ENGLISH GRAMMAR +VOCABULARY For

ENGLISH GRAMMAR +VOCABULARY For

TOEFL Test

SAMDUL HAQ

Copyright © 2016 SAMDUL HAQAll rights reserved. ISBN:CONTENTSAcknowledgments i1 Grammar Error List in TOEFL 52 Punctuation 113 Sentence & clauses 174 Sentence structure: Simple, Complex & Compound 175 Adverbial Clauses 236 Relative Clauses 257 Modal verbs 278 Subject Verb Agreement 309 Gerunds 3510 Infinitives 2811 Parallel Structure 4312 Passive Voice 4613 Practical Usage: Conjunctions 5014 Practical Usage: Prepositional Phrases 5215 Practical Usage: Conditional Sentences 5416 Additional Basic Grammar Rules 5817 300+Most Common Used Vocabulary in TOEFL 65 18 Collocations, Idioms and Phrasal Verbs IN CONTEXT 83 19 LiteralVs. Metaphorical Use 90

Grammar Error List in TOEFL

Improper Verb Tense complementary to the rest of the sentence.

IncorrectThe great sleuth Sherlock Holmes using deductive reasoning, catching criminals and impressinghis colleagues in the process. In 1879, Nikola Tesla will file the first radio patent, at least a decade before Guglielmo Marconi– the man generally credited with the feat– filed a patent of his own. Correct The great sleuth Sherlock Holmes used deductive reasoning, catching criminals andimpressing his colleagues in the process. In 1879, Nikola Tesla filed the first radio patent, at least a decade before Guglielmo Marconi –the man generally credited with the feat– filed a patent of his own.

Sentence Fragment

IncorrectSince I switched to a Raw Foods diet, which emphasizes regular consumption of unprocessed,natural foods over many commonly available packaged food products.CorrectI switched to a Raw Foods diet, which emphasizes regular consumption of unprocessed, naturalfoods over many commonly available packaged food products.

Parallelism Error

Incorrect It’s much easier to master Guitar Hero than becoming truly proficient with a six-string guitar. In response to the environmental disaster, the volunteer group picketed corporate headquarters,started a letter-writing campaign, and were asking people to donate to the cause. CorrectIt’s much easier to master Guitar Hero than to become truly proficient with a six-string guitar. In response to the environmental disaster, the volunteer group picketed corporate headquarters,started a letter-writing campaign, and asked people to donate to the cause.

Subject-Verb Agreement Error

IncorrectThe most important factor to consider when looking at used cars are whether the previousowners were diligent with maintenance work. CorrectThe most important factor to consider when looking at used cars is whether the previous ownerswere diligent with maintenance work. independent clause: a portion of a longer sentence that can stand on its own as a separate, complete sentence

Comma Splice for two independent clauses. A comma requires at least one dependent clause.

IncorrectThe judge’s nomination came as a surprise to us all, his conservative views were seen astroubling, even divisive. CorrectThe judge’s nomination came as a surprise to us all; his conservative views were seen astroubling, even divisive. The judge’s nomination came as a surprise to us all, as his conservativeviews were seen as troubling, even divisive.

Misplaced Modifier

IncorrectAfter spending four years working diligently, Tom’s diploma hung proudly in his office. CorrectAfter spending four years working diligently, Tom hung his diploma proudly in his office.

Pronoun Agreement Error

IncorrectThe university took great pride in their rigorous Ultimate Frisbee tournament.Long marginalized by pop culture and social trends, intricate fantasy literature is attractingfollowers with their rich, detailed storylines and compelling themes. CorrectThe university took great pride in its rigorous Ultimate Frisbee tournament. Long marginalized by pop culture and social trends, intricate fantasy literature is attractingfollowers with its rich, detailed storylines and compelling themes.

Improper Conjunction

IncorrectThe independent analysis indicated the candidate’s tax plan would cut services for low-incomecitizens but would raise taxes on those same people. CorrectThe independent analysis indicated the candidate’s tax plan would cut services for low-incomecitizens and would raise taxes on those same people.

Faulty Comparison

IncorrectThe author’s later work, which exhibited masterful use of restricted perspective, was moremature than his contemporaries. CorrectThe author’s later work, which exhibited masterful use of restricted perspective, was moremature than that of his contemporaries.

Noun Agreement Error orresponding nouns must agree in number when appropriate.

Incorrect The stranded survivors decided to make their last stand against the zombie invasion,grabbed their weapon, and charged into battle, only to be eaten alive. CorrectThe stranded survivors decided to make their last stand against the zombie invasion, grabbedtheir weapons, and charged into battle, only to be eaten alive.

Pronoun Ambiguity

IncorrectTom, Sara, and Jamie all went to the mall together, but he couldn’t take the crowds and had toleave early. CorrectTom, Sara, and Jamie all went to the mall together, but Jamie couldn’t take the crowds and hadto leave early.

Adverb-Adjective Confusion

IncorrectIf you ever encounter a poisonous snake in the woods, the best course of action is to slow backaway and egress when you’re at a safe distance. CorrectIf you ever encounter a poisonous snake in the woods, the best course of action is to slowly backaway and egress when you’re at a safe distance.

Pronoun Case Error

me, him, her, us, them). The case mustmatch the pronoun’s role in the sentence.

IncorrectThe teacher told Bobby and I to stop passing notes during class or risk having them read aloud.CorrectThe teacher told Bobby and me to stop passing notes during class or risk having them readaloud.

Idiomatic Usage Error

IncorrectNot only did the committee miss the point of my Reusable Bathroom Tissue ad campaign, andthey accused me of being a threat to public health. Twice as many government officials opposed the new piece of legislation than supported it. CorrectNot only did the committee miss the point of my Reusable Bathroom Tissue ad campaign, butthey accused me of being a threat to public health. Twice as many government officials opposed the new piece of legislation as supported it.

Preposition Error

IncorrectOur team has worked for several months on a robot that we plan on submitting to the roboticsdivision of the science fair. Correct

Our team has worked for several months on a robot that we plan to submit to the roboticsdivision of the science fair

IELTS GRAMMAR LESSONSPunctuation

I. APOSTROPHESApostrophes make nouns possessiveFor singular nouns, always add apostrophe + -sThe boy's ball = The ball belonging to the boyThe dress's buttons = The buttons on the dressFor plural nouns, always add -s + apostrophe (or -es + apostrophe if the singular version ends in-s)The boys' ball = The ball belonging to the boysThe dresses' buttons = The buttons on the dressesPronouns: no apostrophe = possessiveIt's vs. ItsIt's = It isIts = Possessive form of "it'Its' = Does not existIncorrect: London is a city known for it's (it is) many tourist attractions.Correct: London is a city known for its) many tourist attractions.Incorrect: London is a popular tourist attraction; in fact, its among the most visited cities in the

world.Correct: London is a popular tourist attraction; in fact, it's among the most visited cities in theworld.They're vs. Their vs. ThereThey're = they areTheir = possessive form of "they"

There = a place

They'reCorrect: London and Paris are two of the most famous cities and Europe, and they're (they are)known for having many tourist attractions.TheirCorrect: London and Paris are known for their many tourist attractions.ThereIncorrect: In the nineteenth century, Paris was considered the capital of the art world because somany famous painters lived and worker there.Who's vs. WhoseWho's = Who isCorrect: Barbara McClintock is a scientist who's (who is) best known for her discovery of"jumping" genes.Whose = Possessive of whoCorrect: Barbara McClintock is a scientist whose discovery of "jumping" genes helped earn herthe 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.Note that "whose," unlike "who," can be used for both people and things/places. Correct: Londonis a city whose many museums, palaces, and monuments make it a popular tourist destination.

II. SEMICOLONS & PERIODSSemicolon = PeriodSemicolons are used:1. Between two complete sentencesLondon is an old city; it has many new buildings.2. Before conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, and therefore when they are usedto begin a clauseLondon is an old city; however, it has many new buildings.London is an old city; therefore, it has buildings from many different eras. Note: ACT grammarquestions testing however will use a semicolon in the correct

version whereas rhetoric questions will use a period.

III. COMMASCommas should be used:1. Before a Coordinating Conjunction to join two full sentences (Independent Clauses)Coordinating Conjunctions, aka FANBOYS:For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, SoAnd and But are the two most popular conjunctions on the ACT; other coordinatingconjunctions appear only rarely.

Correct: London is a very old city, but some parts of it are extremely modern. 2. Between adependent clause and an independent clause when the dependent clause comes first.Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand on their own as full sentences. They begin withsubordinating conjunctions such as before, after, because, when, until, unless, and since.Dependent Clauses:Because I went homeAfter we returned from the movieWhen we visited ChicagoIn the following sentence, the dependent clause is in bold.Correct: Because London is a very old city, it has buildings from many different eras. Note:When “strong” subordinating conjunctions such as (al)though and even though are used to starta dependent clause, a comma should be used between the dependent clause and the independentclause, regardless of which one comes first.Correct: London is a very old city, although some parts of it are extremely modern. Correct:Although London is a very old city, some parts of it are extremely modern. 3. Around non-essential words and phrasesA non-essential clause is simply a clause that can be removed from a sentence without affectingits essential meaning. It's like a little interruption. When the information between

the commas is crossed out, the sentence still makes sense -- even if the meaning is changed.

Non-essential clauses are always surrounded by commas.Incorrect: London which is a very old city, has some extremely modern parts. Correct: London,which is a very old city, has some extremely modern parts. (London…has some extremelymodern parts.)The same goes for single words:Incorrect: London is a very old city. It does however, have some very modern parts. Incorrect:London is a very old city. It does however, have some very modern parts. Correct: London is avery old city. It does, however, have some very modern parts. Note: names and titles withcommas around them should be treated like any other nonessential clause. Simply cross out thename or title, and see whether the sentence makes sense in context without the name or title.4. To separate items in a listComma before and is optionalCorrect: Hiking, skiing, and white-water rafting have always been some of my favorite activities.Correct: Hiking, skiing and white-water rafting have always been some of my favorite activities.5. To separate adjectives whose order could be reversedCorrect: The groaning, rumbling train finally pulled into the stationCorrect: The rumbling, groaning train finally pulled into the stationNote: Commas should also be used after introductory words or phrases (e.g. however, in thebeginning, as a result), but this usage is not normally tested on the ACT. Questions involvingthese words/phrases normally test meaning rather than grammar and will include the commas.

Commas should NOT be used: 1. Between two full sentences (Independent Clauses)When two stand-alone sentences are joined by a comma, the result is known as a comma splice.Comma splices are always incorrect.Incorrect: London is a very old city, some parts of it are extremely modern. Correct: London is avery old city. Some parts of it are extremely modern.

Correct: London is a very old city; some parts of it are extremely modern.

2. Between an independent clause and a dependent clause when the independent clausecomes first.Incorrect: London has buildings from many different eras, because it is a very old city. Correct:London has buildings from many different eras because it is a very old city. 3. Between twoclauses with the same subject when the subject is not repeated Repeated Subject: London is avery old city, but it has many modern buildings. Subject Not Repeated - Correct: London is avery old city but has many modern buildings. Subject Not Repeated - Incorrect: London is avery old city, but has many modern buildings.

4. Between Subjects and VerbsThis holds true even when the subject is very long.Incorrect: European cities such London and Paris, are famous for their museums andmonuments.Correct: European cities such as London and Paris are famous for their museums andmonuments.5. In Compound Subjects and Compound ObjectsIncorrect: Many tourists visit London and Paris to visit museums, and monuments. Incorrect:Many tourists visit London and Paris to visit museums, and monuments. Correct: Many touristsvisit London and Paris to visit museums, and monuments. If you have difficulty thinking interms of subjects and object, think of the rule this way: comma + and = period, so fill in a periodand see whether there are two sentences. E.g. "Many tourists visit London and Paris to visitmuseums. Monuments" is clearly not two sentences, so no comma is needed.6. Before or after a prepositionIncorrect: Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists, of Latin American origin. Incorrect:Frida Kahlo is among the most famous artists of, Latin American origin. Correct: Frida Kahlo isamong the most famous artists, of Latin American origin. 7. Before or after the word "that"Incorrect: I finally saw the movie, that my friends had recommended.Incorrect: I finally saw the movie that, my friends had recommended.

Correct: I finally saw the movie that my friends had recommended.

AND in clauses in which that is optional and does not appearIncorrect: He said, he would come to the movie tonight.Correct: He said (that) he would come to the movie tonight.8. Between two adjectives whose order cannot be reversedIncorrect: The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning, coral reefs. (Youwouldn't say, "The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most coral, stunning reefs.)Correct: The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning coral reefs. 9. Betweenadjectives and nounsIncorrect: The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning, reefs. Correct: TheCaribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning reefs. 10. Before an openparenthesisIncorrect: The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning coral reefs, (which arehome to thousands of species of marine life), but many of them are in danger because ofoverfishing and pollution.

Correct: The Caribbean Sea contains some of the world's most stunning coral reefs (which arehome to thousands of species of marine life), but many of them are in danger because ofoverfishing and pollution.

IV. COLONSColons must always follow a full sentence that can stand on its own as a complete thought.Unlike semicolons, however, they can be followed by either a full sentence or a fragment. 1.Before a listIncorrect: On our trip to London, we visited: museums, palaces, and monuments. Correct: On ourtrip to London, we visited these tourist attractions: museums, palaces, and monuments.2. Before an explanationCorrect: When the Manchus took control in China 1644, the Great Wall ceased to have militarysignificance: the empire now extended well north of the wall, and China's new enemies camefrom a different direction - across the sea.In the example above, the second clause explains why the Great Wall ceased to have militarysignificance. Note that in this case, the colon is grammatically identical to a period or

semicolon.

V. DASHES1. To indicate non-essential statements within a sentenceGrammatically, dashes are identical to commas when used this way. Correct: London - which isa very old city has many new buildings. 2. Before a list, an explanation, or to create adeliberate pause in a sentence Grammatically, dashes are identical to colons when used thiswayCorrect: London has many tourist attractions - museums, palaces, and monuments.

