English grammar

Introduction

Writing style, like handwriting and body language, is unique to the individual. No two people will express themselves in exactly the same way on the same subject. Why, then, does writing have so many rules? One answer is that it's terribly easy to write in a way that confuses others.

The point of a guide like this is not to make a conformist out of every person who picks up a pen or sits down at a keyboard, but rather to help writers become the best and clearest communicators they can possibly be. We believe that law-abiding sentences need not be colorless or unimaginative, and we hope you do, too.

This resource is divided into several main sections. Basic Principles of Grammar covers parts of speech. This sections answers basic questions: What is a clause? What is a verb? The terms defined in this part of the guide are categorized for easy reference; you may find yourself returning to this part to familiarize yourself with some of the terminology.

Basic Principles of Punctuation answers major questions about punctuation: What are the principles of correct comma usage? What is an en-dash? When should you use ellipses?

In Other Basic Principles of Usage you'll learn about abbreviations, plurals, possessives and other potential areas of confusion.

Basic Principles of Style focuses on correct style. It tells you what you need to know about (for instance) recognizing and correcting dangling modifiers and run-on sentences, telling objective and subjective pronouns apart, and hyphenating compound phrases. This part also tackles abstract style issues, such as the effective selection of adverbs and adjectives, how passive verbs can drain impact from your sentences, and the best ways to avoid sexism in your text.

The Most Common Pitfalls highlights the most common writing dangers. This section helps you resolve questions that stop many writers cold: What's wrong with using impact as a verb? When should you use lie rather than lay? How do you handle verbs with more than one subject?

Write with style, strive for clarity and enjoy yourself.

Adjectives

Adjectives modify a person, place or thing.

carefulbrownexpensiveheavenlyloudimpossiblepaleShakespearean

Adverbs Adverbs describe actions. They include -ly words:

carefullyconfidentlyslowlyloudlypatientlyquietly

Caution: Never put a hyphen after an adverb ending in -ly.

Words like the following are also adverbs:

lessslowerbesteverywhere

Articles Articles fall into two categories: definite and indefinite.

Definite articles: the, these, thoseIndefinite articles: a, an

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are joining words:

althoughandasbecausebutdespitefor (when it carries the meaning because) sincewhilewhyyet

When a conjunction is followed by an independent clause (a phrase that could stand as a complete sentence), the previous clause ends in a comma. Otherwise, there is no comma.

Don't write:I called at five o'clock as you requested but you didn't answer. (Here, "you didn't answer" could be a complete sentence.)Instead, write:I called at five o'clock as you requested, but you didn't answer.

Contractions Contractions are formed by joining a verb to a noun or pronoun with the help of an apostrophe. The apostrophe signifies that one of the words has been shortened slightly. For example, the particle not becomes -n't, the verb is becomes 's and the verb have becomes 've. Thus, can't, don't, shouldn't, hadn't, you've and I've are all contractions.

Roderick's late = Roderick is late.She's infallible = She is infallible.I'm ready = I am ready.

Contractions are perfectly acceptable in everyday speech, but should be avoided in most formal writing.Caution: The contraction it's, meaning "it is", should never be confused with the possessive pronoun its, meaning "belonging to it".Don't, write:The lamb bleated for it's mother.Instead, write:The lamb bleated for its mother.

Indefinite Pronouns The indefinite pronouns are those that do not specify the identity of their object. They include:

allanyfewmanyseveralsome

Interjections Interjections are exclamations capable of standing alone.

"Fiddlesticks!" Nancy thundered.

Father shouted, "Hallelujah!"

Interrogative Pronouns The interrogative pronouns are who, what, where, when and which. They are interrogative because they ask a question; they are pronouns because they stand in for a missing noun or noun phrase.

"Okay, who threw that baseball?"

In the example above, who is an interrogative pronoun that stands in for the unknown person who threw the baseball.

Nouns Nouns are people, places or things:

collieglitchlawyeroatmealrailroadterritory

Place names and people's names are called proper nouns and are always capitalized. (Other nouns are not "improper"—they are common.) Here are some examples of proper nouns:

the Arctic CircleLady Jane GreyLouiseTennesseeWallace Stevens

Mass nouns refer to undifferentiated substances:

butteroxygen

Use of Collective Nouns Collective nouns take a singular verb when referring to an action of the group as a whole:

The choir is beginning "Blessed Be the Tie that Binds."

Collective nouns take a plural verb when referring to the actions of the group as separate individuals:

The enemy are picking our soldiers off from behind boulders a

Participles Participles are the -ing forms of verbs. Participles often serve as nouns and adjectives.

I'm not big on exercise, but I love swimming. (Here, "swimming" serves as a noun.)

It's a catchy slogan, but will "Crush the Capitalist Running Dog" connect with Pennsylvania's voters? (Here, "Running" is an adjective.)

Prepositions Prepositions help form phrases that modify verbs, nouns and adjectives, and that generally express some relationship involving position or time. In the sentence below, "in" is a preposition.

Jim works in Chicago.

Prepositions include such words as:

afteraround

beforebehindfromoutovertounderneathupon

Prepositional Endings The "rule" against ending sentences or clauses with prepositions is not as ironclad as many writers believe. Some ideas are virtually impossible to express without prepositional endings:

What are you talking about?

In other situations, a technically "correct" sentence that avoids a prepositional ending can sound stilted and self-conscious. In such cases, revising the sentence entirely may be your best option:

Don't write:When we meet on Friday for lunch, we will have more time to discuss the topic about which I was telling you in Pat's office.Instead, write:When we meet on Friday for lunch, we will have more time to discuss the topic I raised with you in Pat's office.

In formal writing, when a pronoun other than that leads to a final relative clause, the preposition is placed ahead of its object—or the sentence is rewritten.

Don't write:She resigned from the firm she had given 12 years of her life to.Instead, write:She resigned from the firm to which she had given 12 years of her life.

Pronouns Pronouns take the place of nouns.

SUBJECT PRONOUNSIyouhesheitonewetheythesethosethou

OBJECT PRONOUNSmeyouhimheritoneusthemthesethosethee

The subject of a sentence performs the action. The object of the sentence, if the sentence has one, is that which is acted upon.He kissed me and walked away. (Here, the subject is he and the object is me.)

Person and Number Grammar recognizes three persons in pronouns (first, second and third) and two categories of number (singular and plural).

SINGULARFirst person:I, me

Second person:You

Third person:He, she, it, one

PLURALFirst person:We, us

Second PersonYou

Third personThey, them

In English, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the second person singular from the second person plural. Context usually provides the necessary clues.

First person singular—I went out for breakfast alone.Second person singular—Did you really go out for breakfast alone?Third person singular—He went out for breakfast alone.

First person plural —We held a meeting to discuss selling the family holdings.Second person plural —Did you hold a meeting to discuss selling your family holdings?Third person plural —They held a meeting to discuss selling their family holdings.

Multiple Pronouns When two or more pronouns are linked in a series, the first-person pronoun usually comes last. Be sure to use objective pronouns (me, him, her) where the person or persons in the series are on the receiving end of the action described, and subjective pronouns (I, he, she) when the person or persons in the series drive the action.

Don't write:I think that bomb was intended for me and my partner.(or:)I think that bomb was intended for my partner and I.

Instead, write:I think that bomb was intended for my partner and me.

Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns, as the name indicates, signify possession. In the following sentence, my and its are possessive pronouns.

My horse is spellbound when I look into its eyes.

