participants (17%) referred to attending to pupils’ autonomy. For instance, a participant wrote in his reflection log: ‘I more often take a step back so that the group can do the work itself instead of taking the lead’ (HI-2). Two of these respondents related this to understanding individual pupils, for example: ‘I sensed that she needed some strictness, but also some space’ (SI-2b).The others related this to increased pupils’ autonomy in their groups, which they described with comments such as: ‘I try to let the pupils solve problems themselves instead of jumping in immediately’ (PI-2).

Conclusions

This section briefly recaps the key findings and answers the research questions. This study explored how to foster teacher pedagogical tact by improving awareness of intuitions through a systemic-phenomenological approach. The first research question examined if and how PDP practices provided crucial learning processes for improving teacher awareness of intuitions. The findings suggest that meditative exercises support being in the moment, which is needed for engaging in embodied exercises. The embodied exercises support questioning behavior patterns of oneself as well as others within other social systems (pupils, classes); the systemic theoretical input helps the questioning part. The phenome-nological component of the embodied exercises also supports learning to sense

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intuitive signals as well as distinguish between rational, emotional, and intuitive signals for attending to what emerges. It seemed that the PDP approach, and particularly the embodied exercises, instigate a paradigm shift. Further, for learning about their own personal behavior patterns, participants need to be open to emotional processes. The PDP approach hence requires a safe learning environment. The second research question explored the PDP effects. Data revealed effects on teacher awareness of intuitions in classroom and their pedagogically tactful handling of complex classroom situations. First, the PDP helped participants to improve their awareness of intuitions resulting from automated thinking processes or from connecting memory fragments (local intuitions), but the PDP especially helped them improve awareness of gut feelings (nonlocal intuitions) by representing behavior patterns in the embodied exercises. Second, the PDP seems to positively influence teachers’ individual awareness. The participants perceive positive effects on their personal well-being, and even more positive effects on their professional self. Besides, understanding pupils’ perspective seems to support attending to their needs. In relation to teachers’ pedagogically tactful handling of complex classroom situations, participants described two types of classroom actions that were supported by the use of intuition: sensing pupils’ needs, and taking appropriate (split-second) pedagogical actions. Participants perceived the impact these classroom actions have in terms of better relationships with pupils, class - rooms running more smoothly, or even less problem behavior. Several teachers report having increased pupils’ autonomy. We therefore, with caution, conclude that the PDP indeed improves not only teacher awareness of intuitions, but teacher individual awareness as well, which ultimately enhances teacher pedagogical tact.

Discussion

In this section, the results are discussed in light of existing literature. First, attention is given to how the findings related to RQ1, focusing on the PDP and participant experiences in enhancing their intuitive awareness. Then, related to RQ2, attention is given to enhanced intuitive awareness in the classroom and how that impacts pedagogical tact.

Reflections on findings related to RQ1The results of our study suggest that practices undertaken within the PDP contributed to participant learning, and give indications as to how. First, the findings showed that the systemic perspective instigated reflection on personal behavior patterns. The vast majority of participants reported that the systemic

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theory, combined with embodied exercises, fostered questioning of behavior patterns of themselves. This is in line with literature suggesting that such an approach radically shifts in perception from conventional views of human behavior (Ingham et al., 2015), and that reflection can help teachers to become aware of their behavior and its sources (Korthagen, 2017). Additionally, the new (systemic) perspective on the behavior of social systems appeared to instigate a nonjudgmental attitude not only to towards the participants themselves, but also to their pupils. In line with existing literature (Emberger, 2010), they experienced a deeper understanding of and increased respect towards social systems, which seemed to positively influence their individual awareness. Second, the data revealed how use of local intuition can be improved by increasing knowledge through systemic theory on the behavior and needs of social systems, for establishing (new) connections between existing memories. For example, most participants reported that the systemic theory, particularly when combined with embodied exercises, offered new perspectives on their pupils’ behavior, which helped them to better understand their needs. This is in line with literature that suggests that a systemic approach can help to understand the needs of people and/or groups (Thölke, 2007), and to develop teachers’ sensitivity to issues manifesting in classrooms (Ingham & James, 2004). Third, the paradigm shift that the participants experienced during the PDP suggests that this approach was transformative for them. This shift seems to have been particularly instigated by the phenomenological aspect of the systemic approach. That is, data from the meditative exercises showed that they supported being in the moment and prepared the participants for the embodied exercises. In the embodied exercises, the participants especially reported sensing intuitive signals and distinguishing these intuitions from rational and affective signals. It appeared that becoming aware of intuitive signals was new for many participants, which confirms that people often fail to attend to their intuitions (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010). Further, in line with literature (e.g., Sinclair, 2010), the participants reported that it can be difficult to separate intuitions from rational and affective signals.

Reflections on findings related to RQ2The results of this study support the assumption that improving awareness of intuitions fosters teachers’ pedagogical tact. Further, the taxonomy of effects (Figure 4.1) suggests how this takes place. Here, the findings related to RQ2 are discussed in light of the taxonomy elements (respectively awareness of intuitions, individual awareness, classroom performance, and classroom outcomes). In this study, the participants reported to have particularly become more aware of their gut feelings, which appeared to be supportive for their classroom

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performance. This is in line with research which has demonstrated that improving awareness of teacher intuition can improve teacher abilities to sense pupils’ needs and what happens in classes (Kennedy, 2002), and lead to more effective communication, smooth social interactions, and positive relations (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). At the same time, people tend to neglect these intuitions (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010), and therefore it is important that teachers learn to acknowledge nonlocal intuitions. While both reflection and increasing knowledge of pupils’ behavior and needs are often part of teacher education, it is less common to focus on awareness of nonlocal intuition (Anthony, 2006). Our results also indicated that many participants perceived positive effects on their personal well-being, and even more on their professional self. Both aspects of teachers’ individual awareness appeared to support their classroom performance, which is in line with previous scholarship that has shown that developing cognitive, emotional, interpersonal, and intrapersonal capacities enables persons to manage the complexities of work (Drago-Severson, 2009). When it comes to teachers, self-awareness is said to be a quality of socially and emotionally competent teachers, and their sense of well-being can positively influence the prosocial atmosphere of classrooms (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). In fact, a teachers’ professional identity is related to many factors, including their sense of self-efficacy. Research has shown that teachers with high self-efficacy often have better classroom management, are more flexible in instructional methods, are less critical of pupils when they make mistakes, and have greater commitment and enthusiasm for teaching (Steele, 2010). Furthermore, the finding of this study also showed positive effects on teachers’ understanding of pupils’ perspective. Teachers in this study appreciated the examination of themselves in relation to their pupils, as well as how these relations are embedded in the schools and communities in which they teach. This is consistent with recommendations from literature (e.g., Vagle, 2011), for becoming more attuned to others and, in so doing, enabling tactful action. Then, the PDP participants reported effects on their classroom performance, such as seeking pupils’ needs and appropriate (split-second) pedagogical actions. These findings are in line with existing literature, which suggests that pedagogically tactful actions emerge when teachers are not hindered by their ego with its prejudices, cynicisms or fears (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Further, the participants reported that the systemic theory about the behavior and needs of social systems helped them in seeking their pupils’ needs. This is consistent with previous claims that teachers bring into their classes knowledge from multiple domains such as pedagogical content knowledge and curricular knowledge (Fagan, 2015). Pedagogically tactful teachers have an eye for, among others, the biographies, backgrounds, and specific circumstances of their pupils (van Manen, 1991).

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Research shows that teachers who really understand their pupils’ perspectives are able to attune to their needs (Buyse et al., 2009); and this kind of empathy enhances pupils’ learning (Meyers et al., 2019). Finally, the participants perceived positive classroom outcomes in relation to two of the three basic psychological needs for self-determination that Ryan and Deci (2002) describe: relationship, and pupil autonomy. The PDP participants noticed positive or even improved relationships with their pupils and (more) balanced interactions, meaning that teachers and their pupils are (mostly) attuned to each other. This is in line with literature that suggests that this attunement helps teachers and pupils to understand each other (Diemel, 2019) and that teacher pedagogical tact is a relational phenomenon (Friesen & Osguthorpe, 2018). This is important because such balanced interactions can contribute to the prevention of problem behavior in class (Goei & Kleijnen, 2009). Furthermore, participants tended to grant their pupils more autonomy, which is also in line with literature on pedagogical tact (Bors & Stevens, 2013) as well as self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Relating the classroom outcomes to the basic psychological needs for self-determination helped us realize that the third basic psychological need, pupils’ sense of competence, was not mentioned by the participants.

Limitations and future researchThe results of this study should be considered in light of its limitations. Further, first, we examine the approach of the study from a trustworthiness perspective (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). With regard to transferability, it should be noted that this was an initial, small-scale, qualitative exploration with all volunteer participants. Generalization to other contexts hence is limited. However, through the purposive sampling and thick descriptions used, readers may identify implications for their own contexts. In terms of credibility, an alternative to the open-ended approach of this study might be suitable. Namely, asking the participants to reflect on what particularly struck them helped identify highly salient issues, but not practices of the PDP experience which might have been useful but not ‘striking’. For instance, embodied exercises may well have influenced withholding judgment, but the data collection approach may not have been sensitive enough to pick this up. More narrowly focused data collection (e.g., asking interviewees to reflect on specific practices) might address this issue, though it would be important not to introduce bias in doing so. While debriefing was undertaken, confirmability could be enhanced in future research. For example, an experimental design in which a control group is not exposed to certain practices of the PDP (e.g., background reading) could help refine understanding of the role played by specific PDP practices. Alternatively, for researching participants’ intuitive experiences more thoroughly, phenomenological methods may be useful. For instance, for researching

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the microdynamics of intuition Petitmengin (2014) recommends elicitation interviews, which help with becoming aware of usually unnoticed parts of (cognitive) processes and describing these with precision. When this process is supported by actual classroom video, multiple interpretations can be shared, which has been previously been deemed useful for raising teacher awareness to specific practices. Finally, future research could increase dependability by triangulating self-report data with perspectives of the facilitators, colleagues or external observers. For investigating phenomena such as intuition and pedagogical tact, interpretive systemology might be of use, as this research approach aims to show the richness of phenomena by exploring the limits of different perspectives on it (Midgley & Ochoa-Arias, 2001). For further details on this approach and its origins, please refer to the special issue of this journal dedicated to interpretive systemology (Volume 4, Number 5, 1991). Future research could also be enriched by making use of existing instruments such as the Climate Scale (Donkers et al., 2009) or the International Comparative Analysis of Learning and Teaching (ICALT; Maulana et al., 2015). Second, now that an initial taxonomy of effects has been identified, more rigorous methods could be employed to investigate effects. For example, a longer-term experimental design with classroom observations of teacher pedagogical tact and measures for pupil outcomes seems fitting. In this context, we endorse methodological pluralism to enhance the flexibility and effectiveness of practice (Midgley & Ochoa-Arias, 2001). Additionally, cluster analysis could be undertaken to validate the taxonomy of effects presented here. Further, while this study considered participant self-reported data to be valuable for generating the initial taxonomy of effects, insight into teachers’ classroom practice seems crucial for the effects of the PDP. Figure 4.1 offers a starting point for further investigation of PDP effects, by portraying the types of effects found and interactions identified in this six-week study (solid lines), as well as relationships that seem highly plausible (dotted lines) based on exiting insights regarding teacher reflection and professional growth over time (e.g., McKenney, 2017).

Closing remarksThe results of this study suggest that improving awareness of intuitions for teachers’ pedagogically tactful handling of complex classroom situations through a systemic-phenomenological approach has promising effects on teachers and their experiences in their classrooms. While further empirical research is needed, this study provides a preliminary empirically generated map of how PDP practices contribute to essential learning processes, and practical recommendations about how to improve awareness of intuitions through systemic-phenomenological approaches. The results of this study might also be applicable in other occupations that require tactful improvisations based on more than overt input. Social sector

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occupations that also focus on the development of people may benefit from attending to their intuitive tact. Sole reliance on intuition seems highly risky, but the results of this study suggest that not attending to intuition may also bring risks. Therefore, we consider it crucial to search for ways to improve awareness of intuition and integration of intuitive signals into handling of classroom challenges.

Sub-study D: Summative evaluation

This chapter is based on:Sipman, G., Martens, R., Thölke, J., & McKenney, S. (under review).Professional development focused on intuition can enhance teacher pedagogical tact.

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Abstract

Nowadays educational challenges require increasing pedagogical tact of teachers. Intuition serves this swift and appropriate classroom action, but teachers are rarely encouraged to use it. This mixed methods study investigated the effects of intuition- focused professional development on teachers’ pedagogical tact. Questionnaires measured teacher change, and showed large positive effects on teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions, and medium effects on the related classroom outcomes. Interviews with participants and their colleagues elaborated and explained positive changes in awareness of intuitions, and information processing, and classroom impact. This study defines and operationalizes intuitive pedagogical tact and describes meditative and embodied practices for enhancing it.

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Introduction

Pedagogical tact refers to teachers’ ability to act optimally in the moment when complex classroom situations arise (van Manen, 2006). While teaching has always required the ability to act swiftly in contingent classroom situations (Eaude, 2014), the demands placed upon teachers are increasing due to the growing diversity of pupils’ needs and expectations (Flores, 2017). Therefore, teacher pedagogical tact is a key quality, and knowledge about enhancing it is needed. However, the literature on pedagogical tact is primarily theoretical. For instance, van Manen (2015) described the phenomenon as a kind of empathic sensibility and wisdom about people, which supports immediate understanding or knowing and therefore pedagogically tactful actions. Unfortunately, how to enhance this crucial teaching quality has received far less attention in literature. Van Manen (2015) suggested that teachers’ pedagogical tact develops in practice and by reflecting on experiences from the past. Other scholars have focused on stimulating a feeling for the philosophy of education (Fišer, 1972) or self-examination for becoming more attuned to others (Vagle, 2011). Moreover, even less scholarship has been devoted to empirical research on enhancing teacher pedagogical tact. Several scholars have related pedagogical tact to intuitive qualities (e.g., Vagle, 2011; van Manen, 2015). Intuition is a form of understanding that is rapid and spontaneous, without the need for conscious thought (Dörfler & Eden, 2014), which can weigh and integrate many factors in split seconds (Dijksterhuis, 2007). It can facilitate direct knowing (Sinclair, 2011), fast problem solving, decision making and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009), and can even be more accurate than reasoning in complex situations (Pretz, 2011). Intuition can build on prior knowledge or experiences, because they are the result of automated thinking processes or connecting memory fragments into new information structures (Pretz, 2011). As such, intuition can be influenced negatively by fears, prejudices or wishful thinking (Sadler-Smith, 2010). Further, intuition can extend beyond prior knowledge or experiences, in what is often referred to as gut feelings. These intuitive signals can emerge as “prepackaged information from external sources” (Sinclair, 2011), yet cannot be explained by past knowledge or signals overtly observed in the environment (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). These intuitions emerge subtly (Sadler-Smith, 2010) and as a result, people often fail to attend to them (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010). Because of how it serves immediate action, scholars have argued that teachers can benefit from consciously integrating the use of intuition into teacher education (e.g., Valle, 2017) and classroom practice (e.g., Anthony, 2006). Further, they have advocated for studies on intuition’s role in teacher decision making in general (Vanlommel et al., 2018) and pedagogical tact in particular (Sipman et al., 2019). And yet, despite the fact that its potential in education has been endorsed (e.g.,

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Iannello et al., 2011), very little scholarship has been devoted to harnessing intuition for this purpose. The present study investigates the presence and nature of effects engendered by a PD program that focused on developing intuition, for enhancing teachers’ pedagogical tact.

Theoretical framework

Teachers’ pedagogical tact concerns the ability to appropriately handle complex classroom situations in split-seconds. Because these immediate actions heavily rely on intuition, we refer here to teacher intuitive pedagogical tact. We decompose this competence in terms of four stages, namely, balanced awareness for receiving input, information processing for dealing with the input, pedagogical actions as output, which can yield classroom outcomes. Each of these stages is described below.

Balanced awarenessIntuitive pedagogical tact requires balanced awareness of receiving external and internal signals, because they can provide information about the present moment, and can activate prior knowledge (Iannello et al., 2014). Such awareness is known to be crucial for effective classroom management (Wolff, 2015). Here, we describe five elements of teachers’ balanced awareness: (1) being in the moment, and awareness of (2) external, (3) rational, (4) affective, and (5) intuitive signals. Being in the moment is a state of mind in which one is aware of both external signals and internal signals (Dane, 2011), which is needed for consciously using intuition (e.g., Claxton et al., 2011). External signals are based on objective reality and are present in ways that others can observe as well, such as pupils who are talking, working, and laughing. Internal signals cannot be observed by others and require a high self-awareness, which has been described as a key quality of socially and emotionally competent teachers (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009). For teachers’ balanced awareness, three kinds of internal signals are relevant. Rational signals are consciously received thoughts, such as the didactic steps in teaching a certain lesson or deliberation about how to react to a pupil. Affective signals are emotions, which can be received both consciously and unconsciously. Particularly unconsciously, affective signals can bias decision making (Shiv et al., 2005), and also negatively affect intuitive judgment (Sadler-Smith, 2010). Intuitive signals, as mentioned previously, can build on but also extend beyond prior experiences or knowledge. It is important to receive multiple forms of intuitive signals, as they can help teachers to be aware of environmental cues in their classes (Kennedy, 2002).

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Information processingInformation processing is required for integrating the external and internal signals. Four elements of information processing are noteworthy: (1) attending to emergent insights, (2) regulating emotions, (3) perspective-taking, and (4) withholding judgment. First, it is important to attend to what emerges, which requires taking all received signals, particularly the intuitive ones, seriously. Research shows that many people fail to notice their intuitions (Dijksterhuis & Aarts, 2010), because intuitive signals mostly emerge unconsciously and people are not used to concentrating or relying on them (Epstein, 2011). Second, information processing requires teachers to regulate emotions, to prevent biased reactions. Further, it can be difficult to separate intuitive understandings from other forms of knowledge (Sinclair, 2010), and particularly to discern intuitions from emotions (Sadler-Smith, 2010). Third, literature on pedagogical tact emphasizes the importance of taking the perspective of pupils (e.g., van Manen, 2015). When dealing with pupils’ behavior and attending to their needs, it helps to understand how the behavior has emerged or persists (van Meersbergen & Jeninga, 2012). Fourth, during information processing it is important to withhold judgment, which is interpreted as an overall attitude (Author, 2021). Being nonjudgmental can help with being more empathetic, compassionate, and patient (Alahari, 2017). Interpreting pupils’ signals without judgment is required for interpreting these signals empathetically (Diemel, 2019), and to prevent biased processing of intuitive information (Sadler-Smith & Burke, 2009).