Sentence & Clauses

In this grammar lesson we'll look at sentence clauses.

As you will see from the TOEFL writing band descriptors, you need to be able to write complexsentences in order to score higher for your grammatical range - and write them correctly so youdon't get marked down on your accuracy!

The building blocks of sentences are 'clauses' though, so the first step is understanding these.For example, a band 4 makes only "rare use of subordinate clauses" according to the public banddescriptors.This implies you must be making good use of subordinating clauses to get a higher score, soyou need to know first what sentence clauses are.What is a clause in a sentence? A clause is a group of words with a (s) subject and a (v) verb.For example:(s) Computers (v) are important.= 1 sentence with 1 clause.We can have two clauses though i.e. two groups of words with a subject and a verb:Computers are important, but they are dangerous too.= 1 sentence with 2 clauses.

How about three sentence clauses?Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too, so we must be careful.= 1 sentence with 3 clauses.Now let's add a fourth!Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too, so we must be careful when we usethem.= 1 sentence with 4 clauses.

You'll have noticed then that a sentence is not the same thing as a clause. A sentence is the groupof words that comes between two full-stops and it must be a complete thought that makessense.

So sentence clauses are what build a sentence, and one sentence can have a number of clauses.What if there is no subject and verb? It's important t know the difference between phrases andclauses.If there is no subject or verb in part of the sentence, then this may be a phrase.For example:(p) In many countries around the world, flooding is becoming more common.A phrase is a group of words without a subject and verb (a phrase on its own obviously cannotbe a sentence because every sentence has a subject and a verb!).You should now know the difference between a sentence, a clause and a phrase. Time topractice!Sentence StructureThis page about sentence structure will focus on the differences between simple sentences,compound sentences, complex sentences and compound-complex sentences.You must know how to correctly write these sentence types for TOEFL as the examiner will belooking for them when they grade you for your 'grammatical range'.Clauses are the buliding blocks of sentences.So, before you go any further, make sure you understand what clauses are by looking at theprevious lesson.Sentence TypesThere are four types of sentence:

1. Simple2. Compound3. Complex4. Compound-Complex

1. Simple Sentences A simple sentence is one clause with a subject and verb.Computers are important in the modern world.Formula = SVHowever, it can have more than one subject and verb:2 subjects:Computers and other technological devices are important in the modern world. Formula = SSV2 Verbs:I search for information and play games on my computer.Formula = SVV

2 subject and 2 verbs:My brother and I search for information and play games on our computers. Formula = SSVV2. Compound Sentences A compound sentence consists of 2 or 3 clauses. It is when simplesentences are joined together.In this sentence structure, the clauses are joined with the following coordinating conjunctions:

F = forA = andN = norB = butO = orY = yetS = so

The word 'fanboys' is an easy way to remember the different conjuntions that make up compoundsentences. Obviously the most common are 'and', 'but', 'or' and 'so'. Here are some examples ofcompound sentence structure:Computers are important, but they can be dangerous too.Formula = SV but SVComputers are important, but they can be dangerous too, so we must be careful.Formula = SV but SV so SV.Avoid writing too many clauses as the sentence may get difficult to follow, and you cannot useeach one more than once in a sentence to join clauses.This is wrong:Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of progress, and we mustensure everyones has access to them.Incorrect formula = SV and SV and SV. XTwo possible corrected versions:Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of progress. We mustensure everyones has access to them.Formula = SV and SV. SV.Computers are used widely in most countries now, and they are a sign of progress, so mustensure everyones has access to them.Formula = SV and SV so SV.Using semicolons

There is an instance when you can have a compound sentence structure without a coordinatingconjuntion, and this is when you join two clauses with a semicolon. It is used when two ideas arerelated.

For example:

Computers are used widely in most countires; they are a sign of progress.3. Complex SentencesComplex sentences are more complicated (which is maybe why they are called 'complex'!).This type of sentence structure is important for TOEFL because to get awarded a band 6 orhigher for your 'grammatical range and accuracy', you need to demonstrate that you are able to

use them. The more varied and the more accurate your complex sentences are, the higher theband score for this.There are different types of complex sentences and these will be looked at in more detail later, sohere you are just provided with the basics.Complex sentences are two (or more) clauses joined together, but they are not joined by 'fanboys'(coordinating conjuntions). They are joined by subordinating conjuntions.These are subordinating conjunctions:

afteralthoughasas ifas long as as much as as soon as as though becausebeforeeven ifeven though ifin order to in caseoncesinceso thatthatthoughunlessuntilwhenwhenever whereas wherewherever while

For example:

People take natural health supplements even though they may not have been tested. Ourchildren may not be properly educated if we don't spend more on schools. I went to bed as soonas he left because I was tired.

These are all adverbial clauses. In these types of complex sentence, the second clause can beused to start the sentence.In this case, a comma is needed in the middle.

Even though they may not have been tested, people take natural health supplements. If we don'tspend more on schools, our children may not be properly educated. As soon as he left, I went tobed because I was tired.

Noun clauses and relative clauses are also a type of complex sentence structure, but these willbe looked at later.4. Compound-Complex Sentences Compound-complex sentences are the same as complexsentences but they also have a simple (or compound) sentence before or after the 'complex' part.For example:

I ate a lot when I got home, but I was still hungry.The part that is underlined is the complex sentence. As you can see, it also has a simplesentences connected to it. It can also have a full compound sentence attached to it:I ate a lot when I got home, but I was still hungry, so I went shopping to buy some more food.Complex SentencesUnderstanding complex sentences and knowing how to write them is crucial for TOEFL.The examiner will not award you above a band 5 for 'grammatical range and accuracy' if youcannot write them or if you have a very limited ability to write them.This is the marking criteria for a band 6 for grammar: Uses a mix of simple and complex sentence forms Makes some errors in grammar and punctuation but they rarely reduce communication Soyou must have a mix of complex sentence forms, though some errors in them are acceptable.If, for example, you learned a couple of complex structures and used the same ones throughoutyour essay, this would not demonstrate a 'mix'.For the higher band scores, you will need to show a greater range and more accuracy.

In order to understand a complex sentence, you need to understand independent and dependent clauses (look at this previous lesson on clauses if youare unsure what they are).

What are independent and dependent clauses?A clause is a group of words with a subject and verb. This is a dependent clause:...because it was raining so hard.If something or someone is 'dependent' then it needs or relies on something else for aid, support,life etc.For example, a baby is dependent on its mother. Without the mother the baby cannot survive.

In a similar way, a dependent clause cannot 'survive' on its own. It relies on something else. Theclause above "....because it was raining so hard" cannot be used on its own as a sentence becauseit does not make sense.

In order to function, it needs an independent clause. An independent clause can function on itsown as a sentence:I took my umbrella.This has meaning so is ok on its own. It makes a simple sentence.If we now join this independent clause with the dependent clause, we have a complex sentencethat has meaning:I took my umbrella because it was raining so hard.Types of complex sentence Complex sentences have three types:

1. Adverbial Clauses2. Relative Clauses3. Noun Clauses

In the following sections, there is a brief explanation of how to construct each of these with someexamples.However, they are complicated, so lessons explaining them in more detail will follow later on.

1) Adverbial ClausesAdverbial clauses answer questions such as how? why? when? where?They are made by connecting an independent clause and a dependent clause with asubordinating conjunction.Here are some common subordinating conjunctions that make complex sentences:because whilealthough whenif even thoughuntil asFor example:Some experiments on animals give us the wrong result because animals’ bodies are not exactlythe same as our own.SV subordinating conjunction SVSome experiments on animals give us the wrong result----- INDEPENDENT CLAUSE -----...because animals' bodies are not exactly the same as our own.----- DEPENDENT (SUBORDINATING) CLAUSE -----In adverbial clauses, however, it is possible to put the dependent clause before the independentclause. In fact, more often than not, this is the case.When you do this though, you MUST put a comma after the dependent clause (a comma is notneeded when the independent clause comes first):Because animals’ bodies are not exactly the same as our own, some experiments on animalsgive us the wrong result.subordinating conjunction SV, SVn adverbial clauses, however, it is possible to put the dependent clause before the independentclause. In fact, more often than not, this is the case.When you do this though, you MUST put a comma after the dependent clause (a comma is notneeded when the independent clause comes first):Because animals’ bodies are not exactly the same as our own, some experiments on animalsgive us the wrong result.subordinating conjunction SV, SVHere are some further examples. Notice how in some sentences the dependent clause comes first,in others it is second. This is your choice:

Even though he arrived late, he did not apologize.Pollution will get worse if car emissions are not reduced.

While the number of people going to Japan increased, the number going to the UK decreased.I don't know when he will arrive.2) Relative Clauses Like adverbial clauses, relative clauses are made up of an independentclause and a dependent clause.However, these clauses have a different use. Relative clauses are used to modify a noun. In otherwords, to give more information about it.The relative pronouns who, which, that and where are used to do this, and the relative clause isplaced after the noun it is modifying.For example:Animal experimentation, which is legal in most countries, should be banned.

Animals experimentation should be banned.----- INDEPENDENT CLAUSE -----which is legal in most countries----- DEPENDENT (RELATIVE) CLAUSE ----

Unlike adverbial clauses, the dependent clause (which is the relative clause) can break up theindependent clause - the dependent clause just needs to go after the noun, wherever that is.Notice also that there are two Subject-Verb combinations. This will always be the case withcomplex sentences as there are two clauses.

Here are some more examples. The dependent (relative) clause is in red, the independent clauseis in bold, and the noun being modified is underlined.

A library is a place where you can borrow books.Global warming is a problem that must be solved.Obesity, which is the condition of being overweight, affects millions of children. A person whobreaks the law must face serious penalties.

3) Noun Clauses

Noun clauses are probably the most difficult to master of the complex sentences, so we'll focushere on the most common and easiest form which you will probably have used many times. We'lllook at them in more detail later.

A noun clause answers the question 'who?' or 'what?'. Unlike relative clauses, which come afterthe noun, noun clauses come after the verb.For example:What do you think about corruption?I think that corruptions is wrong and that those guilty of it should be punished. In this example,there are two noun clauses, and they are the object of the verb 'think'.The noun clauses are the dependent clauses because they do not make sense on their own. Theyneed the independent clause "I think...".I think----- INDEPENDENT CLAUSE -----that corruption is wrongthat those guilty of it should be punished----- DEPENDENT (NOUN) CLAUSE -----Here are some more examples. The dependent (noun) clause is in red, and the independent clauseis in bold:

I agree that capital punishment must be abolished. I hope that the government intervenes toresolve the situation. I believe that experimentation on animals is unethical.

It is common to omit 'that' when speaking. For example, we can say:I believe experimentation on animals is unethical. However, in formal writing such as TOEFL,or academic writing generally, you should include it.There are further rules and possibilities to use these adverbial, relative and noun clauses, but wewill look at them in more detail later.

This lesson provides you with the basics on how they are used.TOEFL and Complex Sentences

To achieve a good score for your grammatical range, you would need to be able to use amix of these types of complex sentences, and to use them fairly accurately for a band 6, andvery accurately for a band 7 or higher.

For band 7 or higher you will also need to try and use these structures in more complexways, such as reducing your relative clauses and using nominalizations.We will look at these in another lesson.

Modal Verbs for TOEFLThis TOEFL lesson is about modal verbs and how they can be used to improve your writing.You are likely to use these a lot in your academic writing for task 2, particularly if you arewriting an essay which needs to give solutions to a problem.They are also important to help in clarifying the certainty with which you are making a point,which is important for your writing.The examiner will expect you to be competent in using these to award you a higher band score.What are model verbs? Modal Verbs are used commonly in English to add further informationto the main verb.They are auxiliary or 'helping' verbs, which means they cannot be used on their own but must beused with the main verb.Modal Verbs Main Verb Sentence Examples (Bare Infinitive)May

Might CanCouldShall Should WillWouldMust go She can swim Can she swim? She can not swim

‘Semi’ Modal Verbs (Infinitive) Sentence Examples

Ought Need Have to go She has to go Does she have to go? She doesn’t have to go

How are they used? These verbs are used with a main verb and are followed by the bareinfinitive (bare means no “to”).The exceptions are ‘ought’,’ need’ and ‘have’ which are followed by the infinitive (with “to”).How are they used? These verbs are used with a main verb and are followed by the bareinfinitive (bare means no “to”).The exceptions are ‘ought’,’ need’ and ‘have’ which are followed by the infinitive (with “to”).Common Use in TOEFL Task 2Three important functions of modal verbs when you are writing or speaking for TOEFL are:

1. discussing degrees of certainty2. making suggestions.

3. hypothetical situations

1) Degrees of CertaintyWill, may, might and could are common to make logical deductions about a situation or thefuture, which you often need to do in task 2:Children with no father as a role model will become criminals. (100%)Children with no father as a role model may become criminals. (Possible)Children with no father as a role model could become criminals. (Possible)Which of these sentences do you think is incorrect?Hopefully you worked out that the first one is wrong. This is a common mistake to see inTOEFL essays.The grammar is ok, but it is not possible to conclude that all children with no father as a rolemodel will become criminals!Be careful when you are making assessments in this way.

‘ Will’’ is 100% going to happen, so avoid using it to make generalizations abouteverybody/everything unless you know it is 100% true. (There are other ways to make it lesscertain e.g. “will possibly”).

When you are writing TOEFL essays, it's unusual that you will have evidence with you or thatyou can use to show 100% what you are saying is true.So the second two are better in this situation.

2) Suggestions

Must, should, ought to, have to and could are often used to make suggestions for solving aproblem. It is common in task 2 to get a question asking you to discuss a problem and suggestsolutions.

Governments must/have to/need to take action to tackle global warming. (strong obligation)Parents should/ought to stop their children watching too much television. (Strong suggestion)Individuals could recycle more (possibility).Take a look at thismodel essay on global warming and note how modal verbs are used in the second bodyparagraph to discuss the solutions.3) Hypothetical SituationsIt is common to use would and could to discuss hypothetical situations.If something is hypothetical, this means in effect it has not happened. You are discussing anunreal situation in the future or imagining something.For example:If the government spent more money on hospitals, people would be healthier.It is something that has not happened and you don't know if it will.See this model essay on human cloning and notice the use of wouldand could throughout theessay.Cloning of human beings has not happened yet, so it is a hypothetical situationIt may also be used in your speaking - see this lesson on hypothetical situations for part 2 of thespeaking test.