Other possessive pronouns include:

hershismineone'sourstheirswhoseyouryours

Caution: Never spell the possessive pronoun its with an apostrophe.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns describe an entity that acts as both the subject and the object of a given verb. They end in -self or -selves.

herselfhimselfitselfmyselfoneselfourselvesthemselves yourselfyourselves

Thus:

The cat washed itself thoroughly.

Watch out; you might hurt yourself.

Reflexive pronouns can also act as intensifiers.

The king himself would not be ashamed to wear such a shirt.

However, a reflexive pronoun should never take the place of an object pronoun.

Don't write:Please refer all questions to myself when I am in the office.Instead, write:Please refer all questions to me when I am in the office.

Relative Pronouns: That, Which, Who and Whom A relative pronoun introduces a dependent clause—a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. The relative pronouns are that, which, who and whom.

As a general and reliable rule, that should be used before a restrictive clause (one that requires no comma):

This is not the dog that bit me.Which should be used only before a nonrestrictive clause—that is, after a comma, when the clause that follows could be omitted without leaving the sentence gramatically incomplete.

Daisies, which do not require much tending, are a good choice for beginning gardeners. (Here, "which do not require much tending" could be removed without leaving the sentence gramatically incomplete.)

Who is a subject pronoun. It stands in for the person(s) performing the action.The actress who played Juliet was especially convincing.Whom is an object pronoun. It stands in for the person(s) being acted upon.I introduced my wife to Mr. Galstone, whom I had met the previous month.

Verbs Verbs are action words.

bewailblessexperiencegallopinscribereflectsingterrifyyell

Passive and Active Voices Verbs can be deployed in the passive voice (The car was driven to Philadelphia.), which is often discouraged by stylists, or the active voice (I drove the car to Philadelphia).

In cases where the identity (or gender) of the person taking action is not known, however, the passive voice may be preferable.

Don't write:If you assign a reporter to a potentially explosive story, make sure you caution him to verify his facts before he goes to print.

Instead, write:A reporter who has been assigned to a potentially explosive story should be cautioned to verify facts before going to print.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words with a subject and a predicate that makes up part of a compound or complex sentence.

Lord Randall rode out / as the day was breaking.(first clause) (second clause)

Clauses can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a complete sentence in itself. It can stand alone. A dependent clause cannot stand alone.

There was the parlormaid, / making off with my diamonds.(independent clause) (dependent clause)

Connectives Connectives include conjunctions and other joining words that link words, phrases, clauses and sentences. In the sentence below, but and and are connectives.

The lion sprang, / but the gazelle escaped / and sped away across the plain.

Note that no comma follows the word escaped. This is because the (unstated) subject of and sped away across the plain is the same as the subject of but the gazelle escaped. Had the subject changed, or had it been replaced by a pronoun instead of simply implied, a comma would have been necessary.Don't write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning, and thought to himself, "Eggs!" (Here, the subject of thought is Mr. Mackerel.)Instead, write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning and thought to himself, "Eggs!"

Don't write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning and he thought to himself, "Eggs!" (Here, the subject is replaced by a pronoun.)Instead, write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning, and he thought to himself, "Eggs!"

Don't write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning and there on the table was a basket of eggs. (Note that Mr. Mackerel is not the subject of the second half of the sentence.)Instead, write:Mr. Mackerel got up this morning, and there on the table was a basket of eggs

Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase or clause that helps describe another word or group of words. The phrase "clad in irreproachable blue pinstripes" below is a modifier.

He arrived for the meeting clad in irreproachable blue pinstripes.

Dangling Modifiers Problems arise when the modifier gets disconnected from that which it is modifying. Such sentences are said to contain dangling modifiers.

Don't write:Stricken to silence, the embarrassment was palpable.(or:)Stricken to silence, Henry's embarrassment was palpable.

Instead, write:Stricken to silence, Henry hung his head. His embarrassment was pa

Paragraphs A paragraph is a division within a text that expresses a single idea relevant to the whole. It may be as short as a single sentence or it may contain a dozen or more sentences.

A paragraph should:

follow logically from the paragraph that precedes it. state a clear idea in the first sentence. follow through with statements that support the idea. end when the idea has been explored.

 Paragraphs should introduce a single idea clearly at the outset, as this one does. Some supporting ideas may be too complex for one paragraph; they may need to be broken into several sub-paragraphs. Other ideas may be so simple that they can be linked together in one paragraph as part of a larger idea. The writer's style, the overall purpose of the text and the likely interest level of the intended audience will all affect the length and structure of the paragraph.

Phrases

A phrase is a group of words that consitute a meaningful unit.

The red cow / we bought at the fair / gives very little milk.

Simple Sentences, Compound Sentences and Complex Sentences A simple sentence has a subject and a predicate.

Lightning flashed.

A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses—complete sentences joined by a connecting word. The following compound sentence has three independent clauses, joined by and and although—both conjunctions.

She rose and went to the window, / and I could see she was agitated, /although she tried to conceal it.

Note that independent clauses are separated by commas. Depending on the sentence, a semicolon, colon or dash may also be used.

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses—clauses that are not complete sentences and could not stand alone.

Here is the book / you lent me last Christmas, / the one you said I would never read.(independent clause) (dependent clause) (dependent clause)

Subject and Predicate A subject consists of a noun, noun phrase or the equivalent that governs the sentence. A predicate (pronounced PRED-ih-kit) is the part of the sentence or clause that says something about the subject. It includes a verb.

Mary had a little lamb.(subject) (predicate)

Ampersand

The ampersand (&) stands for the word and. Use an ampersand only when you know it is part of a trademark or a company's formal name:

My daughter has just been made a partner is the firm of Billings, Conner & Hathaway.

She bought a box of Raisins & Bits for her daughter.

Don't write:he menu also offers peanut butter & jelly for younger patrons.Instead, write:he menu also offers peanut butter and jelly for younger patrons.

Apostrophe The apostrophe has several uses:

To indicate that figures or letters have been omitted ('49 instead of 1849; can't instead of cannot)

To form the possessive (John's favorite movie) To form the plural of single letters (all A's and B's on her report card)

The apostrophe is never used to form the plural of a noun or verb.Don't write:The rabbit run's away.Instead, write:The rabbit runs away.Don't write:He shouted, "Rabbit's for sale!"Instead, write:He shouted, "Rabbits for sale"

Apostrophe: Proper Use with Numerals and Multiple Letters The apostrophe should not be used to form the plural of numerals or multiple-letter combinations.Don't write:She was in her 50's before she learned her ABC's.Instead, write:She was in her 50s before she learned her ABCs.

Brackets

Brackets are used within quoted material to insert a brief note of clarification.

The text offered some interesting observations on Christian mysticism. For instance:

"Mysticism is not formally identified with any single religious order, but has been associated with several over the centuries, notably the Cistercians and, later, the Mendicant [begging] orders."The word sic in brackets within a quotation indicates that an error or unusual spelling is part of the quoted material.

In a letter to her parents, she wrote, "We expect a good crop of potatos [sic] this year."

Colon A colon is used to introduce an explanatory word, list, phrase or clause.

There are only three things I don't like about my hometown: the people, the weather and the location.

My course is clear: Go back to bed until this blows over.

When the colon introduces an independent clause (a grammatically complete sentence), the first word of the clause begins with a capital letter.

Her excuse was characteristically direct: She couldn't come, she said, because she had just been arrested.

A colon is used to introduce a quotation longer than one sentence, whether within the paragraph or set off as a block quotation. (For one-sentence quotations, use a comma.)

I finally caught up with Granddad at Macy's. He had cornered a frightened clerk and begun shouting complaints: "Your necktie is crooked, young man, and you don't look people in the eye when you talk to them. What's more, I've been standing here for 20 minutes and you haven't offered to assist me!"