Immediate pedagogical actionsAfter information processing, an immediate pedagogical action emerges, that is, every big or small immediate action of a teacher – including doing nothing – to do what is right or good for pupils (van Manen, 2006). Such actions are facilitated by understanding the pupils and their needs, and acting accordingly (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Teachers can intervene with pedagogical actions such as encouraging pupils, humor, being a role model, giving feedback, setting limits and correcting behavior (van der Wolf & van Beukering, 2011). Salient elements of pedagogically tactful actions are: (1) timely and appropriate, (2) confident, (3) effortless and (4) creative. First, as mentioned, intuition can facilitate direct knowing (Sinclair, 2011), and fast problem solving and decision making (Dane & Pratt, 2009), and therefore can lead to timely and appropriate actions. These actions reflect knowledge of what to do, and choices that serve learners (van Manen, 1991). Second, intuitions lead to actions about which the actor feels confident (Dörfler & Eden, 2014). Situational confidence (Situationssicherheit), has previously been identified as a key aspect of teachers’ pedagogical tact (Juuso & Laine, 2004; Muth, 1962) Third, intuitive information processing requires little effort or attention (Pretz, 2011), so

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that immediate pedagogical actions can emerge effortlessly (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Fourth, intuitive pedagogical actions often demonstrate creativity (Stierand & Dörfler, 2014), which in this context can be interpreted as a kind of pedagogical ingenuity. It is important to recognize the improvisational nature of teaching (Sawyer, 2004), and the fact that such creativity can turn even unpromising situations into positive events (van Manen, 2015).

Classroom outcomesFourth, while pedagogically tactful actions cannot assure specific outcomes, they are primarily focused on serving student well-being (Friesen & Osguthorpe, 2018). This is important, since pupils show lower levels of on-task behavior and performance when teachers are not or less able to effectively manage the instructional, social, and emotional challenges in the class (Marzano et al., 2003). Pedagogically tactful teachers provide their pupils relevant learning experiences, within a positive and safe classroom climate (van Manen, 2015). Our operationalization of this stage was inspired by the Climate Scale (Donkers et al., 2009). Three of the four elements in that scale seemed particularly salient in relation to intuitive pedagogical tact. Those are: (1) attention to harmony, (2) positive teacher-pupil interactions, and (3) positive pupil-pupil interactions. The first element, attention to harmony, is in line with the literature on pedagogical tact, in the sense that pedagogically tactful actions keep groups intact and in balance (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Similarly, positive teacher-pupil interactions are hypothesized as outcomes of pedagogical tact, insofar as pedagogically tactful teachers are able to establish contact with their pupils in ways that support relationship building (van Manen, 2015). The third element, positive pupil-pupil interactions, reflects the commonly accepted notion that learning is socially constructed (Dewey, 1916) and that the work of individuals improves when they are in contact with others (Allport, 1924).

Focus of this studyThe existing research has shown that intuition can play a crucial role in teachers’ pedagogical tact. Unfortunately, how to enhance teacher pedagogical tact through intuition has received far less attention in literature, and empirical studies on this topic are severely lacking. The present study addresses this gap by investigating the effects of a PD program focusing on the use of intuition. In this study, teacher intuitive pedagogical tact is comprised of four stages: (1) balanced awareness, (2) information processing, (3) immediate pedagogical actions, and (4) classroom outcomes. Figure 1 shows the elements that were formulated for each stage.

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Specifically, the PD program aimed to develop teachers’ balanced awareness and information processing (grey cells in Figure 1), with the hypothesis that these would then support (improved) immediate pedagogical actions and positive classroom outcomes (white cells in Figure 1). The research was guided by the following research question: What effects, if any, does a professional development program focusing on intuition have on teachers’ balanced awareness, information processing, immediate pedagogical actions, and classroom outcomes?

Methods

To answer the research question, an intervention study was carried out. In a mixed methods approach, we used a convergent design to compare findings from qualitative and quantitative data sources (Wisdom & Creswell, 2013). The presence of specific effects of a PD program (run eight times) focusing on intuition for teacher pedagogical tact was investigated (quantitatively) through questionnaires, while the experiential nature of these effects were described through dyadic interviews (qualitatively). Triangulation of both methods and perspectives not only increases the reliability and validity of the study, but also increases the breadth and depth of understanding of the phenomenon in question (Olsen, 2004). Figure 2 previews the research design and will be elaborated upon in the sections below.

PD programA PD program was designed to focus directly on balanced awareness and information processing, with the aim of indirectly supporting immediate pedagogical actions and classroom outcomes. Three main mechanisms were incorporated throughout

Figure 5.1. Four stages of intuitive pedagogical tact

BalancedAwareness

Being in the moment

Awareness of external signals

Awareness of rational signals

Awareness of a ective signals

Awareness ofintuitive signals

InformationProcessing

Attending toemergent insights

Regulating emotions

Perspective-taking


ImmediatePedagogical Actions

Timely andappropriate actions

Confident actions

E ortless actions

Creative actions

ClassroomOutcomes

Attention to harmony

Positive teacher-pupil interactions

Positive pupil-pupil interactions

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the PD activity: adding new knowledge to improve intuitions that build on prior knowledge, which in the context of teacher pedagogical tact means increasing understanding of the behavior and needs of pupils, classes, and oneself (e.g., van Manen, 2015); reflection on personal behavior patterns to improve one’s use of intuitions that build on prior experiences, as these can be influenced negatively by fears, prejudices, and wishful thinking (Sadler-Smith, 2010); and sensitizing one’s awareness of (particularly nonlocal) intuitive signals, as these are often overlooked (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010). Additional information about the PD program design is available elsewhere (Sipman et al., in press). The program consisted of 6 sessions, each one lasting 3 hours. Each of the eight cohorts was led by two facilitators; in total, seven facilitators (aged 28 to 63, three women and four men), who were trained to facilitate the PD program. Facilitation was done in pairs, and the pairing of facilitators was purposefully different for each cohort to mitigate the chance that effects were based on facilitator characteristics. The PD sessions all followed the same basic structure. First, each session started with a check-in to help them come together as a group (Genee & Konsten, 2017). Second, the participants were invited to shift to intuition in a meditative exercise. Over the course of the PD program participants were taught to shift to intuition themselves to be able to apply this in practice prior to starting teaching, because meditative exercises can enhance intuitive receptivity (e.g., Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007). Being in the moment opens up possibilities for becoming aware of intuitive signals (Dane, 2011). Further, frequent practice of shifting, like training a muscle, can ease the transition into this state (Tomasino, 2011; Sera, 2015), which can support accessing intuition in classroom through high engagement with the situation (Teerikangas & Välikangas, 2014). Third, participants received instructions on theories addressing the behavior of social systems (themselves, pupils and classes), which offer new perspectives and promotes a nonjudgmental view (Emberger, 2010). Fourth, in the next part of each session embodied exercises were undertaken, in which participants learned to become aware of and to discriminate between external, rational, affective, and intuitive signals. In the exercises, the participants physically represented persons within social systems, creating an invisible yet noticeable field of information

Figure 5.2. Preview of research design

Mixed methods approachtriangulation of method

and perspective

QuantitativeQuestionnaire8 cohorts, n=61Statistical analysis

QualitativeInterview12 dyads, n=24Deductive & inductive analysis

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(Thölke & Herder-Wynne, 2013). This information field allowed participants to intuitively perceive thoughts, feelings, and intentions that were related to the person they were representing. Human nervous systems are able to detect and react to signals from this field, which operates influentially yet subtly just below our conscious level of awareness (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). By doing this regularly, participants would learn to trust their intuition, which would help them to attend to emergent insights. Fifth, during and after the embodied exercises the participants investigated social systems, which stimulated reflection on personal behavioral patterns and helped them to regulate emotions. This also facilitated perspective-taking of other persons in the social system. Understanding the behavior of oneself and others can support withholding judgment towards oneself and others, which can prevent biased processing of intuitive information based on prior knowledge/experiences (Sadler-Smith & Burke, 2009), and can also support awareness of intuitions beyond prior knowledge/experiences (Sipman et al., in press). Sixth, during check-out activities, the sessions were evaluated and wrapped up. Figure 3 shows the flow of the sessions and the corresponding elements of the stages balanced awareness and information processing.

Figure 5.3. Basic routine in each PD session (grey text = elements of balanced awareness and information processing)

6

5

4

3

2

11. Check-in

2. ShiftBeing in the momentAwareness of intuitions

3. TheoryPerspective-takingWithholding judgment

4. Embodied exerciseAwareness (and discrimination) of external, rational,

a�ective and intuitive signalsAttending to emergent insights

Regulating emotionsPerspective-taking


5. ReflectionRegulating emotions

Perspective-takingWithholding judgment

6. Check-out

INTUITIVE STATE

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ParticipantsIn the Netherlands, all teacher education institutes work within a broad legal framework and a national qualification structure, but they have substantial freedom in shaping and organizing their curricula (Cedefop, 2016). For both primary and secondary level teacher education, the governmental structures stimulate teacher education institutes and schools to cooperate not only during initial teacher training, but also during further in-service education. PD offerings focusing on enhancing teacher pedagogical tact are scarce, and those focusing on doing so through intuition are virtually non-existent. The study was carried out with eight cohorts of teachers in primary, secondary, and higher education in the Netherlands (n = 61, see Table 1). The PD participants joined on a voluntary basis after reading a short description of the goals, structure, and approach to be used in the PD program. One cohort of pre-service primary school teachers (n = 5), and two cohorts of in-service primary school teachers (n = 13), from two different school districts. These school districts were at loss, because they could not find pedagogically tactful teachers who are able to deal with the diverse populations of their urban schools. Further, two cohorts of in-service secondary school teachers (n = 20) joined the research project. Their managers observed that more and more teachers had difficulties running their classes, and supposed that improving intuition could support their pedagogical tact. Finally, three cohorts of in-service teachers from higher education institutes (n = 23) decided to participate. They were granted permission by their leaders to support the development of innovative approaches that might help to prepare their students better for being able to do their challenging job. The in-service primary education teachers were invited by principals of their schools, the pre-service primary education teachers and in-service higher education teachers were given the opportunity to choose the PD program from optional courses within their institutes, and the in-service secondary education teachers were invited through contact persons at their schools. In total, there were 52 women (85%) and 9 men (15%), and this distribution can be seen as representative since the percentage of Dutch female teachers is 87% at the primary level, 53% at the secondary level, and 46% at the higher education level (OECD, 2017). Participants’ ages ranged from 21 to 63 years old, and their years of experience in education ranged from 0 to 38. As for education levels, 31 participants had finished bachelor’s level education, 12 participants had completed post-bachelor courses, and 18 participants held master’s degrees. For triangulation of both methods and perspectives, after completion of all PD sessions, all participants were given the opportunity to volunteer for dyadic interviews. In total, 12 in-service teachers participated in the interviews, specifically: four primary school teachers (PT), four secondary school teachers (ST), and four

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teachers from higher education (HT). To include data beyond self-report, each of these teachers was asked to bring a colleague, preferably a supervisor, who would have insight into the participant’s development over the course of the PD program. Of these 12 additional participants (eight women and four men, 24 to 64 years old), six were team leaders, three were fellow teacher colleagues, two were teacher coaches, and one was a principal. In total, 24 respondents participated in the interviews, which were conducted with dyads. Table 1 provides an overview of those participating in the questionnaires and dyadic interviews.

InstrumentationA mixed methods approach was chosen, in order to establish the (perceived) presence of effects quantitatively, and to describe what these effects were qualitatively. Mixed methods research will often provide the most informative, complete, balanced and useful research results (Johnson et al., 2007). To investigate the (perceived) presence of effects, all participants completed a questionnaire after completion of the PD program. For triangulation purposes, dyadic interviews were undertaken to describe, elaborate, and explain any effects. Not only would this confirm/challenge the quantitative findings, it also allowed for more varied perspectives on the effects, as colleagues could view participant performance differently, or observe relevant phenomena that the participants themselves might not have. All data were collected and analyzed in Dutch, before being translated into English.

Table 5.1 Overview of participants

Questionnaires Dyadic interviews

Pre-service primary school teachers- cohort 1, n = 5

n/a

In-service primary school teachers - cohort 2, n = 7- cohort 3, n = 6

Teacher (F/44) + Principal (M/47)Teacher (F/57) + Coach (F/64)Teacher (F/41) + Team leader (F/37)Teacher (F/28) + Team leader (F/56)

In-service secondary school teachers - cohort 4, n = 11- cohort 5, n = 8

Teacher (M/37) + Coach (F/41)Teacher (F/35) + Team leader (M/46)Teacher (F/29) + Fellow teacher (F/31)Teacher (F/29) + Fellow teacher (F/24)

In-service higher education teachers - cohort 6, n = 5- cohort 7, n = 10- cohort 8, n = 8

Teacher (F/57) + Team leader (F/48)Teacher (F/46) + Team leader (M/55)Teacher (M/26) + Fellow teacher (F/39)Teacher (M/53) + Team leader (F/36)

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QuestionnaireIn order to investigate the participant perceptions of effects, existing questionnaires related to measuring intuition were inventoried and analyzed, such as the Myers- Briggs Types Indicator (Myers et al., 1998), the Rational Experiential Inventory (Pacini & Epstein, 1999), and the Types of Intuition Scale (Pretz et al., 2014). We found useful items in the instruments, but no (sets of) scales that related well enough to our operationalization of intuitive pedagogical tact. We therefore developed a new questionnaire for measuring teachers’ perceptions of intuitive pedagogical tact. Through group discussion and iterative refinement, the research team created four items for each element of intuitive pedagogical tact (see Figure 1). Next, the phrasing of these 64 items was tested with three in-service teachers in primary education. Following another round of revisions, a pilot test of the questionnaire was conducted with 32 in-service and pre-service teachers in primary, secondary and higher education. After calculating Cronbach’s alpha, 10 items were deleted, yielding a final questionnaire of 54 items. Table 2 shows an example item for each element in each stage (the full questionnaire is given in Appendix 1). Cronbach’s alpha for the final version suggested that it is reliable, with .970 for the questionnaire as a whole, and .890, .902, .940, and .827 for the stages of balanced awareness, information processing, immediate pedagogical actions, and classroom outcomes, respectively. Most of the 16 elements showed satisfactory internal consistency on both pre and post measures. However, 2 of them showed low internal consistency (α < .6) on both pre and post levels respectively: awareness of rational signals (.316, .348) and timely/ appropriate actions (.513, .583). Further, 2 elements showed low internal consistency on the pre-test only: withholding judgment (.553) and positive teacher-pupil interactions (.395), and 1 showed low internal consistency on the post-test: awareness of intuitive signals (.558).Previous research has demonstrated that explicitly focusing on intuition is new and challenging for teachers (Sipman et al., in press). This complicates the use of pre-post measures based on self-report, since the participants would not likely to be able to accurately estimate their abilities prior to the intervention. This kind of cognitive bias, whereby respondents wrongly overestimate their abilities because they are unable to recognize incompetence, is known as the Dunning-Kruger effect (1999). To mitigate the risk of this effect, an alternative was sought. Namely, after completing the PD program, participants received the questionnaire through email and the request to indicate their abilities before the PD program and afterward. This seemed a viable solution because research has shown that training and performance feedback can help people improve the accuracy of their performance estimates (Ehrlinger & Dunning, 2003). Each item used a 5-point Likert scale: This enabled the calculation of the participants’ perceived growth. Respondents also provided meta-data (e.g., gender, age, level of education, years

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of experience in teaching) and were given the opportunity to share questions or remarks in an open-ended response field.

Table 5.2 Example items per IPTQ element (final version)

Elements per stage Element item examples (translated from Dutch)

BA: Balanced Awareness- ba1: being in the moment

- ba2: awareness of external signals- ba3: awareness of rational signals

- ba4: awareness of affective signals

- ba5: awareness of intuitive signals

I am in the moment when I am working with pupils in the classroom.I am aware of what happens in the classroom.In the classroom, I am aware of what I am thinking.I am in contact with my emotions when I am working in the classroom.I am alert when my gut feeling tells me that something is going on in the classroom.

IP: Information Processing- ip1: attending to emergent insights

- ip2: regulating emotions

- ip3: perspective-taking

- ip4: withholding judgment

I take my gut feelings seriously when I am working with pupils.I can endure the emotions that are related to difficult situations.I understand the perspectives of pupils even during conflicts in the classroom.I approach pupils without judgment when I am working with them.

IPA: Immediate Pedagogical Actions- ipa1: timely/ appropriate actions

- ipa2: confident actions

- ipa3: effortless actions

- ipa4: creative actions

I am able to come up with solutions for problems in the classroom when this is needed.I feel confident when I act in situations in the classroom.I deal effortlessly with problems in the classroom.I am resourceful when I have to solve problems in the classroom.

CO: Classroom Outcomes- co1: attention to harmony

- co2: positive teacher-pupil interactions

- co3: positive pupil-pupil interactions

I resolve conflicts with me or between pupils in the classroom.I ask pupils how they feel when we discuss conflicts.

My experience is that there is mutual respect between the pupils in the classroom.

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Dyadic interviews In the dyadic interviews, colleagues were invited to share their observations of PD program participants to confirm participants’ perspective and/or to reveal possible blind spots. Interviewing both participants and their colleagues together was chosen to: explore if and to what extent participant views were shared with others and to support connections to shared contextual understandings, all of which might evoke new respondent ideas or reflections (Baarda et al., 2013). For investigating the nature of the PD program effects, a dyadic interview protocol was developed, tested and refined. The final version of the protocol consisted of two phases. In the first phase, the two interviewees were free to share aspects of the development of the PD participant that they perceived during or after the PD program. In addition, the researcher purposefully invited them to share any negative information, such as developments that they had hoped for, but that did not occur. In the second phase of the dyadic interview, the interviewees were invited to elaborate upon their answers after being sensitized to the elements of intuitive pedagogical tact (see Figure 1). As a reference, participants were given paper handouts with the stages and corresponding elements of intuitive pedagogical tact, one stage at a time. In each phase of the dyadic interview, the colleagues of the PD participants were asked to respond first, so that their response would not be influenced by what the PD participants said. Then the PD participants were requested to answer the question. Finally, the respondents were given the chance to react to each other’s responses. All dyadic interviews were recorded. The interviewees gave their informed consent and understood that their data would be anonymized.

Data analysisThe Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire (IPTQ) was completed by 61 pre-service and in-service teachers in primary, secondary and higher education after going through the PD program (100% response). Five cases needed to be deleted due to more than 10% missing values. The five other cases with missing values (less than 10%) were kept, as the sample was already small. During analysis, items with missing values were excluded. Four participants had checked two boxes on one item (in total 17 times), which was dealt with conservatively, by choosing the scores indicating the lowest growth. Before data analysis, the normal distribution of the data was checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test, which is appropriate for small samples (Field, 2013). For the overall, stage, and element levels, several scores were significant (p > .05), indicating a non-normal data distribution. Therefore, both the correlations between the stages and the paired samples t-tests (2-sided) were bootstrapped with a bias-corrected and accelerated confidence interval of 95%.

