-
i
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the
Attainment of the
Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By
Adhi Hangga Nurzani/ 09202244022
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS
STATE UNIVERSITY OF YOGYAKARTA
2015
-
ii
APPROVAL
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A Thesis
By:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Approved by the supervisors on October , 2014
First Supervisor Second Supervisor
Dr. Margana, M.Hum., M.A.LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling
(TESOL)
NIP: 196804071994121001 NIP: 197902052003122001
ii
APPROVAL
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A Thesis
By:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Approved by the supervisors on October , 2014
First Supervisor Second Supervisor
Dr. Margana, M.Hum., M.A.LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling
(TESOL)
NIP: 196804071994121001 NIP: 197902052003122001
ii
APPROVAL
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A Thesis
By:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Approved by the supervisors on October , 2014
First Supervisor Second Supervisor
Dr. Margana, M.Hum., M.A.LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling
(TESOL)
NIP: 196804071994121001 NIP: 197902052003122001
-
iii
RATIFICATION
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A THESIS
Written by:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Accepted by the board of examiners of Faculty of Languages and
Arts of State
University of Yogyakarta on ..... March 2015 and declared to
have fulfilled the
requirements for the attainment of the degree of
SarjanaPendidikan in English
Education Department
Boards of examiners
Position Name Signature
Chairperson : Jamilah, M.Pd. ____________
Secretary : LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling ____________
First Examiner : Suhaini M. Saleh, M.A. ____________
Second Examiner : DrMargana, M.Hum.,M.A. ____________
Yogyakarta, ....... March 2015
Faculty of Languages and Arts
State University of Yogyakarta
Dean,
Prof. Dr. ZamzaniNIP.1955050519801110
iii
RATIFICATION
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A THESIS
Written by:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Accepted by the board of examiners of Faculty of Languages and
Arts of State
University of Yogyakarta on ..... March 2015 and declared to
have fulfilled the
requirements for the attainment of the degree of
SarjanaPendidikan in English
Education Department
Boards of examiners
Position Name Signature
Chairperson : Jamilah, M.Pd. ____________
Secretary : LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling ____________
First Examiner : Suhaini M. Saleh, M.A. ____________
Second Examiner : DrMargana, M.Hum.,M.A. ____________
Yogyakarta, ....... March 2015
Faculty of Languages and Arts
State University of Yogyakarta
Dean,
Prof. Dr. ZamzaniNIP.1955050519801110
iii
RATIFICATION
A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE IN
ENGLISH ZONE COURSEBOOK FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENTS YEAR XI
A THESIS
Written by:
AdhiHanggaNurzani
09202244022
Accepted by the board of examiners of Faculty of Languages and
Arts of State
University of Yogyakarta on ..... March 2015 and declared to
have fulfilled the
requirements for the attainment of the degree of
SarjanaPendidikan in English
Education Department
Boards of examiners
Position Name Signature
Chairperson : Jamilah, M.Pd. ____________
Secretary : LusiNurhayati, S.Pd.,M.Appl.Ling ____________
First Examiner : Suhaini M. Saleh, M.A. ____________
Second Examiner : DrMargana, M.Hum.,M.A. ____________
Yogyakarta, ....... March 2015
Faculty of Languages and Arts
State University of Yogyakarta
Dean,
Prof. Dr. ZamzaniNIP.1955050519801110
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iv
PERNYATAAN
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya
Nama : Adhi Hangga Nurzani
NIM : 09202244022
Program Studi : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Fakultas : Bahasa dan Seni Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
menyatakan bahwa karya ilmiah iniadalah hasil pekerjaan saya
sendiri. Sepanjang
pengetahuan saya, karya ilmiah ini tidak berisi materi yang
ditulis orang lain,
kecuali bagian bagian tertentu yang saya ambil sebagai acuan
dengan mengikuti
tata cara dan etika penulisan karya ilmiah yang lazim.
Apabila ternyata terbukti pernyataan ini tidak benar, sepenuhnya
menjadi
tanggung jawab saya.
Yogyakarta,
Penulis
Adhi Hangga Nurzani
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v
MOTTOS
“Do not tell your dreams. Show them”
(Unkwown)
“Disciplining yourself to do what you know is right and
important, although
difficult, is the highroad to pride, self-esteem, and personal
satisfaction”
(Margareth Tatcher)
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vi
DEDICATIONS
This thesis is wholeheartedly dedicated to:
My father (Bapak Darmadi- the late)
My mother (Ibu Sunarti)
My older brother (Mas Reno)
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vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillahirobbil ‘alamin, all praises be to Allah SWT, the
Almighty,
the Most Merciful, and the Most Beneficent, for the best
blessing, love, and
guidance given to me without which I would have never been able
to finish
thisthesis.
I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr Margana,
M.Hum, M.A.
as my first consultant and LusiNurhayati, S.Pd., M.Appl.Ling
(TESOL), as my
second consultantwho have shared their valuable time, knowledge,
and guidance
with all their patience and wisdom during the process of
accomplishing this thesis.
My deepest gratitude also goes to Prof. Dr. Zamzani (the Dean of
Language
and Arts Faculty), Samsul Ma’arif, M. A. (the Head of English
Language
Education Department), and all my lecturers in English Language
Education
Department from whom I gain very precious knowledge along my
years of study.
My thank is dedicated to my parents, Bapak Darmadi (the late),
and Ibu
Sunarti, my older brother Mas Reno for their prayers, love, big
support and
everything they have given to me.
My special thanks are also devoted to all my friends, Herida
Panji,
Taufiqurahman, Tri, Arista, Wisnu, Ratna, Mawud, Rara, Fahmi,
Via, Yanuar,
Vera, Yosep, Nana, Anggi, Tede, Sondang, Riska, Rika, Dewi,
Defi, Dhoni,
Idhul, and many more for their supports, their prayers, and
their helps.
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viii
Finally, I realize that this thesis is far from being perfect.
Therefore, I would
gratefully accept any comments and suggestions for the
betterment of this thesis.
However, I hope that this thesis gives some contributions to the
linguistic and
literature study.
Yogyakarta,
Adhi Hangga Nurzani
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ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE..............................................................................................................
i
APPROVAL....................................................................................................
ii
RATIFICATION............................................................................................
iii
PERNYATAAN..............................................................................................
iv
MOTTOS.........................................................................................................
v
DEDICATIONS..............................................................................................
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................
vii
TABLE OF
CONTENTS...............................................................................
ix
LIST OF
FIGURES.......................................................................................
xii
LIST OF
TABLES.........................................................................................
xiii
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................
xiv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION...................................................................
1
A. Background of the Research
...................................................................
1
B. Identification of the Problems
.................................................................
6
C. Limitation of the Problems
......................................................................
7
D. Formulation of the Problems
...................................................................
8
E. Research Objectives
................................................................................
8
F. Significance of the Research
...................................................................
8
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYTICAL
CONSTRUCT.................................................................................................
10
A. Literature Review
....................................................................................
10
1. Pragmatics
.........................................................................................
10
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x
2. The Scope of Pragmatics
...................................................................
10
a. Pragmatics and Society
...............................................................
10
b. Utterances
...................................................................................
11
c. Aspects of Speech Situation
........................................................ 12
1) Addressers and Addresses
..................................................... 12
2) The Context of an Utterance
.................................................. 12
3) The Goals of an Utterance
..................................................... 13
4) The utterance as a form of act or activity : Speech Act
......... 13
5) The utterance as a product of verbal act deals with
language at a more concrete level than grammar
................... 13
3. Implicatures
.......................................................................................
13
a. Conversational Implicatures
......................................................... 14
b. Convensional implicature
.............................................................
14
4. Cooperative Principles
........................................................................
16
a. Maxims
.........................................................................................
17
b. Flouting Maxims
...........................................................................
18
5. Context
................................................................................................
20
6. Discourse
Analysis...............................................................................
22
7. English Zone Coursebook
...................................................................
22
8. Previous Research Findings
................................................................
23
B. Analytical Construct
..................................................................................
25
CHAPTER III RESEARCH
METHOD........................................................
26
A. Type of Research
......................................................................................
26
B. Data Source
...............................................................................................