Subject Verb Agreement It is important to understand subject verb agreement for TOEFL.If you are making errors with this in your writing or speaking, it will be very noticeable as it is avery basic error.For example, take a look at this paragraph which has errors with subject verb agreement:

Some people argue that leaving people in prison for a long time mean that they will mix withother criminals and so their character will not improve. The alternative are community service.This gives an offender the opportunity to give something positive back to society, and so it mayimproves their character. Also, the government could focus its resources on the causes of crime,which would leads to less crime in the future.

The Basic Rules These are the basic rules of subject verb agreement:1) For a singular third person (he / she / it) in the present tense, the verb must have an s ending:Singular PluralI take We take You takeYou takeHe / She / It They taketakesSingular: He takes the bus to work every morning.Plural: His family take the train.2) Different formations are used for the irregular verb 'to be', but an -s is still used for thethird person singularSingular PresentPluralI am We areYou are You areHe / She / It is They areSingular PastPluralI was We wereYou were You wereHe / She / It was They wereSingular: He was on the bus by 9am Plural: His children were on the train by 9.30am.However, these are just the basic rules.There are other things that are important to understand in order to ensure you are using subjectverb agreement correctly in all contexts and some things that are confusing.We'll look at some of these now.When you use there is and there are, 'there' is never the subject. The subject is the word thatcomes after the verb.Therefore, you need to look at that word to decide if the verb is singular or plural.

There are several reasons why we must tackle the problem of global warming. There is onemain reason we must tackle global warming.What sometimes confuses people is when there are several nouns after the verb. It is common

to make the mistake of using a plural verb. In fact, the verb should agree with only the first noun.Take a look at this simple example:There is a pen, some pencils, and a rubber on the table.There are pens, one pencil and some rubbers on the table.

In each of these examples, you just need to look at the first noun to decide if the subject issingular or plural - you can ignore the ones after this.There is and There areWhen you use there is and there are, 'there' is never the subject. The subject is the word thatcomes after the verb.Therefore, you need to look at that word to decide if the verb is singular or plural.There are several reasons why we must tackle the problem of global warming. There is onemain reason we must tackle global warming.

What sometimes confuses people is when there are several nouns after the verb. It is common tomake the mistake of using a plural verb. In fact, the verb should agree with only the first noun.

Take a look at this simple example:

There is a pen, some pencils, and a rubber on the table.There are pens, one pencil and some rubbers on the table.In each of these examples, you just need to look at the first noun to decide if the subject issingular or plural - you can ignore the ones after this.

Separated SubjectsAnother common mistake is when the subject is separated from the verb by a prepositionalphrase, relative clause, or reduced relative clause.A mistake is to make the verb agree with the last noun in the phrase or clause rather than thesubject of the sentence:Incorrect: Improving the situation of people in cities are very important.Correct: Improving the situation (of people in cities) is very important. It should not agree with'cities' as this is part of the prepositional phrase.Here are some more examples of correct subject verb agreement (the phrase or clause that shouldbe ignored for purposes of agreement is in brackets):

Obesity (in children) is a growing concern.The decision (made by the country's leaders after numerous meetings) was definitely the rightone.The new roads (which the government has built) have not reduced congestion.

Expressions of Quantity Another difficult area with subject verb agreement is dealing withquantities.When a quantity word is followed by a prepositional phrase, it can follow the rules above i.e. theverb agrees with the subject (the quantity):One of the new teachers is from India.None of the candidates is likely to get my vote. (in spoken English the plural form is commonlyused - 'are likely')Five of my freinds are coming with me on holiday.However, for some quantity phrases you do need to refer to the noun in the prepositional phraseto decide if the verb is singular or plural:A lot of...All of the...

Some of the...One-half (third etc) SingularA lot of the meat is fresh.All of the meat is fresh.

Some of the meat is fresh.

One-half of the room PluralA lot of the vegetables are organicAll of the vegetables are organicSome of the vegetables are organicOne-third of the cars on the road use unleaded fuel. of... is empty Neither and Either With thesephrases, the verb must agree with the noun that is closest to the verb:

Neither the child nor her parents are at the school.Neither the parents nor their child is at the school.Either my brother or my sisters usually help me.Either my sisters or my brother usually helps me.

Indefinite Pronouns as subjectsA common mistake is made in subject verb agreement with indefinite pronouns as people oftenassume they must take a plural verb because they refer to more than one thing.Here are some common examples of indefinite pronouns:

everysomeanynoeveryone someone anyone no oneeverybody somebody anybody nobodyeverything something anything nothing

Everyone seems to be nervous about the exam.Something needs to be done about the increasing rate of crime.Accoring to the news, Nobody is directly responsible for the problems.

Modal VerbsModal verbs are always followed by the bare infinitive, so in this case the third person singularno longer takes a singular verb:

Incorrect: He will takes the bus to work.Correct: He will take the bus to work.Incorrect: It would seems that she is unwell.Correct: It would seem that she is unwell.

Gerunds

Gerunds ( verbs that function as nouns by adding -ing) always take a singular subject.Remember to look at the gerund, not the noun that may come between the gerund and the verb:

Feeding the poor in developing countries is what most aid is used for.Running my businesses takes up most of my time.Typing is a skill that I have not yet mastered.

InfinitivesInfinitives are created by to + verb.It is important that you can use them correctly in your TOEFL speaking and writing or when youuse English more generally.We have already looked at gerunds, which are verbs ending in–ing(which makes them nouns).Take a look at this paragraph. The infinitives are in red.

To improve my TOEFL score, I joined a writing class in a college in my home town. I wanted tomake sure that my grammar was as good as it could be. The teachers helped me to understandsome complex grammatical points. It is impossible to know everything in a short time, but Iimproved lot, and I would really like to thank them for what they did. To help me like this wasvery kind.

All these are being used in different ways. In this lesson we'll examine them further.The GrammarThe infinitive form of the verb means that it does not take a tense. It is the bare form of theverb, but with 'to' before it.Here are some examples

to goto seeto waitto manipulateto considerto amend

A common mistake in writing is to think of it like a finite verb (a verb that has a subject andtakes a tense). It does not change its form.Here is an example of a common mistake with the infinitive:It took me five hours to reached the destination. The person has made the infinitive verb, reach,in the past tense. Only the main verb (take in this case) can be given a tense.This is how it should be written:It took me five hours to reach the destination.How are they used? The table below explains some of their common uses. This is followed bysome tables with examples.As direct objectsWhen an infinitive is used as a direct object, it is placed after the verb:I wanted to make sure that my grammar was as good as it could be.I decided to study abroad, but my parents are refusing to pay.To show purpose

They are sometimes used as a reduction of the phrase 'in order to'.In order to improve my TOEFL score, I joined a writing class in a college in my home town.To improve my TOEFL score, I joined a writing class in a college in my home town.I joined the exercise class in order to lose weight.I joined the exercise class to lose weight.As a subjectTo help me like this was very kind.To get involved in charity work is a very noble cause.However, note that the use of the gerund in these structures is much more common:Helping me like this was very kind.Getting involved in charity work is a very noble cause.If you do see an infinitive at the beginning of a sentence, it is much more likely to be showingpurpose i.e replacing in order to.With phrases beginning with 'it' (it + be + infinitive)It is impossible to be perfect in a short time.(Adjective + Infinitive)It could be a mistake to leave my job.(Noun + Infinitive)With the verb 'take' (it + take + noun + infinitive)It took me five hours to reach the destination.It takes a lot of concentration to read this book.After certain adjectivesMy brother was surprised to see me.I was careful not to speak too loudly.Common Verbs before infinitivesIf you wish to put two verbs together, then the second verb will need to be an infinitive and / orgerund.For example, you can't say this:He hoped see me again.He hoped seeing me again.If "hope" is followed by another verb, it needs to be an infinitive:He hoped to see me again.Remember, certain verbs should be followed by an infinitive, not a gerund, and some verbs canbe followed by either. For example:I like to swim (verb + infinitive)OrI like swimming (verb + gerund)Follow this link to see the lesson on gerunds or learn when you can use the gerund and infinitive.Here is a list of verbs that are very commonly followed by an infinitive (not a gerund):Verbs Commonly Followed by an InfinitiveVERB EXAMPLE SENTENCEafford I can't afford to pay for TOEFL lessons.agree He agreed to postpone his test.appear Obesity appears to be getting worse.ask He asked me to go with him.claim She claimed to have the answer to the question.

decideMy partner and I decided to move house next year.demand I demand to see the manager!deserveI didn't deserve to get a 7.5 as I studied very little.expect She expected to get a band 5 but she got a 6.failHer son failed to win the race, but he came second.forget I forgot to take the rubbish out last night.hesitate She wouldn't hesitate to help a friend in need.hope I hope to leave by 7pm.intendThe government intends to hold an election in June.learn I've learnt to take each day as it comes.manage She managed to change her doctors appointment.mean Sorry, I didn't mean to arrive so late.need I need to get a band 7 to get into Australia.offer I offered to drive her to the airport.plan I plan to emigrate to the UK this year.prepareHe's prepared to risk everything by investing in gold.pretend The boy pretended to fall over.promise The army general promised not to stage a coup.refuse He is refusing to take the medicine.seemShe seemed to be ok yesterday, but now she is worse.tendI tend to find that warmer weather makes me feel better.threaten The country threatened to invade its neighbour.wait I can't wait to go on holiday.want The teacher wanted the students to pass.The next tables show you some common ways that adjectives and nouns are used with theinfinitive.Common adjectives preceded by it + be and followed by infinitiveADJECTIVE EXAMPLE SENTENCEbad It is bad to gossip about your friends.dangerous It is dangerous to drive too fast.difficultIt was difficult to do well in the TOEFL reading test.easyIt is very easy to forget important grammar points in a test.fun It isn't always fun to learn English.hardIt is always hard to remain focused on your goals in life.important It is important to believe in your abilities.impossible

It will be impossible for the charity to help everyone.interestingIt is interesting to find out about another country.necessary It is sometimes necessary to change your plans.relaxing It is relaxing to lie in the sun.Common nouns preceded by it + be and followed by infinitiveNOUN EXAMPLE SENTENCEa good ideaIt isn't a good idea to study late at night.a bad ideaIt is a bad idea to spend too long on TOEFL Task 1.a mistakeIt is a mistake to say very little in the TOEFL speaking test.a pity It was a pity to leave so early.a shame It was a shame to break up.a waste It will be a waste to throw the food away.Common adjectives followed by infinitivesADJECTIVE EXAMPLE SENTENCEashamed I'm ashamed to admit that I stole the bike.boundHe is bound (certain) to arrive late - he always does.careful He was careful not to wake the baby.excited I'm excited to join the local football team.glad I'm glad to hear that you are feeling better.happyThe developer was happy to reduce the price of the house.lucky I'm lucky to have so many friends.pleasedThe nurse was pleased to know he was well again.proud She was proud to be seen with her father.relievedThe police were relieved to arrest the criminal at last.reluctant I'm reluctant to take the TOEFL test again.sad He was sad to see his brother leave.shocked I was shocked to find out he had been fired.sorry We'll all be sorry to see you go.surprised They were surprised to hear he is 50 years old.sure He's sure to win first prize.willingI'm willing to bet you can get a high TOEFL score.Gerund and InfinitiveChoosing between the gerund and infinitive when they are the object of the sentence can causea lot of difficulties for students of English.

If they are the object of the sentence, that means they come after the verb. Make sure you lookat the previous lessons on gerunds and infinitives to see which one to use after which verb.

As you will remember from those lessons, some verbs can only be followed by the gerund (notthe infinitive) and some verbs can only be followed by the infinitive (not the gerund).

Here are some examples but go to the gerund and infinitive lessons for more examples:

Examples of verbs that are followed by a gerundExamples of verbs that are followed by an infinitive

They agreed signing it. I kept to phone the office. They agreed to sign it. I kept phoning theoffice. He expected losing. We appriate to hear from you. He expected to lose. We appreciatehearing from you.

He denies to take the phone. She managed getting a promotion.

He denies taking the phone.They avoid to debate the subect.She managed to get a promotion.They avoid debating the subject. We pretended laughing.We pretended to laugh.Verbs followed by either infinitives or gerunds However, in some cases you can use either thegerund or the infinitive. Here are some common verbs that can be followed by either:VERB EXAMPLE SENTENCE attempt I attempted to wake up early.beginceasecontinuehatelikelovepreferproposestarttry

I attempted waking up early.I usually begin to feel tired at 10pmI usually begin feeling tired at 10pmThe government ceased to talk about the war. The government ceased talking about the war. Thepolice continued to harrass him.The police continued harrassing him.I hate to go to work.I hate going to work.Most people like to travel abroad.Most people like traveling abroad.They love to eat at nice restaurants.They love eating at nice restaurants.The electorate prefers to vote in September. The electorate prefers voting in September.

I propose to delay the company merger until next year.I propose delaying the company merger until next year.

I will start to study next week.I will start studying next week.The children tried to reduce their intake of sugar. The children tried reducing their intake ofsugar.

Parallel Structure Parallel structure is when you balance the grammatical structures of words,clauses, sentences, or phrases in your writing.They are important for any kind of writing and speaking in order to maintain coherency.In this particular lesson we'll look at parallel words and phrases.We make words or phrases parallel when we are writing things in a list or series, and each wordmust have the same grammatical form. For words, nouns are balanced with nouns, adjectives with adjectives, verbs with verbs,gerunds with gerunds, and so on. For phrases, prepositional phrases are balanced with prepositional phrases, infinitive phraseswith infinitive phrases, and gerund phrases with gerund phrases. The coordinatingconjunction‘and’ is usually used to connect the parallel items, but other coordinatingconjunctions such as ‘or’ and ‘nor’ may be used.Correlative conjunctions such as 'both/and', 'neither/nor' and 'whether/or' are also used asconnectors.Examples of Parallel StructureInfinitives / GerundsShe wants to go to England and studying at the London School of Economics. (WRONG)She wants to go to England and study at the London School of Economics. (CORRECT)

The first sentence is wrong because the first item in the list, to go, is an infinitive, but the seconditem, studying, is a gerund. In order to correct it, studying has been changed to an infinitive.