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First, paired samples t-tests (2-sided) were used to evaluate perceived development at the overall, stage, and element levels. Second, for measuring the effect sizes, Cohen’s d was calculated for the pre-post comparisons at the overall, stage, and element levels. Third, Pearson’s r was calculated (post-post) to see whether or not the effects at stage level correlate. Fourth, in an exploratory analysis investigating the differences between participant groups (age, years of experience, gender, teaching level, educational level), MANOVAs and ANOVAs were used. For post hoc analysis of significant results, the Games-Howell test was chosen, as both the variances and the samples were not equal. The Levene test was used to see whether the variances were homogeneous or not. For the qualitative data, each of the 12 recorded dyadic interviews (740 minutes in total) were analyzed with the aid of Atlas.ti software (version 7). Data were prepared for analysis through an initial screening, which filtered out off-task texts (e.g., discussion of the weather). Next, data were analyzed in five steps. First, text fragments were sorted for their relationship to the operationalization of intuitive pedagogical tact (see Figure 1). For instance, the text fragment ‘For turning on my “antennas” I have to be in the moment’ was categorized in being in the moment. The 18% of fragments deemed to be unrelated (e.g., comments about PD effects on their private lives) were excluded for detailed analysis, though they are briefly summarized in the results section (see Unanticipated outcomes). Second, the text fragments were transferred into summaries per dyad (1,629-3,226 words), which were member-checked with the interviewees to ensure their validity and reliability (Santiago-Delefosse et al., 2015). This did not lead to new information. Third, the coded text fragments of all dyadic interview summaries were categorized per operationalized element, and inductive (open) coding was used to analyze the data within the categories (see Table 3 for a list of deductive codes in relation to the inductive themes). For instance, the text fragment mentioned above was coded, as ‘added value’. Fourth, themes emerged from the data by comparison of the differences and similarities between the emergent codes per category. For instance, both the text fragments ‘For turning on my “antennas” I have to be in the moment’ and ‘The meditative exercises helped me to get relaxed’ are about the added value of being in the moment, but differ in what this added value is. Fifth, the themes that emerged from the qualitative data were compared with the quantitative data to elaborate on the nature of the effects identified. For instance, while the quantitative data showed large effects on being in the moment, the qualitative data showed what these effects were. During the data analysis, peer debriefing took place regularly to increase the reliability of the coding, which is an alternative to the time-consuming process of inter-rater reliability tests (Evers, 2015).

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Table 5.3 Deductive codes and inductive themes

Deductive code Inductive themes

BA = Balanced Awareness - effects in general- difficult to observe- depends on moment

ba1 = being in the moment - added value- helps to…- challenges

ba2 = awareness of external signals - less applicable- increase/ effects

ba3 = awareness of rational signals - awareness of judgments- perceived PD program effects

ba4 = awareness of affective signals - increased awareness emotions- acceptance of emotions- emotions as intuitions

ba5 = awareness of intuitive signals - increased intuitive awareness - nonjudgmental attitude- challenges

IP = Information Processing - difficult to observe

ip1 = attending to emergent insights - trusting intuitions - attending to intuitions

ip2 = regulating emotions - less emotionally overwhelmed- positive effects- expressing emotions more

ip3 = perspective-taking - empathy for pupils’ perspective- understanding perspective of colleagues- more understanding of own perspective- perspective-taking is challenging

ip4 = withholding judgment - less judgments- acceptance of others- acceptance of oneself- acceptance of situations- helps to…

IPA = Immediate Pedagogical Actions - role of intuition- pedagogical actions in general

ipa1 = timely and appropriate actions - expressing intuitions- attunement to pupil(s) needs- proactive actions- perceived growth

ipa2 = confident actions - trusting the process- increased self-confidence- thoughtful interventions

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Results

Presence of effectsComparison of before-after ratingsThe results of comparing before-after ratings of the IPTQ show that in our sample the PD program indeed leads to effects. Being aware that the internal consistency of some elements was low, we calculated the change in perceived pedagogical tact not only at the overall and stage levels, but at element level as well. Table 4 shows the average change in perceived pedagogical tact as well as the effect sizes from the paired samples t-tests, at the overall, stage, and element levels. The rules of thumb for effect sizes (d) are ±.01 is very small, ±.2 is small, ±.5 is medium, ±.8 is large, and ±1.2 is very large (Sawilowsky, 2009). The mean scores differences indicate participants’ perceived growth. Scores ranged from 1 to 5, where lower scores indicate higher levels of the assessed construct. The results show that, on average, there was a significant increase in participants’ perceived level of IPT at the overall, stage and element levels following the PD program (p < .025). The effect sizes for the pre-post difference overall (IPT) and for the BA and IP stages are large to very large; the effect size for the IPA stage is large, while the effect size for the CO stage is medium. The average difference between the before and after ratings decreased from the BA stage to the CO stage (.532 - .488 - .379 - .259). At the element level,

Table 5.3 Continued

Deductive code Inductive themes

ipa3 = effortless actions - more effortless classroom performance- reasons for effortless acting

ipa4 = creative actions - emergent teaching- examples creative actions

CO = Classroom Outcomes - effects beyond classroom- shift in classroom due to PD program- attending to pupils’ autonomy

co1 = attention to harmony - more attention for harmony- acting in case of disharmony- sharing responsibility

co2 = positive teacher-pupil interactions

- change of attitude teacher- attention for individual pupils- better relation with pupils/ less struggle

co3 = positive pupil-pupil interactions - positive pedagogical climate- positive effects on group

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we must note the low internal consistency (α < .6) of the items making up elements ba3pre, ba3post, ba5post, ip4pre, ipa1pre, ipa1post and co2pre. Nonetheless, the results show that the improvement in participants’ ratings of their perceived IPT after the PD program was statistically significant for all elements. The mean difference for element ba3 is low in comparison to the other elements from the BA stage and the effect size is small (d = .243). Lower scores and smaller effect sizes are also found for element co3, while the effect size for co2 is medium. Meanwhile, the elements ba1, ba4, ba5, ip1 and ip4 show high mean differences (Mdif > .5). The effect sizes

Table 5.4 Average change in perceived pedagogical tact and effect sizes at the overall, stage, and element levels (paired samples t-tests, 2-sided)

Label n Mpre

SDpre

Mpost

SDpost

Mdif.

p BCa 95%

d

Overall level

IPT: Intuitive Pedagogical Tact 56 2.569 .409 2.132 .333 .437 .001 .374-.507 1.068

Stage level

BA: Balanced Awareness 56 2.697 .445 2.174 .350 .532 .001 .452-.595 1.176

IP: Information Processing 56 2.554 .430 2.066 .335 .488 .001 .421-.565 1.135

IPA: Immediate Pedagogical Actions 56 2.596 .492 2.217 .416 .379 .001 .309-.460 .770

CO: Classroom Outcomes 56 2.279 .549 2.020 .492 .259 .001 .186-.342 .471

Element level

ba1: being in the moment 56 2.688 .598 2.130 .502 .558 .001 .464-.661 .933

ba2: awareness of external signals 56 2.518 .612 2.077 .476 .441 .001 .333-.548 .720

ba3: awareness of rational signals 56 2.464 .660 2.304 .601 .161 .014 .036-.303 .243

ba4: awareness of affective signals 56 2.987 .613 2.313 .505 .647 .001 .563-.786 1.100

ba5: awareness of intuitive signals 56 2.670 .550 2.085 .411 .585 .001 .487-.679 1.063

ip1: attending to emergent insights 56 2.567 .661 1.911 .441 .656 .001 .545-.768 .993

ip2: regulating emotions 56 2.554 .601 2.156 .480 .397 .001 .295-.500 .661

ip3: perspective-taking 56 2.380 .470 2.013 .371 .366 .001 .281-.460 .779

ip4: withholding judgment 56 2.762 .564 2.214 .494 .548 .001 .458-.637 .971

ipa1: timely/ appropriate actions 56 2.518 .484 2.089 .404 .429 .001 .333-.518 .886

ipa2: confident actions 56 2.661 .555 2.214 .441 .446 .001 .355-.545 .804

ipa3: effortless actions 56 2.708 .540 2.375 .524 .333 .001 .238-.446 .617

ipa4: creative actions 56 2.505 .632 2.196 .502 .308 .001 .214-.406 .488

co1: attention to harmony 56 2.027 .747 1.750 .674 .277 .002 .179-.396 .371

co2: positive teacher-pupil interactions 56 2.250 .661 1.920 .511 .330 .001 .232-.429 .500

co3: positive pupil-pupil interactions 56 2.415 .602 2.286 .561 .130 .002 .071-.188 .215

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of the elements ba1, ba2, ba4, ba5, ip1, ip3, ip4, ipa1 and ipa2 are (nearly) large to very large (d > .8), while the effect sizes of the elements ip2, ipa3, ipa4, co1 and co2 are (nearly) medium. The bootstrapped calculated Pearson’s r showed that the effects between the stages correlate with each other (see Table 5), which suggests that the stages of our model of teacher intuitive pedagogical tact could indeed influence next stages.

Open-ended responsesIn total, 40 participants chose to comment on the program (in the box at the end of the IPTQ). Of these, 20 participants expressed gratitude for the ‘very useful’, ‘valuable’, ‘impressive’, or ‘inspiring’ PD program. Regarding the IPTQ, 10 participants shared that it was rather difficult for them to complete the questionnaire, because they teach several classes per day (n = 8) or they work mostly individually with pupils (n = 2). Therefore, the wording in the items was perceived as less relevant to their experiences. Eleven participants also wrote that they felt that they were not able to indicate differences between their levels of IPT before and after the PD program because the intervals on the scale were larger than the change they experienced. Finally, three participants mentioned that they perceived personal growth due to the PD program (e.g., ‘inner peace’), which is not asked about in the IPTQ but ‘does have an effect on my pupils’.

Differences between groupsThe differences between groups were calculated on age, years of experience, gender, teaching level, and educational level. Using Wilks’ Lambda, MANOVA showed significant results at the overall level regarding timepre-post (.000) and just barely significant results for time in interaction with the educational level of the participants (.048). At the stage level, a MANOVA showed significant results for both time (.000) and overall level (.000), as well as for the interaction between time and overall level (.000). Further analysis was conducted with ANOVAs in combination with Games-Howell’s post-hoc test. The only significant result with a 95% confidence interval on the Games-Howell post-hoc test was for overall level IPTdif. in interaction with the educational level (p = .048). This implies that teachers

Table 5.5 Correlations at the stage level (post-post)

n r p BCa 95%

Balanced Awareness – Information Processing 56 .741 .000 .599-.838

Information Processing – Immediate Pedagogical Actions 56 .712 .000 .522-.838

Immediate Pedagogical Actions – Classroom Outcomes 56 .656 .000 .493-.795

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who finished higher vocational education perceived more benefit from the PD program than teachers with a master’s degree. It must be noted that the power was low due to small numbers of participants in several groups.

Nature of effectsWhile the quantitative data showed that the PD program led to perceived effects on teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact, the qualitative data described their nature. Figure 2 shows the distribution of selected relevant text fragments (741, in total) across the overall operationalization of intuitive pedagogical tact. Some of the text fragments (11.1% in total) were categorized at the stage level, as their content transcended the individual element level. The next five sections elaborate the information in Figure 4, by describing the nature of effects per stage, as well as the unanticipated findings. (NB: Labels in brackets refer to: PT = primary school Teacher, ST = secondary school teacher, and HT = teacher in higher education).

Balanced awarenessThe elements of balanced awareness were referred to primarily during phase 2 of the dyadic interviews. Six participants described being in the moment (ba1) through the meditative exercises with comments such as ‘a prerequisite to become aware of intuitions’ (HT), which is helpful for ‘preventive actions’ (PT), and ‘for

Figure 5.4. Distribution of all relevant text fragments (%)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Unanticipated findings

co3 - positive pupil-pupil interactionsco2 - positive teacher-pupil interactions

co1 - attention to harmonyCO - Classroom Outcomes

ipa4 - creative actionsipa3 - e�ortless actionsipa2 - confident actions

ipa1 - appropriate/ timely actionsIPA - Immediate Pedagogical Actions

ip4 - withholding judgmentip3 - perspective-taking

ip2 - regulating emotionsip1 - attending to emergent insights

IP - Information Processing

ba5 - awareness of intuitive signalsba4 - awareness of a�ective signals

ba3 - awareness of cognitive signalsba2 - awareness of external signals

ba1 - being in the momentBA - Balanced Awareness

Participants Colleagues

17.4%

22.8%

19.1%

22.7%

18,0%

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sensing what happens in groups’ (HT). Four colleagues confirmed this growth, for instance: ‘You are more present’ (PT team leader). Awareness of external signals (ba2) was mentioned the least; one participant (HT) even stated, ‘I do not recognize this as part of the PD program’. Still, four participants shared to have become more aware of thoughts’ (ba3). Two of them described becoming more aware of their negative thoughts, and one participant noted that ‘I now have fewer thoughts’ (PT). Six participants, confirmed by two colleagues, said they had become more aware of their emotions (ba4). Two participants added that they interpret their emotions differently, for example: ‘I see emotions now as a signal that there is something left with me or the other’ (HT). Nine participants referred to increased awareness of intuitive signals (ba5), which was particularly instigated by embodied exercises; for example: ‘My antennas are more sensitive’ (HT). The other three participants said that the PD program acknowledged their intuition, for example ‘I dare to share my intuitions more’ (PT). Five colleagues did recognize their participant’s growth, as indicated with statements such as ‘She uses her intuition more to react to what emerges in class’ (ST fellow teacher). Two colleagues attested that participants had also learned to distinguish between emotions and intuitions, for example: ‘You learned to trust intuition more, you now know when your head takes over’ (HT team leader). However, four colleagues expressed that it is difficult to observe the inner processes corresponding to these elements.

Information processingAll elements of information processing were mentioned in both phases of the dyadic interviews. In relation to attending to emergent insights (ip1), five participants commented on increased trust in acting upon intuitions, for example: ‘I express “my second reality” more, I tended to neglect these signals’ (HT). Two colleagues affirmed this growth, for example: ‘I sense that you trust your inner wisdom more’ (PT teacher coach). Regarding regulating emotions (ip2), nine participants and five colleagues perceived growth, for example: ‘In difficult situations, it is easier to switch between my emotions’ (ST). Four participants reported that, due to the embodied exercises in combination with the theoretical input, they are ‘less overwhelmed by my feelings in class’ (PT). Two colleagues also noticed this development, for example: ‘Instead of anger, there is energy to search for solutions’ (HT team leader). For two other colleagues, this element was about showing more emotions, for example: ‘You take off your mask more often’ (HT fellow teacher). Five participants shared development related to perspective-taking (ip3), which was also mainly prompted through the embodied exercises combined with the theoretical input; for example: ‘I am better able to sense what pupils feel, which helps me to know what to do’ (PT). This was confirmed by their colleagues, for example: ‘taking the perspective of your students led to positive change in your

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class’ (ST fellow teacher). For two other participants the PD program has led to balance between the perspective of others and themselves, which colleagues confirmed, for example: ‘Before, you would gone along with the perspective of others’ (PT team leader). Interestingly, more colleagues (9) than participants (7) described growth on withholding judgment (ip4), for example: ‘you make the best of it by accepting things as they are instead of fighting against the school system’ (ST team coach). For two participants, withholding judgment also regarded their perception of themselves, for example: ‘I acknowledge my own actions more, which gives me inner peace and trust’ (HT). The team leaders of three participants expressed difficulty observing growth on this set of elements.

Immediate pedagogical actionsThe respondents referred to the elements of immediate pedagogical actions in both phases of the dyadic interviews. In relation to timely and appropriate actions (ipa1), six participants and five colleagues perceived development. For three HTs this was manifested in expressing emerging intuitions, which they had practiced in the embodied exercises; for example: ‘I just expressed that I sensed that something was wrong, which helped the student to share her story’, or ‘I just started asking questions, I still don’t know where they came from’. Three other participants noted that they felt better able to act upon complex classroom situations, for example: ‘I “know” at the right time what my group needs’ (PT). Another PT mentioned: ‘I notice that I’m less verbal now, small nonverbal gestures are enough’. Her team leader added that ‘I notice that her classroom actions have become more preventive instead of reactive’. Three participants said that becoming aware of internal signals helps them to let their lessons emerge in relation to what happens in the classroom, for example: ‘I take a step back, I sense, and then I react’ (HT). According to these participants, as well as a PT team leader, this supports attending to pupils’ autonomy. For instance, one of them said: ‘I grant students their independence and let them solve problems themselves’ (HT). For two participants acting appropriately meant also doing nothing, for example: ‘I sensed he didn’t mean any harm, and just let it go’ (ST). In relation to confident actions (ipa2), eight participants described increased self-confidence: ‘from confident in the eyes of others to confident in my own eyes’ (PT). Four colleagues reported participants’ increased confidence as well, and two colleagues even perceived participants’ increased confidence although the participants did not note this themselves. Six participants and four colleagues noticed growth regarding effortless actions (ipa3), for example ‘Solutions for unforeseen situations emerge more naturally’ (ST). Another participant mentioned: ‘I can’t pinpoint what I do, but somehow I am more clear’. Her team leader recognized this, and added: ‘The children know better what you expect of them’. Two participants related this to

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their increased self-confidence and another participant reported that ‘processes are more effortless when I express my intuitions’ (HT). The element creative actions (ipa4) was also often related to other elements and mentioned by four participants and four colleagues: ‘I’m more creative because I’m able to let my teaching emerge’ (HT), or ‘I am more creative when I listen to my intuition’ (PT). Three colleagues reported development on this element, even though their paired participants themselves did not mention it.

Classroom outcomesIn relation to classroom outcomes, the respondents referred to all elements in all phases of the dyadic interviews, although positive pupil-pupil interaction was mentioned only a few times in phase 1. Regarding attention to harmony (co1), eight participants and seven colleagues reported positive developments in classrooms, for example: ‘You act when you sense disharmony in your class; before, you tended to turn your back towards it’ (ST fellow teacher). Five participants shared that, due to the theoretical input, they ‘now emphasize more that harmony in the classroom is the responsibility of the whole class’ (HT). For two participants, attention to harmony also shows in taking better care of themselves, which their colleagues confirmed: ‘You worked hard to please the students, which for me isn’t real harmony’ (HT team leader). Positive teacher-pupil interaction (co2) was referred to by seven participants and five colleagues, for example: ‘The relationship with my pupils is stronger now’ (PT). For three participants, this element manifested in granting pupils their authenticity, for example: ‘I give them more space to be who they are’ (PT). And for two other participants this manifested in paying attention to all pupils, for example: ‘I “see” all pupils now; before, I often forgot the silent ones’ (ST). The PT principal shared that ‘I see that you have fewer struggles with certain pupils’. Regarding positive pupil-pupil interactions (co3), five participants and seven colleagues described growth. Two participants and their colleagues noted fewer conflicts in their classes, for example: ‘My group has become a real group, they stand up for each other’ (ST), or ‘I never see any chaos any more, which I saw rather often before’ (ST fellow teacher).

Unanticipated outcomesBesides effects related to our operationalization of intuitive pedagogical tact, the respondents also revealed outcomes beyond the classroom: ‘The program also influenced my relation with my colleagues and my private life’ (ST). As mentioned before, 18% of the relevant text fragments were related to school, team or private situations outside the classroom. It is noteworthy that 43% of these fragments were related to improved interactions between the participating teachers and other school team members. For example, the PT principal described that ‘she is

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now better able to take her colleagues’ perspective, instead of trying to change them’. And a participant mentioned: ‘Instead of trying to solve things myself, I asked my team leader for help’ (HT). Four participants mentioned that the PD program had impacted them a lot, for example: ‘The program led to unexpectedly much development’ (PT). Four participants even experienced the PD program as life changing, for example: ‘I didn’t like myself anymore, a lot has changed within a year’ (PT). Finally, one participant mentioned that ‘the effects are lasting’ (HT), while five other participants acknowledged that they wanted to continue learning; for example, ‘I’m not there yet’ (PT). All respondents except one HT team leader reported personal development by the participants, which seemed particularly instigated through the combination of embodied exercises with theory on the behavior of social systems. It was assumed by both participants and colleagues that this personal development had a positive influence on the participants’ classroom performance. Table 6 presents an overview of the themes that emerged from the data in relation to participants’ personal development.