A colon is also used for time of day (11:15) and for biblical and legal citations (Hosea 11:1-11).

Comma The function of the comma is to prevent elements within a sentence from running together in a confusing way. The rules regulating comma use merit some study, but they are logical and do promote clear writing.

Entries on the correct use of the comma may be found under seperate headings in this section.

Comma: Using a Comma in a Series

Use a comma to separate items in a series (a list).

The cat, the dog, the cow, the donkey and the little red hen.

In a series of complex phrases, the final comma is always used:

She had to make a quick decision: Should she shout "Fire!" and run for the exit, spill her drink in the man's lap, or pretend to be taken violently ill?

If commas are used within the individual items in a series, separate the items with semicolons. A semicolon precedes the final and in such cases.

The president welcomed Louisa Megrim of Nashville, Tennessee; Florence and Richard Galstone of Leonia, New Jersey; and Mylar Coombs of Grand Rapids, Michigan, to the banquet.

Comma: Using a Comma Between Adjectives Separate a series of adjectives of equal value with commas.

The hall erupted as the tall, boyish star walked onstage.

Do not use a comma before an adjective that is integral to the meaning of the noun. Phrases like evil sorceress, gray donkey and Columbian coffee are noun phrases; a second adjective would modify the entire phrase, not just the noun.

The painting was of a young country boy riding a small gray donkey.

A good rule of thumb: Mentally replace the debated comma with and. If the meaning stays the same, use the comma. If and changes the meaning, or results in an awkward construction, omit the comma.

Don't write:He was a small sullen man with black greasy hair tied back in a ponytail.Instead, write:He was a small, sullen man with black, greasy hair tied back in a ponytail.

Don't write:On the other side of the high, chain-link fence sat a big, black cat.Instead, write:On the other side of the high chain-link fence sat a big black cat.

Comma: Using a Comma Between Clauses

Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive clause (a clause that could be removed without altering the meaning of the main clause).

Boston, which is the capital of Massachusetts, is a city of many faces.

Here, which is the capital of Massachusetts is a nonrestrictive clause. It does not restrict or limit the word it modifies, although it does provide additional information.

Do not use a comma with a restrictive clause (a clause that helps determine the meaning of the main clause).

The city that is the capital of Massachusetts has many faces.

Here, that is the capital of Massachusetts is a restrictive clause. It tells what city has many faces.

In the following example, omitting the commas around the middle (adjectival) clause alters the meaning of the sentence significantly.Younger campers, who often suffer from homesickness, should write home daily. This sentence features a nonrestrictive clause. The meaning: Younger campers in general are frequently homesick and should write home daily.Younger campers who often suffer from homesickness should write home daily. This sentence features a restrictive clause. The meaning: Only those younger campers who suffer from frequent homesickness should write home daily.

Comma: Using a Comma in a Compound Sentence In a compound sentence, two or more independent clauses—clauses that are grammatically complete sentences in themselves—are joined by conjunctions. When the subject of each clause is expressly stated, separate the clauses with a comma, unless the clauses are very short.

Up the valley the earl's men rode in silence, and the king's battalions streamed out to meet them.But:My love is mine and I am his.

When the subject stays the same and is not repeated in the next clause, omit the comma.

Mrs. Singh craned her neck but could not see over the heads of the crowd.But:Mrs. Singh craned her neck, but she could not see over the heads

Comma: Using a Comma Before a Descriptive Phrase When a noun is followed by a descriptive phrase, a comma is used if there is no ambiguity as to what person, place or thing is being described.

I'd like you to take a tour of our high school, Thomas Jefferson High. (The town has only one high school; the name merely provides additional information.)

No comma is used when the descriptive information resolves an inherent ambiguity.

Ms. Bennet, have you met our sales rep Sid Smythe? (The company has many sales reps; the name specifies which one is being introduced.)

Ms. Bennet, I would like you meet our sales rep Sid Smythe and his wife, Ann-Marie. (Sid has only one wife. There is no ambiguity about which wife is meant.)

Comma: Using a Comma with Quotations When a quotation consists of a single (grammatically complete) sentence within a paragraph, introduce it with a comma.

My father always says, "I'd rather have friends than win arguments."

If the quotation is a grammatically incomplete fragment, omit the comma.

According to a State Department employee who declined to be named, the agreement is "not exactly high" on the administration's list of priorities.

When a quotation is followed or split by an attribution, set the attribution off with commas, unless the quotation ends in a question mark or exclamation point.

"Mr. Azerian," I said firmly, "I don't think that idea is going to work."

But:"What do you think, Janet?" he asked his wife.

"Oh, for crying out loud!" exclaimed Mrs. Babson.

Comma: Using a Comma After an Introductory Phrase Use a comma after a substantial introductory phrase or clause.

Given the illustrious history of this great city, it is no wonder tourism is growing.

With short introductory phrases, a comma is often unnecessary.

At first we didn't mind it so much.

Do not hesitate to use a comma, however, if the sentence is confusing without one.

Don't write:High above the gold dome glittered in the sun.Instead, write:High above, the gold dome glittered in the sun.

Adverbial phrases (phrases beginning when, if, because, etc.) are usually followed by a comma.When I give the nod, you try to steal second.

Dash A dash can be used to emphasize a particular phrase or clause, to separate a series from the rest of the sentence, or to signal a sudden shift in thought.

Take my mother-in-law—please! Buddhism's eightfold path—right understanding, right purpose, right speech, right conduct,

right livelihood, right effort, right alertness and right concentration—is easier to espouse than to follow.

I opened the refrigerator, and—wait a minute, what did you say?

The conventional way of typing a dash is with a space followed by a double hyphen followed by another space ( -- ). However, most computer keyboards have a keystroke or key combination for the dash symbol ( — ) and can usually be accesed by using the number pad with Num Lock on, depressing the ALT Key and typing 0151. You may place a space before the dash and after it, or omit the spaces. Just be sure you are consistent in the style you adopt.

Ellipsis: Basic Principles When a quotation is shortened or condensed, an ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is used to show where material has been removed. An ellipsis consists of three periods separated by spaces, one before and

after each period:

Some computer keyboards have a distinct character for the ellipsis:

... (ALT+0133)

Brown wrote, "I cannot come to Washington because of my sudden illness, the nature of which we discussed on the telephone, but I look forward to meeting you in San Francisco next year."

Brown wrote, "I cannot come to Washington . . . but I look forward to meeting you in San Francisco next year."

Ellipses are also used to convey a trailing off of speech or an incomplete thought.

"But Jimmy," Margaret said, "I thought we'd ... oh, never mind."

Ellipsis: Using Ellipses with Other Punctuation Marks When a complete sentence precedes an ellipsis, end the sentence with a period, question mark or exclamation point, and follow it with a space.

"A more difficult problem is how to ensure that the dying are supported, not isolated, as they face life-and-death decisions. ... Such a process can be deeply humanizing, more so, perhaps, than the simple exercise of the right to choose."(Here, two sentences have been omitted.)

A comma, colon or semicolon may also be used, depending on the sentence. The same form is followed:

"The Supreme Court has taken a cautious step toward assisted dying, ... while noting the need for better palliative care."(Here, several words have been omitted.)

When text is omitted from the end of one paragraph and the beginning of the next, ellipses are used in both places. However, no ellipses are used at the beginning or end of a quotation, regardless of where in the text the quotation begins and ends.

BEFORE: "In fact, since the advent of telecommuting, office supply theft has decreased noticeably, and as a result we won't have to reorder things like pens and paper clips and correction fluid for at least two more months."