26
C. Techniques of Collecting Data
..................................................................
27
D. Data Analysis
............................................................................................
28
E. Trustworhtiness
.........................................................................................
29
CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND
DISCUSSION........................................... 30
A. Research and Findings
..............................................................................
30
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xi
1. Types of Conversational Implicature
.................................................. 30
2. Implied Meaning
.................................................................................
33
B. Discussion
................................................................................................
34
1. The Analysis on the Types of Conversational Implicature of
the
Coursebook..........................................................................................
34
2. The Analysis of the Interpretation of the Implied
Meanings
of the Utterances in the
Coursebook....................................................
62
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS
AND
SUGGESTIONS......................................................................................
67
A. Conclusions
...............................................................................................
67
B. Implications
...............................................................................................
69
C. Suggestions
...............................................................................................
70
REFERENCES..................................................................................................
71
APPENDIX
........................................................................................................
73
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xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Analytical construct of “Conversational Implicature
in
English Zone Coursebook Senior High School
Student Year
IX....................................................................................
25
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xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:Kinds of Conversational Implicature, Maxims, Context,and
Implied
Meaning...........................................................................
27
Table 2: The observing maxims of cooperative principle (SCI)
andthe flouting maxims of cooperative principles employedin the
texts............................................................................................
31
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xiv
A Pragmatic Analysis of Conversational Implicature in English
ZoneCoursebook for Senior High School Students Year XI
ByAdhi Hangga Nurzani
09202244022
Abstract
This research aimed at (1) identifying the types of
conversational
and (2) describing the implied meanings of the conversational
implicature that isused in English Zone Coursebook for senior high
school year XI.
This research belonged to descriptive qualitative research. The
data of the
content of conversational texts. In the research, the
quantitative data were alsoused in the form of number to strengthen
the findings. The main instrument of theresearch was the researcher
himself and the secondary instrument was the datasheets. The data
were collected by note-taking. In analyzing the data, theresearcher
used referential methods. The methods were done by identifying
andre-examining the data based on the theory of conversational
implicature proposedby Yule and Levinson and the theory of
cooperative principle proposed by Grice.The validity of the
research was gained by doing theory triangulation and doingpeer
correction with competent friends of English Education Department
majoringin linguistics.
The research reveals two findings. The first finding is the
types of
are standard conversational implicature and complex
conversational implicature.In the application of types of
conversational implicature, the coursebook mostlyapplies standard
conversational implicature. The second finding shows
theinterpretations of the implied meaning of the texts in the
coursebook which relieson the context. The interpretations of the
implied meaning shows that the textscontain communicative purposes
such as requesting, warning, advising, andteasing.
Key words: coursebook, conversational implicature, cooperative
principles
implicature that is used inEnglish Zone Coursebook for senior
high school year XI;
research were in the forms of written text in the English Zone
Coursebook in the
conversational implicature which are applied in English Zone
Coursebook. Those
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1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Research
English is taught and used as a foreign language in
Indonesia.Teaching
English as Foreign Language has been one of the most dynamic
fields, not
only recently but since long time ago. Richard has noted that
the history of
language teaching has been changing for the last century
searching for more
effective ways of teaching a foreign language (Richards &
Rodgers, 2002).
One of the important points in this change is when the branded
methods
became the center of discussion and were suggested to be the
best ways at the
time.
The approach in senior high school in Indonesia uses the
Genre-Based
Approach. The approach is concerned with the purposes of
language and not
just the semantic micro-functions of individual words and
sentence. The
genres are generally defined according to the broad social
purposes of
communication.
In English Language Teaching (ELT), the materials which are used
in the
coursebook contain communicative purposes that are related to
the social life.
In every social life, people use language to deliver their
messages about who
they speak to, where the people come from, and to whom people
associate
with. People may judge a person’s background, character and
intention based
simply to people’s language. Language and society are two things
that cannot
be separated and language is something that can connect them
into meaningful
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2
communication. Conversation creates communication. Communication
is not
merely about communicating and producing words. There should
be
interpretations in every words uttered in communication. It
contains
something more than the words that speakers deliver.
Grice (1979) states that in a conversation there is an account
called
cooperative principle which is elaborated in four sub
principles. Those are
called maxims. In cooperative principle, speaker is assumed to
make his or her
conversational contribution such as required. The meaning in the
utterance
should be interpreted correctly in order to achieve meaningful
communication.
The conversational implicature also happens in texts. The
developing of
curriculum of education in Indonesia requires high quality of
media. One of
the important media that can help students getting the English
skills in the
school is through a course book. It is helpful for the students
in mastering the
four skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
The researcher usedEnglish Zone course bookas the object of the
research.
English Zone is a curriculum-based textbook for students in
their eleventh
year of schooling. Teachers and students find a solid coverage
of the areas of
importance required by the competency standard of the
curriculum. This book
uses Indonesian context and stories which make students more
familiar with
their culture. It helps the students in understanding the
meaning of the texts in
the book. However, students face some difficulties in
understanding the
meanings of the texts because of the existence of the
implicatures in the
conversational texts.
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3
The Genre-Based Approach where teaching and learning focus on
the
understanding and production of selected genre of texts has been
identified by
Rodgers (2001) as a major trend in English Language Teaching
(ELT).
Related to the approach, the coursebook that is used in the
learning process
contains many kinds of texts so it makes students face
difficulties in
understanding each text in the coursebook. The book that
researcher analyzed
contains some kinds of texts; narrative, explanation, and report
text. To grasp
the meaning of the texts, the students need to consider to the
sentence patterns
of the texts.
As students in senior high school, the students should
understand the
meanings of the texts to make the learning running well in the
classroom.
Sometimes, they feel confuse when they have to answer the
questions based
on the texts because they cannot understand the meanings of the
texts because
of the translation of the language andsome implied meanings of
the texts.
Textbooks are a key component in most language programs. In
some
situations they serve as the basis for much of the language
input learners
receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom.
They may
provide the basis for the content of the lessons, the balance of
skills taught and
the kinds of language practice the students take part in. In
other situations, the
textbook may serve primarily to supplement the teacher's
instruction. For
learners, the textbook may provide the major source of contact
they have with
the language apart from input provided by the teacher. In the
case of
inexperienced teachers textbooks may also serve as a form of
teacher training,
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4
they provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as well as
formats that
teachers can use. Much of the language teaching that occurs
throughout the
world today could not take place without the extensive use of
commercial
textbooks. Learning how to use and adapt textbooks is hence an
important part
of a teacher's professional knowledge.
All types of conversational implicature convey more than what it
is said. It
commonly takes place in the daily conversations that the
speakers’ intended
meaning is not always explicity stated. Speaker’s intended
meaning which is
implicitly stated also occurs in conversations in a text of a
coursebook. The
dialogues in the coursebook are kinds of spoken texts consisting
of various
kinds of conversational implicature. Indirect communication
which creates a
hidden meaning or implicature is also done by the speakers in
the spoken
texts.
The use of a textbook in a program can ensure that the students
in different
classes receive similar content and therefore can be tested in
the same
way.They maintain quality.If a well-developed textbook is used,
the students
are exposed to materials that have been tried and tested, that
are based on
sound learning principles, and that are paced appropriately.They
provide a
variety of learning resources. Textbooks are often accompanied
by
workbooks, CDs and cassettes, videos, CD ROMs, and
comprehensive
teaching guides, providing a rich and varied resource for
teachers and
learners.They are efficient. They save teachers' time, enabling
teachers to
devote time to teaching rather than material's production.They
can provide
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5
effective language models and input. Textbooks can provide
support for
teachers whose first language is not English and who may not be
able to
generate accurate language input on their own.They can train
teachers. If
teachers have limited teaching experience, a textbook together
with the
teacher's manual can serve as a medium of initial teacher
training.They are
visually appealing.Commercial textbooks usually have high
standards of
design and production and hence are appealing to learners and
teachers.