Key findingsThis study set out to investigate, respectively quantitatively and qualitatively, the perceived presence and nature of effects of a PD program for enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact, a notion which was operationalized in four stages: balanced awareness, information processing, immediate pedagogical actions, and classroom outcomes (see Figure 1). All participants completed questionnaires, and 12 dyadic interviews were conducted with participants and their colleagues for triangulation purposes. On average, the participants perceived their pedagogical tact to have increased; the questionnaire data show that, overall, the effect size is large to very large. Within that, the effect sizes for the stages of balanced

Table 5.6 Emerging personal development themes

Theme Example descriptionsPa

rtic

ipan

ts

men

tioni

ng

this

them

e

Col

leag

ues

men

tioni

ng

this

them

eSetting limitsTranquilitySelf-awarenessTrustFocusAuthenticitySupport

Taking care of myself, not taking over responsibilityEase, more relaxedness; inner peaceUnderstanding myselfIn myself; in others; in the processMaking choices; being more clearDaring to be yourselfAsking for help; sounding the alarm bells earlier

11107

10653

7 654642

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awareness and information processing are large to very large. Regarding balanced awareness, the PD program seemed to particularly increase or confirm participants’ awareness of intuitive signals through being in the moment, which is considered a prerequisite to become aware of intuitive signals. Participants’ awareness of these signals seemed intertwined with awareness of cognitive or affective signals. Still, participants perceived that they became more aware of their intuitions, thoughts and emotions due to the PD program. Regarding information processing, the PD program seemed to particularly enhance regulating emotions and withholding judgment. Some participants perceived themselves to be less overwhelmed by emotions, while others started showing their emotions more. Withholding judgment mostly pertained to judging others, but some also related this to themselves. Interestingly, colleagues perceived more growth on withholding judgment than participants did themselves. Further, participants attended more to emerging signals due to increased trust in their intuition, and seemed better able to take their pupils’ perspective or to trust their own perspectives. As expected, increasing teachers’ balanced awareness and information processing seemed to support immediate pedagogical actions and positive classroom outcomes. The effect size for the stage immediate pedagogical actions is large, and for classroom outcomes medium. Regarding teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions, participants particularly perceived development in their timely and appropriate actions, as well as confident actions. Colleagues interviewed also mentioned growth regarding effortless and creative actions, which was interesting since participants reported this less on the questionnaires. Regarding the classroom outcomes, participants and colleagues perceived positive development in teachers’ attention to harmony and their interactions with pupils. Participants tended to attend to pupils’ autonomy more, and to share the responsibility for harmony with the pupils more than previously, and they perceived less struggle with pupils. They mentioned the impact on interactions between pupils less often, although participants and colleagues did perceive a decrease in classroom conflicts. Finally, though not intended or prompted, the participants reported that the PD program also yielded outcomes beyond the classroom. Participants and their colleagues described personal development, particularly related to themes such as setting limits, tranquility, self-awareness, trust, focus, authenticity, and accepting support.

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Discussion

Reflection on the findingsAlthough this study is among the first attempts to investigate the effects of enhancing teachers’ conscious use of intuition and thereby improving their pedagogical tact, the results are in line with the literature. First, our quantitative results confirm that it is possible to consciously enhance the use of intuition, including forms of intuition beyond prior knowledge and experiences (Tomasino, 2011). Second, the qualitative data showed that being in the moment was experienced as a prerequisite for becoming aware of intuitive signals, as is recommended in literature (e.g., Dane, 2011). Third, both the quantitative and qualitative data showed that enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact appears to positively influence the relationship between teachers and pupils, which supports that pedagogical tact is a relational phenomenon (Friesen & Osguthorpe, 2018). Fourth, our research indicates that enhancing awareness of intuitions positively influences classroom, which aligns with other findings that enhancing one’s intuitive capacities can lead to more effective communication, smooth social interactions, and positive relations (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). Further, while comparison of the quantitative and qualitative data confirmed findings for most stages, it does appear that refinements to the classroom outcomes stage are warranted. Namely, the qualitative data suggest that we may have missed important classroom outcomes, not included in our operationaliza-tion of intuitive pedagogical tact. Three areas bear mention in this regard. Interestingly, each one relates directly to a core aspect of self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). First, the qualitative data indicated that teachers as well as their colleagues perceived better relationships with their pupils, which is broader than our initial operationalization (interactions) and, we now think, more suitable. Second, teachers tended to respect their pupils’ autonomy more as a result of the PD program. This element should be added to the anticipated classroom outcomes. Third, we realized that we did not give explicit attention to learning outcomes, despite the fact that this is a hallmark of effective professional development (Timperley et al., 2007). We therefore recommend devoting attention to it during the PD program, for example through facilitator prompts to do so during the check-in and/or check-out. Based on the findings, it seems reasonable to submit that practitioners could benefit from paying attention to intuition for enhancing teachers’ pedagogical tact. The results of this study indicate that the basic routine for PD sessions that was presented in Figure 3 can be helpful for this. While this study focused on a different context (education), it does confirm previous findings that meditative exercises can enhance one’s use of intuition (Claxton et al., 2011). The effects of embodied

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exercises on one’s awareness of intuitions have not been empirically investigated yet, but our findings suggest that this is a viable approach, as well. Particularly the use of meditative and embodied exercises combined with theory on the behavior of social systems appears to be promising. We recognize that facilitation of the embodied exercises that were used in the PD program, is rather complex and requires thorough training, and hence might not be feasible in some cases. We see no harm and potential benefit from deliberate practice of skills for being in the moment. Given our findings, and the fact that meditative exercises appear to ease the transition into an intuitive state (Tomasino, 2011), and to increase emotional balance, mental clarity (Childre & Rozman, 2002), and teacher ability to manage stress (Le & Alefaio, 2019), we recommend integrating such exercises in teacher education. Furthermore, it is also feasible to provide teachers knowledge on the behavior of social systems. For this purpose, for instance, a system-oriented (van Meersbergen & Jeninga, 2012) and/or biographical approach (Kelchtermans, 2009) can be of use. We recommend stressing the role of community in shaping individuals, as such an approach can offer solutions that support all members of the system (Emberger, 2010). For policy makers, it seems warranted to put the development of intuition for teacher pedagogical tact on the proverbial agenda. Through the unanticipated findings it became clear that the effects of a PD program focusing on intuition for teacher pedagogical tact, also stretch beyond classroom. The PD program seems to positively influence the collaboration between school team members, hence using and/or improving intuition might need to be encouraged within the school organization. For genuinely flourishing intuition it is considered a prerequisite that intuition is valued or cultivated within an organization (Burke & Miller, 1999). The tendency to focus on rationality in education (e.g., Iannello et al., 2011) might negatively influence teachers’ pedagogical tact, because direct instruction to rely on ratio can inhibit intuitive processes (Smerek, 2014). Furthermore, since few studies focus on this topic, policy makers should also encourage researchers to step into the knowledge gap. Particularly our choice to include forms of intuition beyond prior knowledge and experiences was daring, because this intuition form is often dismissed as paranormal phenomena in literature (Dossey, 2015). However, it seems promising to also investigate this form of intuition in relation to teachers’ pedagogical tact.

Limitations While the findings suggest that the PD program yields positive effects, noting the limitations of the study is important for putting the results into perspective. The first limitation is that no control condition was included in the research design. This limits the certainty of being able to attribute effects of the PD program. While the

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mixed methods approach addressed this partially by triangulating instruments and respondents, we recommend adding a control group in future studies. Second, this study relied heavily on self-report. While we consider the questionnaires combined with the dyadic interviews, to have offered a sufficient solution, we also recognize their subjective nature. The use of stimulated recall could increase its reliability (Henderson & Tallman, 2006). Further, objective measures of (growth related to) balanced awareness and information processing might be possible through neuroscientific measurement using unobtrusive ambulatory EEG (Debener et al., 2015) and human observation could provide objective measures of immediate pedagogical action and classroom outcomes. Third, the IPTQ was used for the first time, and, as participants noted, there was still room for improving the instrument. That version of the IPTQ worked for most, but some respondents (n = 10) struggled with the lack of instructions about how to interpret the items for those teaching multiple classes per day, or working mainly with individual pupils instead of groups. Such instructions (e.g., choose the class or learners who are taught most frequently) have since been added, but this does not resolve the limitation in the present data set. Additionally, some participants (n = 3) felt that the 5-point Likert scales were insufficiently nuanced to be able to express the experienced growth. It may be wise to consider using a 7-point Likert scale or rephrasing the most extreme scores (to 1 = nearly always, 5 = almost never). Finally, some participants (n = 3) wished that the instrument captured more aspects of their experienced growth. This could be resolved by adding open-ended items to the closed-ended ones. Fourth, all PD participants joined voluntarily, which may have led to a biased sample. Future research could employ randomized selection to include participants who are not intrinsically motivated to learn about the use of intuition. Similarly, as participants’ colleagues joined the dyadic interviews voluntarily, and they were interviewed together with their participating colleagues. The possibility of bias seems present, since participants may have chosen colleagues who they expected would be positive about them; and colleagues may have hesitated to give critical feedback. We therefore recommend randomized selection from a set of relevant colleagues, and separate interviews alongside dyadic interviews could reduce potential bias in this respondent group. Furthermore, we recommend the use of other existing instruments for commenting on the teaching of others, such as the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (Pianta et al., 2008). Such tools could help capture more objective perceptions of teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact, for example, through watching videotapes or observing in the classroom. Finally, we decided to focus our operationalization of the stage classroom outcomes on the pedagogical climate. Our findings suggest that, as hoped, the PD program had a positive effect on the elements of the stage classroom

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outcomes. However, for future research we recommend also investigating effects on individual learners as well. Research on learner outcomes might, for instance, focus on pupils’ well-being or classroom involvement by using the Leuven Well-being and Involvement Scales (Laevers, 2005).

Closing remarksSeveral scholars have related pedagogical tact to teachers’ intuitive capacities (e.g., Vagle, 2011; van Manen, 2015). However, none of them thoroughly explained or investigated this relationship. By contrast, this study offers a model of teacher pedagogical tact starting from intuition (as shown Figure 1) and a validated questionnaire for measuring key elements of the model. Further, the findings show that a PD program can particularly enhance teachers’ perceived balanced awareness and information processing, which seems to positively affect their immediate pedagogical actions and the classroom outcomes thereof. The mixed methods approach, which supported triangulation and also yielded more refined and elaborate understanding of the nature of the effects of enhancing intuitive awareness, can be of use for investigating the effects of improving intuition for supporting instant action in complex situations in other contexts. Although further investigation in this area is needed, the results of this study suggest promising directions for supporting teachers in the development of their intuitive pedagogical tact.

Conclusion

This chapter is partially based on: Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (under review).Enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition: Conceptual, pragmatic and effectiveness dimensions.

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Abstract

This final chapter provides a synthesis and discussion of the results of the dissertation, which was guided by three research objectives: (1) to better understand the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact, (2) to develop ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact, and (3) to ascertain the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact. First, the research purpose and approach of the dissertation as presented in the first introductory chapter will be revisited, and the key findings of the different studies presented in the previous chapters will be recapitulated. Second, the findings per research objective will be presented and discussed, followed by a brief overview of the limitations of this study. Finally, after recommendations for future research, policy, and practice, the contributions of this study will be discussed.

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Introduction

Revisiting the purpose and approach of the researchAs described in chapter 1, the purpose of this dissertation was to develop knowledge about supporting teachers’ ability to deal considerately and appropriately with complex classroom situations in split seconds, also known as pedagogical tact, through enhancing intuition. Dealing with the complexity of classroom situations is a major challenge, since teaching is not a matter of following recipes or rules (Biesta, 2018). In the literature, teacher pedagogical tact is often related to intuition. This seems plausible, given that intuition can facilitate both sensing what is happening in classes (Kennedy, 2002), and in-the-moment problem solving, decision making and creativity (Dane & Pratt, 2009). However, the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact has not been unpacked through research. Empirical research on enhancing intuition and the effects thereof on teachers’ classroom practice is difficult, if not impossible, to find in the literature. Yet, such knowledge is of the utmost importance for supporting teachers in handling complex classroom situations. Therefore, three research objectives (ROs) were formulated:• RO1: to better understand the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact• RO2: to develop ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact• RO3: to ascertain the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact To address this purpose and these objectives, educational design research (McKenney & Reeves, 2019) was conducted in order to design and investigate a professional development program (PDP) aiming to enhance pedagogical tact through conscious attention to intuition. For this PDP, a systemic-phenomenological approach was used. Systemic approaches can be distinguished from systems thinking. Whereas systems thinking assumes that real social systems exist in the world, systemic thinking supposes that cognition shapes the way in which in social systems outcomes (as experienced) emerge (Flood, 2010). While systems thinking may focus on individual experiences, systemic approaches focus on interpersonal relationships (Dallos & Draper, 2010). Systemic-phenomenological approaches build on the premise that an invisible field of information exists in social systems (Horn & Brick, 2009), which operates influentially yet subtly just below our conscious level of awareness (McCraty & Zayas, 2014). By detecting and reacting to signals of this field, social systems can be investigated through the direct experience of sensations, reflections, and intuitions (Thölke et al., 2013), for instance through meditative and/or embodied exercises. Since people often fail to attend to intuitions (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010), literature endorses concentrative and/or meditative exercises for improving awareness of intuitions (e.g., Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2007). Embodied exercises also seem promising for enhancing one’s use

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of intuition, because in these exercises people intuitively perceive thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and/or intentions that are related to the person/ element that they are embodying. The present research consists of four sub-studies (A, B, C and D; see Figure 1.1 for an overview of the relationship between the research objectives and the sub-studies). Sub-studies A, B and C contributed to conceptual clarification of intuition’s role in teacher pedagogical tact (RO1). Further, sub-studies B and C also developed pragmatic ways to enhance teacher pedagogical tact through conscious attention to intuition (RO2). Sub-studies B, C and D investigated the effects thereof on teacher pedagogical tact (RO3). This chapter begins by briefly summarizing key findings of the sub-studies that are described in the previous chapters. Next, for each research objective, a synthesis of findings across sub-studies is given, along with a discussion in light of the existing literature. This is followed by overall limitations, as well as recommendations for policy, practice, and future research. The chapter closes with considerations regarding the significance, the contribution, and the wider implications of this dissertation.

Key findings

Overview per sub-studySub-study A aimed to investigate how educational professionals in primary education perceive and give meaning to the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact. Qualitative data were gathered in 10 focus group discussions with primary education stakeholders (n = 55). After a member-check, the reports per focus group were compared, whereby themes emerged from the data. Although different conceptual interpretations of intuition seemed to have been used, the (increasing) importance of intuitive qualities for dealing with the complexity of classroom situations was confirmed. Respondents noted a lack of interventions for developing teachers’ intuitive capacities and felt that this should be prioritized. This sub-study provided a clear signal that attention to this area is needed, both conceptually and pragmatically. Sub-study B constituted an initial exploration of teachers’ awareness of intuition in relation to its effects on classroom practice. Through intake questionnaires and reflection logs, qualitative data were gathered from two groups of in-service teachers in primary education (n = 17), while they participated in a PDP for improving their awareness of intuitions through meditative and embodied exercises. From a conceptual standpoint, the results showed that teachers’ awareness of intuitions appeared to include preparing for, sensing, and considering intuitive signals. From

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a pragmatic standpoint, the results indicated that the PDP exercises enabled participants to perceive increased awareness of intuitions, which yielded positive effects on individual pupils, groups of pupils, and on themselves. These findings offered both practical and conceptual inputs for the development of a PDP focusing on intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. Sub-study C further investigated practices for enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through conscious attention to intuition. In this study, the meditative and embodied exercises of sub-study B were embedded within a routine consisting of the phases of check-in, meditative exercise, theory, embodied exercise (including reflection), and check-out. In eight groups, 64 pre-service and in-service teachers in primary, secondary, and higher education joined a systemic-phenomenological PDP to improve awareness of intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. Qualitative data were gathered in two phases through participant reflection logs and PDP group discussions. Phase 1 focused on how certain practices instigate envisioned learning processes during PDP sessions, whereas phase 2 investigated the outputs and outcomes of these processes after the sessions. Meditative exercises in combination with embodied exercises seemed to increase teachers’ awareness of intuitions and individual awareness. This was perceived to positively influence teachers’ handling of complex classroom situations, which, in turn, yielded positive effects on the classroom. This sub-study provides practical recommendations for enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition. Sub-study D investigated the presence and nature of effects of the PDP (featuring meditative and embodied exercises) focusing on enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through conscious attention to intuition that was developed in sub-study C. In eight PDP groups, pre-service and in-service teachers in primary, secondary, and higher education (n = 61) participated voluntarily. After the PDP, participants completed the Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire, and, additionally, 12 in-service teachers joined in-depth dyadic interviews together with colleagues who could describe participants’ growth due to the PDP. The PD program seemed to particularly enhance teachers’ perceived balanced awareness and information processing, which appeared to positively influence teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions and the classroom outcomes of those actions. This sub-study showed that it is promising to support teachers in the development of their pedagogical tact through intuition.

RO1: The role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact Findings related to RO1Each study contributed to RO1, which was to better understand the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact. The educational stakeholders in sub-study A acknowledged the importance of intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. They

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indicated that intuition can help teachers to sense pupils’ needs, engage with pupils more easily and effortlessly, act immediately and effortlessly, and prevent conflicts. Local and nonlocal forms of intuition seem to be part of teacher pedagogical tact, because educational stakeholders referred to these forms of intuition in the focus group discussions. The stakeholders roughly identified three teacher groups; those who come to use their intuition; those who have difficulties getting in touch with their intuition; and still others who are struggling to regulate their intuitions. Whereas sub-study A inventoried educator views on the role of intuition for pedagogical tact, sub-studies B and C, plus, unexpectedly, sub-study D, helped to clarify intuition’s role in teacher pedagogical tact based on experiences during and after the PDP. Taken together, they suggest that teacher intuitive pedagogical tact consists of four stages: (1) balanced awareness, (2) information processing, (3) immediate pedagogical actions, and (4) classroom outcomes. As described next and visualized thereafter, the first two stages relate to teacher awareness of intuitions while the second two stages pertain to classroom impact. First, teacher awareness of intuitions requires a balanced awareness that facilitates information processing. In sub-studies B, C, and D, balanced awareness was described by participants as being in the moment to become aware of rational, affective, and intuitive signals. In the information-processing stage, since these signals appeared to be intertwined, they needed to be distinguished for attending to the emergent insights. Sub-studies B and C showed that it is important to withhold judgment to prevent biased intuitive processing, while sub-study D pointed to the importance of regulating one’s personal emotions and taking other (pupils’) perspectives to be able to act in service of pupils’ needs. Second, immediate pedagogical actions yield classroom outcomes; together, these stages constitute classroom impact. Sub-studies B and C broadly explored teachers’ pedagogical actions, which can be none or overt (immediate or planned). For focusing on the immediate actions, the operationalization of teacher intuitive pedagogical tact in sub-study D distinguished elements that were derived from the intuition literature: timely/appropriate, confident, effortless, and creative actions. Further, sub-study B found that the immediate pedagogical actions yielded effects on individual pupils, groups, and teachers themselves. Meanwhile, the findings of sub-study C showed that these actions can positively impact relationships with and the autonomy of pupils, as well as leading to classrooms running more smoothly and with less problem behavior (balanced interactions). Since these effects appeared to be related to the pedagogical climate, sub-study D sought further inspiration in the Climate Scale (Donkers et al., 2009), and attention to harmony was found to be important.