AdverbsJohn ensured that he gave his two minutetalk confidently, effectively and persuasive. (WRONG) John ensured that he gave his two minutetalk confidently, effectively and persuasively. (CORRECT)

The first sentence is incorrect as the last item in the series, persuasive, is an adjective, whereasthe first two items are adverbs. The second sentence has been corrected by changing persuasiveto the adverb, persuasively.

AdjectivesThe room was comfortable, airy, and it was notdirty. (WRONG)The room was comfortable, airy, and clean. (CORRECT)

The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series, comfortable and airy, areadjectives, whereas the last item, it was not dirty, contains a verb. The second sentence has beencorrected by changing it was not dirty to the adjective clean.

Infinitive PhrasesI can't decide whether to take a bus or riding my bicyle to work. (WRONG)I can't decide whether to take a bus or (to) ride my bicyle to work. (CORRECT)

The first sentence is wrong because an infinitive and gerund phrase have been mixed together.The second is correct because they are both infinitive phrases.

Prepositional PhrasesHe climbed the rock, up the wall, and onto the roof. (WRONG)He climbed over the rock, up the wall, and onto the roof. (CORRECT)

The first sentence is not parallel since the first word, the rock, does not have a preposition, butthe next two words in the list have. It can be corrected by placing the correct preposition, over, before climbed.

Passive Voice

Passive voice is important for TOEFL. Whenever you speak or write, or try to understandreading passages, you need to have the ability to use and understand a good range of grammar.

However, a way that the passive is specifically needed for TOEFL is if you get a processdiagram in Academic TOEFL Task 1. In this case you will use it throughout your explanation ofthe process.

So first we'll take a look at how to use the passive voice generally, then we'll see how it is usedin a Task 1.

What are the Active and Passive? When we use the active voice, the subject is doing the actionof the verb:When we use the passive voice, the person or thing receiving the action becomes the subject:Active PassiveThe dog bit the boy The boy was bitten by the dogWhat are the Passive Voice Rules? To make a sentence passive, we do three things:1. Move the object of the sentence, and make it the subject. The object thus becomes the subject(often we exclude the object because it is not important to the sentence).2. Add in "by" before the new object (if you are including it in the new sentence)3. Add the verb "to be" to the front of the verb, and change the verb to the past participle. Youthen have a passive voice verb. Remember to keep the tense the same.Active Passive

The The boy (new subject) was dog (subject) bit (verb) the bitten (new verb form) by the boy(object) dog (new object).

The boy (subject) was bitten (verb).In this case the verb "bit" is in the past simple, so when it is made passive, the verb "to be" mustbe the past simple - "was".Passive Voice Examples These are examples of how we form it with different tenses (withoutthe object in the passive):

Tense Active PassivePresent I eat the food The food is eatenPresent ContinuousI am eating the food The food is being eatenPresent Perfect

I have eaten the foodThe food has been eaten

Past I ate the food The food was eatenPast Continuous

I was eating the foodThe food was being eaten

Past PerfectI had eaten the food The food had been eatenFuture I will eat the food The food will be eatenFuture Perfect

I will have eaten the foodThe food will have been eaten

I can eat the food The food can be eatenPresent Modal

I should eat the foodThe food should be eaten

I may eat the food The food may be eatenPast Modals I could have eaten The food could have the food been eaten

I should have eaten the foodThe food should have been eaten

I may have eaten the foodThe food may have been eaten

Gerunds and Infinitives We can also use the passive voice for infinitive and gerund structures:Tense Infinitive GerundSimple to + be + Past Participle Being + Past Participle

She wanted to be taken care ofBeing taken care of was wonderful.

to + have been + Past

Perfect Participlehaving been + Past Participle

She was happy to have been chosenShe celebrated having been chosenTransitive and Intransitive Verbs However, you cannot use the passive with intransitive verbs.Transitive verbs have to take an object. For example, you cannot say "He discovered". This is atransitive verb so it needs an object: " He discovered a cure".So this can be made passive: "A cure was discovered".Intransitive verbs are not followed by an object. For example, you can say "He died". Or it couldbe followed by an adverb: "He died yesterday".But we cannot say: "He was died" or "Yesterday was died he".When do we use it?It is much more common to use the active than the passive, so you should only use it if there is aspecific reason. Below are are the reasons that we use it.Remember that this is usually a matter of choice for you, depending on the context in which youare writing.1. When you think the receiver of the action is more important than the doer of the actionInterested in the doer The farmer harvested the corn in SeptemberInterested in the action The corn was harvested in September2. When you think it is obvious who the doer is so it does not need to be mentionedAn obvious subject The police arrested the burglarOmitting the doer The burglar was arrested3. When the doer of the action is unknown or we don't want the doer to be knownA known doerJonathan stole Peter's phone4. When you think the doer is irrelevantYou feel it is relevant The manager will close the shop at 3pmAn unknown doer Peter's phone was stolenYou feel it is irrelevant The shop will be closed at 5pm5. When you are writing for certain genres, such as science reports or for academic journalsReferring to the researcher I can draw several conclusions from the resultsAnonymising the researcher Several conclusions can be drawn from the results When do weuse the passive voice for TOEFL?As it is just a part of general grammar, you may use it at any point in the speaking or writing.

The time when you will really be in trouble if you don't know how to use it is if you have towrite about a man-made process in Task 1 of Academic TOEFL (for natural processes you useactive voice).Here is an example of a mad-made process diagram, where you have to describe the process ofmaking chocolate:

When we describe a process such as this, we are not interested in who does the activity, the"doer", we are interested in the activity itself.So in order to emphasize this, the activities are used as the subjects. Check out this modelanswer - the passive voice has been highlighted.

To begin, the cocoa comes from the cacao tree, which is grown in the South American andAfrican continents and the country of Indonesia. Once the pods are ripe and red, they areharvested and the white cocoa beans are removed. Following a period of fermentation, they arethen laid out on a large tray so they can dry under the sun. Next, they are placed into largesacks and delivered to the factory. They are then roasted at a temperature of 350 degrees, afterwhich the beans are crushed and separated from their outer shell. In the final stage, this innerpart that is left is pressed and the chocolate is produced.

You can view some more examples of process diagrams here:Brick Manufacturing ProcessTea Manufacturing ProcessPractical Usage: ConjunctionsConjunctions are words used to link words, phrases or clauses. Some common conjunctions areand, but and or.and, but and or

Use 'and' to link words that are similar."We buy fruit and vegetables at the grocery store." "The president visited towns and cities acrossthe country." "The house is warm and comfortable."

Use 'but' to link words that are different and do not normally go together. "He works quickly butneatly.""The teacher is firm but fair with the children.""The musicians are young but very talented.""The weather was sunny but cold. "

Use 'or' to talk about choices. "You can have a soda or lemonade." "Would you like pasta orrice?""Who is cooking the dinner, Mom or Dad?" "Does the sauce taste sweet or sour? "

Conjunctions Linking PhrasesUse the conjunctions and, but and or to link phrases. The phrases in these examples are printedin colour."We like going shopping and visiting museums.""I tell my parents and my best friend all my secrets.""Some of my toys are dirty and a bit broken.""The car is very old but still very reliable."

Conjunctions with ListsUse the conjunctions "and" and "or" with lists of words. Remember to put a comma between thewords. Then use and "or" or "between" the last two words."We bought milk, eggs, cheese and butter.""My favourite teachers are Mr. Lee, Mrs. Carter and Mr. Park.""In the morning I get up, take a shower, eat breakfast and brush my teeth." "Kathleen didn’t haveany paper, pens or pencils. "

Conjunctions that Join Sentences

Conjunctions are also used to join two sentences to make them one. Here are some exampleswith and, but and or."Mom is working in the garden. Dad is busy in the kitchen.""Mom is working in the garden and Dad is busy in the kitchen.""Sam is playing football. Eric is reading a book.""Sam is playing football and Eric is reading a book.""I switched on the TV. There were no interesting programs on.""I switched on the TV, but there were no interesting programs on. "

Conjunctions of Time

The conjunctions before, after, since, until, when, while, as and as soon as are used to saywhen something happens. They are called conjunctions of time."Take the toy out of the box before you throw the box away.""Before you leave the house, be sure that you’ve got your backpack.""I usually do my homework after I have my dinner.""After I went to bed, I heard a strange noise downstairs. "

Conjunctions of Place

The conjunctions where and wherever are used to talk about places. They are calledconjunctions of place."Does anybody know where Mr. Carter lives?""Where the road is narrow, big trucks can’t get through.""The dog follows Andrew wherever he goes. "

Conjunctions of Reason

The conjunctions because, since, as and in case tell why someone does something. They arecalled conjunctions of reason."I sat down because I was feeling tired.""Because we arrived late, we missed the beginning of the play.""I took an apple since it was the only fruit in the bowl. "

Conjunctions of Purpose

The conjunctions so, so that and in order to tell what the purpose of something is. They arecalled conjunctions of purpose."Let’s write down the address so we don’t forget it.""We left early so that we wouldn’t be late.""John took a map so that he wouldn’t get lost.""I hid the comics under the bed so that nobody could find them.""She goes jogging every morning in order to keep fit."

Practical Usage: Prepositions & Prepositional Phrases

Prepositions are words that show a connection between other words. Most prepositions are littlewords like at, in and on. Prepositional phrases are groups of words, such as out of and on top of.

Preposition or Adverb?Some words can be used either as prepositions or as adverbs. If the word is followed by anoun or a pronoun, it is a preposition.Look at these pairs of examples. In each of the sentences marked preposition, there is anoun or pronoun after the preposition. This noun or pronoun is called the object of thepreposition.

She put her hand inside (preposition) my bag (noun). It was raining, so they decided to stayinside (adverb). Water was running down (preposition) the walls (noun). He tripped overhis shoelaces and fell down (adverb).

Prepositions of PlaceSome prepositions show where something happens. They are called prepositions of place." Sally was sitting under a tree."" There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet."Prepositions of TimeSome prepositions show when something happens. They are called prepositions of time." School starts at nine o’clock."" I brush my teeth in the morning and at night. "Prepositions of DirectionSome prepositions show where something is going. They are called prepositions ofdirection." The boys chased after each other."" The football rolled down the hill. "Prepositions with Special UsesMany prepositions are used in other ways. Here are some of them.of" I bought a bag of rice and a quart of milk."" Would you like a glass of orange juice?"" Kathleen is a member of the chess club."" I need three pieces of paper."for" I made this bookmark for Mom."" Is there room for me on this seat?"" I’d like a new computer for Christmas."" We’re going downtown for a meeting."" What’s this bag for?"with" He pounds nails in with a hammer."" Mix the flour with water."" She painted the picture with her new paints."" Would you like to come with us to the arcade?"except and instead of" I like all kinds of food except pasta."" Everyone likes chocolate except Tom."" We go to school every day except Saturday and Sunday."" You should eat fruit instead of candy."

like, as and than" Kathleen looks like her dad."" Andrew smiles like his mother."" Peter sings like a professional singer."" Are these shoes the same as those?"" Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher."" My backpack is bigger than John’s."" Dad is taller than all of us."Prepositions with Adjectives, Verbs or NounsPrepositions are used with some adjectives. The adjectives in these examples are printed incolour." Dad was angry with us."" We were afraid of the big dog."" She’s not very interested in sports. "

Prepositions are used with some verbs. The verbs in these examples are printed in colour." I am looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?"" Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?"

Prepositions are used with some nouns. The nouns in these examples are printed in colour." What’s the answer to this question?"" Is there a reason for this delay?"" What’s the matter with you? "

Practical Usage: ConditionalsConditionals for Real and Unreal Situations

What do you do at weekends?What will you do if you get the chance to work abroad? Which famous person would you like tomeet if you had the chance?

It’s likely that the examiner will ask you questions about ‘real’ or ‘imagined’ situations in theTOEFL Speaking exam. In this lesson we’ll look at how conditional structures can help you dothis.

UsesWe often need to express something like ‘If x does (or doesn’t) happen then y does or (doesn’thappen)’. This might be to describe something:

‘real’ like a fact: ‘What happens if … ‘ or an imagined situation: ‘What will/would you do if …’ One of the ways in which wedescribe situations like this is to use ‘conditional’ structures. Conditionals usually contain twomain clauses along with ‘if” or sometimes ‘when’, ‘provided’ or ‘unless’. (See ‘If, provided,unless or when’ if you are not sure about the difference between these words).