However, there are also potential negative effects of the use
of
textbooks.They may contain inauthentic language.Textbooks
sometimes
present inauthentic language since texts, dialogs and other
aspects of content
tend to be specially written to incorporate teaching points and
are often not
representative of real language use.They may distort
content.Textbooks often
present an idealized view of the world or fail to represent real
issues. In order
to make textbooks acceptable in many different contexts
controversial topics
are avoided and instead an idealized white middle-class view of
the world is
portrayed as the norm.They may not reflect students' needs.Since
textbooks
are often written for global markets they often do not reflect
the interests and
needs of students and hence may require adaptation. They can
deskill
teachers.If teachers use textbooks as the primary source of
their teaching
leaving the textbook and teacher's manual to make the major
instructional
decisions for them the teacher's role can become reduced to that
of a
technician whose primarily function is to present materials
prepared by
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6
others.They are expensive.Commercial textbooks may represent a
financial
burden for students in many parts of the world.
Both the benefits and limitations of the use of textbooks need
to be
considered, and if the textbooks that are being used in a
program are judged to
have some negative consequences, remedial action should be
taken, e.g. by
adapting or supplementing books or by providing appropriate
guidance and
support for teachers in how to use them appropriately.
B. Identification of the Problems
The first problem is that there are kinds of implicatures that
should be
revealed in order to identify whether the speaker of
communication follows
the maxim or not. It influences the understanding of the
students in getting the
meanings of the texts. There are two types of conversational
implicature;
standard conversational implicature and complex conversational
implicature.
The standard conversational implicatures occur when the hearer
assumes that
the speaker iscooperative by directly observing the
conversational maxim.
Another one is complex conversational implicature. It occurs
when the
speaker deliberately flouts the maxim, but at the same time as
none the less
intending a sincere communication without abandoning the
cooperative
principle.
The second problem is that the students face the difficulties in
getting the
meanings of the texts because the sentence which is delivered by
the second
person in the texts does not have coherence to the sentence
which is delivered
by the first person in the texts. It shows that the speaker’s
utterances contain a
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7
hidden meaning that has to be interpreted by the hearer
properly. If the
speaker can obey the maxim of conversation, it means cooperative
principle is
followed well. However, if the speaker flouts the maxims, there
must be
hidden meaning in the utterance. Cutting (2002:40) explains that
a speaker can
be said to ‘violate’ a maxim when a speaker knows the hearer
will not know
the truth and will only understand the surface meaning of the
words. Flouting
maxim may be a safe way to hidden the speaker does not want to
reveal
directly.
C. Limitation of the Problems
In using a language especially in verbal communication, the
existence of
implicature is something unavoidable. It is difficult to
separate conversational
implicature from the language use. Implicature is an additional
conveyed
meaning. When people are speaking, they do not always
explicitely state their
intended meaning for certain reasons.
Based on the identification of the problems above, there is an
interesting
thing in this topic to be analyzed. It is about the use of
conversational
implicature which makes several conversations in the coursebook
becoming
hard to be understood by the students.
In this research, the researcher analyzes the conversational
implicature that
is used in English Zone coursebook. There are two problems in
this research.
Those are the type of conversational implicature and the implied
meanings of
the conversational implicature which are used in the
coursebook.
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8
D. Formulation ofthe Problems
According to the limitation above, the formulation of problems
can be
arranged as follows:
1. What are the types of conversational implicature that is used
in English
Zone course book for senior high school year XI?
2. What are the implied meanings of the conversational
implicature that is
used in in English Zone course book for senior high school year
XI?
E. Research Objectives
Related to the formulation of the problems above, this research
has two
objectives. Those are to identify the types of conversational
implicature
which are used inEnglishZonecourse book for senior high school
year XI and
to describe the implied meanings of the conversational
implicaturewhich are
used in English Zone course book for senior high school year
XI.
F. Significance of the Research
1. Theoretical Significance
This research can enrich the knowledge regarding linguistics
field,
especially those which are related to the conversational
implicatures.
2. Practical Significance
The results of the research are beneficial and useful for
teachers and for
students;
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9
a. Teachers
From the analysis of the research, it can give some
additional
materials to the teachers and can help them to teach the
students about
the importances of context in uderstanding meanings.
b. Students (Senior High School Year XI)
For the students, this research is expected to give more
knowledge
about conversational implicatures which are used in English
Zone
course book for senior high school year XI.
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10
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW AND THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
A. Theoretical Review
1. Pragmatics
Yule (1996:3) defines pragmatics as the study of how more
gets
communicated than is said. It means that in a communication,
hearers
should take account in making inferences to the speaker’s
intended
meaning. Every person has their own ways in using their language
to
deliver the messages. Sometimes there are hidden meanings in
the
language in speakers’ talks so listeners should consider with
the intended
meaning of the speakers. Interpretation is very important in
terms of
pragmatics. Yule also defines Pragmatics as the study of
contextual
meanings. It concerns not only on the utterances but also it
needs to
concern what the contexts in the utterances are.
Peccei (1999:3) states that pragmatics concentrates on the
aspects of
the meanings that cannot be predicted by linguistics knowledge
alone and
takes into account knowledge about the physical and social
world.
Pragmatics has a close relationship with the meanings in
utterances or
discourse.
2. The scope of Pragmatics
a. Pragmatics and Society
According to Wardaugh (1993:3), a society is any group of
people
who are drawn together for a certain purpose.
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11
Hornby (1995:818) defines society as a system where people
live
together in organized community. Living in a society means that
the
people have to interact with the members of the society.
The context of an utterance is closely related to the study
of
pragmatics. As stated by Leech (1993), pragmatics is the study
how
utterances have meanings in situations. Similarly, Yule in
Cutting (2002:1)
states that pragmatics studies the meaning of words in context,
analyzing
the parts of meaning and the social-psychological factors
influencing
communication, as well as the knowledge of the time and the
place in
which the words are uttered or written.
According to Brown and Yule (1993), pragmatics focuses on
the
meaning of words in interaction and how interactors communicate
more
information than the words they use. The speakers’ meaning
depends on
assumptions of knowledge which are shared by both speaker.
b. Utterances
According to Schmid and Richard (2002:573), an utterance is a
unit of
analysis of speech which has been defined in various ways but
most
commonly as a sequence of words within a single person’s turn at
talk that
falls under a single intonation counter.
Finnegan (1992:162) defines an utterance as the use of a
sentence on a
particular occasion or in particular context. He adds that the
meaning of an
utterance includes the descriptive meaning of the sentence,
along with
social and affective meaning contributed by contextual
factors.
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12
c. Aspect of speech situation
Leech (1983:6) states that pragmatic function is how language is
used
in a communication. It focuses on a goal-oriented speech
situation, in
which the speaker uses the language in order to produce a
particular effect
on the mind of hearers. He says that since pragmatics studies
meaning in
relation to speech situation, there are five aspects of
situation to be
considered.
1) Addressers and Addresses
Lyon in Leech (1983:13) makes a significant distinction between
a
receiver, a person who receives and interprets the message, and
an
addressee, a person who is in an intended receiver of the
mesage.
This distinction is relevant to the present inquiry, in that the
analyst of
pragmatic meaning is best thought of a receiver who tries to
make sense of
the content of a discourse according to whatever contextual
evidence is
available.
2) The context of an utterance
Leech (1983:13) considers a context to be any background
knowledge
assumed to be shared by speaker and hearer and which contributes
to
hearer’s interpretation of what speaker means by a given
utterance.
3) The goal of an utterance
The term “goal” is more neutral than intention because it does
not
commit its user to deal with a conscious volition or motivation,
but can be
used generally of goal-oriented activities.
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13
4) The utterance as a form of act or activity : Speech Act
Pragmatics deals with the verbal acts or performances which take
place
in a particular situation in time.
5) The utterance as a product of verbal act deals with language
at a more
concrete level than grammar.
An utterance can refer to the product of a verbal art rather
than to the
verbal acts itself. The words ”Would you be quiet please?”
spoken with a
polite rising intonation, might be described as a sentence, or a
question, or
as a request. However, it is convenient to reserve a term like
sentence and
question for grammatical entities, identified by their use in a
particular
situation. In this sense, utterances are the element whose
meanings are
studied in discourse analysis. In fact, it can be correctly
described that
discourse analysis deals with utterancesin relation to the
context.