AFTER: Ms. Carmichael pointed out that "since the advent of telecommuting, office supply theft has decreased noticeably," resulting in an unexpected surplus.

En-Dash An en-dash is the exact width of a capital letter N. It is longer than a hyphen and shorter than a "regular" dash (an em-dash).

Hyphen: - En-dash: – Em-dash: —

The en-dash is most commonly used to indicate a span of time, as when a pair of dates or times is given:

Chapter 2: Turmoil and Hope, 1960 – 1968.

Saturday, July 18, 2:00 – 4:00

An en-dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound of which one element is two words, or two hyphenated words:

A late-twelfth-century manuscript.

Many computer keyboards have a keystroke or key combination for the en-dash symbol ( – ) and can usually be accessed by using the number pad with NumLock on, depressing the Alt key and typing 0150.

Exclamation Point The exclamation point adds emphasis. Use it sparingly. The dramatic impact of the exclamation point quickly erodes with repetition.

Strive for an effective writing style that does not rely on the exclamation point as the only (or even the principle) means of conveying emphasis or excitement.

Don't write:Sales are up by 30 percent! This is unprecedented! Our company has outperformed every one of its competitors after just one year!Instead, write:Our results have greatly surpassed expectations. After just one year, our company has outperformed all competitors, with a 30 percent increase in sales—a truly remarkable achievement.

Place the exclamation point outside quotation marks around titles of works. Omit it when you wish to add emphasis to a sentence that concludes with a title that features an exclamation point.

Oh, no—not another rendition of Ravel's "Bolero"!

Here's the good news: My son David has just won the lead role in "Oliver!"

Hyphen The hyphen connects compounds (words that go together).

do-gooderre-establish14th-century art

The rules governing the use of hyphens with compounds are worth reviewing closely.

Hyphens are also used when a word breaks at the end of a line, as with justified type. The American system calls for hyphenating words between syllables according to the way they are pronounced. Practically speaking, you will probably need to consult a dictionary often until you get a feel for correct word division, and even then you will want to use common sense to avoid awkward forms.

Parentheses Parentheses enclose explanatory material. Use them sparingly.

Following are some examples of correct usage.

A. In a recent study (Wilkison and Goode, 1997), clinical evidence was cited in support of this hypothesis.

Note that, with this kind of parenthetical reference, complete bibliographic information must be provided in the bibliography, and not in a footnote or endnote.

B. I reached in my pocket and drew out my allowance: one nickel. (Mind you, this was in the days when a nickel could still buy a hamburger.)

Within a sentence, punctuation always follows the parentheses (as in example A). A grammatically complete sentence, however, encloses its own punctuation. (See example B.)

Period The period ends sentences that take the form of statements, mild imperatives and rhetorical questions that are really suggestions.

Come on in. The door is open.

Why don't we all just take a deep breath and calm down.

A period is also used with initials, abbreviations and some acronymns, depending on the organization's preference.

When there are two or more initials, follow each one with a period, and put a space after only the last:

T.S. EliotW.E.B. Du Bois

Question Mark Use a question mark after a direct question.

Who was that masked man?

Do not use a question mark after an indirect question.

I wonder who that masked man was.

Please don't ask me who that masked man was.

But:Do you know who that masked man was?

In a question with multiple elements, use one question mark at the end of the sentence, or break the sentence up into its constituent elements.

Have you picked up your room, made your bed and put your books in your backpack?

Have you picked up your room? Made your bed? Put your books in your backpack? (Note that each element of this question series is capitalized, even though the second and third are sentence fragments.)

In question-and-answer format, each question is given its own line. The letters Q and A are followed by colons but not periods, and no quotation marks are used.

Q: Can you tell me, Sheriff, who the masked man was?A: I have no idea.

Quotation Marks: Double and Single Quotation marks enclose special kinds of text: direct quotations, titles of works, a specialized term when it is first introduced, and a word that is being used ironically.

Direct quotations are enclosed in double quotes: "---." Whatever is not part of the quotation is placed

outside the quotation marks.

"Oh, Melanie," said Grandmother, "he'll never agree if you talk to him that way."

A quotation within a quotation is enclosed in single quotes: '---.' If the double and single quotation marks begin or end together, separate them with a space.

" 'I don't want to' is the only reason he would give me," complained Andrea. "Just that: 'I don't want to.' "

On the rare occasion that a quotation within a quotation within a quotation is called for, the third quotation is enclosed in double quotes:

The old man smiled and said, "Well, Mother used to tell me, 'You can't go wrong with the Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you'd have them do unto you." ' "

Quotations: Extended Quotes and Dialogue If a quotation extends to a new paragraph, the new paragraph and any succeeding paragraphs begin with open-quote marks. They do not end with close-quote marks, however, until the quotation is complete.

Then President Lincoln began to speak."Four score and seven years ago," he said, "our fathers brought forth upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation..."

A close-quote mark is used, however, when an extended quotation begins with a fragment of that quotation in the middle of the paragraph, then continues into a new paragraph.

Bettina suspected that the viper found in her handbag had been planted there by "that strange woman next door.""You know, the one who's always snooping around trying to find things out," she explained.

In dialogue, each speaker's words begin a new paragraph.

"Bobby hit me!" Jenny cried."I did not!""You did so!""I did not!"

An excerpt is an extended quotation separated from the main body of writing with single line spaces and set off with right and left indentation and single-spacing, if the rest of the work is double-spaced. No quotation marks are used.

Lincoln began:

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

When he finished just two minutes later, the crowd remained absolutely silent. No one clapped.

Quotation Marks: With Titles Titles of books, short stories, poems, songs, operas, plays, works of art, articles, speeches, lectures, television programs and movies are enclosed in quotation marks.

We are reading "The Great Gatsby" in English class.

I stayed home and watched "Seinfeld" reruns.

Titles of reference books and books of the Bible are not enclosed in quotation marks.

We first hear of Moses in the book of Exodus.

Look it up in the Encyclopedia Britannica.

When a foreign or specialized term is introduced in the text for the first time, it may either be enclosed in quotation marks or italicized. Succeeding uses of the term should be treated as normal.

The ancient Romans' appreciation for order can be summed up in the term "Pax Romana," or Roman peace. Criminals, political insurgents and adherents of new cults were all regarded as threats to the Pax Romana.

A term that is being used ironically is often enclosed in quotation marks.

I feel we should ask "Doctor" Sykes a few questions about his degree.

Quotation Marks: With Other Punctuation Marks As a general rule, periods and commas are always placed inside—that is, to the left of—the closing quotation mark.

"Oklahoma," that quintessentially American musical, is playing in Paris this spring.

He calls me "Sugar."

Question marks, exclamation points, and dashes are placed inside the quotation marks only if they apply to the quotation.

"Is that you, Herbert?"

But:Mom, what's a "muckamuck"?

Colons and semicolons are placed outside quotation marks. If quoted material ends with a colon or semicolon, it is simply dropped.

BEFORE: "Precisely; he had no choice."

AFTER: "Precisely," was Smith's response.

Semicolon A semicolon links two independent clauses in the absence of a coordinating conjunction. This punctuation mark may be thought of as a combination between a comma and a period. It creates a separation without ending the sentence.

BEFORE: I have to go because I promised William I would.

AFTER: I have to go; I promised William I would.

Do not use a semicolon to link dependent clauses. Rewrite the clause or use a colon or dash.

Don't write:At last, just what we were waiting for; falling interest rates.Instead, write:At last, just what we were waiting for: falling interest rates.

Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when one or more of the elements of the series contains an internal comma. A semicolon precedes the final conjunction.