There are 5 different conditional structures that we might use: ‘zero’, ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘third’ and‘mixed’ conditionals. In this lesson we’ll look at ‘zero’, ‘first’ and ‘second conditionals’.

a) Zero conditionals are used to describe factual situations. The present tense is generally used ineach clause and (as with all conditionals) the clauses can be reversed. In the Speaking exam, youcould use zero conditionals to talk about you, your routines or facts about your country. Forexample:

i) If I don’t get up early / I tend to get a headache.I tend to get a headache / if I don’t get up early.ii) I attend classes on Friday / provided I don’t have to work late. Provided I don’t have to worklate / I attend classes on Friday. iii) When it rains / we get heavy floods.We get heavy floods / when it rains.

b) First conditionals are used to describe a likely future result given a certain condition. The ‘if’(condition) clause is usually in the present tense, whilst the following (result) clause oftencontains a verb like ‘will’, ‘can’, or ‘might’ depending on the meaning. In the Speaking examyou could use first conditionals to talk about possible future plans. For example:

If I pass TOEFL, I might start a teacher-training course. (It’s a possibility) If I pass TOEFL, Iwill start a teacher training course. (It’s a definite intention) If I pass TOEFL, I could start ateacher training course. (It would be an option)

TIP! A common mistake is to use ‘will’ in both clauses. Although there are situations where thisis OK, generally you should NOT use ‘will’ in the if clause. For example, this statement isincorrect:

If I will get the job, I will buy myself a car. (X)

c) Second conditionals are used to describe an unlikely situation. The ‘if’ (condition) clause isusually in the past tense, whilst the following (result) clause often contains a verb like ‘would’ or‘could’.In the Speaking exam you could use second conditionals to answer a question that asks you toimagine or hypothesise about a situation. For example:

If I were rich, I could spend my life travelling. If I had the power, I would give everyone a pay-rise.Over to youComplete the following statements with information about yourself using the conditionalstructure in brackets:

(Zero) If I work too hard … (Zero) When I have time … (First) If the weather is nice this weekend … (First) When I pass TOEFL … (Second) If I had the chance … (Second) If I were in charge of my country …

If, Provided, Unless and As Long As

You probably already know that ‘if’ is a common feature of conditional statements. For example:i) Ifit rains I’ll get wet.

ii) IfI won the lottery I’d travel around the world.

However, it is also possible to use words like ‘provided’, ‘as long as’ or ‘unless’ in conditionalstructures, each with their own meaning.(If you need practice in Conditionals, see our lesson ‘Conditionals for Real and UnrealSituations‘.

Usesa) ‘Provided’ or ‘as long as’ have a similar meaning and are used when we want to emphasise thecondition. For example:

i) Provided you pay me back soon (condition), I will lend you the money. ii) My teacher thinksI will pass the exam, provided I continue to work hard (condition). iii) As long as ourgovernments stay firm (condition), we will get global warming under control.iv) I think I’ll continue studying English, as long as I have the time to do so (condition).

“If’ could also be used in all these examples above.

b) We use ‘unless’ when it has the meaning ‘except if’. “Except if’ means that ‘x’ is generallytrue apart from when ‘y’ happens. For example:i) I won’t be able to go on holiday this year, unless I can earn more money. ii) I’ll be able totravel home this weekend, unless the train strike continues.

In the first example above, the speaker doesn’t expect to be able to go on holiday. In the secondexample, the speaker is optimistic that he/she will be able to go home.Over to youMatch the beginning of a sentence with the correct ending. Then complete the sentences using‘if’, ‘provided’ or ‘unless’. For example: You can borrow the car provided you fill it with petrol.Beginnings

you/borrow/the car you/not do as you are told I/not help you with your homework I/cook the dinner I won the lottery temperature rise

Endings

the ice/melt you fill it/petrol you/not get a treat buy/new car you wash up you promise to concentrate

Suggested Answers

If you don’t do as you are told/Unless you do as you are told, you will not get a treat. I won’t help you with your homework unless you promise to concentrate. I will cook the dinner if/provided you wash up. If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car. If the temperature rises, the ice melts.

Additional Basic Grammar Rules

I. Wordiness/RedundancyShorter is better. This is the absolute #1 rule of the ACT English section. When multiple answersare grammatically correct and express the same essential information, the shortest one willvirtually always be correct. Note that most of these questions can be answered visually.The construction of the Great Wall of China was an enormous undertaking that occurred on avery large scale and required over 3,000 workers.A. NO CHANGEB. an enormously huge undertaking on a large scaleC. an enormous undertaking, which occurred on a very large scaleD. an enormous undertakingThe correct answer (D) can be determined with near certainty simply by length.

II. Parallel Structure1. Keep all lists in the same format: noun, noun noun; -ING, -ING, -ING; verb, verb, verb.Incorrect: Deception expert Pamela Meyer has collaborated with a team of researchers to surveyand analyze existing research on lying from academics, law enforcement officers, and workingas psychologists.Correct: Deception expert Pamela Meyer has collaborated with a team of researchers to surveyand analyze existing research on lying from academics, law enforcement officers,

and psychologists.

2. The same is true when there are only two items joined by "and" or but. Note that when parallelstructure involves infinitives ("to + verb"), it is not necessary to repeat the "to" after the firstverb.Incorrect: Deception expert Pamela Meyer has collaborated with a team of researchers to surveyand analyzing existing research on lying from academics, law enforcement officers, andpsychologists.Correct: Deception expert Pamela Meyer has collaborated with a team of researchers to surveyand analyze existing research on lying from academics, law enforcement officers, andpsychologists.

III. Subject-Verb AgreementSingular verbs end in -s (she walks)Plural verbs do not end in -s (they walk)Most common irregular verb = to be. You must know the singular/plural forms of this verb inboth the present (is/are) and the past (was/were).Tip: If you're not sure where the subject is, look at the beginning of the sentence. The mostcommon way that the ACT distracts from subject-verb disagreements is to place a prepositional

phrase between the subject and the verb.Incorrect: Illegal logging in Mexican forests have resulted in the destruction of the monarchbutterfly's habitat.Correct: Illegal logging in Mexican forests has resulted in the destruction of the monarchbutterfly's habitat.Also be on the lookout for compound subjects -- two singular subjects connected by "and."Incorrect: The Monarch and the Red Admiral is among the most common butterfly species inNorth America.Correct: The Monarch and the Red Admiral are among the most common butterfly species inNorth America.

IV. Pronoun Agreement Singular = it, itsPlural = they, their

Singular nouns must take singular pronouns; plural nouns must take plural pronouns. The nounto which a pronoun refers (its antecedent or referent) will not always appear in the samesentence; you may need to look at the sentence before.Incorrect: Painter Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) was best known for her portraits. It was stronglyinfluenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as revealed by her use of bright colors and dramaticsymbolism.Correct: Painter Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) was best known for her portraits. They were stronglyinfluenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as revealed by her use of bright colors and dramaticsymbolism.

V. Verb Tense1. Always keep verb tense consistent with that of other verbs in the paragraph. Paragraphs in thepresent should stay in the present; paragraphs in the past should stay in the past. Always start bychecking the tense of the verbs in the sentence in question, as well as the surrounding sentences(before/after). The underlined verb must match the other verbs. Incorrect: Painter Frida Kahlo(1907-1954) was best known for her portraits. She is strongly influenced by indigenous Mexicanculture, as revealed by her use of bright colors and dramatic symbolism. In her paintings, shecombined elements of the classic Mexican tradition with surrealist techniques.Correct: Painter Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) was best known for herportraits. She was strongly influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as revealed by her use ofbright colors and dramatic symbolism. In her paintings, she combined elements of the classicMexican tradition with surrealist techniques.Important: Correct answers to most verb questions are in either the simple past (was, did,ran) or the present. Answers that include more complicated tenses (would have done, willhave gone) are virtually always wrong.

2. Present perfect and Past perfect.You should also have some basic familiarity with two additional tenses.Present perfect - has/have + verb. Describes an action that began in the past and that continuesinto the present. Signaled by "for" and "since."Incorrect: Italy and France are/were tourist attractions for hundreds of years/since the eighteenthcentury.Correct: Italy and France have been tourist attractions for hundreds of years/since the

eighteenth century.

Past perfect - had + verb. When a sentence describes two completed actions in the past, the pastperfect can be used to describe the action that came first.Most of the time, either the simple past or the past perfect can be used, e.g. "Before Mae Jemisonbecame an astronaut, she studied/had studied science for many years." When this is the case,you will not be asked to choose between the simple past and past perfect. When the phrase "bythe time" appears, however, the past perfect must be used. Incorrect: By the time Mae Jemisonbecame an astronaut, she studied science for many years.Correct: By the time Mae Jemison became an astronaut, she had studied science for many years.

VI. Adjectives & AdverbsAdjectives modify nouns: the good book, the boring class, the exciting trip Adverbs modifyverbs and usually end in -ly: the girl ran quickly, the top came off suddenly, the wind blewstrongly1. Adjective vs. AdverbOn the ACT, adjectives and adjectives are switched.Incorrect: The monkey, a traditional Mexican symbol, appears frequent in Frida Kahlo'spaintings.Correct: The monkey, a traditional Mexican symbol, appears frequently in Frida Kahlo'spaintings.2. Comparatives and SuperlativesComparative - "adjective + -er" or "more + adjective" (better, stronger, more interesting)Superlative - "adjective + -est" or "most + adjective" (best, strongest, most interesting) When -eris used, "more" should not be used as well.When -est is used, "most" should not be used as well.Incorrect: Mexican folk art exerted a more stronger influence on Frida Kahlo's paintings thanSurrealism did.Correct: Mexican folk art exerted a stronger influence on Frida Kahlo's paintings than

Surrealism did.

VII. Word Pairs(N)either…(n)orNot only…but (also)As…asWhen one of these pairs of words appears in a sentence, the other must appear as well. Incorrect:Not only did Mae Jemison study science as a girl growing up in Chicago, and she (also) studiedballet.Correct: Not only did Mae Jemison study science as a girl growing up in Chicago, but she (also)studied ballet.

VIII. Who, Which, and Whom1. Who, whom = people, which = thingsCorrect: Frida Kahlo was an artist who gained renown for her portraits Incorrect: Frida Kahlowas an artist which gained renown for her portraits 2. "Whom" before a verb = wrongIncorrect: Frida Kahlo was an artist whom earned renown for her portraits. Correct: Frida Kahlo

was an artist who earned renown for her portraits. 3. "Whom" after a preposition = rightCorrect: Frida Kahlo is an painter to whom many artists owe their inspiration. Correct: FridaKahlo is an painter to who many artists owe their inspiration.

IX. Modification: Dangling and Misplaced ModifiersAlways place modifiers as close as possible to the nouns they modify.1. When a modifier begins a sentence, the subject must immediately follow. If it does not, adangling modifier is created.Incorrect: Born in Mexico City in 1907, self-portraits were what Frida Kahlo was best knownfor.

Correct: Born in Mexico City in 1907, Frida Kahlo was best known for her self-portraits.

2. Misplaced modifiers can occur anywhere in a sentenceIncorrect: The Great Wall of China was constructed was by thousands of workers originallyconsisting of separated military fortifications. (The sentence makes it sound as if the workersoriginally consisted of separated military fortifications.)Correct: The Great Wall of China was constructed, originally consisting of separated militaryfortifications, was by thousands of workers. (This version makes it clear that the Wall originallyconsisted of separated military fortifications.)X. Pronoun Case (I vs. me)When pronoun case is tested, it will always be plural: usually proper name + pronoun (Rob andme) or two pronouns (him and me).If name + pronoun, cross out the proper name and answer by ear.If two pronouns, cross out each pronoun in turn and answer by ear.Incorrect: Last year, my mother and me attended the Gathering of Nations, the largest annualmeeting of Native Americans in the United States.Crossed out: Last year, ….me attended the Gathering of Nations, the largest annual meeting ofNative Americans in the United States.Correct: Last year, my mother and I attended the Gathering of Nations, the largest annualmeeting of Native Americans in the United States.XI. Idioms and DictionIncorrect: Could/should/would ofCorrect: Could/should/would haveThan - comparisonThen - sequence of events.More/less…than, NOT more/less…thenOther diction questions may test prepositions or verbs, but these can only be answered by ear.There is no way to determine the answer by using a rule.Incorrect: The Great Wall of China might have been more effective with keeping people in thankeeping invaders out.Correct: The Great Wall of China might have been more effective at keeping people in than

keeping invaders out.

Incorrect: Some people claim that The Great Wall of China was really built to capture theEmperor's love of grandiose projects.

Correct: Some people claim that The Great Wall of China was really built to satisfy theEmperor's love of grandiose projects.

XII. TransitionsQuestions testing transitions are more about meaning than grammar. Answers may begrammatically correct but still wrong. Whenever you encounter a transition question, cross outthe transition and state the relationship between the sentences/clauses (similar ideas/contrastingideas) before you look at the answer choices.Incorrect: The obvious reason for the construction of the Great Wall of China was protection,since China had no powerful enemies at the time construction first began. The two halves of thesentence express opposing ideas, so a contradictor is needed. Correct: The obvious reason for theconstruction of the Great Wall of China was protection, but China had no powerful enemies atthe time construction first began. Important: If there is an OMIT/DELETE option, or anoption without a transition, check it FIRST because it will usually be right.When two transitions have the same meaning (e.g. but/yet) and are both grammaticallyacceptable in context, both can automatically be eliminated since no

question can have more than one right answer.

300+Most Common Used Vocabulary in TOEFL

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

nounverb access easyaccurate adjective common the ability to go into (when

somebodyor something must allow you to enter)to go into something when allowed to entercorrect (about information, not opinions); on target

achieve verb easy to accomplish a goal acquire verb easy to get (especially when you will continue to get more)adequate adjective common good enough for what you need adjust verb commonadministratio naffect noun medium

verb easy to change or move a little and makebetter or more accuratethe running of something or an organization (business, school, government, etc); the person or people in charge of running anorganization

to change, make different, have aneffect

alter verb hard to change, to adjust

alternative nounadjective medium other possibility or option different, other than the main option

Example SentenceOnly students have access to the university library.There is a large amount of oil under theice, but wecan’t access it.That test is not an accurate test of intelligence.The best students know that to achievegood grades, they have to study everyday.Janice isn't a doctor yet, but from her studies she's slowly acquiring the knowledge and skills she'll need A very light jacket willbe adequate for Los

Angeles's warm winter.The colors on this TV screen are wrong. I'lladjust them.