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Figure 6.1 provides a synthesis of the elements per stage of the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact that were found in the sub-studies. Teacher awareness of intuitions, the focus of the PDP (comprised of balanced awareness and information processing) is distinguished from classroom impact (immediate pedagogical actions and classroom outcomes). For each stage, key elements are identified (rectangles). The overall conceptualization is visualized as an iterative process.

Discussion of the findings related to RO1This research showed the importance of intuition for teachers’ pedagogical tact. Despite research showing that intuition can be more accurate than rationality in complex situations (Pretz, 2011), education seems to primarily focus on rationality (e.g., Anthony, 2006), which can inhibit teachers’ use of intuition (Smerek, 2014) and, as a result, their pedagogical tact. Therefore, this research endorses the plea to investigate the role of intuition in education (e.g., Iannello et al., 2011). While research that investigates the role of intuition in education has mainly focused on local forms of intuition, our research shows that it is promising to research the role of nonlocal forms of intuition for teacher abilities for handling of complex classroom situations.

Figure 6.1. Elements per stage of the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact

• No actions• Timely/appropriate actions• Confident actions• Eortless actions• Creative actions

• Attention to harmony• Positive teacher-pupil

interactions• Positive pupil-pupil interactions• Attending to pupils’ autonomy

• Distinguishing signals• Withholding judgment• Regulating emotions• Perspective taking• Attending to emergent insights

• Being in the moment• Awareness of rational signals• Awareness of aective signals• Awareness of intuitive signals

1. Balanced awareness

2. Information processing

3. Immediate pedagogical actions

4. Classroom outcomes


Classroom impact

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Then, sub-studies A and B showed that there are differences in teacher abilities for tuning into intuition (cognitively oriented, overly sensitive, naturally intuitive), which refines research that suggests that people often struggle to attend to their gut feelings (Hofmann & Wilson, 2010). However, the question arises as to whether the three types indicate the degree to which participants are bothered by their sensitivity (or lack thereof). In education, intuitive competencies are often not emphasized (Valle, 2017), and therefore people are not used to relying on intuition. It can be that cognitively oriented people have taught themselves to master their intuitive signals with rationality, whereas overly sensitive people might lack mechanisms for managing intuitive signals (e.g., emotional self-regulation). Still, the results suggest that all (future) teachers – whether they describe themselves as more cognitively oriented, naturally intuitive, or overly sensitive – can benefit from intentionally improving their awareness of intuitions. Finally, another important moral question that this research raises regarding the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact concerns what can be perceived as ‘acting appropriately’ or ‘doing the right thing’. Given that contemporary education inherently involves individual and community connections, it seems fitting to consider what it means to ‘do the right thing’ from a communitarian point of view. Communitarians (e.g., Taylor or MacIntyre) stress the role of community in shaping and defining individuals, which is in line with the systemic approach that was used, in part because such an approach can offer solutions that support all members of the system (Emberger, 2010). The findings of this study suggest that a systemic- phenomenological approach supports not only taking pupils’ perspective, but also reflecting on teachers’ own behavior patterns. In particular, this combination seems to support a communitarian point of view of ‘doing the right thing’. This requires discipline for remaining open in perception with as little interference as possible from influencing factors such as judgments, fears, survival strategies, or old conditionings (Thölke, 2021). Indeed, people have to develop themselves in order to meet the other (Buber, 2006).

RO2: Ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tactFindings related to RO2Studies B, C, and D contributed to RO2, which was to identify ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. Based on the findings from those studies, two key practices and one condition were found to be crucial for instigating teacher awareness of intuitions (as described and visualized above). First, sub-studies B and C showed that meditative exercises prepared participants to become aware of intuitions. On the one hand, such exercises facilitated being in the moment. On the other hand, sub-study B in particular indicated that meditative exercises promoted feeling relaxed. Further, the findings of sub-studies B and C

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suggested that meditative exercises also prepared participants for the embodied exercises. In embodied exercises, participants represented and questioned the behavior patterns of themselves and of others, which contributed to other aspects of teacher awareness of intuitions. The embodied exercises appeared to instigate understanding and sometimes also changing of personal behavior patterns. In sub-studies B and C, participants reported that the combination of embodied exercises and systemic theory prompted not only new perspectives on personal behavior patterns, but also taking other (pupils’) perspectives. In particular, sub-study C indicated that taking pupils’ perspectives through embodied exercises combined with systemic theory supported their ability to sense pupil needs. This combination also helped participants to withhold judgment. Further, embodied exercises helped participants in sensing rational, affective and – in particular – intuitive signals. The intuitive signals included nonlocal intuitions, as the PDP participants of sub-studies B and C also sensed things that were not present. Both sub-study B and sub-study C suggested that the embodied exercises supported learning to distinguish between rational, emotional and intuitive signals. Additionally, sub-study D showed that the ability to regulate emotions is an important aspect of this essential learning process. Finally, the findings of sub-studies B and C indicated that the embodied exercises also stimulated participants to attend to emergent insights – something that they practiced and learned to trust during these exercises. Both the meditative and embodied exercises require a safe learning environment. Sub-studies B and C showed that the PDP sessions were experienced as emotional, in particular in relation to reflecting on one’s personal behavior patterns. Further, it turned out that for many participants, it was new to become aware of (particularly nonlocal) intuitive signals that emerged in the embodied exercises. Participants reported experiencing a paradigm shift. In particular, the PDP participants who had (initially) described themselves as cognitively oriented struggled with this shift in worldview, but they also stated that the exercises became natural over time. Figure 6.2 offers a visual synthesis of what was learned about how to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact. It represents elements of the safe learning environment that were reported to be necessary for enactment of the meditative and embodied exercises, as well as how these contribute to (elements of) teacher awareness of intuitions. Furthermore, Appendix B offers practical guidelines for execution of each element by teacher educators who are interested in supporting such processes.

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Discussion of the findings related to RO2 The above-mentioned results confirm previous findings from literature. First, the findings of this study suggest that shifting to intuition can be supported through meditative exercises. The exercises did sensitize participants’ awareness of rational, affective and intuitive signals, which hence can support awareness of intuitions, as the literature suggests (e.g., Anthony, 2006; Claxton et al., 2011). Participants indicated that these exercises helped their sense of being in the moment, which is said to be necessary for teacher pedagogical tact (Bors & Stevens, 2013). Research has shown that being in the moment supports intuitive instances that originate from such an engagement (Teerikangas & Välikangas, 2014). Further, as has been previously shown (Claxton et al., 2011), participants in this study experienced being more sensitive in a relaxed state of mind. This is in line with research that shows that a positive emotional state can enhance intuitive processing (Epstein, 2011), and the accuracy of intuitive judgments (Subramaniam et al., 2009). This study indicates that practicing meditation outside of the classroom can enhance teachers’ use of intuitive pedagogical tact in the classroom, which is in line with literature suggesting that frequent practice of meditation eases the transition into an intuitive state (Tomasino, 2011). Second, the findings of this study support the stance that systemic theory, particularly when combined with embodied exercises, can enhance awareness of intuitions for teacher pedagogical tact through understanding and sometimes also changing personal behavior patterns, taking pupils’ perspectives, and withholding judgment. Teachers’ (irrational) beliefs have been shown to mediate stress (e.g., Popov & Popov, 2015), psychological hardiness, emotional intelligence (Khaledian et al., 2016) and teacher self-efficacy (e.g., Klassen & Chiu, 2010), and this study (especially sub-study C) confirms that reflection on personal behavior patterns and beliefs can positively influence teacher classroom performance. Sub-studies B, C, and D indicated that the PDP participants gained new perspectives on the behavior of both themselves and their pupils. This confirms existing scholarship suggesting that systemic theory can offer new viewpoints on as well as increased levels of respect for social systems (Emberger, 2010). For example, in sub-study B, the PDP participants reported positive development related to their own state of being or how they perceived their role in supporting pupil development due to the PDP, which can diminish the negative influences that emotions such as fears, prejudices and wishful thinking (Sadler-Smith, 2010) can have on local intuitions. In addition, in sub-study C, the participants reported an increased understanding of their pupils’ perspective, which can help teachers to feel empathy for pupils and to make decisions that serve their pupils’ needs (Schwartz & Sharpe, 2010).

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Third, this study’s findings also indicate that embodied exercises can enhance teachers’ use of intuition by sensitizing their awareness of intuitions. The findings of this study suggest that through these phenomenological practices, participants become more aware of rational, affective and intuitive signals, but particularly of nonlocal intuitive signals. In the literature, this form of intuition has been dismissed as ‘paranormal’, although increasing empirical evidence shows that it exists (Dossey, 2015). This might explain why, at first, many participants were reluctant and/or overwhelmed by experiencing and attending to emerging nonlocal intuitive signals. However, in sub-study C it appeared that the participants did get used to the intuitive experiences rather quickly. Intuitive knowledge is often just below the surface of one’s awareness, and getting into the body can be a way to get in touch with this hidden knowledge (Lipson-Lawrence, 2012). Finally, enhancing teacher awareness of intuition through meditative and embodied exercises in combination with systemic theory appeared to require a safe learning environment for reflecting on one’s personal behavior patterns and going through a paradigm shift. In sub-study C, participants commented on both the emotional processes that were instigated by reflecting on their personal behavior patterns, and the internal struggle to integrate (particularly nonlocal) intuition in their daily life. Further, the findings of sub-study C showed that it is important for participants’ self-leadership to be emphasized, and that having two facilitators for a small group can help to create a safe, anxiety-free atmosphere (Kennedy, 2002), as is needed for developing one’s intuition.

RO3: The effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tactFindings related to RO3The findings of this study show that the PDP participants perceived effects on their intuitive abilities for appropriate handling of complex classroom situations. These effects are related to four main stages of teacher intuitive pedagogical tact: balanced awareness (1) facilitates information processing (2), which influences teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions (3), and in turn, shapes the classroom outcomes (4). Sub-studies B, C, and D investigated the effects of the PDP in differing ways (logbooks, questionnaires, and interviews), which poses a challenge for synthesizing the results. However, one unit of analysis was consistently present for each data source and in relation to the elements of intuitive pedagogical tact, namely, the percentage of participants reporting effects. Described next and detailed in Table 6.1, these percentages form the basis of the synthesis presented here. A note on terms in this section: “several participants” refers to effects reported by more than one participant up to and including a quarter of the participants; “some” indicates that effects were experienced by 26% to 50% of the respondents; and “most” is used to describe cases in which more than half of the participants experienced the effects.

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Tabl

e 6.

1 Pe

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tage

s of

par

ticip

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pos

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P

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Mea

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Bala

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4150

6450

3348

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g aw

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of ra

tiona

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nals

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825

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of a

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7250

5057

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ls10

010

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7542

78

Info

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5341

47%

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otio

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7542

54

Pers

pect

ive

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5858

54

With

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ing

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t53

1857

58%

7552

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g to

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nt in

sigh

ts71

7442

%17

51

Classroom impact

Imm

edia

te

peda

gogi

cal

actio

ns

No

actio

n6

6

Tim

ely/

appr

opria

te a

ctio

n65

8662

50%

4261

Con

fiden

t act

ion

5267

5056

Effor

tless

act

ion

3450

3339

Cre

ativ

e ac

tion

3133

3332

Cla

ssro

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outc

omes

Atte

ndin

g to

pup

ils’ a

uton

omy

1717

Atte

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mon

y29

6758

51

Posi

tive

teac

her-p

upil

inte

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ions

4729

3458

4242

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ns34

4258

45

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mpt

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50%

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bla

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sho

w 5

1-100

%

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The PDP for enhancing teacher pedagogical tact directly targeted awareness of intuitions. In regard to the first stage, balanced awareness, most participants reported becoming (more) aware of intuitive signals, and it was also common for them to have become more aware of affective signals. It seems plausible that this increased awareness was related to being in the moment, since that was also noted by at least a third of the participants in each study. While participants did report increases in being aware of rational signals, these effects occurred to a lesser extent. Regarding the second stage, information processing, the PDP approach seems to have had the most impact on withholding judgment and perspective taking, since the majority of participants mentioned this in multiple sub-studies. Although to a lesser extent, the PDP also seems to have yielded effects for participants in terms of distinguishing signals, regulating emotions, and attending to emergent insights. The effects on teacher awareness of intuitions appeared to yield effects on teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions, which, in turn, seemed to positively influence the classroom outcomes. Regarding the stage of immediate pedagogical actions, most participants reported positive development of their timely/appropriate and confident actions, while some participants also mentioned having perceived positive growth in their effortless and creative actions; only a few referred to taking no actions. Regarding the stage of classroom outcomes, the table shows that most participants perceived positive development of teachers’ attention to harmony. In addition, some participants reported positive effects on interactions between both the teachers and their pupils and among the pupils themselves, and several mentioned positive growth regarding attending to pupils’ autonomy. Table 6.1 provides the percentages of participants reporting effects per sub- study of enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition. Columns B and C indicate the percentages of participants who described positive development on the elements of each stage in their reflection logs in sub-studies B (n = 17) and C (n = 64). Column D-Q (n = 61) refers to the percentages of participants in sub-study D who perceived growth on the stage elements as shown in the Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire. Columns D-P and D-C show the respective percentages of the participants in sub-study D (n = 12) and their colleagues (n = 12), respectively, who reported positive development of participants during the dyadic interviews. The column on the far right gives the mean of the other five columns. In addition to the positive effects shown in Table 6.1, several participants in sub-study D (in the questionnaires and dyadic interviews) reported decreased awareness of rational signals. When they were asked about this in the dyadic interviews, it appeared that having fewer thoughts supports being (remaining) in the moment. Further, two side effects bear mentioning. On the one hand, the data

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from sub-study B showed that 82% of the participants also reported planned (overt) actions due to the PDP, such as paying attention to pupils’ emotional life or doing exercises with pupils that are in line with the PDP approach (e.g., meditating). On the other hand, the systemic-phenomenological approach appears to enhance participants’ individual awareness, which seemed to support teachers’ classroom performance as well. Due to the combination of systemic theory and the embodied exercises, no less than 91% and 82% of the PDP participants started questioning the behavior patterns of themselves and others, respectively. From the reflection logs of sub-study C, in particular, it appears that this positively influenced participants’ well-being and professional self.

Discussion of the findings related to RO3 Effects data from sub-studies B, C, and D support the assumption underlying this study that enhancing intuitive awareness can serve teacher pedagogical tact. With regard to the aspect directly targeted by the PDP, teacher awareness of intuitions (balanced awareness and information processing), participants reported that the PDP was effective. This is in line with the literature that was used to help shape the PDP (e.g., Burke & Sadler-Smith, 2011; Emberger, 2010; Thölke, 2007). Moreover, the data reveal modest, but clear impact in the classroom (immediate pedagogical actions and classroom outcomes). This provides new evidence to support claims about the role of intuition in pedagogical tact – most of which have, until now, been based on theory rather than empirical data (e.g., Bors & Stevens, 2013; Vagle, 2011; van Manen, 2015). In particular, respondents reported increased attention to harmony and positive interactions in the classroom, which confirms previous findings that enhancing one’s intuitive capacities can lead to more effective communication, smooth social interactions, and positive relations (e.g., McCraty & Zayas, 2014). Further, both participants and their colleagues in sub-study D mentioned a decrease in pupils’ behavioral problems, which is in line with literature suggesting that teachers are important actors for preventing behavioral problems (Goei & Kleijnen, 2009).

Reflections

Limitations of the study The findings of the study should be considered in light of its limitations. Because limitations of each sub-study were already addressed in the chapters reporting them, this section focuses on issues across the research as a whole. First, given the relatively small number of participants involved in this study, it seems important to recognize that the generalizability of the findings may be limited. Second,

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because three sub-studies (B, C, and D) were based primarily on self-reports from participants who voluntarily participated in the PDP, there is a risk of bias in the data set. Third, as participants sometimes struggled to articulate their experiences, it seems possible that some findings might have been confounded by conceptual confusion. Finally, the author of this dissertation simultaneously took on the roles of facilitator, designer, and researcher. While this approach certainly has affordances, it also poses a potential threat to objectivity (Barab & Squire, 2004). Although measures were taken to mitigate these limitations (e.g., triangulation of data sources and respondents to reduce bias; discussing independent analyses of data until consensus was reached), it still seems prudent to acknowledge that these limitations may not have been completely compensated for.

RecommendationsThe limitations of the study notwithstanding, recommendations can be offered for further research, as well as for policy and practice. First, for future research that enriches this study, it makes sense to do so in light of the methodological limitations described above. For example, replicating sub-study D in multiple contexts could explore the generalizability of the findings with regard to effects of the PDP. Further, while triangulation was used in this study, it could be strengthened in subsequent research to further mitigate bias in the data set. For example, perspectives on teacher performance could be extended by including the perspectives of pupils (e.g., by using the Pedagogical Sensitivity Questionnaire for pupils; Diemel, 2019) and/or using (existing) research instruments to be completed by independent observers (e.g., the International Comparative Analysis of Learning and Teaching; Maulana et al., 2014). Similarly, while challenging, it would be useful to (randomly) assign participants to the PDP, to mitigate bias in the sample. Further, in anticipation of the fact that language for capturing intuitive experiences is lacking (Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2004), future research could consider the use of practices specifically attuned to exploring new phenomena, such as phenomenological reduction or epoché (Galagher & Zahavi, 2012). Finally, the use of a quasi-experimental design with a control group is recommended for determining whether the PDP elements are, indeed, ‘active ingredients’ and whether or not effects can be attributed to the PDP. Further, recommendations for future research that extends this line of inquiry can be given. For example, as participants reported a decrease in pupils’ behavioral problems in classroom, it might also be of interest to examine the relation between the PDP, teachers’ development, and the effects on their pupils with problem behavior. Research instruments such as the Teacher Stress Questionnaire (Everaert, 2003) or Achenbach’s (1999) Child Behavior Checklist, Teacher Response Form and Youth Self-Report (for parents, teachers and pupils

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above 11 years old, respectively) can be used for this purpose. In so doing, it would be of interest to investigate teachers’ classroom actions more closely. In sub-studies B and C, the participants particularly described overt actions and some non-actions, but subtle actions (e.g., facial expressions or physical gestures) appeared to have not been registered. Since such actions have been shown to be a key characteristic of effective teachers (Steele, 2010), observing in the classroom or watching classroom videotapes to examine subtle forms of pedagogical tact (resulting from enhanced awareness of intuitions) might be of added value. Furthermore, it is recommended to build on neuroscientific studies, particularly for investigating classroom impact. For instance, the P300 wave is an event-related potential (i.e., measured brain response) that is elicited in the process of decision making, particularly when subjects discriminate and attend to stimuli. Research has shown that cyclic meditation can enhance cognitive processes underlying the generation of the P300 wave (Sarang & Telles, 2006). Pre- and post-measures of the P300 wave while teaching, for example, with unobtrusive ambulatory EEG using a smartphone and flexible printed electrodes around the ear (Debener et al., 2015), could offer new insights into the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher decision making in the classroom. From a practice perspective, both the findings from this study and previous literature (e.g., Anthony, 2006; Valle, 2017) suggest that it would be prudent for teacher educators to consider teachers’ use of intuition in regard to developing their pedagogical tact alongside other (e.g., data-informed) approaches. The key practices and necessary condition for enhancing intuition for teacher pedagogical tact shown in Figure 6.2 provide a basic structure for doing so. Further, for teacher educators interested in supporting such processes, Appendix B unpacks each element represented in Figure 6.2, and provides practical guidelines for execution. In working on this, it is important to recognize that developing (local) intuition within a given domain takes 10 years (Kahneman & Klein, 2009), which could explain why preservice teachers are often considered to be less tactful than experienced teachers (e.g., Gastager et al., 2017). This means that the focus and expectations should be centered on developing productive habits for life-long learning. From a policy perspective, the findings from this study suggest that it could be prudent for policymakers to consider putting teacher use of intuition on the agenda. This study has clearly shown that educational stakeholders value the role that intuition can play in supporting teachers’ pedagogical tact and ultimately, their ability to serve leaners. Yet for use of intuition to flourish, it must be valued and cultivated (Burke & Miller, 1999). The argument made here is not that intuition should replace rationality, because a wealth of research shows the importance of rational decision-making for teaching in general (e.g., Rata, 2017). Some scholars even warn against over-reliance on intuition (e.g., Winch et al., 2015), which seems

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fitting if intuition is used as the sole source of guidance. Rather, along with others (e.g., Dijkstra et al., 2012; Levin & Nolan, 2014), this study suggests the importance of attending to intuition for swift in-the-moment decision-making.