Present were Rachel Gluckman, Chair of Buildings and Grounds; Martin Stevens, Jr., Chair of Stewardship; and Deborah Aronson, Chair of the Membership Committee

Basic Guidelines With the exceptions of etc., i.e. and e.g., social titles such as Dr., Mr. or Mrs. and time designations such as a.m. and B.C.E., abbreviations should not be used in the body of the text. (Tables and charts, on the other hand, are excellent places to use abbreviations.) In text passages, spell out days of the week, months of the year (except when used with a specific date; see Months) and all measurements.

Don't write:I would like to set up a meeting for the first Tues. in Feb.Instead, write:I would like to set up a meeting for the first Tuesday in February.Don't write:My new car gets 20% more mpg than my old one. Instead, write:My new car gets 20 percent more miles per gallon than my old one.

However, after a first reference, the abbreviation mpg may be used (no periods).

It is always acceptable to abbreviate miles per hour to mph.

Months The names of months are always capitalized. Spell them out in full except when they are used with a specific date. Then abbreviate only the following:

January (Jan. 9), February (Feb. 9), August (Aug. 9), September (Sept. 9), October (Oct. 9), November (Nov. 9) and December (Dec. 9).

Common Geographic Terms In the body of the text, all geographic terms are spelled out. The only exceptions are street, boulevard and avenue, which are abbreviated and capitalized when followed by a numbered address.Meet me at the cafe on Western Boulevard.He lives at 1009 Western Blvd.Following is a list of geographic abbreviations. Note that the letters in NW, NE, SE and SW are not followed by periods, but that a period follows the single-letter abbreviations for North, South, East and West.

AvenueBoulevardCourtDriveLaneParkwayPlaceSquareTerraceTurnpikeNorth

Ave.Blvd.Ct.Dr.La. or Ln.Pkwy.Pl.Sq.Terr.Tnpk.N.

SouthEastWestNorthwestNortheastSoutheastSouthwest

S.E.W.NWNESESW

Common Titles Such as Dr., Mr. and Mrs. Social titles like "Mrs." are never spelled out, except "Mr.," which is sometimes used colloquially in place of "sir" (as in, Excuse me, mister, do you want to buy a paper?).

Don't write:We invited Mister Hadley to dinner.Instead, write: We invited Mr. Hadley to dinner.

a.m., p.m., B.C.E. and C.E. Use the abbreviations a.m. and p.m. (lowercase, with periods) when referring to a specific time.

Don't write:The cat woke us up in the wee hours of the a.m.Instead, write:The cat woke us up in the wee hours of the morning.

B.C.E. and C.E. are in uppercase with periods.Don't write:The artifact is believed to date from the third century BCE.Instead, write:The artifact is believed to date from the third century B.C.E.

Careful! The terms B.C., meaning "Before Christ" and A.D., for Anno Domini, meaning "Year of Our Lord," are no longer widely used. The more neutral B.C.E., which stands for "Before the Common Era," and C.E., which stands for "Common Era," are preferred.

Etc., e.g. and i.e. Etc., e.g. and i.e. are always abbreviated. These expressions are best used within parentheses; elsewhere, other wording should be substituted. For etc., consider using and so on. For e.g., consider using for example or for instance. For i.e., consider using that is, or simply substitute a colon or dash.

In formal writing, do not use etc. unless it is preceded by at least three examples.

Don't write:Students will find that the most rewarding subjects (Shakespeare, etc.) will require a great deal of reading.Instead, write:Students will find that the most rewarding subjects (Chaucer, Milton, Shakespeare, etc.) will require a great deal of reading.

Don't write:Please bring something to share, e.g., chips, drinks, side dishes, etc., since this is a potluck.Instead, write:Please bring chips, drinks or a side dish to share, since this is a potluck.

Don't write:We have only one logical choice, i.e., to increase our advertising budget.Instead, write:We have only one logical choice—to increase our advertising budget.

Jr., Sr. Always abbreviate the titles Junior and Senior. In each case they should be capitalized and set off with commas.

Don't write:William Percy junior has recently joined the firm.Instead, write:William Percy, Jr., has recently joined the firm.

Localities Spell out geographical names in the body of the text except when numbered addresses are used.

Don't write:For two years I have lived on Chestnut St. in Cloverdale, ND.Instead, write:For two years I have lived on Chestnut Street in Cloverdale, North Dakota.

But: She grew up two doors down from me, at 210 Chestnut St. in Cloverdale.

Don't write:We hope to expand sales in the UK by the end of next year.Instead, write:We hope to expand sales in the United Kingdom by the end of next year.

Don't write:The company is located on SW Gridlock Ave. near the Conn. Tnpk.Instead, write:The company is located on Southwest Gridlock Avenue near the Connecticut Turnpike

Reverend Reverend is always abbreviated when used before a name.

Don't write:The Reverend Mary Ames gave the closing Benediction.Instead, write:The Rev. Mary Ames gave the closing Benediction.

Names Beginning Mac or Mc Names beginning Mac or Mc are alphabetized as if they were spelled the same, since Mc is really short for Mac.

The following names are in alphabetical order by last name:

McDonald, AndrewMacDonald, MaryMcGillicuddie, PhyllisMacGuff, RobbieMachiavelli, Niccolo

Names Containing de Follow the individual's preference (or the weight of tradition, in the case of the deceased) when establishing alphabetical placement of names containing particles like de.

The following three names are in alphabetical order by last name:

Cervantes, Miguel deDe Gaulle, Charlesde la Renta, Oscar

Names Containing Saint

Names containing the word Saint, Saint- or St. are alphabetized as if spelled out:

The following names are in alphabetical order by last name:

Saint Exupéry, Antoine deSt. Laurent, Louis StephenSaint-Saëns, Charles Camille

Titles In alphabetizing, do not take into account the articles (a, the) appearing before titles.

Red Wheelbarrow, TheRefusal to Mourn the Death, by Fire, of a Child in London, ARiver-Merchant's Wife, The: A Letter

Headlines and Headings In writing headlines and headings, avoid the trap of thinking that "big" words use initial capital letters and "little" words do not. Use uppercase letters for: the first and last word of the heading, whatever the word happens to be; all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs (including forms of the verb "to be") and adverbs; which, whose and that—when that is used as a synonym for which or whose. Use lowercase letters for: articles (the, a, an); coordinate conjunctions (and, or, for, nor); prepositions longer than four letters, unless they are the first or last word of the heading (to, from, away); and the word that as a "helping" word.

Don't write:The Companies that Make it, the Companies that Don'tInstead, write:The Companies That Make It, the Companies That Don't

Don't write:CEO Announces That Profits Are Slipping awayInstead, write:CEO Announces that Profits Are Slipping Away

Hyphenated Words in Headings and Headlines A good rule of thumb for capitalizing hyphenated words in headings and headlines is that the second part of the compound should be capitalized if it carries essentially the same weight as the first part.

Don't write:In a Trend-setting Move, the Company Lobby Is Declared a Non-smoking AreaInstead, write:In a Trend-Setting Move, the Company Lobby Is Declared a Non-Smoking Area

Don't write:On Re-Educating Our ParentsInstead, write:On Re-educating Our Parents

Kinship Capitalize kinship names when using them as a title; otherwise, use lowercase letters.

I'll need to talk to Mom about that.Marjorie, have you met my dad?Hi, Uncle Hugo.