3. Implicature
Implicature is a technical term in the pragmatics subfield
of
linguistics, which was firstly coined by Paul Grice. It needs to
concern
what is suggested in an utterance. In communication, there are
some
utterances that have to be considered whether the utterances are
expressed
nor strictly implied. Yule (1996:35) defines implicature as an
additional
conveyed meaning.It is important for listeners to interpret the
utterances
which are delivered by the speakers.
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14
The followings present the types of implicature.
a. Conversational Implicature
Yule (1996: 40) states that the basic assumption in
conversation
is that unless otherwise indicated the participants are adhering
to the
cooperative principle and the maxims. It is related to how the
speakers
try to adhere to the some maxims. Violating maxims also happen
in
conversational implicature.
Levinson (1983:126) identifies two kinds of conversational
implicature. The first one is Standard Conversational
Implicatures. It
is additional meaning which is literally said and the
implicature
together satisfy the maxims. The second one is Complex
Conversational Implicatures. It happens when the speakers flout
the
maxims without ignoring the cooperative principle.
Cutting (2002:40) explains that a speaker can be said to violate
a
maxim when he/she knows that the hearer will not know the truth
and
will only understand the surface meaning of the words.
b. Conventional Implicature
Conventional implicature does not have to occur in
conversation
and they do not depend on special context for the
interpretation. Yule
(1996:45) states that conventional implicatureis not based on
the
cooperative principle or the maxims. Itis more to be concerned
with
the specific words.
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15
Implicature is a component of a speaker’s meaning which
constitutes an
aspect of what is meant in a speaker's utterance without being
part of what is
said. What a speaker intends to communicate is
characteristically far richer
than what she directly expresses. Linguistic meaning
radically
underdetermines the message conveyed and understood. Speaker S
tacitly
exploits pragmatic principles to bridge this gap and counts on
hearer H to
invoke the same principles for the purposes of utterance
interpretation.
The contrast between particularized and generalized implicature
emerges
clearly in this scene from When Harry Met Sally(1989 screenplay
by Nora
Ephron). Harry (Billy Crystal) is setting up a blind date
between his buddy
Jess (Bruno Kirby) and his woman friend - but not yet girlfriend
- Sally (Meg
Ryan).
Jess : If she's so great why aren't YOU taking her out?Harry :
How many times do I have to tell you, we're just friends.Jess : So
you're saying she's not that attractive.Harry : No, I told you she
IS attractive.Jess : But you also said she has a good
personality.Harry : She HAS a good personality.Jess : [Stops
walking, turns around, throws up hands, as ifto say “Aha!”]Harry :
What?Jess : When someone's not that attractive they're ALWAYS
described as
having a good personality.Harry : Look, if you were to ask me
what does she look likeand I said she
has a good personality, that means she's not attractive. But
justbecause Ihappen to mention that she has a good personality,
shecould be either. She could be attractive with a good personality
ornot attractive with a good personality.
Jess : So which one is she?Harry : Attractive.Jess : But not
beautiful,
right?https://archive.org/stream/Part11.Implicature/part%201-
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16
%201.%20Implicature_djvu.txt
Jess's first observation incorrectly reanalyzes a particularized
implicature
(S, in describingX to H as having a good personality implicates
that X isnot
attractive) as generalized, to which Harry responds by patiently
pointing out
the strongly context-dependent nature of the inference in
question.
4. Cooperative Principles
The cooperative principle is a principle of a conversation which
was
proposed by Grice (1975) who states that participants expect
that each makes
a “conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage
at which it
occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchange.”
The cooperative principle, along with the conversational maxims,
partly
accounts for conversational implicatures. Participants assume
that a speaker is
being cooperative, and thus they make conversational
implicatures about what
is said.
Conversational implicature is signed by exploitation (apparent
flouting) or
observation of the cooperative principle and a set of maxims
(Grice, 1989).
a. Maxims
1) Maxim of Quantity
It needs to make your contribution as informative as is required
and do not
make your contribution more informative than is required.The
mutual
expectation of the interaction is that quantitatively the
speaker’s contributon
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17
is just right for the interaction at hand. If it is more would
be too much and if
it is less would be too littlefor successful communication to
take place.
2) Maxim of Quality
In observing maxim of quality, the speakers should try to make
the
contribution one that is true and do not say what they believe
to be false and
do not say that for which they lack adequate evidence.The mutual
expectation
of the interactants is that the speaker makes prepositions or
provides
information that she or he believes to be true.
3) Maxim of Relation
The utterance which is delivered by the speaker should be
relevant and the
speakers say something that is relevant to what has been said
before.The
mutual expectation of the interactants is that the speaker makes
a contribution
to the communicative exchange that is relevant to the topic and
the situation
of this exchange.
4) Maxim of Manner
The utterance should be perspicuous and the speakers should
avoid
obscurity of the expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief (avoid
unnecessary
prolixity), and be orderly.The mutual expectation of the
interactants is that the
speaker makes his or her contribution as clear and as
comprehensible as
possible and that while doing so. She or he takes all
precautions ensure suc
clarity in terms of performance and delivery.
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18
b. Flouting Maxims
Black (2006:25) describes flouting as the most interesting way
of
breaking maxims. Speakers who deliberately flout the maxims
usually
intend for their listener to understand their underlying
implication.
1) Flouting Maxim of Quantity
The speakers who flout the maxim of quantity seem to give
too
little or too much information.
Example:
Context: the conversation happened after Anna attended a
party.
Sarah : Did you enjoy the party last night?Anna : There was
plenty of oriental food on the table, lots of flowers
all over the place, people hanging around chatting with
eachother...
http://www.academia.edu/1588301/Some_Instances_of_Violation_and_Flouting_of_the_Maxim_of_Quantity_by_the_Main_Characters_Barry_and_Tim_in_Dinner_for_Schmucks
Sara asks a very simple question, however what she receives
from
Anna is a protracted description of what was going on in the
party. Two
interpretations canbe made from Anna’s description: 1. Anna had
such a
good time in the party that she is obviously too excited and has
no idea
where to begin. 2. Anna had such a terrible time and she does
not know
how to complain about it.
2) Flouting maxim of Quality
The speakers who flout the maxim of quality seem to give an
exaggerate information or statement.
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19
Example:
Context: the conversation happened in a bedroom between a mother
and
her son.
Mother : Did you study all day long?Son (who has been playing
all day long) : Yes, I‘ve been studying till
know!
http://www.academia.edu/1588301/Some_Instances_of_Violation_and_Flouting_of_the_Maxim_of_Quantity_by_the_Main_Characters_Barry_and_Tim_in_Dinner_for_Schmucks
In this exchange, the boy is not truthful and violates the maxim
of
quality. He is lies to avoid unpleasant consequences such as;
punishment
or to be forced to study for the rest of the day.
3) Flouting Maxim of Relevant
The speakers flout the maxim of relevant in order to expect that
the
hearers are able to imagine what the utterances did not say.
Example:
Context: the conversation happened in a classroom between a
teacher and
his student in a morning.
Teacher: Why didn’t you do your homework?Student: May I go and
get some water? I’m so thirsty.
http://www.academia.edu/1588301/Some_Instances_of_Violation_and_Flouting_of_the_Maxim_of_Quantity_by_the_Main_Characters_Barry_and_Tim_in_Dinner_for_Schmucks
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20
In the above exchange, the student’s answer is by no means
relevant to the teacher’s question. One reason for this answer
can be the
fact that the student is trying to evade the interrogation posed
by the
teacher.
4) Flouting Maxim of Manner
The speakers who flout this maxim, appearing to be obscure.
Example:
Context: the conversation happened between two friends who have
not met
each other for long time.
John: Where have you been? I searched everywhere for you during
thepast three months!
Mike: I wasn’t around. So, what’s the big deal?
http://fbs.unaki.ac.id/some-instances-of-flouting-and-violating-of-the-maxim-quantity-in-some-conversation-in-the-bible
John poses a question, which he needs to be answered by
Mike.
What Mike says in return does not lack the truth, however is
still
insufficient. This can be due to the fact that Mike prefers to
refrain from
providing John with the answer. John’s sentence implies that
Mike has not
been around otherwise he did not have to search everywhere. John
does
not say as much as it is necessary to make his
contributioncooperative.
Hence, he leaves his listener unsatisfied.