Contribution of the dissertation This study set out to increase insight into the nature and development of teachers’ intuitive abilities to handle complex classroom situations, and to contribute to dialogue on the role of intuition in teaching. This study is scientifically innovative, as it breaks new ground by exploring intuition’s role in teacher pedagogical tact. It has provided an empirically derived conceptualization of the role of intuition in pedagogical tact (Figure 6.1), which is new. In addition, it has yielded a design framework for supporting the development of teacher intuition for pedagogical tact (Figure 6.2), as well as practical guidelines (see Appendix B). It has derived a taxonomy of impacts (of enhancing teacher intuition) on teacher intuitive pedagogical tact (Table 6.1) and, in so doing, operationalized the concept and yielded a reliable questionnaire for measuring self-perceptions of teacher intuitive pedagogical tact (described in Chapter 5 and available in Appendix A). It seems noteworthy that, throughout the course of this study (2014-2020), increased attention to intangible aspects of teaching was observed, which seems to suggest the growing importance of research in this area. Regarding the concept of pedagogical tact, several scholars have attempted to grasp its essence (Middendorp, 2015; van Manen, 2015). Other scholars have also investigated concepts that seem closely related to teacher pedagogical tact during this time frame. For instance, in their dissertations, Wolff (2015) researched teachers’ ‘withitness’ – which is the ability to maintain an ongoing awareness of what is happening in the classroom and the events taking place within it, and Diemel (2019) investigated teacher pedagogical sensitivity. Yet other scholars related pedagogical tact to other concepts, as done by Friesen and Osguthorp (2018), who compared it to the pedagogical triangle that visualizes the relationships between the teacher, the student, and the content. Some scholars also used the concept in their approaches for enhancing practice, such as Nebulizer treatment (Høiseth et al., 2014) or mentoring professional school internships (Gastager et al., 2017). To a lesser extent, scholars related teaching to intuition. For instance, Vanlommel et al. (2017, 2018) found that some teachers hardly use any rationally collected data, while other teachers collect rational and intuitive data for making high-stake decisions, and Valle (2017) investigated teachers’ intuitive interaction competency and how to learn it. It seems that the importance of these teaching aspects, which are often perceived as elusive, is becoming increasingly recognized, and that – albeit in small steps – science is searching for deeper understanding of both these qualities and ways to support their development.

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6

Teaching is an incredibly rewarding and demanding profession, the satisfaction of which is influenced by many factors, including a teacher’s pedagogical tact. Learning to considerately and appropriately handle complex classroom situations in split seconds requires time, motivation, and deliberate practice. This study has made a modest but genuine contribution to understanding how teachers can be supported in enhancing their pedagogical tact through intuition.

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APPENDIX A

Appendix A:Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire(translated from Dutch)

Please, complete the Questionnaire Intuitive Pedagogical Tact below, which is developed to be able to investigate the effect of the PD program. By completing the questionnaire, you contribute to investigating the role of intuition in relation to pedagogical action in the classroom. Completing the questionnaire takes about 15 to 20 minutes, many thanks in advance for your time and energy!

InstructionsThe Questionnaire Intuitive Pedagogical Tact can be completed digitally and consists of five parts (please complete all five). After questions about your personal details, four parts will follow:1. Balanced awareness - 17 items2. Information processing - 15 items3. Immediate pedagogical actions - 14 items4. Classroom outcomes - 8 itemsPlease, indicate how you have perceived your development due to the PD program. Therefore, indicate per item what your score is prior (P) and what your score is after (A) after the program. Each time you can choose from five answer options by ticking the single box of the answer that suits you best: 1 = always, 2 = often, 3 = sometimes, 4 = rarely, 5 = never. Take your current class in mind when you fill in the questionnaire. If you teach several classes, keep in mind the class that requires the most of your pedagogical tact. At the end of the questionnaire a box has been added where you can place any comments. Please, return the completed questionnaire as soon as possible to ‘author.

0. Personal details - Name: - Gender: - Age: - Highest completed education:- Years of experience in education: - School: - Group (for which the questionnaire is completed): - Number of pupils:

162

APPENDIX A

1. Balanced awareness

1 2 3 4 5

1. I experience inner peace when I am working with pupils. P

A

2. I think about my actions in the classroom. P

A

3. I intuitively sense what pupils need of me when I am working with them.

P

A

4. I am aware of what happens in the classroom. P

A

5. I trust what emerges in the moment when I am working with pupils.

P

A

6. When I am working in the classroom, I understand how I feel in the moment.

P

A

7. I trust the intuitions that emerge in me when I am working in the classroom.

P

A

8. I am aware of emotions as soon as they emerge in the classroom.

P

A

9. I take time to notice how I am feeling when I am working with pupils.

P

A

10. I feel confident that I am able to act immediately in unexpected situations in the classroom.

P

A

11. In the classroom, I notice early where my help is needed. P

A

12. I am in contact with my emotions when I am working in the classroom.

P

A

13. I am in the moment when I am working with pupils in the classroom.

P

A

14. I am alert when my gut feeling tells me that something is going on in the classroom

P

A

15. In the classroom, I am aware of what I am thinking. P

A

16. I am aware of my emotions when I am working with pupils. P

A

17. I am alert to signals of pupils who are around me. P

A

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APPENDIX A

2. Information processing

1 2 3 4 5

18. In the classroom, I act upon my feelings and hunches. P

A

19. I am able to regulate my emotions when I am in conflict with pupils.

P

A

20. I take my gut feelings seriously when I am working with pupils. P

A

21. I understand the perspectives of pupils even during conflicts in the classroom.

P

A

22. I accept it when situations that I cannot change occur in the classroom.

P

A

23. I am not overwhelmed by my emotions when I am working with pupils in the classroom.

P

A

24. I can acknowledge pupils’ emotions the moment that they emerge.

P

A

25. I accept the emotions, thoughts, and intuitions that I have during situations in the classroom.

P

A

26. I attend to my intuitions when I am working in the classroom. P

A

27. I can endure the emotions that are related to difficult situations.

P

A

28. I immediately sense what a pupil feels. P

A

29. I follow my heart when I am working with pupils. P

A

30. I react calmly to problems in the classroom. P

A

31. I notice when pupils need my support. P

A

32. I approach pupils without judgment when I am working with them.

P

A

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APPENDIX A

3. Immediate pedagogical actions

1 2 3 4 5

33. I trust my skills when there are problems in the classroom. P

A

34. I act effortlessly when I am working with pupils. P

A

35. I intervene in time when classroom situations demand it. P

A

36. I am resourceful when I have to solve problems in the classroom.

P

A

37. My experience is that my hunches are in line with what the pupils in the class need from me.

P

A

38. By attending to my intuitions, I react appropriately to pupils’ behavior.

P

A

39. I react with ease to situations in the classroom. P

A

40. I react efficiently to difficult situations in the classroom. P

A

41. I have creative ideas for how to react to difficult situations in the classroom.

P

A

42. I deal effortlessly with problems in the classroom. P

A

43. I am flexible in my reactions to difficult situations in the classroom.

P

A

44. I feel confident when I act in situations in the classroom. P

A

45. I am able to come up with solutions for problems in the classroom when this is needed.

P

A

46. I can come up with multiple solutions when there are problems in the classroom.

P

A

165

APPENDIX A

4. Classroom outcomes

1 2 3 4 5

47. I get my pupils to be calm when they need to start working. P

A

48. I see that the pupils in the classroom are able to work together well.

P

A

49. I resolve quarrels in the classroom together with the pupils. P

A

50. I see that none of the pupils in the classroom are excluded. P

A

51. My experience is that the ambiance is relaxed and positive in the classroom.

P

A

52. I resolve conflicts with me or between pupils in the classroom. P

A

53. My experience is that there is mutual respect between the pupils in the classroom.

P

A

54. I ask pupils how they feel when we discuss conflicts. P

A

Remark box

166

APPENDIX B

Appendix B:Practical guidelines for the PDP on Teacher Intuitive Pedagogical Tact

A key contribution of this research is the PDP on Teacher Intuitive Pedagogical Tact. To enable similar programs or replications of the studies reported in this dissertation, it is described here. The first section describes the PDP design, and the second section specifies the PDP enactment.

PDP designPDP participants and activitiesIn six sessions of three hours each, participants are invited to explore their intuitive awareness in both meditative and embodied exercises. The sessions need to take place in a large room with ample space for the embodied exercises. Groups ideally consist of six to 14 participants and (at least) two facilitators. We advise that participants be able to join the PDP voluntarily. As many participants are not familiar with the experiential PDP approach, it is advised to organize an introductory session. In this session the participants can learn about the concept of intuitive pedagogical tact and experience both meditative and embodied exercises. This can help participants to decide whether or not the PDP approach meets their expectations and needs. Participants who decide to join the PDP receive a set of readings on systemic theory in relation to education.

PDP sequence and resourcesEach PDP session follows the same flow, so that participants can become acquainted with the structure of the sessions. The first three PDP sessions each build on the previous session(s) and focus on social systems in the context of education: (1) family, (2) groups: classes/teams, (3) organizations. In session 4, the first three sessions are brought together to explain how persistent problem behavior of pupils can indicate systemic disturbances in one of the systems the pupil lives in. Session 5 aims to transfer what has been learned in sessions 1 to 4 into practice, and session 6 focuses on reflection on participants’ learning process and evaluation of the PDP. The sessions start in a circle. First, the participants are welcomed, are reminded of the ‘golden rules’ (personal leadership, privacy, wrapping up exercises with care), and the structure and focus of the session are explained. Next, the participants check in by stating their name and by sharing how they feel in that moment. The sharing of feelings is a first invitation to get into contact with oneself. A second step inviting participants to get into contact with themselves and their intuition is a guided meditation. All meditations started purposefully with four steppingstones:

167

APPENDIX B

(1) attending to sitting place and posture, (2) deepening breath, (3) becoming aware of external signals, (4) becoming aware of internal signals. By repeating these steppingstones in each PDP session, the participants learn to do this themselves. During the PDP process, the facilitator’s guidance decreases. After the four steppingstones, the facilitators invite the participants to go along in a visualization that opens up the focus of that specific PDP session. After the meditative exercise, in sessions 1 to 4, the facilitator explains systemic principles in relation to the focus of the session. It is recommended to explain these principles on the basis of one’s own experiences. This concretizes the theory, but also opens up the possibility of being vulnerable in the PDP session. In the theoretical part of PDP session 5, the facilitator explains intuitive exercises that can be used in the classroom. In session 6, no theoretical input is provided. The main part of the PDP is used for the embodied exercises, which are in line with the focus and theoretical input of that session. In PDP sessions 1 to 4, participants are invited to phenomenologically investigate in pairs: (1) the system dynamics in their family of origin in relation to dynamics in current systems they live in, (2) the system dynamics in their class(es) in relation to dynamics in their school team, (3) the influence of organizational dynamics on themselves and their class(es), (4) pupils’ problem behavior in relation to systemic disturbances in a systems s/he lives in. In PDP session 5, the participants experiment with exercises that can be used in the classroom. Moreover, educational materials and books in relation to using intuition and/or a systemic approach in education can be explored. In session 6, the participants are invited to ‘walk’ their PDP timeline and/or Dilts’ logical levels to reflect on their learning process in embodied exercises. In case there is time and energy left after these exercises, a participant’s question can be investigated in an embodied exercise with the group. At the end of the PDP sessions. the participants check out. The questions and comments that are raised during the session are discussed, the facilitators look forward to the next session, and the participants share how they are leaving the session. If necessary, the facilitators take time to wrap up the session with individual participants after the session has ended.

PDP enactmentAs with any intervention, not only its design but also the way in which it is enacted affects outcomes. Therefore, this section focuses on enactment. Specifically, this section offers detailed guidelines for realizing the safe learning environment and conducting the exercises described above and in Chapter 6. Figure 6.2 is reproduced here, and the enactment guidelines discuss each main element. It has to be noted that the role of the facilitators is crucial, because they have to model the nonjudgmental, exploratory stance required for enhancing awareness of

168

APPENDIX B

Safe

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169

APPENDIX B

intuitions. Of course, they also have to be able to use their intuitive pedagogical tact in the PDP sessions. A key responsibility is cultivating a safe learning environment, which is described next, followed by information on how to facilitate the meditative and embodied exercises.Necessary condition and key practices for enhancing intuition for teacher pedagogical tact

Safe learning environment- Emphasize personal leadership, privacy, and closure of exercises; repeat these

‘golden rules’ in each PDP session. Personal leadership often requires extra stimulation, as loyalty to the facilitators may encourage participants to do what is expected of them.

- Go first in being exploratory/experimental, ‘it is okay to make mistakes’; although themes that emerge in embodied exercises can be emotional, the basic attitude is ‘light and airy’.

- Form small groups (maximum of 14 participants) with two facilitators; participants join voluntarily in the context of personal leadership.

- Explain the paradigm in the invitation to join the PDP and the first PDP session; for some participants, it helps to substantiate the paradigm with scientific findings.

- Use embodied exercises to let participants experience nonlocal intuitions; take the time to go through the struggle of the paradigm shift with participants; reassure them that this struggle is part of the deal and accept participants’ critical/skeptical comments.

- Reinforce participants positively for attempting to step into the process (exploratory/experimental attitude).

Meditative exercises that support shifting to intuitionBeing in the moment- Use meditative exercises for shifting to intuition, followed by a visualization to

introduce the theme of the PDP session. Soothing music can help participants.- Make use of fixed steppingstones (sitting posture, deepened breath, external

awareness, internal awareness/ body scan) to teach participants to shift to intuition themselves; decrease facilitator guidance, and suggest experimenting with shifting to intuition in advance of teaching a class.

- Acknowledge that for some participants meditative exercises are new and therefore can lead to internal struggles; ‘this becomes easier over the course of the PDP’.

- It helps participants to shift to intuition when facilitators are already shifted to intuition prior to the PDP session.

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Feeling relaxed- Emotions of participants that interfere with engaging in the session always take

precedence over the session content. Offer participants who enter a PDP session laden with worries, emotions, thoughts, and so forth the possibility of not participating in the exercises or even leaving the session (taking personal leadership) if they are not able to park their emotions.

- Shift to intuition by meditative exercises for becoming more relaxed and getting into a positive mood; emphasize that if participants experience restlessness or emotions, that they should accept these feelings instead of trying to get rid of them.

- Mention that for some participants it can take time to get used to meditative exercises and that therefore frustrations and unease can emerge; again, suggest experimenting with shifting to intuition in advance of teaching a class.

Embodied exercises that are supported by systemic theoryUnderstanding or changing personal behavior patterns - Use embodied exercises to let participants investigate/experience their own

role and behavior patterns in social systems (family, class, team, organization); if needed, search for alternative roles and behavior patterns.

- Teach systemic theory (both contextual and intergenerational approaches) to let participants gain knowledge about their own behavior in relation to the social systems they currently live and work in; let them focus on being in service of social systems instead of repeating patterns related to the nuclear system.

- Stimulate awareness of how one’s own behavior is being mirrored by (problem) behavior of others.

Taking pupils’ perspective- Teach systemic theory (both contextual and intergenerational approaches) to let

participants gain knowledge about the behavior of others (pupils/colleagues, class/team, organization).

- Build up the complexity of the theory step by step, as it takes time to fully grasp the complexity of it; ‘in the embodied exercises, the theory becomes tangible’.

- Use embodied exercises to let participants experience pupils’ perspective and to let them investigate how the behavior of others interacts with the systems they live in.

Withholding judgment- Go first in being nonjudgmental and react nonjudgmentally to participants’

expressions of the paradigm shift struggle such as anger or fear; reassure them that this struggle is part of the deal.

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- Emphasize the exploratory character of the PDP, encourage participants to experiment without ‘right or wrong’; when there are judgments, invite the participants to let these go for a while.

- Encourage participants to accept what cannot be changed (it is what it is) in order to focus on what can be changed (‘change starts with you’) if they become aware of judgments towards themselves or others.

- Let participants recognize pupils’ perspective by investigating how the behavior is influenced by both the context as well as the history; ‘pupils’ (problem) behavior can be a mirror for one’s own behavior’, focus on what one has to change oneself.

Embodied exercises that constitute phenomenological practicesSensing rational, affective and intuitive signals- Use embodied exercises for letting participants learn to register subtle intuitive

signals; this can take time to get used to, reassure them that not feeling anything (yet) does not mean one is not intuitive.

- Explain the kind of subtle signals that can emerge in exercises, or sense intuitions together with participants.

- Put emphasis on sharing the intuitive signals that emerge instead of wanting to interpret them; ‘it is up to the exercise buddy to interpret the signals’.

- Model an exploratory attitude / experimental focus for inviting participants to step into the process of receiving intuitive signals.

Distinguishing between rational, affective and intuitive signals - Use embodied exercises for letting participants learn to distinguish between

intuitive and other signals (critical reflection) and to be able to deal with their own emotions and not take over the emotions of others: ‘leaving with others what is theirs and taking what is yours’.

- Teach participants to distinguish between personal emotions that are related to the current situation and emotions of the past (nuclear system) that resonate in the current situation; invite them to accept their own emotions (including negative feelings) as they are.