Legal and Judicial Terms Capitalize the names of treaties, laws, acts and so on:

The Treaty of ParisThe Fifth AmendmentThe Constitution

Capitalize the names of specific courts:

The United States Supreme Court (the Court)The New York Court of Appeals (the Court of Appeals; the Court)

Organizations and Events Capitalize the names of organizations and their members, historical periods and events and councils and congresses:

The Rotary Club; the RotariansCongregationalist

The House of RepresentativesThe Libertarian Party; the LibertariansThe 49th Congress

The War of 1812The Gilded Age

Place Names Capitalize references to places and regions:

The American wayThe Appalachian MountainsThe Big DipperLake ErieMercury, Pluto and Earth (but: life on earth; the moon; the sun)Muir WoodsThe Northern HemisphereThe Solar System (but: other solar systems) The South; Southern cookingThe West CoastNortheastern industrial complex

Periodicals When used within text, the is not capitalized in the title of a newspaper or magazine.

Don't write:She reads The New York Times regularly.Instead, write:She reads the New York Times regularly.

Quotations and Initial Words Capitalize the first word of a sentence or a direct quotation except when the quotation reflects a split sentence. In traditional verse, capitalize the first word of each line.

Don't write:"Good grief," I cried, "The fish bit the cat!"Instead, write:"Good grief," I cried, "the fish bit the cat!"

Don't write:The sun was shining on the sea,shining with all his might.Instead, write:

The sun was shining on the sea,Shining with all his might.

Time Capitalize the names of days of the week, months of the year, holidays, holy days and geologic eras. Use lowercase when referring to seasons of the year and centuries.

EasterThe first Tuesday in MarchJurassic Period Ramadan

the 18th centuryspring, summer, winter, fall

Titles and Offices When the title follows an article such as the, an or a, it generally does not receive a capital. When the article is not used, this indicates formal usage of the title, which is generally capitalized:

Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome President James Garfield.

Don't write:Quiet down! Here comes the President!Instead, write:Quiet down! Here comes the president!Don't write:The Queen of England loves dogs.Instead, write:The queen of England loves dogs.

Occasionally, the formal nature of a title's use will be obvious, even though an article precedes the word. Use a capital letter:

It is my honor to present the Queen of England.

Dates Decades can be expressed in two different ways, as can centuries:

The 1940s

The 40s

The 1800sThe 19th century

Use a hyphen when the decade or century is part of an adjectival phrase.

One of the greatest of the 15th-century poets...The room was done up in 50s-style décor.

Degrees and Percentages The word degrees is always spelled out in written text (as opposed to equations or tabular material, where the degree symbol is more appropriate). The rule for numbers of degrees follows the general rule for spelling numbers.

The meat is done when it reaches an internal temperature of 140 degrees.

Put on a coat! It's only 23 degrees out.

The car spun 180 degrees before coming to a stop in the cornfield.

Percentages are always expressed by a figure followed by the word percent.

Sales were up 31 percent.

Dollars and Cents For amounts under a dollar, use numerals and spell out the word cents, lowercased.

That will be 5 cents, please.

For dollar amounts, use figures with a dollar sign.

She paid me $50.

The coat is on sale for only $129.95

For amounts over one million, use the dollar sign and numerals up to two places:

The company was said to be worth $12 million.

We picked up this Monet at a Beverly Hills yard sale for $1,508,652.

Do not use a hyphen to link numerals with spelled numbers.

The following year they sold their $8 million house and bought an is

Fractions, Decimals and Ordinals Fractional numbers smaller than 1 are spelled out.

three-fourthsone-halfseven-eighths

Fractional numbers greater than 1 are expressed in figures—preferably decimals.

Decimals are expressed in figures:

The average family has 2.65 children.

The ordinals first through ninth are spelled, as are "round-number" ordinals such as two thousandth. More cumbersome numbers, and numbers that form part of a name (e.g., 89th Congress), are expressed in numerals.

This is his 347th visit to Fenway Park.

Spelling Numbers Out In an article or report that is all about numbers, you are advised to use figures (numerals) throughout. Otherwise, the basic rules are:

Spell out whole numbers from one to nine, and any of these followed by thousand, million and so on.

Spell out hundred thousands that are exact multiples of one hundred thousand. Very large numbers may be expressed as follows: 42 million, 3.5 billion. All other numbers should be expressed as figures, except when the number begins a sentence.

Then it should be spelled out, or the sentence should be rewritten.

A number that begins a sentence is always spelled out, except in the case of a calendar year number. If spelling the number out seems awkward, try rewriting the sentence.

Don't write:Three thousand five hundred and ninety-two home owners responded to the poll.Instead, write:The poll drew a response from 3,592 home owners.

When spelling large numbers, hyphenate numbers ending in -y.

Four million thirty-two thousand eight hundred and forty-nine minutes later, my sister finally got off the phone.

Don't write:7 girls in a class of 21 children—that's all.Instead , write:There are only seven girls in a class of 21 children.Don't write:The city's population is about 600,000.Instead, write:The city's population is about six hundred thousand.

At the Beginning of a Sentence When a number is the first word in a sentence, it is spelled out.

One hundred and nine schoolchildren were interviewed, of whom 81 reported being exposed to violent programming over the previous two weeks. Of these, 19 claimed to have seen real violence first-hand.

Calendar dates do not follow this rule. They are always expressed in numerals.

1962 was the year of her illustrious birth.

Basic Rules Parenthetical information is information that has bearing on the sentence but does not flow logically from it. If a phrase could be removed without altering the meaning of the sentence, it is parenthetical. Separate it with parentheses or dashes.

Don't write:That woman I told you about, not the one with all the hats but the other one, came in with five complaints about our service.Instead, write:That woman I told you about—not the one with all the hats but the other one—came in with five complaints about our service.

Don't write:Along with the usual classics, Dickens, Tolstoy, Austen, etc., we read works by an obscure novelist who turned out to be the professor's wife.Instead, write:Along with the usual classics (Dickens, Tolstoy, Austen, etc.), we read works by an obscure novelist

who turned out to be the professor's wife.

More Guidelines Here are a few rules of thumb for parenthetical phrasing.

Do not overuse dashes and parentheses. Once per paragraph is reasonable. If the parenthetical text is in the form of a complete sentence, the previous sentence ends with a

period, followed by the parenthesis. (Punctuate the parenthetical text as you would any complete sentence.) Do not insert additional punctuation after the second parenthesis.

If the parenthetical text is not a complete sentence, omit punctuation before the first and second parentheses (but insert it immediately following), as in this sentence.

Text inside parentheses is punctuated according to the usual rules.

Basic Categories A plural is the noun form for more than one of something. A possessive is the noun form for belonging to. Confusion sometimes arises because the plural and possessive forms may sound alike, even though they are spelled very differently.

NOUN PLURAL POSSESSIVE (Singular)

POSSESSIVE(Plural)

Company Companies The Company's assets

The Companies'assets

Mr. Smith The Smiths Mr. Smith's house The Smiths' house

Ms. Jones The Joneses Ms. Jones's cat The Joneses' cat

Dickens The Dickenses Charles Dickens's son The Dickenses' son

Ann and Zoe ------- ------- Ann and Zoe's Shop (NOT Ann's and Zoe's

shop.)

Basic Rules Plurals are formed by adding an -s or -es to the end of the word. This is true for proper names as well as for ordinary nouns.

Don't write:The Leavitt's are coming next week.Instead, write:The Leavitts are coming next week.

For the possessive form, an apostrophe only is added.

Don't write:Dogs names tend to reveal something about their owners.Instead, write:Dogs' names tend to reveal something about their owners.

Don't write:We're having dinner at the Bennetts's house.Instead, write:We're having dinner at the Bennetts' house.

Words Ending in -y and -s The plural of words ending in -y is formed by replacing the -y with -ies.Don't write:The two country's sparred over fishing rights.Instead, write:The two countries sparred over fishing rights.