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21
5. Context
It is difficult for the hearer ina conversation to understand
the speakers’
meaning of what he or she says if that hearer does not know the
context of
situations. Context is the physical environment in which a word
is used.
Bublitz (2010) states that pragmatics deals with meaning
in-context, which for
analytical purposes can be viewed from different perspective
(that of the
speaker, the recipient, the analyst, etc.). These perspectives
might be different
because there might be different views of context.
Context is an important concept in a conversation. According to
Nunan
(1993:8), context refers to the situation giving rise to the
discourse, and within
which the discourse is embedded.There are two types of
contexts:
a. Linguistic Context
The linguistic context is the language surrounding or
accompanying
the piece of discourse under analysis. It refers to the words,
utterances, and
the sentences surrounding the piece of text. Linguistic context
is discourse
that precedes a sentence to be interpreted. Linguistic context
is how meaning
is understood without relying on intent and assumption.
b. Non-linguistic Context
Non-linguistic context is experiential context within which
the
discourse takes place. It refers to the real world context in
which the context
occurs. The non-linguistic context includes the type of
communication event,
for example jokes, story, lecture, greeting, conversation; the
topic; the
purpose of the event; the setting including location and the
time of the
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22
situation, the participant and the relationship between them and
the
background knowledge and the assumption underlying the
communication
event.
In a conversation, there are three sorts of context to observe
(Cutting,
2002:3) as presented below.
a. The situational context, what speakers know about what they
can see
around them.
b. The background knowledge of context, what they know about
each
other and the world.
c. The co-textual context, what they know about what they have
been
saying.
6. Discourse Analysis
Context and text are two insparapable aspects that work together
to
constitute the discourse. Text is stretch of language complete
in itself and of
some considerable extent. The meaning of text does not come into
being until
it is actively employed in a context of use. This process of
activation of a text
by relating it to a context of use is called as discourse.
There are various opinions on the definition of discourse.
Traditionally,
discourse is defined as a continous stretch of (especially
spoken) language
larger than a sentence. A discourse is a behavioral unit which
has a pre-
theoritical status in linguistics (Crystal, 1991:106). In
accordance with this
definition, discourse is only seen as spoken language.
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23
Cutting (2002:2) states that discourse analysis is approach to
studying
language’s relation to the contextual background features. It
studies the
meaning of words in context, analysing the parts of meaning that
can be
explained by knowledge of the physical and social world
influincing
communication. It also studies how large chunks of language
beyond the
sentence level are organized.
7. English Zone Coursebook
English zone is a curriculum-based textbook for students in
their eleventh
year of schooling. Teachers and students find here a solid
coverage of the
areas of importance required by the competency standard of
curriculum. The
language work includes usage, vocabulary, pronunciation,
comprehension,
and practical English concepts. What makes the book even more
special is the
use of Indonesian context and stories which make students more
familiar with
their culture and hopefully love their country more.
The book is divided into seven units, each of which contains two
or three
lessons. Each lesson contains numerous features which cover the
four
language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
This book is arranged in such a way that the study of English
should be
focused yet enjoyable. Teachers and students find English Zone
as an
engaging and highly practical textbook.
8. Previous Research Finding
Some students of Yogyakarta State University also have conducted
numbers
of research concerning the conversational implicature. One of
those researchs
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24
is done by Nurazizah (2010) from the English Education
Department. She
conducted a research in identifying the kinds of conversational
implicature and
in interpretating the implied meaning of the conversational
implicature. The
research entitled “Conversational Implicature in MALCOM X As A
Reflection
Of America Social Condition In 1960s”. Her research found out
that there are
two kinds of conversational implicature from the utterances of
the characters in
the movie.
There is an obvious difference between Nurazizah’s research and
this
research. Although both researchers analyze the kinds of
conversational
implicature, the object of the research is different. The
previous research
analyzes a movie, while this research analyzes a coursebook.
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25
B. Analytical Construct
Figure 1:Analytical construct of “Conversational Implicature in
English Zone
Coursebook Senior High School Student Year IX”
StandardConversational
Implicature
ComplexConversational
Implicature
Communicative
purposes
Maxim ofQuantity
Maxim ofManner
Maxim ofQuality
English Zone Coursebook for Senior HighSchool Students Year
XI
Pragmatics
Conversational Implicature
Cooperative Principles Implied Meanings
Maxim ofRelation
Types
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26
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS
A. Type of Research
This research is descriptive qualitative research. It is an
appropriate one to
corner with providing the description of the phenomena or a fact
in event of a
life. Eysenck (2004:2) states in qualitative research, the
information obtains
from participants that are not expressed in numerical form. In
addition,
Marguerite G. Lodicoet al. (2010:142) state that qualitative
researchers focus
on the study of social phenomena and on giving voice to the
feelings and
perceptions of the participants under study. This is based on
the belief that
knowledge is derived from the social setting and that
understanding social
knowledge is a legitimate scientific process.
This research describes the phenomena of implicature of the
utterances in
the coursebook. It applies a content analysis approach.
Krippendorf (1981:23)
states that content analysis is a research technique for making
replicable and
valid inferences from data to their context. The researcher
makes inferences of
the utterances in the coursebook.
B. Data Source
The primary source of this research is a textbook entitled
English Zone for
senior high school students year XI. The data were taken from
the texts of the
coursebook. The other datawere from several pragmatic books,
some journals
which are related to the conversational implicature and from
internet which
can support the study.
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27
The data of the research were in the forms of words, phrases,
clauses, and
utterances in the spoken texts in English Zone Coursebook which
expose the
phenomenon of conversational implicature.
C. Techniques of Collecting Data
The main instrument of the research is the researcher himself.
The
researcher read the book and collected the data from the book.
He was
involved in all processed of the research observation, analysis,
and
interpreting the data.
Table 1:Kinds of Conversational Implicature, Maxims, Context,
andImplied Meaning
Code Data
Kinds of
Conversational
Implicatures
MaximsContext
Implied
Meaning
SCI CCI QN QL RE MA
CI
001/008
CI : Conversational Implicature001 : Number of data008 : Page of
the coursebookSCI : Standard Conversational ImplicatureCCI :
Complex Conversational ImplicatureQN : QuantitativeQL :
QualitativeRE : RelationMA : Manner
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28
This research employs descriptive qualitative research.
Qualitative
researchers let the data ‘speak’ to them and try to avoid going
into a study
with a preconceived idea of what they will find (Vanderstoep,
2009:168).
D. Data Analysis
1. Types of Conversational Implicature
Sometimes, in flouting maxims the speakers expect that the
hearers
understand that there is an implied meaning in the conversation.
A
conversational implicature arises in this example below:
Rini : Hi, Ika. What are you reading?Rika : Hi, Rini. It’s the
new Harry Potter novel.Rini: Oh, great. It seems to me that JK
Rowling has written some of the
best novels of this decade.Rika : I agree. By the way, what kind
of CD is that?Rini : This one? Oh, it’s a classic piano concerto by
mozart.Rika : You love classical music, don’t you?Rini:Yes, I do.
In my opinion, classical music is the biggest masterpiece of
music. Don’t you think so?Rika : Oh, well. Actually, that’s the
only kind of music I don’t like. It
puts me to sleep.
(CI/004/005)
In the data above, there is possibility that the context is when
they are in
a bookstore or in a library. Rini is the first who greets Rika
by giving Rika a
question. There is a standard conversational implicature in the
conversation
above. There is additional meaning in the expression“Oh, great.
It seems to
me that JK Rowling has written some of the best novels of this
decade”.The
implicature is type of standard conversational implicature
because there is
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29
no flouting of maxims in the expression.She follows the maxim of
relation
because the expression is relevant to the previous topic.
2. Implied Meaning
Implied meaning is implicit meaning that can be found in an
utterance.
Base on the example above, there is an implied meaning in
Rini’s
utterance that relies on non-linguistic context. There is
possibility that the
context is when they are in a bookstore or in a library.The
meaning is that
Rini likes the novel very much and wants to show her interest in
the novel
by saying “Oh, great. It seems to me that JK Rowling has written
some of
the best novels of this decade”.
E. Trustworthiness
Validity in the research is very important to make the research
is accepted.