Regulating emotions- Let participants reflect on personal behavior patterns to find out when they

are overwhelmed by their own feelings such as fears, prejudices and wishful thinking.

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Attending to emergent insights- Acknowledge that at first it feels strange to attend to emerging insights, and

reassure them that our human system gets used to (recognizes) it rather quickly. - If participants get frustrated, explain that it is not easy to integrate (nonlocal)

intuition, as in society, using intuition is often taboo (particularly in the past).- Pave the way for participants by expressing emergent (intuitive) insights and/or

by ‘subtitling’ your own intuitive actions; encourage participants to explore/experiment by sharing their experiences; put the focus on the attempt to attend to what emerges instead of ‘right or wrong’.

- Let participants experience system elements in exercises without their knowing what they are representing, so that they have to rely on emerging (intuitive) insights instead of their own interpretations.

- Invite participants to be critical of the (intuitive) experiences. Take the time to discuss doubts, skepticism, resistance and/or frustrations and react without judgment to these feelings.

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ENGLISH SUMMARY

English summary

IntroductionPedagogical tact is a crucial quality of teachers, because teaching is not a matter of following recipes or rules, since situations in classes can only be partially predicted and controlled. Pedagogical tact concerns the ability to considerately and appropriately handle complex classroom situations in split seconds and is frequently related to intuition; while reasoning takes effort and is slow, intuition processes information quickly and effortlessly. However, the role of intuition in teachers’ pedagogical tact is indistinct, and as a result knowledge on how to enhance teachers’ pedagogical tact through intuition is even more limited. The literature describes local and non-local forms of intuition, which, respectively, build on and extend beyond prior knowledge/experiences. Most approaches for enhancing intuition seem to focus on local intuition, such as screening automated actions or recognizing and countering confirmation bias. Some approaches seem to focus on nonlocal intuition through meditative exercises. In a systemic-phenom-enological approach, in addition to meditative exercises, embodied exercises are used, in which information that is invisibly present in social systems is explored through direct experience. Besides, systemic theory can help to understand the behavior of individuals, groups, and organizations, which can enhance local forms of intuition. While the approaches for enhancing these forms of intuition potentially complement each other, research is needed to develop and test such complementary approaches, particularly in relation to teachers’ pedagogical tact. In literature evidence can be found that enhancing intuition can have positive effects on teachers’ pedagogical tact. For instance, intuition can support in-the-moment problem solving, decision making, and creativity. Besides, intuition can promote effective communication, smooth social interactions, and positive relationships. Scholars hypothesize that (enhancing) intuition can have positive effects on classroom practice, but empirical studies in this area are lacking.

This study focused on investigating the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact with the aim of enhancing pedagogical tact through intuition, which is being referred to as intuitive pedagogical tact. In response to the issues described above, three research objectives (RO) were formulated:- RO1: to better understand the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact- RO2: to develop ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact- RO3: to ascertain the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact

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ENGLISH SUMMARY

Research designGiven the research objectives educational design research was conducted (McKenney & Reeves, 2012, 2019) in the context of primary, secondary, and higher education in the Netherlands. A mixed methods approach was used, although the nature of the research was primarily qualitative. The research consisted of four sub-studies (A, B, C, and D). The project started in sub-study A with an analysis to better understand the current and desired situations. Subsequently, in sub-studies B and C, a professional development program (PDP) aiming to enhance teacher pedagogical tact through intuition was developed, examined, and refined in an iterative process based on formative evaluation. Thereafter, in sub-study D, the effects of the final version of the PDP were investigated in a summative evaluation. Sub-studies A, B, and C contributed to the conceptualization of the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact (RO1). In sub-studies B and C ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact were developed (RO2). Sub-studies B, C, and particularly sub-study D examined the effects hereof on classroom practice (RO3).

ResultsSub-study A aimed to explore how educators give meaning to the role of intuition in relation to teachers’ pedagogical tact. Qualitative data were collected in ten focus group discussions with stakeholders in primary education (n = 56). After a member-check, the reports per focus group discussion were compared to each other, through which themes were distilled from the data. Despite that different conceptual interpretations of intuition seemed to have been used, the (increasing) importance of intuitive qualities for dealing with the complexity of classroom situations was confirmed. The stakeholders indicated that there is a lack of interventions for developing teachers’ intuitive abilities and that this should be prioritized. This sub-study provided a clear signal that this area needs attention, both conceptually and pragmatically. Sub-study B examined teacher awareness of intuitions in relation to the effects hereof on classroom practice. Through intake questionnaires and reflection logs, qualitative data were collected in two groups of teachers in primary education (n = 17), who participated in a PDP aiming to enhance teachers’ awareness of intuitions through meditative and embodied exercises. Conceptually, teacher awareness of intuitions appeared to consist of three stages: preparing for, sensing, and considering intuitive signals. Pragmatically, due to meditative and embodied exercises the participants perceived a heightened awareness of intuitions. According to the participants, this heightened awareness of intuitions had positive effects on individual pupils, groups of pupils, and on the teachers themselves. These findings provided input for the development of a PDP that focused on enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact.

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ENGLISH SUMMARY

Sub-study C aimed to explore ways for enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition. In eight groups, a total of 64 pre-service and in-service teachers from primary, secondary, and higher education participated in a PDP aiming to enhance teacher intuitive pedagogical tact. Qualitative data were collected in two phases through reflection logs and group discussions. Phase 1 focused on how PDP practices instigate certain essential learning processes during the sessions, while phase 2 investigated the effects of the essential learning processes after the sessions. Meditative exercises combined with embodied exercises seemed to increase both teachers’ awareness of intuitions and their individual awareness (personal well-being, professional self, and understanding of pupils). According to the participants, this had a positive impact on how they dealt with the complexity of classroom situations, which in turn had positive effects on the classroom. This sub-study offered practical recommendations for enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition. Sub-study D examined both the presence and nature of the effects of the PDP aiming to enhance teacher pedagogical tact through intuition that was developed in sub-studies B and C. In eight groups, pre-service and in-service teachers in primary, secondary, and higher education (n = 61) participated voluntarily in the PDP. After the program, they completed the Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire. In addition, 12 PDP participants joined dyadic interviews with a colleague who might be able to describe participant’s development due to the PDP. The data suggested that the PDP particularly enhanced the stages ‘balanced awareness’ and ‘information processing’, which had a positive impact on teachers’ immediate pedagogical actions and the classroom outcomes. This sub-study showed that it is promising to support teachers in enhancing their pedagogical tact through intuition.

ConclusionsIn relation to RO1, understanding the role of intuition in teacher pedagogical tact, the findings of this study suggest that teacher intuitive pedagogical tact consists of four phases: balanced awareness, information processing, immediate pedagogical actions, and classroom outcomes. The first two phases relate to teachers’ awareness of intuitions, and the other two phases relate to impact in the classroom. Balanced awareness seems to consist of being-in-the-moment to become aware of rational, affective, and intuitive signals. During information processing, these signals must be distinguished from each other in order to attend to emergent insights. It is important at this stage to withhold judgments, to regulate emotions, and to take the perspective of the pupil(s). The immediate pedagogical actions that result from teachers’ awareness of intuitions can be timely/appropriate, confident, effortless, and/or creative. These actions can have a positive effect on relationships with and the autonomy of pupils, lead to classrooms running more

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smoothly and a decrease of problem behavior, and also more attention for harmony in the classroom. Regarding RO2 developing ways to enhance intuition for teacher pedagogical tact was central. This study led to one condition and two practices that are essential for enhancing awareness of intuitions in relation to teachers’ pedagogical tact. The exercises start from a systemic-phenomenological approach. A systemic perspective can lead to new perspectives on and more respect for the behavior of the pupil(s) and the teachers themselves, while the phenomenological aspect supports awareness of (intuitive) signals. For these exercises a safe learning environment appeared to be required. Reflecting on personal behavior patterns was experienced as emotional, and relatively many participants seemed to experience a paradigm shift by becoming aware of (especially non-local) intuitions. Meditative exercises can support participants’ intuitive perception by being-in-the-moment and feeling relaxed. They also help participants prepare for the embodied exercises, in which they practiced the other elements of the phases balanced awareness and information processing. The mediative and embodied exercises, combined with systemic theory, stimulated awareness of both local and non-local intuition. RO3 focused on ascertaining the effects of enhancing intuition on teacher pedagogical tact in relation to the stages of teacher intuitive pedagogical tact: balanced awareness, information processing, immediate pedagogical actions, and classroom outcomes. Regarding balanced awareness, most effects were experienced on becoming (more) aware of intuitive, and also affective signals through being-in-the-moment. To a lesser extent, participants became more aware of rational signals. In relation to information processing, the program seems to have had the most effect on being nonjudgmental and taking the perspective of the pupil(s), but the program also seems to have had positive effects on distinguishing signals, regulating emotions, and following emerging insights. In terms of immediate pedagogical actions, most growth was experienced on timely/appropriate and confident actions, but also on effortless and creative actions. Regarding the classroom outcomes, the study shows the most positive development on teachers’ attention to harmony in the classroom, but also on interactions between the teacher and pupils as well as among students. Although to a lesser extent, positive growth was reported on attending to pupils’ autonomy.

This study provides better understanding of the role of intuition in teachers’ pedagogical tact, and offers ways to enhance teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact. Although further research in this area is needed, this study shows that supporting teachers in developing their intuitive pedagogical tact is possible and also promising.

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NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING

Nederlandse samenvatting

IntroductiePedagogische tact is een cruciale kwaliteit van leraren, daar lesgeven geen kwestie is van het volgen van recepten of regels, omdat situaties in klassen slechts ten dele te voorspellen en controleren zijn. Pedagogische tact is de kwaliteit om in het moment op bedachtzame en gepaste wijze te reageren op complexe klassen-situaties en wordt regelmatig gerelateerd aan de intuïtie; terwijl redeneren moeite kost en traag is, verwerkt de intuïtie informatie snel en moeiteloos. De rol van de intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren is echter onduidelijk en de kennis over het versterken van de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie is daardoor nog beperkter. In de literatuur worden lokale en niet-lokale vormen van intuïtie beschreven, die respectievelijk gebaseerd zijn op eerdere kennis/ ervaringen en hieraan voorbijgaan. De meeste benaderingen om de intuïtie te versterken lijken gericht op lokale intuïtie, zoals het screenen van geautomati-seerde acties of het onderzoeken waarin intuïties verankerd zijn. Sommige benaderingen lijken te focussen op niet-lokale intuïtie door middel van meditatieve oefeningen. In een systemisch-fenomenologische benadering maakt men naast meditatieve oefeningen ook gebruik van belichaamde oefeningen, waarin informatie die onzichtbaar aanwezig is in sociale systemen via de directe ervaring wordt verkend. Systemische theorie kan daarnaast helpen om het gedrag van individuen, groepen en organisaties te begrijpen, wat lokale vormen van intuïtie kan versterken. Hoewel de benaderingen voor het versterken van beide vormen van intuïtie de potentie hebben om elkaar aan te vullen, is er onderzoek nodig om dergelijke complementaire benaderingen te ontwikkelen en te testen, in het bijzonder in relatie tot de pedagogische tact van leraren. In de literatuur zijn aanwijzingen te vinden dat het versterken van de intuïtie positieve effecten heeft op de pedagogische tact van leraren. Zo kan de intuïtie het in-het-moment oplossen van problemen, het nemen van beslissingen en de creativiteit ondersteunen. Ook kan de intuïtie effectieve communicatie, soepele sociale interacties en positieve relaties bevorderen. Experts veronderstellen dat (het versterken van) de intuïtie positieve effecten zal hebben op de klassenpraktijk, maar empirische studies op dit gebied ontbreken.

Dit proefschrift richtte zich op het onderzoeken van de rol van de intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren met als doel het versterken van de pedagogische tact via de intuïtie, oftewel de intuïtieve pedagogische tact. Naar aanleiding van bovenstaande issues zijn er daarom drie onderzoeksdoelen (OD) geformuleerd:

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- OD1: het beter begrijpen van de rol van intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren

- OD2: het ontwikkelen van manieren om de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te versterken

- OD3: het vaststellen van de effecten van het versterken van de intuïtie op de pedagogische tact van leraren

OnderzoeksopzetIn het kader van deze onderzoeksdoelen is educational design research uitgevoerd in het primair, secundair en hoger onderwijs in Nederland. Er is een mixed methods- benadering gebruikt, hoewel het onderzoek met name kwalitatief van aard was. Het onderzoek bestond uit vier deelstudies (A, B, C en D). Het project startte in deelstudie A met een analyse om beter inzicht te krijgen in de huidige en gewenste situaties. Vervolgens is in deelstudies B en C een programma om de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te versterken ontwikkeld, onderzocht en verfijnd op basis van formatieve evaluatie in een iteratief proces. Vervolgens zijn de effecten van de laatste versie van het programma in deelstudie D onderzocht in een summatieve evaluatie. Deelstudies A, B en C droegen bij aan de conceptualisering van de rol van intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren (OD1). In deelstudies B en C zijn handvatten om de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren te versterken ontwikkeld (OD2). Deelstudies B, C en vooral deelstudie D onderzochten de effecten hiervan op de klassenpraktijk (OD3).

ResultatenDeelstudie A had tot doel om te onderzoeken hoe het onderwijswerkveld de rol van intuïtie betekenis geeft in relatie tot de pedagogische tact van leraren. Kwalitatieve data zijn verzameld middels tien focusgroep discussies met stakeholders uit het primair onderwijs (n = 56). Na een member-check zijn de rapportages per focusgroep met elkaar vergeleken, waardoor er thema’s uit de data gedistilleerd zijn. Hoewel verschillende conceptuele interpretaties van intuïtie leken te zijn gebruikt, werd het (toenemende) belang van intuïtieve kwaliteiten voor het omgaan met de complexiteit van klassensituaties door de stakeholders bevestigd. Zij gaven aan dat er een gebrek is aan interventies om de intuïtieve capaciteiten van leraren te ontwikkelen en dat dit prioriteit moest krijgen. Deze deelstudie gaf een duidelijk signaal dat dit gebied aandacht behoeft, zowel conceptueel als pragmatisch. Deelstudie B onderzocht het bewustzijn van intuïties van leraren in relatie tot de effecten hiervan op de klassenpraktijk. Middels intakevragenlijsten en reflectie logboeken werden kwalitatieve data verzameld van twee groepen leraren in het basisonderwijs (n = 17), die deelnamen aan een programma om hun

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bewustzijn van intuïties te versterken door middel van meditatieve en belichaamde oefeningen. Vanuit conceptueel oogpunt lieten de resultaten zien dat het bewustzijn van intuïties van leraren bestaat uit drie stadia: het voorbereiden op, het gewaarworden van, en het overwegen van intuïtieve signalen. Op pragmatisch gebied gaven de resultaten aan dat deelnemers door de meditatieve en syste-misch-fenomenologische oefeningen een verhoogd bewustzijn van intuïties ervoeren, wat volgens de deelnemers positieve effecten had op individuele leerlingen, groepen leerlingen en op de leraren zelf. Deze bevindingen boden input voor de verdere ontwikkeling van een programma dat zich richtte op de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren. Deelstudie C had als doel om werkwijzen voor het versterken van de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te exploreren. In acht groepen namen in totaal 64 leraren en leraren in opleiding uit het primair, secundair en hoger onderwijs deel aan een programma dat gericht was op het versterken van de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren. Kwalitatieve data zijn verzameld in twee fasen via reflectielogboeken en groepsdiscussies. Fase 1 richtte zich op hoe werkwijzen bepaalde essentiële leerprocessen stimuleren ten tijde van de bijeenkomsten van het programma, terwijl in fase 2 de effecten van de essentiële leerprocessen na de bijeenkomsten werden onderzocht. Meditatieve oefeningen in combinatie met belichaamde oefeningen leken het bewustzijn van intuïties en ook het persoonlijke bewustzijn (het persoonlijke welzijn, het professionele zelf, en het begrijpen van de leerlingen) van leraren te vergroten. Dit had aldus de deelnemers een positieve invloed op de manier waarop zij omgingen met de complexiteit van klassensituaties, wat op zijn beurt positieve effecten op de klas had. Deze deelstudie bood praktische aanbevelingen om de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te versterken. Deelstudie D onderzocht zowel de aanwezigheid als de aard van de effecten van het programma dat in deelstudies B en C werd ontwikkeld om de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te versterken. Leraren (in opleiding) uit het primair, secundair en hoger onderwijs (n = 61) namen vrijwillig aan het programma deel in acht groepen. Na het programma vulden de deelnemers de Vragenlijst Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact in. Daarnaast namen 12 leraren met een collega die de ontwikkeling van de deelnemer naar aanleiding van het programma kon beschrijven deel aan dyadische diepte-interviews. De data suggereerden dat het programma met name de stadia ‘evenwichtig bewustzijn’ en ‘informatieverwer-king’ versterkt, wat een positieve invloed had op de onmiddellijke pedagogische acties van leraren en de effecten hiervan op klassen. Deze deelstudie toonde aan dat het veelbelovend is om leraren via de intuïtie te ondersteunen bij de ontwikkeling van hun pedagogische tact.

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ConclusiesIn relatie tot OD1, het begrijpen van de rol van intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren, suggereren de bevindingen dat de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren uit vier fasen bestaat: evenwichtig bewustzijn, informatieverwerking, onmiddellijke pedagogische acties, en klassenresultaten. De eerste twee fasen hebben betrekking op het bewustzijn van intuïties van de leraar, de twee andere fasen op de impact in de klas. Het evenwichtig bewustzijn lijkt te bestaan uit in-het-moment-zijn om bewust te worden van rationele, affectieve en intuïtieve signalen. Tijdens de informatieverwerking moeten deze signalen van elkaar worden onderscheiden om aandienende inzichten te kunnen volgen. Het is in deze fase belangrijk om oordeelloos te zijn, de emoties te reguleren, en het perspectief van de leerling(en) in te nemen. De onmiddellijke pedagogische acties die vanuit het bewustzijn van intuïties ontstaan, kunnen tijdig/passend, zelfverzekerd, moeiteloos, en/of creatief zijn. Deze acties kunnen een positief effect hebben op relaties met en de autonomie van leerlingen, leiden tot soepeler lopende klassen met minder probleemgedrag, en ook de aandacht voor harmonie in de klas. In OD2 stonden manieren om de pedagogische tact van leraren via de intuïtie te versterken centraal. De studie leidde tot één voorwaarde en twee typen oefeningen die van cruciaal belang zijn voor het versterken van het bewustzijn van intuïties in het kader van de pedagogische tact van leraren. De oefeningen passen in een systemisch-fenomenologische benadering. Een systemisch perspectief kan leiden tot nieuwe perspectieven op en meer begrip voor het gedrag van de leerling(en) en de leerkracht zelf, terwijl het fenomenologische aspect de bewustwording van (intuïtieve) signalen ondersteunt. Het creëren van een veilige leeromgeving bleek een voorwaarde voor deze oefeningen te zijn. Het reflecteren op persoonlijke gedragspatronen werd als emotioneel ervaren, en relatief veel deelnemers leek een paradigmashift te ervaren door zich bewust te worden van (met name niet-lokale) intuïties. Meditatieve oefeningen kunnen de intuïtieve waarneming bevorderen en de deelnemers helpen om zich in het moment te zijn en te ontspannen. Hierdoor zijn ze ook voorbereid op de belichaamde oefeningen, waarin de overige elementen van de fasen evenwichtig bewustzijn en informatieverwerking werden geoefend. Door mediatieve en belichaamde oefeningen, in combinatie met de systemische theorie, werd het bewustzijn van zowel de lokale als de niet-lokale intuïtie gestimuleerd. OD3 richtte zich op het vaststellen van de effecten van het versterken van de intuïtie op de pedagogische tact van leraren in relatie tot de al eerdergenoemde fasen van de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren: evenwichtig bewustzijn, informatieverwerking, onmiddellijke pedagogische acties, en klassenresultaten. Wat betreft het evenwichtig bewustzijn is het grootste effect ervaren op het (meer)

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bewust worden van intuïtieve en ook affectieve signalen in samenhang met het in-het-moment-zijn; de deelnemers werden zich in mindere mate meer bewust van rationele signalen. In relatie tot de informatieverwerking lijkt het programma het meeste effect te hebben gehad op het oordeelloos zijn en het innemen van het perspectief van de leerling(en), maar het programma lijkt ook effect te hebben gehad op het gebied van het onderscheiden van signalen, het reguleren van emoties, en het volgen van zich aandienende inzichten. Wat betreft de onmiddellijk pedagogisch acties werd de meeste groei ervaren op het tijdig/passend en ook zelfverzekerd handelen, hoewel er ook een positieve groei is gerapporteerd op het moeiteloos en creatief handelen. Wat betreft de klassenresultaten laat de studie de meeste positieve ontwikkeling zien op het gebied van de aandacht van leraren voor de harmonie in de klas, maar ook op de interacties tussen zowel de leraar en de leerlingen als de leerlingen onderling. In mindere mate werd positieve groei op het hebben van aandacht voor de autonomie van leerlingen gemeld.