Singular possessives are formed with an apostrophe followed by an -s, even when the last letter of the word is also an -s.

Don't write:This is one of Reubens' masterpieces.Instead, write:This is one of Reubens's masterpieces.

Exceptions to this rule are the possessive forms of the names Jesus and Moses, as well as Greek and hellenized names of more than one syllable with an unaccented -is or-es ending.

Jesus' ministryMoses' confrontation with PharaohMoses Maimonedes' travels

Bias-free Language: Avoiding Condescension Years ago, many writers casually referred to a group of grown women as girls, or described a generic grouping of people of both genders as men. Times have changed. Don't Write:The girls from the Data Entry department were talking by the water cooler. Instead, Write: The women from the Data Entry department were talking by the water cooler.Don't Write: Men of vision in our fair state...Instead, Write: People of vision in our fair state ...Don't Write:We must act now to save the environment that has sustained mankind for millennia.Instead, Write:We must act now to save the environment that has sustained humanity for

Bias-free Language: Eliminating Unwarranted Gender Assumptions Do not make assumptions that reinforce traditional gender stereotyping. Most contemporary readers will react negatively to writing that associates a person's gender with a particular work skill, professional orientation or overall suitability for a role. Many readers will focus only on your choice to allow outdated notions of masculine or feminine roles to stand unchallenged, and ignore all other content.Revise any sentence that makes unwarranted assumptions about the gender of an individual or group. (Note that the initial example below contains the unspoken assumption that no member of the group identified as "senior executives" could have a husband!)

Don't Write:Senior executives, and their wives, will attend the function.Instead, Write:Senior executives, and their spouses, will attend the function.Or:Senior executives, and members of their families, will attend the function.

Bias-free Language: Pronouns and Possessives Be particularly careful when using the words he and his. The old justification that he encompasses both genders is no longer persuasive. Rewrite troublesome sentences to include a plural that will justify the use of the neutral their, or use his or her, or avoid gender-specific possessives entirely. (See the examples below.)

Careful! In formal writing, it is best to avoid using the plural pronoun they with a singular antecedent, as in: "Tell whoever is on the phone that they shouldn't bother us during dinner." Although such an adaptation of they is, in spoken discourse, a common solution to the problem of gender-specific reference, this use is widely regarded as inappropriate in other settings by strict grammarians. Use less controversial formulations to omit reference to gender: "Tell whoever is on the phone not to bother us during dinner."

Don't Write:A good lawyer respects his clients enough to tell them the truth.Or:A good lawyer respects their clients enough to tell them the truth.

Instead, Write:A good lawyer respects his or her clients enough to tell them the truth.Or:Good lawyers respect their clients enough to tell them the truth.Or:A good lawyer respects clients enough to tell them the truth.

Clarifying Unfamiliar Terms: Acronyms and Abbreviations An acronym or abbreviation is acceptable in the main text if the shortened form has appeared in parentheses after the first mention.

Melanie works for the Federation of American Engineers (FAE). One of the most prestigious of all professional organizations, the FAE was founded in 1954

Eliminating Unnecessary Words Crisp, powerful writing gets to the point. It does not require superfluous words.

Don't Write:She is a woman who holds regular staff meetings.

Instead, Write:She holds regular staff meetings.

Don't Write:Don't be distracted by the fact that the crowd is shouting.

Instead, Write:

Don't be distracted by the shouting of the fans.

Be especially wary of reduntant phrasing.

Don't Write:Masterton decided to visit the widow woman across town.

Instead, Write:Masterton decided to visit the widow across town.

Emphasizing the Active Voice The active voice is more forceful and immediate than the passive voice. Although the passive voice can serve a useful function in some special cases, the best writing usually emphasizes the person or entity taking action.

Don't Write:Strict guidelines for factual verification have been established, and writers are expected to follow them.Instead, Write:We've established strict guidelines for factual verification, and we expect our writers to follow them.

Keeping Writing Direct and Clear Make sure your reader understands what you mean to say. Support your arguments with facts, rather than opinions.

These rules are easy to understand but often quite difficult to carry out. When in doubt, revise your sentences until you are sure your meaning is direct and clear and that the point of view is both comprehensible and persuasive. Do not assume facts of which your reader may be unaware. Obscurity for its own sake is not absorbing. It is tedious!

Don't Write:As we are all aware, there have been some big problems with meeting the schedule, but in fact there really can't be truly significant problems with the schedule if we do what we know how to do, and do it together.

Instead, Write:At times, the demands of the schedule are challenging, but I don't believe this project presents any problems we can't overcome if we work together.

Don't Write:Having been named the director of such a theatrical production—a true extravaganza of a Broadway musical, and an honor for which one might prepare for years (and to which I had in fact devoted at

least 19 years of my adult life)—I humbly prepared to carry out my many duties to the very best of my capacity.

Instead, Write:After 19 years of hard work, I had finally been named director of a major Broadway musical. I knew a great deal more work lay ahead of me, and I resolved to do my best.

Setting the Right Tone Choose a mode of expression that suits both the occasion and the likely background of your audience. You want to write in a way that interests and engages the reader without exceeding the boundaries of good taste or propriety.

Don't Write:We'll assemble in the main conference room at 2:00 this afternoon to commemorate the passing of Milt Finney, a great guy who last week "kicked the bucket" (as he would have put it) after a long illness.

Instead, Write:We'll assemble in the main conference room at 2:00 this afternoon to commemorate the passing, after a long illness, of our dear friend Milt Finney, an unfailing source of inspiration and good humor in this office for many years.

Note: Slang and catch-phrases go out of date quickly, and can ruin the tone of your writing. So can terms that are obviously of another era but employed as though in current use.

Using Adjectives and Adverbs Wisely Adjectives and adverbs are also known as modifiers. Adjectives like brown modify nouns; adverbs like quietly modify verbs. These word groups are to writing what seasoning is to food. Use too few and your writing will be bland; use too many and it will be overpowering.

A good descriptive noun or verb can often take the place of an adjective or adverb. A skilled writer, like a skilled cook, will know how much is enough for the purpose at hand.

Don't Write:This afternoon I went for a walk. It was a beautiful day. The sun shone on the river.(or:)This afternoon—one that is certain to live forever in my memory—I ventured out of doors on a long, leisurely, rambling, and solitary saunter. It was, beyond any shadow of a doubt, a perfectly glorious day, delightfully clear, deliciously warm, and brimming over with golden sunlight that glittered and

sparkled and danced on the laughing, intoxicated river.

Instead, Write:This afternoon I went for a long, solitary walk. It was a beautiful day, deliciously clear and warm. The river glittered in the late-afternoon light.

Using Metaphors and Similes Metaphors fuse one thing with another, often by using the verb to be.

Jack was a freight train; he barreled through the office at his appointed hour, obliterating everything in his path.

The headlines screamed Jane's guilt to the world.

Similes compare one thing to another, often by using like or as.

The news hit me like a ton of bricks.

Using Metaphors and Similes: Avoiding Mixed Metaphors If you decide to use a metaphor in your writing, make sure it is both appropriate and consistent. A sentence that begins with a metaphor that says that A is B should not end by saying that it is C.

Don't Write:

We must take the bull by the horns if we want to move full steam ahead.Instead, Write:We must take the bull by the horns.Or:

We must move full steam ahead.

Emphasis Emphasis may be expressed through the selective use of italics. Quotation marks may also be used to convey sarcastic emphasis, but only as a representation of another's speech, writing or presumed viewpoint. While italics and quotation marks are acceptable if used sparingly and correctly, they can

easily become annoying. Try to convey strength of feeling through the intelligent choice of words.