To make the data is truthfulness, the researcher uses
triangulation method. It
was a technique to test the validity of the data.
The researcher considered to the truthfulness of the research by
inviting
people who considered and competent in criticizing the process
of the collected
data analysis. Although the research was done only by one
researcher, it was
always consulted to the two consultants in order to confirm the
data. This
research was also triangulated by two friends of the researcher,
Herida Panji
and Taufiqurahman. Both are students of English Education
Department of
Yoyakarta State University majoring in linguistics.
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30
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter consists of two sections; they are research
findings and
discussion. As mentioned in the first chapter, this reseach has
two objectives.
They are to identify the types of conversational implicature
that is used
inEnglishZonecoursebook for senior high school year XI and to
describe the
implied meanings of the conversational implicature that is used
in English Zone
course book for senior high school year XI. The data gained are
presented in the
findings, while the detail explanation is conveyed deeply in the
discussion section.
A. Research Findings
This study aims to analyze the conversational implicature which
is used in
English Zone coursebook for senior high school year XI. The
findings consist of
two sections, the first section presents the finding on types of
conversational
implicature and the second presents the finding on the
interpretation of the
implied meanings.
1. Types of Conversational Implicature
Based on the data analysis, the researcher found that there were
two types of
conversational implicature in the English Zone coursebook for
senior high school
year XI; they were standard conversational implicature and
complex
conversational implicature. The utterances which observe the
cooperative
principle are categorized as standard conversational implicature
while the
utterances which flout the maxims are categorized as complex
conversational
implicature. Most of the utterances belong to standard
conversational implicature
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31
which performs fourty-one utterancewhere three utterance observe
maxim of
quantity, twenty-three utterance observe maxim of quality, four
utterance observe
maxim of relation, eleven utterance observe maxim of manner, and
twenty-one
utterance belong to complex conversational implicature where
eleven utterance
flout maxim of quantity, three utterance flout maxim of quality,
three utterance
flout maxim of relation, and four utterance flout maxim of
manner. The detailed
findings can be seen in the table 1 below.
Table 1: The observing maxims of cooperative principle (SCI) and
theflouting maxims of cooperative principles (CCI) employed in
thetexts.
NO Maxims Frequency Percentage (%)1 Observing Maxim of Quantity
3 4.8%2 Observing Maxim of Quality 23 37%3 Observing Maxim of
Relation 4 6.4%4 Observing Maxim of Manner 11 17.7%5 Flouting Maxim
of Quantity 11 17.7%6 Flouting Maxim of Quality 3 4.8%7 Flouting
Maxim of Relation 3 4.8%8 Flouting Maxim of Manner 4 6.4%
TOTAL 62 100%
a. Standard Conversational Implicature
The data are categorized as standard conversational implicature
are
those observing maxim of cooperative principles. In this
findings, there are four
maxims which are followed in the utterances; maxim of quantity,
maxim of
quality, maxim of relation, and maxim of manner.
The findings of observing the maxims of cooperative principles
in the
utterances in the coursebook can be seen in the table 1. This
table shows that there
is a significant difference found in the utterances. The
frequency and percentage
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32
of each maxim which are observed in the utterances are different
in number. The
maxim of relation shows 4.8% and the biggest frequency is in the
observing
maxim of quality 37%. The data categorized as standard
conversational
implicature are the utterances in the coursebook that observe
the maxims of
cooperative principle. Cooperative principle regulates how to
conduct a proper
and effective communication. In this research, the utterances in
the texts are
normally cooperating although the utterances still implied
something. By
observing and following the maxims of cooperative principle, the
texts try to
converse well and create effective communication, so that their
intention can be
delivered succesfully.
b. Complex Conversational Implicature
Some expressions in the coursebook have also flouted the maxims
of
cooperative principles. This kind of implicature is called
complex conversational
implicature. The data are derived from the coursebook when do
not obey the
maxims of cooperative principles. The speakers flout the maxims
in order to
deliver their intention indirectly. This happens because by
flouting the maxims,
they want to achieve a particular communicative purpose. The
result of flouting
maxims of cooperative principles in the utterances in the
coursebook can be seen
in the table 1.
The table 1 also presents the findings of the occurrences of
flouting maxims
of cooperative principles in the utterances. This table shows
that the utterances
also flout all the maxims of cooperative principles. Like the
observing maxims of
cooperative principles which has different in numbers, flouting
maxims result also
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33
in different numbers except the maxim of qualityand maxim of
relation have the
same number of frequency in flouting maxim of cooperative
principles. The data
categorized as complex conversational implicature are the
utterances in the
coursebook that flout maxims of cooperative principles. When
conveying the
conversation, the utterances do not observe those maxims for
certain
communicative purposes such as requesting, asking, etc. In this
research, the
complex conversational implicature is generated from the
utterances that flout
maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation, and
maxim of manner.
2. The Implied Meanings
Conversational implicature is what the sentence or utterance
implies. Based
on the data in the coursebook, the researcher found that the
conversational
implicature was used in the coursebook as communicative
purposes. The
interpretations reveal that there are some communicative
purposes in the utterance
which has implied meanings. The communicative purposes consist
of asking,
requesting, warning, teasing, and advising. In interpreting the
implied meaning of
the utterances in the coursebook, the researcher relies on the
context in which
those are uttered, both linguistic and non-linguistic
context.
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34
B. Discussion
The interpretation of the implied meanings of the utterances
contain
conversational implicature. By using the discourse analysis
device, the researcher
analyzed the implied meanings of the utterances in the
coursebook. The implied
meanings of the utterances are related to the types of the
conversational
implicature.
1. The Analysis on the Types of Conversational Implicature of
theCoursebook.
There are two distinctions in terms of the kinds of
conversational
implicature. They are standard conversational implicature and
complex
conversational implicature. The utterances which observe the
maxim of
cooperative principles belong to standard conversational
implicature, while the
utterances which flout maxim of cooperative principles belong to
complex
conversational implicature.
a. The utterances which are catagorized into standard
conversationalimplicature.
The participants should follow the cooperative principle. They
should
observe the maxim of quality, quantity, manner, and relation.
The
explanation is as follows:
1) Standard conversational implicatures which observe the maxim
ofquantity.
The speakers should give the information as much as required so
it can
be concluded that the speakers observe the maxim of quantity in
a discourse.
It can be seen in the following data:
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35
Nadia : I am calling because I want to know your condition right
now.Ika : Yeah, I am okay. Why? Is there anything wrong?Nadia : I
am wondering to the gossip in the school about you.Ika : Well, I
have just heard the news slightly embarrassing, right?Nadia : Tell
me your feelings now?Ika: Of course, I got embarrassed.Nadia : do
you have any idea who is the trouble maker?Ika : Well, it could be
Lisa or Donna or someone else.Nadia : May I know what is your
decision?Ika : I am not sure. Maybe I will talk to our teacher.
(CI/046-47/150)
It happens in a phone-call between Nadia and Ika. They are
talking
about the gossip in the school about Ika. The expression “I am
wondering to
the gossip in the school about you”, which is delivered by Nadia
has an
implied meaning. The implied meaning is that Nadia wants Ika to
tell the
truth about the gossip in the school. In this case, Nadia
follows maxim of
quantity. The last expression which is delivered by Ika has
implied meaning,
“May be I will talk to our teacher”. It means that Ika will tell
the truth to the
teacher about the news. She follows maxim of quantity because
she gives
information as much as required to Nadia’s question.
Reporter : Good morning. I am now talking to Erick
Weinhanmayer,live from Mount Everest. How are you there, Erick?
Erick : Good morning. I can say I am pretty fine.Reporter : Is
it right that you have had a minor accident?Erick : Yeah. I slipped
and fell. My back hurts slightly.Reporter : What’s your team’s
comment about the sudden changing
of condition?Erick : They said it’s a royal pain! Ha ha ha.
(CI/056/207)
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36
The conversation happens between a reporter and a man who
climbed
a mount everest. The reporter asks about his condition and his
team. By
answering the question with “They said it’s a royal pain! Ha ha
ha”, it
means that Erick and his team feel good and still want to finish
the
climbing. It is shown by the fact that Erick can throw a joke to
the reporter
which shows that he is good. He follows maxim of quantity by
delivering
the expression to the first speaker as much as required.