Dit proefschrift verschaft inzicht in de rol van de intuïtie in de pedagogische tact van leraren, en biedt handvatten om de intuïtieve pedagogische tact van leraren te versterken. Hoewel verder onderzoek op dit gebied nodig is, laat dit onderzoek zien dat het ondersteunen van leraren bij de ontwikkeling van hun intuïtieve pedagogische tact mogelijk, en ook veelbelovend is.

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ACADEMIC OUTPUT

Academic output

Scientific journals

Sipman, G., Martens, R., Thölke, J., & McKenney, S. (under review). Professional development focused on intuition can enhance teacher pedagogical tact.

Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (in press). Can a systemic- phenomenological teacher professional development program enhance awareness of intuitions and serve pedagogical tact? Systemic Practice and Action Research

Sipman, G., Martens, R., Thölke, J., & McKenney, S. (2021). Exploring teacher awareness of intuitions and how it affects classroom practices: Conceptual and pragmatic dimensions. Professional Development in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2021.1902839

Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (2019). Intuition’s role in pedagogical tact: Educator views. British Educational Research Journal, 45(6), 1186–1202.

Book chapters

Sipman, G., Thölke, J., Martens, R., & McKenney, S. (under review). Enhancing teacher pedagogical tact through intuition: Conceptual, pragmatic and effectiveness dimensions.

Practitioner media

Sipman, G. (2019). Mag ik op mijn intuïtie vertrouwen? [Can I trust my intuition?]. Van Twaalf tot Achttien, 29(7), 20-22.

Winters, B. (2018, January 19). Docent, maak het jezelf gemakkelijker [Teacher, make it easier for yourself] (Interview in newspaper). De Gelderlander, Betuwe, pp. 10-11.

Conference contributions

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2018, November). Intuitive Pedagogical Tact. Paper presentation at the Conference of the European Association for Practitioner Research on Improving Learning [EAPRIL], Portorož, SI.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2018, June). Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Paper presentation at the Onderwijs Research Dagen [ORD], Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2016, February). Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Paper presentation at the Conference of the Vereniging Lerareno-pleiders Vlaanderen and the Vereniging Lerarenopleiders Nederland [VELOV/ VELON], Brussels, BE.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2016, April). Enhancing teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact using a systemic perspective. Paper presentation at the Conference of the European Teacher Education Network [ETEN], Setúbal, PT.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2016, November). Enhancing teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact using a systemic perspective. Paper presentation at the Conference of the International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation [ICERI], Seville, ES.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2015, September). Enhancing teachers’ intuitive pedagogical tact using a systemic perspective. Paper presentation at the Conference of the European Early Childhood Education Research Association [EECERA], Barcelona, ES.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2015, July). Enhancing teachers’ pedagogical tact using a systemic perspective. Paper presentation at the DOIT Conference, Haifa, IL.

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Invited presentations

Sipman, G., & Winkelhorst, J. (2020, March). Inleiding Leergang Systemische Begeleiding van Teams [Introduction Course Systemic Facilitation of Teams]. Presentation for Team Facilitators of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2019, May). Intuitive Pedagogical Tact. Presentation at the HAN Summer Course, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2018, November). Intuitive Pedagogical Tact. Round table session at the Centraal Instituut voor Toets Ontwikkeling [CITO], Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Van Wezel, R. (2018, May). Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Presentation at the Merlet College, Cuijk, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2017, March). Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Presentation at the Master Pedagogiek of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2016, March). De intuïtie als motor van pedagogische tact [Intuition as the motor of pedagogical tact]. Presentation at the Faculty of Education of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & Van Wezel, R. (2016, March). Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Presentation at the Stedelijk College Eindhoven, Eindhoven, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2015, November). Enhancing teachers’ Intuitive Pedagogical Tact. Presentation at the SHIFT project meeting, Offenburg, GE.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2015, November). De intuïtie als motor van pedagogische tact [Intuition as the motor of pedagogical tact]. Presentation at the Teacher Training College of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Van Wezel, R. (2015, August). Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Presentation at the Citadel College, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2015, June). Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Presentation at Primary School De Ommelander, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., McKenney, S., Martens, R., & Thölke, J. (2014, November). Leren voorbij de cognitie [Learning beyond cognition]. Presentation at the Faculty of Education of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Workshops

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2021, February). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop for teachers of Florès and teacher trainees of the HAN Pabo, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2021, February). Inleiding Training Systemisch Begeleiden [Introduction Training Systemic Coaching]. Workshop for internal counselors of Florès, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2020, November). Online experiment Ik & Samen in het Systeem [Online experiment I & Us within the System]. Online workshop for teacher educators of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., Hartogs, H., & Winkelhorst, J. (2020, September). Inleiding Leergang Systemische Begeleiding van Teams [Introduction Course Systemic Facilitation of Teams]. Online workshop for Team Facilitators of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & Winkelhorst, J. (2020, June). Online experiment systemische begeleiding [Online experiment systemic facilitation]. Online workshop for Team Facilitators of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2020, February). Inleiding Aandacht voor Ondersteuners [Introduction Support for Supporters]. Workshops at the Alliantie Werkplaats, Nijmegen, NL.

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Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2020, January). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop for teachers of Florès and teacher trainees of the HAN Pabo, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2020, January). Inleiding Training Systemisch Begeleiden [Introduction Training Systemic Coaching]. Workshops at the Alliantie Werkplaats, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2019, December). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop for teachers of Florès and teacher trainees of the HAN Pabo, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2019, October). Inleiding Training Ik en mijn Systemen [Introduction Me and my Systems]. Workshop at the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2019, October). Inleiding Training Systemisch Begeleiden [Introduction Training Systemic Coaching]. Workshop for internal counselors of Florès, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2019, October). Inleiding Next Level Teaching [Introduction Next Level Teaching]. Workshops at the Alliantie Werkplaats, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2019, June). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at the network for internal counselors of DeBasisFluvius, Elst, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2019, April). Workshop Intuïtieve Communicatie [Workshop Intuitive Communication]. Workshop at the Alliantie for ANS, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2019, February). Inleiding Next Level Teaching [Introduction Next Level Teaching]. Workshops for the Samenwerkingsverband Voortgezet Onderwijs Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2019, February). Inleiding Training Systemisch Begeleiden [Introduction Training Systemic Facilitation]. Workshop at the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, November). Inleiding Next Level Teaching [Introduction Next Level Teaching]. Workshops at the Alliantie Werkplaats, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2018, October). Masterclass Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Masterclass Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at DeBasisFluvius Academie, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Noord, G. (2018, October). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at DeBasisFluvius Academie, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2018, September). Inleiding Training Ik en mijn Systemen [Introduction Me and my Systems]. Workshop at the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, September). Inleiding Training Next Level Teaching [Introduction Training Next Level Teaching]. Two workshops at the Alliantie Inspiratiedag, Wijchen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, September). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at the Merlet College, Cuijk, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2018, April). Intuïtie in het onderwijs [Intuition in education]. Workshop at the Skills for Life Conference of the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, April). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at the Lorentz College, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, March). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training Intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop for teacher educators at the Alliantie Werkplaats, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & Hartogs, H. (2018, March). Inleiding Training Ik en mijn Systemen [Introduction Me and my Systems]. Workshop at the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Arnhem, NL.

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Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2018, March). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Two workshops at the Inspiratiedag of the Radboud University, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G. (2018, January). Inleiding Training Systemisch Begeleiden [Introduction Training Systemic Facilitation]. Workshop at the HAN Academy of the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2017, September). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Two workshops at the Alliantie Inspiratiedag, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & van Wezel, R. (2017, January). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at the study day of the Instituut voor Leraar en School, Nijmegen, NL.

Sipman, G., & Masselink, F. (2016, January). Een systemische kijk op onderwijs [A systemic view on education]. Workshop for principals of the VCO Academie Consent, Enschede, NL.

Sipman, G. (2016, January). Inleiding Training Intuïtieve Pedagogische Tact [Introduction Training intuitive Pedagogical Tact]. Workshop at Primary School De Ommelander, Arnhem, NL.

Sipman, G., & Masselink, F. (2015, November). Een systemische kijk op onderwijs [A systemic view on education]. Workshop for principals at the LEAN Conference, Barchem, NL.

Sipman, G. (2015, September). Inleiding Train de Trainer [Introduction Train the Trainer]. Workshop for systemic trainees at Pabo Arnhem, Arnhem, NL.

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Acknowledgments

In the early years of my career, I worked as a special needs teacher with pupils who had psychological, psychiatric, and/or behavioral disorders. I taught in a large organization and the composition of our school team changed again and again. Colleagues who were not able to deal with those special needs pupils left and new colleagues made their entrance. We – the old colleagues – often made good guesses as to which of the new colleagues would still be with us in 3 to 4 months. Somehow, we just sensed whether or not the new colleague had “it”, although we could not explain our guesses. I always wondered what ‘it’ was and what makes some have ‘it’ and others not. I have seen more colleagues than I wanted to who did not have ‘it’ and who struggled with dealing with their special pupils. I felt sorry for these colleagues, but also for the pupils in their classes. I appeared to be a teacher who had ‘it’, but how to help my colleagues without ‘it’ and their pupils? Later on in my career, I did get the opportunity to teach at the teacher education college for primary education of the University of Applied Sciences of Arnhem and Nijmegen (HAN), as a pedagogue with expertise on pupils’ problem behaviors. In my approach to working with pupils’ problem behavior, on the one hand I started from an ecological pedagogical stance, which requires seeing children and their behavior within the context of their systems. On the other hand, I often shared the fundamentals of experiential education (Laevers, 1979), which had touched me when I was a teacher trainee. Tapping into the flow of pupils’ experiences of pupils to sense their emotions and intentions is especially consistent with how I had taught in the special needs school and how I still try to teach at the teacher education college. I came into contact with systemic constellations (Hellinger, 2003) and somehow, I knew that things were coming together, although I did not know why and how. Later on in my career, the HAN granted me the chance to start PhD research, which to me was the start of my journey in search of “it”. In the literature, I stumbled upon “it” in the concept of pedagogical tact, which showed me the way into the intuition literature. This was a eureka moment, and also an oops, since I was – and still am – aware of the fact that intuition can have negative connotations in both science and education. Moreover, my interest was drawn by forms of intuition beyond cognition. I decided to follow my intuition, and although the journey was not always easy, I did find answers to the questions of what “it” is, why some people have “it” and others do not, and above all, how to enhance “it”. Things did come together in a way I could never have imagined. My journey has come to an end, which I was able to achieve through the support of many people. For me, these acknowledgments hence are very important. I want to take the time to thank all of the people who have been part of

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my learning process – those who inspired me, those who opposed me, those who challenged me, those who supported me. I needed them all to come to the point of finalizing my dissertation. I start by thanking those who paved the way for making this dissertation possible. This includes practitioners in the systemic constellations field, who had the guts to explore an unexplored area. In particular, I bow deeply for my teachers who connected systems work with education, in chronological order: Jürg Thölke, Terry Ingham and Jane James, Fionnuala Herder-Wynne, Bibi Schreuder, Ingrid Dykstra, and Marianne Franke-Gricksch. I also want to thank previous scholars who researched pedagogical tact, such as Max van Manen and Luc Stevens. Moreover, I thank with great respect those who dared to go beyond mainstream thinking in relation to intuition, such as Marcus Anthony, and Rollin McCraty and his colleagues from HeartMath.org. Second, special thanks go to the University of Applied Sciences of Arnhem and Nijmegen, particularly its Faculty of Education and Teacher Education College for Primary Education. To this day, I still think that this employer might be the only one that would grant an employee the chance to do his PhD on an intangible topic such as enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact. The Educational Boards of Arnhem (The Netherlands), Florès and Delta were also brave to support my PhD. Particular thanks go to the board members, principals, teacher educators, in-service and pre-service teachers of these institutes, who took the time in their overloaded schedules to join the research process in sub-study A. They all helped me to see that I was on the right track, which supported me throughout the PhD process. Special thanks are required for the PDP participants in sub-studies B, C, and D. Without them this dissertation would not exist, with and through them I did get the chance to learn about enhancing teacher intuitive pedagogical tact. I was strengthened in my quest by their positive reactions, and I had to learn to see how negative reactions are just as helpful. I am proud that so many teachers in primary, secondary and higher vocational education took the plunge by joining the PDP. For me, it was one big adventure, and I thank them all for being a part of it. Third, a special group requires special attention, my co-facilitators. Somewhere in the process of sub-study A, the idea emerged to invite colleagues who had already been trained in systemic-phenomenological theory to join a Train-the-Trainer program. Henk Boer, Machteld van den Bosch, Gerda van Noord, Ferdy Strikker, Michel de Vries and Renske van Wezel stepped into this process without knowing where it might lead: ‘If this leads to nothing, at least we will have had fun’. But it did lead to something; in the end, each of these special people acted as facilitators for at least 2 PDP groups in pairs. They did this in their leisure time; their pay was learning about being a facilitator for the PDP. For me, it was an honor to go through this process with them – thanks a lot, guys! Three other persons belong to this special group, Karin Timmers, who was my co-researcher for the

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data for sub-study B, and Conny Timmers (Karin’s mother), whom I lured into designing, among other things, the cover of this dissertation. In this context I would also like to mention Emily Fox, whose (many) edits, comments, and questions helped me to improve the articles that are described in this dissertation. It was a delight that these persons were part of my PhD process too, thank you very much.Fourth, I deeply want to thank my PhD advisors, in hindsight, not the easiest team of advisors. However, I have always said that they were my ‘Golden Triangle’, three incredibly intelligent and also strong scholars, who could not differ more from each other. I just ‘knew’ that I needed them all for being able to reach for the ‘gold’, somewhere in the middle of the ‘triangle’. In the next paragraphs I personally thank them, in order of appearance. I met my daily advisor Jürg Thölke for the first time in, I think it was 2009. I ‘knew’ intuitively that this encounter was the start of something new. I had never expected that this would lead to my doing a PhD. Jürg introduced me to systemic constellations work and was my first teacher; he opened up a new world, which later on appeared to be an old world that I had neglected for a long time. Jürg ‘lured’ me into doing research, through which I learned that research can be both fun as well as significant. During my PhD process he was my content conscience for my research; I admire the depth and length of his wisdom. We did not always agree, which led to intense discussions. The beauty of it all was that Jürg taught me to disagree, to take MY stance within the scientific field. Words cannot express how grateful I am for our meeting in 2009, thanks! My search for a PhD supervisor led me to Rob Martens, to be honest, a professor I had never heard of before. To this day I still feel it was meant to be that he was the one who had the guts to investigate unexplored areas with me. He was the one who invited Susan, my other PhD supervisor, into the research team. I do not know whether or not this decision was made consciously or maybe even intuitively, but it was a golden move. Somehow, Rob intuitively knew that my research could be of significance for education: ‘you’re on to something’. In particular, I had the chance to learn from his knowledge in the process of building and using the Intuitive Pedagogical Tact Questionnaire. I am really thankful that he was part of my PhD process. My initial second PhD supervisor, Susan McKenney, became my first PhD supervisor during the research process. Although we come from different countries, both literally as well as figuratively, I sense that somehow we are also a bit the same. I had the opportunity to learn from her rich knowledge and experience. Her tough love helped me to squeeze out everything I had learned during my PhD process in this dissertation. I really enjoyed working together on my research, and I am moved as I realize how much time and energy she has spent to help me ‘do my thing’. Her high standards made me aim for high standards and,

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regardless what whoever may think, made me reach high standards. It is almost needless to say how deeply obliged I am for being able to be one of Susan’s students. Fifth, I come to my inner circle, the people who may have ‘suffered’ the most with my doing my PhD. Doing a PhD puts a strain on your social life, so I feel that I am blessed with good friends. They perhaps did not understand everything I was telling them, but they listened patiently and supported me all the way. My sister and her household supported me too, maybe even without them being aware of it. Just being there and appreciating me for who I am was exactly what I needed. My father and mother unfortunately are not among the living; my mom passed away during my PhD process. I am so proud that I can call Kees Sipman and Riet Turk my parents, and I sense that they watch me proudly from above. They gave me life, they gave me strength, they gave me ‘me’. Finally, I come to my partner Richard and our dogs Mijas, Meissie, and Noa. Our dogs probably did not understand why their owner was sometimes grumpy, but just their needs for a walk or a cuddle helped me to continue my path. Richard, my dearest, supported me all the way throughout my PhD process, never complained when I was behind my laptop or in my head, and loved me even with my whims. If he had not been there, the readers of this dissertation would probably not have been reading this last sentence: I deeply appreciate what he has done for me, who he is, and who we are together! I want to end these acknowledgments with part of the lyrics from “You’re the Voice” by John Farnham. During tough times in the research process this song, out of the blue, kept coming back; on the radio, a band playing it as the last song of the evening, ‘it just was there’. The song and the lyrics gave me the strength to keep going on. I took the words that inspired me:

This time, we know we all can stand together With the power to be powerful, believing, we can make it better We have the chance, to turn the pages over, we can write what we want to write We’re not gonna sit in silence, we’re not gonna live with fear We’re all someone’s daughter, we’re all someone’s son You’re the voice, try and understand it, make a noise and make it clear

I hope that reading about my journey is as inspiring for you as it was for me. Many thanks for your time and attention!

Gerbert Sipman (July 2021)

ENHANCING TEACHER PEDAGOGICAL TACT THROUGH ...

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