The university administrationcancelled allschool events after a bad storm left mostbuildings without electricity.Which language we speak affects how wethink about the world.Magazines heavily alter the photos of celebrities they publish.The menu includes alternatives for students who don't eat meat.Many words in these flashcards have alternative definitions.

analyze verb common to try to understand something betterby closely looking at its detailsannual adjective medium yearly; happening every year The accountant was too busy with paperwork to analyze the report thatsaid the company had no money. Everyone in Manchester was excited about the annual game between the city's two soccerteams.apparent

adjectiveadjective hard clearly seen or understood seeming (but not definitely true)

verbnoun approach common to come/go closer to something

orsomeonea way to do somethingAfter only a few months, it was apparentthat the French would not win the war. The shark's apparent sleepiness isactually because of how cold the water is.The sign at the park said clearly, "Do notapproach wild animals! They will bite." The new CEO had a very strange approach tomanagement, letting hisemployees sleep whenever they wanted.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

area a range of subjects or studies, a noun hard field,a disciplineaspect a feature, a characteristic, a noun hard particularpart of something assess to look closely at and figure out verb common thevalue or type of somethingassist verb easy to help or aidassume verb common to believe without proofattitude a set way of thinking or a set noun medium feelingabout something or someone

attribute to give an event or person credit forsomething, like a work of art or a speech

verbnoun a quality or feature that is an medium important part of somethingauthority control or responsibility over noun medium something (people, area, laws, etc)available adjective easy able to be reached, used, or boughtExample Sentence Researchers working in many different area, from psychology to physics, will be able to use the new type ofplastic. The three most important aspects to thinkabout when learning a language are grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.Before buying a house, you should always assess the building carefully. The box was too big to carry, so John asked the storemanager to assist him. Ahmed assumed his forgetful professor wouldn't remember their meeting, but theprofessor was alreadywaiting for him in her office. Zach always has a positive attitude when he has to deal with a problem at work. The museumdirector attributed the recently discovered painting to Van Gogh.All of his movies have a few attributes in common: for example,there is little conversation and a lot of music. Only Congress has the authority to make and pass laws for the country. The advisorwas not available too meet allday Monday, so the student had to come back on Tuesday.aware adjective medium to have knowledge ofbenefit noun medium something good coming from an action, agreement, idea, plan, etc.brief adjective common short (about time, not length) capable adjective common able to do nounnoun capacity hard the amountor volume something

canholdability (especially mental)As Helen drove away form the gas station,she wasn't aware that her lights were offuntil she turned onto a dark street. The president flew around the

country,talking about the benefits of the newhealth care law.Before we begin class, let me briefly introduce myself.Near the age of twelve months, childrenare capable of walking.The hotel is full to maximum capacity; there are no empty rooms.Few birds have the capacity to recognizethemselves when looking in amirror; mostact as though there is a second birdbehind the glass.

Word Part of

Speech Difficulty Definition Example Sentence

challenge nounverb verb

easy something difficultto suggest a fight or argument, to disagree or try to fight somebody to say something isn't true

circumstanc enoun easy the situation, facts or environment around an eventnounverb comment easy an observation, note, or response to say a short response oropinionabout a given topicverbverb verbcommit

hard to do or perform (something very negative, like a crime)to promise to, to make a final and unchangeable decision(usually "be committed to") to give allof your energy to something win.

New medicines face many challenges before they can be put in stores. In order to get the attention of females, males of manyanimal species will challenge each other in different ways. Einstein's writings challenged many ideasof the time.My professor only gives extra time to finishessays under specialcircumstances.Normally it's not allowed.The professor was angry about the negative comments made about his teaching style.A smart politician, the prime minister refused to comment on the criticisms ofher newest budget plan.Michiko committed too manygrammarerrors in her essay, and that hurt her score.Before you commit to a university, be sureto spend some time on campus. I'm completely committed to our baseballteam'ssuccess; I'd do anything to

community noun medium a group of people living or workingtogether

compensate verb hard to help correct a problem with another, positive thing

complex adjective easy with many different parts and difficultto understand,complicatedcomponent noun hard a part of a whole verbverb concentrate medium to focus attention on something

to come together into a smaller spaceThe Spanishspeaking community withinNew York City includes millions of people.The pay at Ian's new job was low, but thefreedom his boss gave him compensatedfor that.The science behind the atomic bomb usedin World War II was highly complex at thetime, but it is simple compared to today'snuclear science.Many electronics are made ofthousandsof smaller components and wires. You must learn to concentrate to be successful on the test.The protests concentrated in the city parks.

concept noun common an abstract idea

Some concepts within advanced mathematics are hard to show in the realworld.

Part of Speech Word Difficulty Definitionconduct verb easy to organize and manage (for an eventthat take careful planning and control)conflict noun mediumconsequenc enoun easy

considerable adjective medium an argument, long battle, or differenceof opinionsresult, effect, what happens becauseof an eventlarge enough or important enough toget special notice

consist verb hard to be made of

Example SentenceMy research team is a conducting a studyon how the Internet is changing dating.We are collecting information from fivecountries.The conflict in Syria has forced many people to leave the country.

If you hurt the people around you, therewill be unwanted consequences. A considerable number of popular sportswere invented in only the last 100 years.The U.S. consists of fifty states.

constant adjective common not changing and notstopping; continuousconstitute verb hard to be the pieces that make a

wholeThe river flows constantly through the yearand never freezes.Fifty states constitute the U.S.A.

constrain verb hard to limit the activity of, restrict construct verb easy to build consume verb common to eat, to use nounnounverbcontact

easy touchinghaving possible or normal communicationcommunicating (as by email or phoneespecially) to give or get specificinformation

context noun common the information or situation around anidea, event, or something that is saidverbverb contrast common to be clearly different from to look specifically at thedifferencesbetween two thingsverbverb contribute medium to give something (often money),

tohelp reach a goalto add to the cause of something bigger

Popular belief says that a pet fish's size isconstrained by the size of the tank it's in,but this is actually false.The land flooded every year, so it wasunsafe to construct buildings on it. No country consumes more oil than theU.S.A.Yeast, which is used to make beer, consumes sugars to create alcohol.

An electrical wire in contact with a pool ofwater can be extremely dangerous.Liam is still in contact with many of hishighschool teachers, surprisingly. The woman at the help desk told me tocontact thestudent affairs office if I wantto change rooms.

When you have difficultyunderstanding anew word, look at the context. The sentence around the word might tell themeaning.The zebra's black and white stripes contrast clearly with the yellow grass around it.By contrasting the vocabulary of Frenchand Spanish, we can see their differenthistories.Over the past three years, myparentshave not contributed to my universitytuition.I smoked a lot when I was younger, andthat's contributed to my health problemstoday.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

coordinate verb hard to work with or communicate with

thedifferent people, groups, or piecesinvolved in a large product

core adjectivenoun hard central, of fundamental importancethe center of something

verbverb correspond medium to be a close matchto send letters back and forthcriteria noun hardnounnoun culture easy the measures by which you judge ordecide something

the way a group of people living in one area normally acts,including arts,style, food, and how people talk toand act with each other

Example SentenceA chef at a big restaurant will spend histime coordinating all the workings of thekitchen, not cooking.Although we have made improvements in brain science, many of the core problemsremain.The earth's core is made of liquid rock.This new paint for the room does not correspond to the old paint.My mother and father corresponded foralmost two years before meeting inperson.A good TOEFL essay includes a few criteria, including good structure, clear ideas, and natural vocabulary.

When living in another country, it can bevery difficult to become comfortable in thenew culture.

data noun commondebate verb medium information, facts

to argue, usually in a formal, politeway

verbverb noundecline

medium to politely say no to an invitation orofferto become less, fewer, or smaller (usually of something good) a slow continuous loss of value, power, or strength

deduce verb hard to come to a conclusion through logicand evidence, to figure outdemonstrate verb commonderive verb hard

despite prepositio common nto show an example of, to prove withevidenceto get or create from(usually "be derived from") to comefrom, originate from

even with (when an event is surprising because of some difficulty)We collect data on the oceans' temperatures every year.Watching the presidential debates on TVdid not help me decide who to vote for.I declined dinner because I had plans toeat with my family instead.For ten years, the number of fish in theriver has declined.Many people say that America is in decline.

By analyzing the bones, we can deducewhen the animal lived and, maybe, how itdied.At eight years old, Mozartdemonstratedhis musical ability in London.All plastics are derived from oil. Many European languages are derived atleast partly from Latin.

We enjoyed our vacation despite the rain.discrete adjective hard separate, not the same thing and withno parts in commondistinct adjective medium clearly different from distribute verb medium to give out something

Your left arm and right arm are controlledby two discrete areas of the brain. There are at least five distinct types ofturtle living on the island.The teacher distributed tests to the class,and the students were happy to see theydid well.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

diverse adjective hard having many different types element noun medium a part of something, usually part of anideaemerge verb hard to come out of emphasize verb common to place extra importance on one partenable verb medium to make something possible enforce verb hard to make people follow (a rule or law)entity noun hard a thing that exists or acts as one unitequivalent adjective medium equal

Example SentenceThe student population is incredibly diverse at South State University, with students from 30 different countries. The element ofhis speech that I didn't likewas at the end, when he talked aboutreligion.After a winter spent sleeping, the bearemerges from its cave.Most modern art emphasizescreativityand emotion, not skill.The classes in college will enable you tofind a good job.Although smoking is not allowed on schoolcampus, the ban isn'tenforced, and manystudents smoke freely.The male angler fish will attach permanently to the female, and in time,the two fish will become a single entity.Rashim used a chart to find that his 6.7GPA in his home country was equivalentto a 3.2 GPA in the United States.

establish verb commonestimate verb medium to build, to create (of a system,

organization, or ideanot a real, physical thing)to determine roughly the value or number of something, to guess a number using some information

evaluate verb easy to form an idea of the the amount,

number or value of something The U.S. government was established inthe late 1700s.

Be careful to not forget any costs for theyear when you estimate your budget.Students are evaluated by their grades ontests, homework, essays, and inclassinteraction.

evident adjective easyexclude verb hard clearly seen or understood,

obviousto not include, to not put in a list orgroupDogs' feeling are usually evident in theiractions.I eat almost anything, excluding spicy foods. I hate hot pepper.

expand verb easy to makelarger; to give more detail ona subjectexpose verb mediumexternal adjective hard to show or reveal something that

washiddenoutside (especially of a body or system)Blowing air into a balloon will cause it to expand, but if you blow too much air, it willexplode!The politician's crimes were exposed andhe was forced to leave his position. Uncontrollable, external events can causeeven a very careful company to fail.

facilitate verb hard to make easy or easier

Classical music, unlike many types of music, will generally facilitate learning andimprove memory.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

factor noun hard a fact that influences or changes aresultnounverb feature common an important characteristic, a propertyto include as an important pieceverbnoun focus easy to look at, think about, or give

attention tothe center ofattention; the most important part

framework noun hard a structure for a building, system, orideaverbnoun function common towork; to do what something shoulddowhat something does, its purpose Example Sentence Two of the largest factors affecting children's healthy growth are food andrelationships with parents. The sound made by "r" is one of the mostdifficult features of spoken English. The university's newstudent housing features larger rooms than the old building did. I could not focus on my homework in thelibrary becausesomeone was playing music very loudly. The focus of Justin's essay was not clearto the professor, so he received a low grade.Ellen's business plan may have failed, butit formed the framework for her next, successful plan. I dropped my phone into aswimming pool,but, amazingly, it still functions. The hair on the human head has no clear function.fundamental adjective common basic,central; extremely importantfurthermore adverb common also, in addition, what's more

Alive believes that women are fundamentally different from men. The fundamental beliefs of most religionsare peaceful.Kenya has beautiful weather and, furthermore, does not have long nights inthe winter.

generate verb hard to create, to produce (especially energy)grant verbverb

hard to agree to give (something that wasasked for)to admit, to say something is true

hence adverb commonhypothesis noun common

identify verb common therefore, so, as a result

an idea which explainssomething butis unprovento name, to show or figure out whatsomething is

illustrate verb common to explain with an example

Movement generates heat.The government has recently granted usaccess to information that was secret before.I disagree that snakes make good pets, but I'll grant that they're easy to take careof.The evidence isfalse; hence, the conclusion is also false.The hypothesis that the Earth is growingwas shown to be false.Scientists have not been able to identifythe language written on the rocks. Peter illustrated his point by telling a shortstory.

Part of Speech Word Difficulty Definition

nounverb nounan effect that changes a situation to affect stronglythe force of being hit hard

Example SentenceThe end of the war had a large impact oneconomic growth.My father's advice hugely impacted myuniversity decision.The impact of a car crash can send a driver who doesn't wear a seat belt through the window.

impact hardimply verb easy to communicate without saying

specifically, to hint at an idea; to leadto a clear conclusion

indicate verb common to be a sign of, to show individual adjective easy single orseparated; only one of

The president implied that he would notsupport the new law against sellingtobacco, but he didn't say it clearly. The way you speak and act indicates youremotions.Joan was surprised that the ten books sheordered from the Internet came together,but in individual boxes.

initial adjective medium at the beginning instance noun common an example, a case verbnoun institute hard to start (a rule orsystem)

a group or organization that studies orworks for something specific

integrate verb hard to become a part of internal adjective medium found or happening inside (a body,organization, etc)interpret verb medium to figure out or explain the

meaning ofsomething My initial plan was to study until midnightand wake up late, but then I fell asleepearly.Two animals in Australia (platypuses andechidnas) are the only instances ofanimals with hair that lay eggs. In January, we will institute a plan to makecar accidents less frequent. The National CancerInstitute was createdto learn more about, and hopefully cure,the many types of cancer.It is difficult or even impossible to smoothly integrate a small, foreign cultureinto the main culture of a country. The US government has had lots of problems ever since internalmessageswere published on news websites. The students could not interpret the extremely old book because the pageswere hard to read.

invest verb medium to spend money, energy, or time

onsomething hoping for good results laterto spend money in the hopes of making more money, usually in property, financial shares, or someother activity

investigate verb common to try to find answers to questions

about something, to research If you want to learn anotherlanguage, youwill have to invest a lot of your free time. Jamie invested in an education companythat hethought would succeed and make him rich.Doctors are investigating a newly discovered plant that might help to fightcancer.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

involve verb common to include, to have as a partissue nounnoun a topic or situation to talk abouta common problem

Example SentenceThe study of architecture involves both artand science.In order to define what jazz music is, weneed to look at a few different issues.Monarchies (governments with kings orqueens) often have several commonissues.