2) Standard conversational implicatures which observe the maxim
ofquality.
The participants should be truthful for giving the information.
The
speakers make propositions or provide information that she or he
believes to
be true. The data can be seen in the example below:
The example of standard conversational implicature in a dialog
in the
coursebook is shown the conversation between Erliani and
Bismawhich is
located in a classroom.
A: Hi. Is this seat taken?B: No. Help yourself.A: You’re a new
student here, aren’t you?B : Yeah, that’s right. My name is
Erliani, but everyone calls me Lili.
What’s yours?A: I’m Bisma. Do you live near here?B: No, I live
out of town, in a village about an hour and a half from here.A: Oh,
I think that’s preety far.B: I know, but my father runs his
business there. Besides, I love the
tranquility the village offers.A: I see.
(CI/003/005)
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37
The conversation takes place in a classroom between a new
student
and one of the students in the classroom. By saying “I know, but
my father
runs his business there. Besides, I love the tranquility the
village
offers”Erliani wants to show to Bisma that she lives there
because of her
father’s job which requires them to live there but she loves to
live there. She
tells the truth about the condition why she lives there so she
observes maxim
of quality.
Rika: You love classic music, don’t you?Rini: Yes, I do. In my
opinion, classical music is the biggest masterpiece of
music. Don’t you think so?Rika: Oh, well. Actually, that’s the
only kind of music I don’t like. It puts
me to sleep.(CI/005/005)
The conversation happens between two friends, Rika and Rini who
are
talking about classical music. The expression“It puts me to
sleep”means that
Rika does not agree with Rini’s opinion about the classical
music but she
tells the truth of what she feels so she follows maxim of
quality.
A: What do you think about the banner?B: Which one? Is this the
banner standing near the door?A: Yes, the banner about the
newspaper subscription.B: I think it is not appropriate to be put
there since it is the main door
to a kindergarten.A: You are right, but I guess it is intended
to attract parent’s attention.
(CI/008-9/009)
The conversation happens near a kindergaten between two adult
people
(children parents). The second speaker’s meaning by using that
utterance is
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38
that the banner about newspaper subscripsion is not effective to
be put near
the kindergaten because there are just children over there but
the second
speaker refuses the opinion by saying “You are right, but I
guess it is
intended to attract parent’s attention”, the implied meaning is
that the first
speaker wants to show that the second speaker’s statement is
wrong so he/
she agrees to the banner to stand near the door. They follow the
maxim of
quality because they believe to be true.
Earthquake often happens around us. It brings great
damages.Earthquake is hard to be predicted and that makes lot
victims.
(CI/016-17/032)
Actually, the utterances in the text are not in a real
conversation but
those are written in a text (report text). The text tells about
earthquake.
There are utterances which have implied meanings in the text.
Those are
“Earthquake often happens around us”and “Earthquake is hard to
be
predicted and that makes lot victims”.The writer wants to inform
something
through the first utterance.It means that we should be careful
with the
condition of our place because earthquake can happen around us.
The
second utterance means that the first speaker (the writer) wants
to warn us
that earthquake is very dangerous. The writer follows maxim of
quality by
saying the truth.
A : Would you please turn on the radio now? Sorry but I’m
stillwashing my hands.
B : Sure, no problem. It is your favorite ghost story time,
isn’t?
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39
(CI/021/060)
It happens in a house between two people. The expression“Sorry
but
I’m still washing my hands”means that the first speaker wants to
ask
somebody to turn the radio on for him because he cannot do that
in that
moment. The first speaker says the truth about the situation
which shows
that he follows the maxim of quality.
A: Yes. It’s ‘True Encounter’ time. Would you mind sitting here
withme?I like ghost stories but it’s just too scary to sit and
listen to theprogram all alone.
B: Not at all. I’d be glad to.A: The program starts. Listen,
please. A man has just started his ‘true
encounter’ story.B: Okay. Could you possibly turn the volume
down? It’s getting creepier.A: Certainly.B: You wouldn’t mind
turning it off, would you? I’m getting scared.A: Yes, I am sorry
it’s my favorite.
(CI/022-23/060)
The conversation happens in a house between two people. There
is
implied meaning in the next utterance which is said by the first
speaker
“Would you mind sitting here with me”?I like ghost stories but
it’s just too
scary to sit and listen to the program all alone. It means that
he feels rather
scared if he has to listen to it alone. When the second speaker
asks to turn
the radio off, the first speaker answers with“Yes, I am sorry
it’s my
favorite”. It means that he does not want to turn it off because
it is the part
she is waiting for. By saying that expression she follows maxim
of quality.
Claudia: Did you hear the rumor that a mysterious figure of a
boy can beseen in one of the empty rooms of our school dormitory
last night.
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40
Aditya : Oh, my God! So, he is a ghost?Claudia:I don’t know. I
don’t believe in ghost, but recently my friends
have been tellingme about their weird experiences.Aditya : Tell
me.Claudia: One week ago, a boy’s excruciating cry was heard in the
middle
of the night. But, when the ones who heard it opened the doors
ofthe room, the cry suddenly stopped.
Aditya : Oh, my! That’s so spooky.Claudia: And then three days
ago, blood stains are found on the terrace of
the third floor. Strangely, the blood suddenly disappeared
whenone girlcollapsed from fright.
Aditya : Oh, my God! I’ better go and pray
now.(CI/025-26/068)
The conversation happens between Claudia and Aditya in a
classroom.
They are talking about the ghost in the school. Claudia says “I
don’t know. I
don’t believe in ghost, but recently my friends have been
tellingme about
their weird experiences”,it means that she hesitates to her own
opinion
about she doesn’t believe to ghost but she is telling the truth.
When Claudia
is telling about the ghost, Aditya says “Oh, my God! I’ better
go and pray
now”it means that Aditya does not want to see a ghost because he
is really
scared about it. They observe the maxim of quality by saying the
truth.
Claudia : My aunt was a heavy smoker. She has a cancer. The
doctorsaid that it resulted from her smoking habit.
Bisma : Oh, I’m sorry.Claudia: Then she warned me about the
dangers of smoking. She stopped
smoking, too, of course. By the way, do you smoke? If you do,it
is advisable that you stop smoking.
Bisma: Fortunetelly, I don’t smoke. I hope that I’ll never give
into thetemptation of smoking.
(CI/033-034/093)
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41
The conversation happens between Claudia and Bisma. They are
talking about the disanvatages of smoking. “The doctor said that
it is
resulted from her smoking habit”,the expression means that
smoking is very
dangerous to her healhty and it has bad effects to her body. The
expression
is used to warn Bisma. Bisma’s utterance “I hope that I’ll never
give into the
temptation of smoking”has implied meaning. It means that he does
not want
to get any diseases which are caused by smoking. They observe
maxim of
quality by saying the truth to what they believe about
smoking.
A: Hi Bobby, I heard you got an accident.B: Yeah I fell and
broke my leg on that rock-climbing event. Boy, if you
only knew how much it hurt! I had to be taken to the nearest
hospitalkilometers away. Some friends literally held me there since
there wereno cars at all.
A:Sorry to hear about the accident. You should be grateful,
however, sinceyou have many great friends who paid so much
attention.
B: Indeed, they are true friends. I lost my consciousness and
what a reliefto see hours later that a doctor and some nurses
treated my broken leg.Thanks God I wasn’t running out of blood.
A: Yeah, you are considered quite lucky because it was such a
high rockthat you climbed.
B: Right. And it is truly a pleasure to have you here to ask me
how I feel.A:That’s what friends are for, Bobby.
(CI/035-38/106)
The conversation happens between two students who share the
same extracurricular activity in their school(rock-climbing) and
one of them
got an accident in a rock-climbing event. The expression“Boy, if
you only
knew how much it hurt!”means that he feels very hurt when the
accident
happens to him and he says what he actually feels about his
condition. In the
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42
expression “Thanks God I wasn’t running out of blood”,Bobby
thinks that if
he was running out of blood he would die. He wants to thank god
by
delivering that expression. In the next expression, Bobby’s
friend says “it
was such a high rock that you climbed”,she tells the truth about
the
circumstance of the climbing condition. She means that it can be
a serious
damage which can happen to Bobby from being accident in that
place. The
last expression which is said by the second speaker also has an
implied
meaning. It means that the second speaker really cares of him by
saying
“That’s what friends are for, Bobby”.All of them observe the
same maxim
that is maxim of quality because they say the truth about what
they feel.
X: Hi. How’s it going?Y: Pretty good and you?X: Great. So, how’s
that someone special that you fall in love.Y: Well, we’ve been
going quite steady.X: Wow, I’m so happy to hear that. I thought the
two of you only had
a puppy love.Y: No, we’ve been serious from the beginning.X: So,
are you going to tie the knot soon?Y: Not that soon although we are
very much in love.
(CI/039/120)
It happens in a conversation between two friends who are
talking
about marriage. The first speaker says “Wow, I’m so happy to
hear that. I
thought the two of you only had a puppy love”,it means that she
is not sure
about the relationship of her friend who will get married. She
wants to
convey her feeling by saying the truth. In this case, she
follows maxim of
quality. In the second expression “Not that soon although we are
very much
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43
in love”,it means that the second speaker wants to convey that
she is ready
for the moment although it is not in that soon to held the
marriage. The
second speaker follows maxim of quality because she tells the
truth about
her feeling.
Y: My grandma always says that I am her engagement.X: That’s
true. I can see that.Y: It’s her birthday tomorrow. I’m going to
send her this tart.X: With those three little words on it! It’s so
thought of you.
(CI/043-44/121)
It happens between friends talking about the present that should
be
given to her grandma’s birthday. The expression of the first
speaker means
that her grandma loves her very much and cares about her. The
next
utterance which has implied meaning is “It’s her birthday
tomorrow”, it
means that she wants to do something in her grand mother’s
birthday. Both
of the expressions observe the same maxim, that is maxim of
quality by
saying the truth about the feeling to her grandmother.
Woman : Good afternoon, are you being helped?Man : No,I’m not.
I’m interested in some batik scarved.Woman : All right, Sir. What
do you think of this one here? It’s made of
silk.Man : Umm, it looks nice, but is it handmade?Woman : All of
the batik scarves here are handmade, Sir.
(CI/053/201)
The conversation happens in a batik store between a customer and
a
store worker. There is something which is implied by the worker
in that
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44
conversation by giving the utterance to respond to the
customer’s question.
There is a maxim which is followed by the worker in the
expression “All of
the batik scarves here are handmade, Sir”, in which she wants to
convey that
the customer no need to worry about the batik scarves which are
sold in the
store, all of the batik scarves are handmade. She has followed
maxim of
quality because she tells the truth about the condition of the
batik.
Man : the next time you are late again for basketball practice,
I’ll makesure you’ll never play in real games!
Girl : I’m sorry Sir, but I had a flat tire.Man : Huh! Just
another excuse.....
(CI/060/212)
The conversation happens in a basketball practice class. The
teacher
feels angry to his student because of her late to the class, the
student says
that she had a flat tire. It means that her lateness is because
of the flat tire
and she wants her teacher to forgive her due to the accident and
the answer
shows that she follows maxim of quality by saying the truth.
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45
3) Standard conversational implicatures which observe the maxim
ofrelation.
The speakers make a contribution to the communicative exchange
that is
relevant to the topic of the discourse. It can be seen in the
following data:
Rini: Hi, Ika. What are you reading?Rika: Hi, Rini. It’s the new
Harry Potter novel.Rini: Oh, great. It seems to me that JK Rowling
has written some of
the best novels of this decade.Rika: I agree. By the way, what
kind of CD is that?Rini: This one? Oh, it’s a classic piano
concerto by Mozart.
(CI/004/005)
Rini's expressionis "Oh, great. It seems to me that JK Rowling
has
written some of the best novels of this decade". Itmeans that
Rini wants to
show her interest in the novel as what Rika gets interest in
reading the novel.
Rini tries to keep the conversation by following the topic of
conversation.
She follows the maxim of relation because the expression is
relevant to the
previous topic.
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46
A: I’m totally not satisfied with the way some people treat
animals.B: Definitely, as if hunting and forest destruction were
not enough.A: Have you ever visited one of the Orangutan
rehabilitation centers?
(CI/019/047)
The conversation happens between two people who love
animals.
They are talking about how people treat animals. Second
speaker’s
expression“Definitely, as if hunting and forest destruction were
not
enough”means that he wants to show his feeling about the greedy
people
who treated the animals and their habitat. In this case, the
second speaker
has followed the cooperative principle by observing maxim of
relation. The
expression is relevant to the previous topic.
A: Right. When Gulliver reached the island, he was too tired to
keep eyesopen. When he woke up, he could not move. He was held down
bysome ropes, and his long hair was pinned to the ground. He
lookedaround and saw none of his friends there. He was sad to know
that hewas the only survivor.
B:Yes, it must be a devastating moment for him.(CI/045/134)
It happens when a friend tells about a story to his friend about
the
story of Gulliver. The expression“Yes, it must be a devastating
moment for
him”means that the second speaker follows the first speaker’s
story, and he
wants to show his feeling of sympathy to Gulliver. The
expression is still
relevant to the previous topic so the second speaker follows
maxim of
relation.
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47
Man : I highly recommend you not to smoke in public places
here.Woman : Why? Are there any rules for public smoking here?Man :
Yes, and you could be fined or jailed.
(CI/052/207)
The conversation happens in a public place. It happens between a
man
and a woman who is smoking. “Yes, and you could be fined or
jailed”, it
means that the man warns the woman to stop smoking or she can be
jailed
because of her attitude. The man has followed maxim of relation.
The
expression is relevant to the previous topic. The woman can be
fined or
jailed if do not follows the rules for public smoking there.
4) Standard conversational implicatures which observe the maxim
ofmanner.
The speakers should deliver the information as clear and as
comprehensible as possible. They take all precautions to ensure
such clarity
in terms of performance and delivery. The data can be seen in
the following
example:
Cultural note. If someone says, “Terrible weather, isn’t it?”
avoid just
saying “Yes”. Instead, you can say “Yes, I wish it would stop
raining” or
“Yes, it wasn’t like this last summer, was it?”
(CI/007/007)
The example above is the example of standard conversational
implicature which happens in a dialog but it is like more the
writer as the
first speaker wants to deliver information to the readers.
-
48
The expression“Terible weather, isn’t it?”is used to begin a
conversation so avoid just saying “Yes” and the second utterance
“Yes, it
wasn’t like this last summer, was it?”is used to respond the
first utterance
above. The speaker wants to make the conversation as clear and
as
comprehensible as possible by saying that expression. The
speaker follows
maxim of manner by avoiding an ambiguity.
A: Is this the only kind you have?B: No. We have some in a
different color; but not in that style. They are
over there.A: Oh, yes. I think I’ll look at them before I
decide.
(CI/014-15/015)
The conversation happens in a stationary shop between a
costumer
and a worker who works in that shop. “Is this the only kind you
have”. It
means that she wants to see the other kind of pencil sharpener
and she wants
the worker to show her the other kinds of the sharpeners. The
first speaker
avoids ambiguity by saying that utterance directly to the point
of matter so
she follows maxim of manner. The expression “They are over
there”whichis
said by the worker to the customer means that he asks the
customer to see it
in that place, it is like a speech act. The second speaker has
followed maxim
of manner by answering the question clearly.
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49
Don’t feed the animals.Make sure your car is in good
condition.Don’t drive faster than 10 KM/ Hour.Don’t get out of the
car.Don’t bring any pets in your car.
(CI/027-031/077)
The utterances are not stated in a dialog directly but those are
in a
functional text explanation about precaution in a Safari
Park.
”Don’t feed the animals”, we can find the expression in a zoo.
Itmeans that
it is too dangerous to feed the animals because they might be
attacked by the
animals or the food can make bad effects to the animals. The
expression has
followed maxim of manner because it is stated clearly and there
is no
ambiguity in that utterance.
“Make sure your car is in good condition”.The expression means
that before
the car is used to enter the safari park, it is better to check
the car up to
avoid the c