justify verb hardnounverb label easy to give a good reason for an

action orsituation (especially one that seemsbad)a name or phrase given to a group ofthings to identify them (often negative)to give a label to something

labor noun medium work; effortnounverb layer medium something that covers something

elseto put something on top of something elseAlthough Milos explained for a long time,he could not justify borrowing his brother'scar without asking.The meaning of the label "punk" has changed greatly in the last 30 years. Children are often unkind and label otherswho look different as outsiders. Juan was surprised at how much laborwas needed to finish his project on time.Layers of paint on the steel bridge will protect it from rust.Sebastian layered the sandwich with allmy favorite meats and cheeses.

nounverb lecture common a long speech about one topic

(especially in a classroom) to give a long speech about a topicProfessor Jackson's lectures are too long;I always fall asleep.

verbnoun link medium to create a connection between two ormore thingsa connection between two thingsverbverb verbmaintain

easy to continueto keep alive, to keep in good state orconditionto continue to say although peopledisagree

major adjective easy very important, or large in size maximize verb easy to make as big aspossible; to use ordo as completely aspossible

mental adjective easy of the mind method noun common how to do something, a process

The news story linked thepresident's success with theimproved economy. What is the link between success in lifeand in education?China has maintained a friendship with theU.S., although the two countries often have different needs and ideas.These roads are so badly maintained thatthey're difficult to drive on. Until his death, Christopher Columbus maintained that he had sailed to Asia, notAmerica.The exam score is a major part of the finalclass grade.In order to maximize the number of peoplethat can fit on the plane, the airline tookout the restrooms.Many mental problems are still not well understood. We often don't know whatcauses them nor how to stop them fromhappening.The Spanish method of making chocolatecreated a completely new drink.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

minor adjective easy not veryimportant; small in size modify verb common to make small changes or add to inorder to make betterverbnoun monitor hard to watch the quality or progress of

something over timesomething or somebody which monitors

negate verb hard to make not true or not effective network noun medium a system of connected pieces (especially fortransportation or communication)nevertheless adverb common however, regardlessnotion noun medium abelief; an idea

objective nounadjective hard a goalbased in fact, not an opinion, not frompersonal beliefs or ideas

obtain verb medium to get or secure something obvious adjective easy easily understood or seen occupy verb easy to be in or on aspace, to fill a spaceoccur verb easy to happen

Example SentenceThe old actress was sad she had only aminor role in the new movie.The first bicycles were slow and difficult touse, but they were modified over time.We have been carefully monitoring the amount of salt in our oceans for the last 50years.Heart rate monitors can be used for bothmedicine and exercise.Studying late into the night might help youlearn more, but sleeping less negates thepositive effects.The typhoon destroyed the network ofroads, which has made it hard to bringsupplies and first aid to the town. The decision was dangerous.Nevertheless, Hitler attacked Russia. I think the professor's notion of fun wasdifferent from the students' notion of fun.The objective of the TOEFL is to measureyour total English ability. We can objectively measure how spicy apepper is, but howwe feel about thatspiciness is not objective.After lots of looking, Jorge obtained a joband apartment in New York City. The results of the election were so clearthat the loser admitted defeat beforevoting was finished.The dentist's office occupied the entirefourth floor of the building.

The sinking of the Titanic occurred onApril 14, 1912.

verbverb orient hard

(usually "to be oriented") to move intoa position in line with some specific point(usually "to orient yourself") to exploreand become comfortable with

overall adjectiveadverb common looking at or including all pieces orfactorsin general, for the most part

participate verb easy to join or take part in (a

conversation,a game, etc.)The statues appear to be oriented towardthe sunrise.It took a few weeks to orient myself in thenew job, but I feel comfortable now. Some words might be new and difficult, but the overall meaning of the sentence isclear.Overall, Americans eat a lot of beef, especially compared to people in othercountries.The teacher was surprised when everystudent participated in the math game.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

perceive verb hard to be aware of, to sense or feel period noun easy a range or amount of time perspective noun hard how you seesomething from a specific placea point of view or opinionphase noun hard a period of time in a longer process ofchangenounnoun philosophy medium the study of knowledge or a set of

theories knowledge and thought a basic idea of a person ororganization that affects their actions

physical adjectiveadjective easy of the body (notmental);concrete (not abstract)

policy noun hard a rule made by an organization, government, or companyExample Sentence If hunters are skilled, the animals will not perceive their presence. Computer technology changed a lot intheperiod between the 1980s and the year 2000. Young children's drawings do not have clearly definedperspective; you mayseethree walls of an outside of a building, forexample. Many Hollywood movies, when watchedfrom a woman's perspective, haveclearly sexist characters. There are at least three different phases in a frog's development from egg to adult. Philosophy hasalways tried to answer thequestion "What is the meaning of life?" My philosophy is that if you can do something today, youshouldn't wait until tomorrow. Cleaning up the campus garden was tiring, physical work. Katerina doesn't like paying for musicwithout a physical copy, such as a CD. School policy does not allow alcohol on campus.potential possible ability that might be

used inthe futurenoun having the ability to do something adjective medium in

the futureprecise adjective medium exact; carefully definedpredict verb common to say something will happen in thefutureprevious adjective easy happening before the onehappeningnow (of a thing, event, or date)primary noun easy first in importance principle noun hard a rule or idea that makes the base fora system (often moral)prior adjective medium happening or being before

Wind and solar energy have the potentialto replace oil.China is potentially the next world leader.Because the pirates weren't certain of theprecise location of the gold, they dug

holes all over the island.Charlie Chaplin predicted that movies would never become popular. He was wrong, clearly.

Soojin thought her science class was really hard after studying only literature inthe previous year.The primary cause of unhappiness is notabout moneyit is bad health.The principles at the heart of the new religion are the same as many central beliefs of Christianity.

The new CEO of Yahoo called the priorCEO of the company to get a betterunderstanding of the company.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

proceed verb medium to begin or continue with some actionnounverb verbproject

common a plan or task to reach a specific goalto predict the measurement of something in the future from presentmeasurementsto send out, to throw (of light, energy,etc)

proportion noun hard the size or amount of something compared to the whole or other partsverbverb pursue hard to follow, to chaseto try to achieve (a dream or goal)Example Sentence We will not proceed with the constructionuntil someone tells us it is safe to build here. Cleaning out thestorage room was a bigproject, but it's nice to see it empty, now.Based on this year's success, Apple is projecting similar growthnext year, too.Hoping to communicate with aliens, scientists have been projecting radio messages into space for many years.Cartoons of people often have exaggerated proportions, such as very large eyes or hands. The baby elephant ran, but the packoflions pursued it. Man pursued the dream of flight for hundreds of years before the modern airplane was invented.nounverb range medium the distance between two things

(likearea, time, or intelligence) to be between a set minimum andmaximumThe range of scores on the test was big.In the company, the age of people rangesfrom 25 to 75.

react verb easy to respond, act in answer to region noun easy an area of land verbverb register common to put your name or other

informationin a list for something to identify and show on a tool for measuring

regulate verb medium to have control over a process so thatit functions properlyreject verb easy to say no to something offered, to refuse or declinerelevant adjective easy closely connected to the topic andtherefore importantrely verb easy to depend on, to need in order to continue wellremove verb easy to take away or take out

require verbverb common to need for a specificpurpose; to setas the minimumMothers react quickly to their babies cries,even in the middle of the night. Although most of the Japanese exchangestudents come from Osaka, in the south,Akiko comesfrom the northern region ofJapan.If you'd like to buy a meal plan, you canregister at the student affairs office.The bomb was so strong that far awayweather balloons registered the heat. Parents regulate the amount of time kidsspend playing games on their phones.After applying to ten schools, Lucas wasrejected by nine of them.I think Professor McGarry can give you some relevant books to help you write thatessay.In many countries, children rely on their parents for food, money, and housing until

they are over 20 years old.The grocery store removed all of the milkafter the government said it was unsafe todrink.All life, plants and animals included, requires water.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

research

reside to find or search for more informationabout something

verbnoun information collected about easy something(usually academic) verb medium to live in a placeExample Sentence After growing up on an island, Malika hoped to research ocean temperatures ingraduate school. Dr.Stanislaus was famous for his research on changes in health education over the past 100 years. I reside in California.resolve toagree; todecide; to solve a verb easy problem or argument

resource some saved material that can be usedfor a purpose (especially money, anything used to make energy such as oil, or

noun easy information sources such as books)respondrestrict verb easy answer; reactto limit, to make some actions verb common impossibleretain verb hard to keep, continue to have or containrole noun medium a job orfunction; a position

scheme a large planthe system by which something is

noun hard arrangedsection one of a number of pieces which noun easy come together to create a whole secure to attach something so that is verbmedium won'tcome offseek verb hard to look for, to try to find

select verb to chooseadjective common chosen as the best from a group

Even after meeting for hours, the government leaders still could not resolvetheir argument over new taxes. Many of the richest countries have surprisingly few natural resources and must buy oil or gasfrom other countries.Never forget to make use of the library during your studies; it's full of greatresources.Waiters who respond to customers' questions with a smile generally get moremoney.If you scare a turtle, it will respond by hiding in its shell.

Access to this parking area isrestricted:only university students may use it. Originally from France, Jean retains a hintof her French accent even today. Student class president is animportantrole.Microsoft's marketing scheme for their new tablet computer was less than successful.The modern scheme for naming different types of plants and animals started around1800.Every ant's body has three sections: a head, a thorax (where the legs are), andan abdomen (the back).Please tightly secure the surfboards ontop of the car.Across many different cultures' stories,heroes seek more than just gold or fame.There are four different math courses youmay select from in your first year. Harvard students are a select group of veryintelligent, successful students whoare often from rich families.

Word Part ofSpeech Difficulty Definition

shift verbnounmediumsignificant adjective common to move something a short

distancea small change in position or directionimportant or big enough that youshould notice or payattention

Example SentencePlease help me shift the table so it is easier for people to sit down.The recent shift that the coach made ishelping the team win more games.

Most animals spend a significant amountof their time looking for food.

site noun medium the location of something source noun easy where something comes fromspecify verb easy to say which one or clearly

point towhich oneThe people of the city voted for a site downtown as the location of the new sports stadium.Do not trust books that giveinformation without listed sources. The facts could befalse.The king told the hero that he could marryone of the princesses but did not specifywhich daughter.

stable adjective medium not likely to change, fall,

or move secure (as in employment, finances, housing, etc)Make sure the ladder is stable before youclimb up it!

status noun medium the rank or social class of

someone orsomething the current situation that something isin

strategy noun easy a plan of action to reach a desiredgoalverbnoun nounstress

common to place extra importance on one partextraimportance placed on one partpressure, strain,tension; worryThe status of women has slowly improvedover the past 100 years, and it continuesto improve.What's the status of the new library? Arethey finished building it yet?The debate team spent the evening discussing their strategy for defeating theother teamIf you stress the wrong words or soundswhen speaking English, you may not beunderstood.Final exams are soon, and so stress levels are high among students.

subsequent adjective hard immediately after

Both the winter and the subsequent springwere surprisingly dry, with neither snownor rain.

substitute to take out and put something else inthe same place (usually

verbnoun something worse) common something that goes in the place of

the normal thingBecause we didn't have any, we substituted the sugar with juice. Many cigarette smokers who try to quituse chewing gum as a substitute.

sufficient

sustain adjective common enough in amount for what you need to help something

verb medium continue, to keep goingBecause of weather changes, last year farms couldn't grow sufficient rice to feedthe country.No animals or plants can sustain life without water.

Wordtheorytradition noun common

noun medium an idea or belief about how/why There are many theories about why something works we

dream.a set of beliefs or a culture that ispassed from family to family over along period of timeChris's favorite tradition is eating ham onChristmas.

transfer verb easy to pass from one person or thing toanother

trend nounverb common the direction or way in which something is changing

underlying adjective hard forming the basis for something valid adjective hardvary verb medium from a reasonable or correct

basisto be a different size, amount, or character when compared to something else in a similar group

welfare noun hard how healthy and happy a person orgroup iswhereasPart ofSpeech Difficulty Definition Example Sentence

conjunctio common nalthough (used to contrast two different things)Sally transferred all of her money from American National Bank when she heardthey were closing.Today's computer culture is trending toward more touchscreen technology.

There is no single way to put an end todrug addiction since there are manyunderlying causes.Many people have said the artist JacksonPollack's work didn't require much skill,and that idea is somewhat valid.

The restaurants in this area vary greatly inquantity and price.A perfect government would care moreabout the welfare of its people thananything else.Lemons are very sour whereas most fruitsare sweet.

Collocations, Idioms and Phrasal Verbs IN CONTEXTCollocations

A collocation (also collocate) is a word or phrase which is frequently used withanother word or phrase, in a way that soundscorrect to speakers of the language. For example,

heavy rain

Idioms

An expression whose meaning is different from the meaning of the individual words. Forexample, to have your feet on the ground is an idiommeaning to be sensible.

Phrasal verbs

A combination of words that is used like a verb and consists of a verb and anadverb or preposition, for example give in or comeup with

Any long English content, spoken or composed, will contain numerous instances of the three. Regularly, transitional understudieswho can't go past middle level battle to manage how thick a language can turn out to be whenever we have taken in thestraightforward linguistic constructions and have dominated a huge arrangement of jargon.

Text

It was the entry of McDonald’s into Rome in 1986 that sparked offthe “slow foodmovement” – a tongue-in-cheek reactionagainst fast food by a journalistwho felt the need to celebrate meals prepared with love and consumed at leisure. Fifteen years on,the organisation spans 50 countries and has more than 70,000 members.Now the idea is moving on towhat is being called the “slow cities” movement,and towns in many countries are being invited tojoin more than 30 Italian communities who have taken up the challenge of resisting the frenetic, ever- quickening pace of livingand trying to improve the quality of life.

Text: The Guardian Weekly

Phrasal verbs

1. sparked offthe “slow food movement” There are 5 main types of phrasal verb.

This type has a transitive verb whose object can come intwo positions. i. McDonald’s sparked offthe slow food movement.ii. McDonald’s sparked the slow food movement off.

iii. McDonald’s sparked it off.iv. (We cannot say)McDonald’s sparked off it.

2. moving on to what is being called the “slow cities” movement This type has a transitiveverb whose object must follow the particle. There isa similar phrasal verb To move on which isintransitive (does not requirean object)

i. We are moving on to the bar on the corner

3. have taken up the challenge of resisting the frenetic, ever- quickening pace of living. Thisexample is transitive and the object cancome between the verb and particle or follow the particle.Note that ‘takeup’ +‘challenge’ is also a very strong collocation.

i. I have taken up the challengeii. I have taken it up already

CoIlocations

1. feel the need to (do something) feel like: When I came back to England, I felt like a stranger. feel as if/as though: I felt as though someone had just punched mein the

stomach. feel sadness/happiness/anger/relief etc: She felt some sadnesswhen the timecame to leave. feel guilt/remorse: Richard felt no guilt at all for what he had done. feel the need to dosomething: Cara felt the need to talk tosomeone. feel (a) pain: He felt a sudden pain in hischest. feel the cold/heat: Children don’t seem to feel the cold as much asadults do

2. take up the challenge Schools are taking up the offer of cut-price computers. One of our greatest athletes has taken up a new challenge. She fell silent, and her brother took up the story. (the phrasal verbhere has a

new meaning!) Mrs Pankhurst took up the cause ofwomen’s rights.

Practice

1) Phrasal verbs with Spark, Move and Take. Use a dictionary to choose theappropriate particles.

a) I don’t like flying. I get really scared when the plane is taking off /over / up b) They stay foronly a few days before moving on / up / over c) Your article sparked up / off / in happymemories for me.d)We’ve bought a new house andwe’re moving in / up / on nextweek. e)I’ll try not to take off /over / up too much of your time.2) Complete the sentences with the correct particles. Use your dictionary.

a) I am thinking of taking judo after New Year.b) There is a really nice family moving the apartment next door. c) Thanks. I thinkI’ll take youup your offer of a lift to the party. d) He is bored with his job. I think it is time for him to move .

3) Rearrange the words to make correct sentences.

a) of you in this heat really takes Playing tennis it out. b) you taking fasten your while the planeis off must seat-belt. c) violence game sparked The a at the riot off in the city football

Practice Collocation

Your teacher will give you role-cards. Do not show the cards to the others in your group. Mime the sentence with‘feel’ so that theothers in your group canguess the sentence.

Personalisation.

Read the sentences below. You are going to speak about the feelings describe. Prepare some notes so that you are ready to finishthe sentencesand give reasons. Add to the list if have time.

I feel sad when . . . .I feel guilty when . . . .. . . . makes me feel angry.. . . . was when I felt the happiest.After work / school I feel like . . . .

Collocations & Set Phrases

1. Study the collocations and set phrases below clustered into topic-related groups.ART & CULTURE ENTERTAINMENT

1. leave a legacy2. be a source of inspiration3. a city with historic landmarks4. take pride in my cultural heritage5. a stark contrast betweenadventure6. blur the boundaries between life7. lay the foundations of

SPORTS

1. hold a training sessionspotlight2. hold/set/break the world record3. cross the finishing line4. be gasping for breath5. sustain an injury

6. take performance-enhancing drugs 6. bring the house down

7. a result comes as a surprise 7. be booed off the stage 8. be his/her crowning achievement 8. meet with critical acclaim 2.Match the two parts that contain collocations from the list above to make true statements

1. have a blast/a whale of a time2. the party is in full swing3. is the life and soul of the party4. a play/group attracts media attention5. have an unquenchable thirst for

6. have an insatiable desire/appetite for 7. give/getan adrenalin rush

PERFORMANCE

1. be in the limelight/under the

2. have an imposing stage presence3. suffer from stage fright4. have a dress rehearsal5. give/receive a round of applause 5. Luciano Pavarotti had an imposing stage presence.6. Despite his antics, Alice Cooper was never booed off the stage. 7. AlfredHitchcock’s movies met with great criticalacclaim.

8. MarionJones’ doping scandal came as no surprise given her male-like body. 9. Ronaldo’s career took a downturn afterhe sustained a knee injury in 1999. 10. Aristotle Onassis had an insatiable appetite for the good life.

1. Princess Diana2.3. Steve Fossett was a thrill-seeker4.5. Luciano Pavarotti6. Despite his antics, Alice Cooper7. Alfred Hitchcock’s movies8.

9. Ronaldo’s career took a downturn

10.about these famouspeople’s lives.

1. Princess Diana was in the limelight everywhere she went.2. Maria Callas was a prima donna who could bring the house down.3. Steve Fossett was a thrill-seeker who got an adrenalin rush from adventure.4. Duke Ellington was so shy he often experienced stage fright.

3. Supply the prepositions that go together with these verbs and nouns.1.

2.3.beton4.5.6.7.8.

9. hailas /from10.idleaway11.inculcate with infuse withimbue withinstillin(to) /with insistonlinktoparachute off /from persistinrangefrom . . .to regardless ofstraighten out /up

under scrutiny4. Complete the following sentences using verbs, nouns, or adjectives and the prepositions that go with them fromthe listabove.

1. Albert Einstein was hailed as the greatest scientist of all times.2. Turks are indebted to Kemal Ataturk for his contribution to the modernization of their country.3. It is acoach’s job to straighten out problems between team members.4. It takes courage and guts to parachute off a plane.5. During the break students idle away in groups in the courtyard.6. Sergeants should inculcate new recruits with discipline.7. All citizens have the right to vote regardless of ethnicity or creed.

8. Politicians’private lives are under scrutiny because the public want to know what kind of people they are.9. Artists complain when the government cuts back on funding for the arts.10. Some people say China will soon have the best cars on the market, but based on what I know about cars Iwouldn’tbet on it.

Assimilation StageA LITTLE REGULAR EXERCISE EXTENDSMEN’S LIVES

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word from the box. Use each once.

regardless moderat range ereveal extend conferexpend consu odds meprescribe prolong brisk

1. Even moderate smokers are at increased risk of contracting lung cancer, let alone heavy smokers.2. AfterBob’s nervous breakdown, the doctor prescribed a series of medicines to calm his nerves and restore hismental balance.3. John andSarah’srelationship had been going downhill lately, so they both decided not to prolong theirmisery and broke up.4. Many men dream of owning a car such as a Ferrari or a Porsche that confers status on its owner.

5. The painting acquired immense value when it was revealed that it was painted by Van Gogh.6. A careful, healthy lifestyle can extend your life by several years.7. According to scientists, even a brisk walk can provide tangible benefits for your body and mind.8. Gyms that offer a wide range of activities and services are very popular nowadays.

9. The effort and energy expended in trying to climb a mountain are quite considerable, and the body needsfluids to replenishthem right afterwards.10. Drivers who consume a large quantity of alcohol before they drive behave criminally because theyknowingly putotherpeople’slife at unnecessary risk.11. The odds of recovery fromAlzheimer’s disease are non-existent at present.12. All citizens, regardless of race or creed, are entitled to freedom of speech and expression.

REMEMBER WHAT WE OWE TO ARAB SCIENCE

Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase from the box. Use each once.

advent fertile fragment heritage timely legacy starkly herald account rival spark breakthrough

1. Religion and science used to be rivals, but in the Western world this conflict has long lost its edge.2. One of the reasons why people who live in big cities feel alienated is that society has become fragmented

and has lost its cohesion.3. In the 1960s the emergence of the hippy movement was believed to be heralding a new era marked bypeace, love, andfreedom.4. In New York City, suburban prosperity contrasts starkly with inner city squalor. 5. Monuments around the world should becarefully preserved as they are part of eachcountry’s national

heritage.

6. The publication of LadyChatterley’s Lover sparked a wave of protests by moral and religious conservatives.7. The burning hotel was evacuated and the fire was put out thanks to the timely intervention of the firedepartment.8. Decadent and derelict as it was in the late 1970s, Manchester was fertile ground for the development ofdark new wave music.9. Forty eight years after hisassassination, Martin Luther King’s legacy lives on, as the dream of racial unity iscloser to becominga reality.10. Much to the displeasure of the police, the twoeyewitnesses’accounts of the accident differed greatly.11. The deal struck by the two countries to share energy resources was seen as a major breakthrough in theeffort to achievepeace and prosperity in the region.12. The advent of airplane travel brought cultures closer together and gave fresh impetus to internationalism andcosmopolitanism.Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase from the box. Use each once.

ostentation exuberant ambivalent ornate superfluous homage exacerbate intact incline commission profusion hail

1. I feel ambivalent about the money made by Hollywood actors: they deserve it as they are talented, butit’s adisgrace thatdoctors and professors earn less.2. It’s difficult for actors who play in Almodovar’s movies to keep their self-esteem intact in the face of hiscriticism anddemands.

3. Most modern buildings have no superfluous decoration. Everything in them serves a purpose.4. Mediterranean people are inherently exuberant and show their feelings openly.

5. The rivalry between the two artists was exacerbated when they were both short-listed for the Oscar award.6. The ornate interior of the magnificent palace impressed the visitors.7. Advocates of functionalism usually shun ostentation because they believe in the elimination of non-essential elements.

8. Vangelis was commissioned to compose the music for the Sydney Olympic Games, which shows how muchhe is respectedworldwide.9. Leaders from all over the world attended PrincessDiana’s funeral to pay homage to her. 10. Barack Obama is hailed by manyAmericans as a new John Kennedy, and they are pinning their hopes on himto revive the country.11. The Chinese language has a profusion of pictographs that correspond with individual words in Indo-European languages.12. Few young people nowadays are inclined to write poetry, as literature has lost currency with the youngergeneration.

LITERAL VS. METAPHORICAL USE

1. Study the sentences below where the words in blue are used literally.

1. Everyone in the room turned and bowed as the Queen of England made her entry.2. He was rushed to hospital after going into cardiac arrest, but doctors could not revive him.3. As a boy, Joe was quite robust and always looked the picture of health.

4. The city of Phoenix, Arizona was built on land that used to be barren desert.5. After an arduous climb we were all relieved to reach the pinnacle of the mountain.6. There was a nasty smell coming from the stagnant pond, and Ididn’t want to go near.

2. Now use words from above to complete the sentences below where the same words are usedmetaphorically.1. I thought Tom and I could collaborate on that project, but after a rather barren and pointless discussion Ichanged my mind.2. The Minister of Finance needs to come up with a sound plan to breathe new life into the stagnant economy.3. Now that Izmir has become a popular holiday destination, the local economy is beginning to revive.4. When President Kennedy was assassinated, he was at the pinnacle of his political career. 5. Much to the delight of the carcompanies that manufacture them, sales of SUVs have been quite robust thisyear.6. After years of bitter quarreling, the couple bowed to the inevitable and decided to divorce.

APPROPRIACY

Fill in the blanks with words or phrases from the box. For each word or phrase there is asynonym with the samemeaning but a different level of formality. Pay attention to thecontext of each sentence.

expend defeated profusion waste top pinnacle reveal divulge plenty beat

1. (Conversation between coach and players):“We lost away from home in the first round cause the ref was on their side, but this teamwe’re gonna beatthem no matterwhat.”

2. (History textbook):The British navy, led by Admiral Nelson defeated the Spanish and French navy in the battle of Trafalgar in1805.

3. (Conversation between two reporters):“I knowyou’re dying to find out, but I kinda swore to keep it a secret so Ican’t really reveal my sources.”

4. (CIA Handbook):Members of the Secret Service are not permitted to divulge confidential information to the press.5. (Conversation between two tourists):“Barcelona is just awesome.There’s plenty of amazing monuments to take in,man!”

6. (Ancient History textbook):The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, were renowned for having aprofusion of wild flowers.

7. (Conversation between two friends):“I hired a cleaner because Idon’t wanna waste so much energy doing thehousework.”8. (Biology textbook):Children expend a great deal more energy than adults and hence require more nourishment.

9. (Conversation between father and son):“If you want to reach the top of your profession, you need to stay one step ahead of everybody else,son.”

10. (Magazine article referring to Vangelis):Vangelis reached the pinnacle of his career when he won an Oscar for the score of Chariots of Fire in 1984.

SYNONYMS

Replace the word in blue in each sentence with the most appropriate word from the box. Youmay need to changethe form of the word

tribute redundant riveting productive discloseinextinguishable regimen protract chances vary

1. Renaissance scholars evinced anunquenchable desire to push the frontiers of knowledge. (inextinguishable)2. There was a prolonged silence before the stunned interviewee managed to give an answer to the unexpectedquestion.(protracted)3. The reporter decided not to reveal his identity to the people he interviewed. (disclose) 4. Thesculptor’s mood fluctuated fromone day to the next depending on what she was working on. (varied)5. Salvador Dali is widely regarded as an artist who had a fertile imagination. (productive) 6. The odds of a French moviewinning an Oscar are slim. (chances)7. The discovery that her husband spent the night in a hotel with another woman was all she needed to file fordivorce, and anyexplanation was superfluous. (redundant) 8. After his knee operation, the soccer player followed an exercise program to regainhis form. (regimen)9. In his speech the minister paid homage to the bravery and self-sacrifice of the people who laid down theirlives for the sake oftheir country. (tribute)10. Casablanca is a grippingmovie that keeps theviewers’attention until the end. (riveting)

OPPOSITES

Use the words in the box to rewrite these sentences so that they make sense.

indispensable sophisticated moderation malnourished flimsy profusion stalemate flop conceal boo

Example: He is not afraid of danger, so he is regarded as a risk-taker.He is afraid of danger, so he is regarded as a risk-avoider.

1. The building withstood the earthquake because it was sturdy. The building collapsed during the earthquake because it wasflimsy.2. The novice painter made a crude drawing of the ship.The experienced painter made a sophisticated drawing of the ship.

3. Nearly everyone wants to see a movie that is a blockbuster.Nearly no one wants to see a moviethat is a flop.

4. A writer who values spontaneity usually regards an outline as superfluous. A writer who values planning usually regards anoutline as indispensable.