Don't write:He showed up at the prom late wearing ripped jeans and a tee-shirt!Instead, write:Al was over an hour late to the prom— and when he finally arrived, he was wearing (of all things) ripped jeans and a tee-shirt.

Typing a word in all-uppercase is the written equivalent of shouting. Use italics instead, or rewrite the sentence.

Don't write:Students are once again reminded NEVER to set sleeping teachers on fire.Instead, write:Students are once again reminded never to set sleeping teachers on fire

Avoiding Split Infinitives Infinitives are formed in English by placing the present indicative form of the verb after the word to: "To die; to sleep... to sleep, perchance to dream..." Splitting an infinitive means placing another word between to and the verb. Custom decrees that split infinitives should be avoided where possible. As a general rule, the custom is worth following, if only because phrases like to boldly go are likely to distract your reader.

Don't write:The key is to never send a memo in anger.Instead, write:The key is never to send a memo in anger.Occasionally, trying not to split the infinitive results in more style problems than the rule is worth. Such cases are the exception, but they do occur.Don't write:To learn French in a real way, you must live with people who speak it.Instead, write: To really learn French, you must live with people who speak it.

Hyphenation: Adjectival Compounds Hyphens create temporary compound words by linking one word with another. Hyphenated compounds are either nouns or adjectives. Following are some general principles for adjectival compounds:Use hyphens to eliminate ambiguity.Don't write:The school has adopted the easy reading method. (ambiguous)Instead, write:The school has adopted the easy-reading method. (unambiguous)

When a noun plus a present participle (a verb ending in -ing) functions as an adjective, hyphenate.

Don't write:Only later did she realize she had no decision making authority.Instead, write:Only later did she realize she had no decision-making authority.

Hyphenation: Adverbial compounds Never use a hyphen after a word ending in -ly.Don't write:As we wake each day on this swiftly-whirling planet...Instead, write:As we wake each day on this swiftly whirling planet...An adverb that does not end in -ly is hyphenated in an adjectival compound that precedes a noun. In adjectival compounds that follow the noun, the adverb is not hyphenated:Don't write:In walked the much admired Andrea and her less popular cousin Meg.Instead, write:In walked the much-admired Andrea and her less-popular cousin Meg.Don't write:Andrea is much-admired, but her cousin Meg is less-popular.Instead, write:Andrea is much admired, but her cousin Meg is less popular.

Hyphenation: Examples Below are real-world examples of correct hyphenation. There are, alas, many exceptions to the basic principles. The best rule is: When in doubt, check the dictionary!

NOUNSAssociate professorBody buildingDecision-makerFellow workerGreat-uncleHealth care expensesHealth maintenance organizationMaster masonMother-in-law

ADJECTIVESAll-consumingBody-building techniqueCitywide initiativeCounterintuitiveForty-oddHigh-rent districtMatter-of-factMid-levelNonstandard

One-halfSelf-indulgenceSo-and-soSinger-songwriterVice-president

Painfully shyReddish orangeSelf-indulgentStraight-facedThreefold

Hyphenation: Noun compounds Many noun compounds do not require a hyphen.Don't write:He sent a memo to his fellow-employees explaining what had happened.Instead, write:He sent a memo to his fellow employees explaining what had happened.When a noun plus a present participle (a verb ending in -ing) functions as a noun, do not hyphenate.Don't write:We think he has trouble with decision-making.Instead, write:We think he has trouble with decision making.In general, hyphenate noun compounds only if there is a possibility of confusion.

Spelling Spelling questions are best resolved by a good American English dictionary-preferably a fairly recent one. If more than one spelling is offered for a word, use the first.

Note that American English spelling differs from British spelling in some respects. (A few examples appear below.) Rule of thumb: When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

AMERICANCenterColorLaborRealizeTraveler

BRITISHCentreColourLabourRealiseTraveller

Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence is just that-a sentence that runs on without proper breaks. A complete sentence should only follow a comma if it begins with a conjunction, as in example (a). Otherwise, the comma should be replaced by a colon, semicolon (b) or period (c)—or else the sentence should be rewritten to incorporate a dependent clause (d).

Don't write:At that moment the girl appeared, she was wearing the same red dress as before.Instead, write:a) At that moment the girl appeared, and she was wearing the same red dress as before.b) At that moment the girl appeared; she was wearing the same red dress as before.c) At that moment the girl appeared. She was wearing the same red dress as before.d) At that moment the girl herself appeared, wearing the same red dress as before.

Pronouns Pronouns fall into two basic categories: subjective and objective. Subjective pronouns include I, you, he, she, it, that, they and these. Objective pronouns include me, you, him, her, it, that, then and these.

Subjective pronouns are about doing. Objective pronouns are about being done to. Subjective pronouns precede a verb (she walks). Objective pronouns follow a verb (greets her) or a preposition (for her).

Subjective: She wrote several important papers.Objective: Gilda will speak to her about a contract.Don't write:Just between you and I, the company is headed for trouble.Instead, write:Just between you and me, the company is headed for trouble.

Verb Use: Subjunctive The subjunctive mode of a verb expresses the sense of "what would be if."

If I were organizing these sessions, I would approach them very differently.

I wish I were tall enough to reach the top shelf.

In modern speech, the subjunctive mode has largely been replaced by the simpler conditional. However, one important usage is still standard: the hypothetical if I were.... "If I was" should not be used to describe a purely hypothetical scenario.

Don't write:If he was here, he could tell us.Instead, write:If he were here, he could tell us.

If the scenario is uncertain but possible, the conditional is used:

If he was at the party, he was certainly keeping out of sight.

Verb Use: Conditional The conditional mode makes "if/then" statements.

If you come with us, you might end up being bored.

Writers (and speakers) sometimes run into trouble when using the past conditional, also called the hypothetical.

If you had come, you would have been bored.

Don't write:If I would have left the house just five minutes earlier, I would have made my flight.Instead, write:If I had left the house just five minutes earlier, I would have made my flight.

Don't write:Of course I didn't do it. If I did, I wouldn't be sitting here.Instead, write:Of course I didn't do it. If I had, I wouldn't be sitting here.Don't write:If I leave the house just five minutes earlier, I make my flight.Instead, write:If I leave the house just five minutes earlier, I will make my flight.

Participle-Subject Agreement A participial phrase must agree with its subject. In the examples below, the participle is running. (Participles have -ing endings.) The writer must repair the sentences that give ludicrous answers to the question, "Who is running?" Neither "the BMW" nor "Patrick's career" are appropriate responses ... unless the tone is meant to be surrealistic!Don't write:Running for the bus, a BMW nearly cut short Patrick's brilliant career.(or:)Running for the bus, Patrick's brilliant career was nearly cut short by a BMW.

Instead, write:Patrick's brilliant career was nearly cut short when a BMW came close to flattening him as he ran for a bus.

Subject-Verb Agreement Sometimes, in longer sentences, the verb loses connection with its subject. Such sentences must be rewritten.

Don't write:Every encounter with art, whether, music, dance, theater or the visual arts, enrich and elevate us.Instead, write:Every encounter with art, whether, music, dance, theater or the visual arts, enriches and elevates us.

Checking agreement is easier if you mentally shorten the sentence. In the foregoing example, shortening the statement to "Every encounter...enrich us" makes the agreement problem obvious.

Using Complete Sentences In formal writing, steer clear of incomplete sentences, also known as fragments. There are some exceptions to this rule, (such as the occasional use of a fragment for emphasis, or the conscious adoption of a fragmentary style to simulate patterns of thought or discourse). By and large, however, incomplete sentences are best left to extemporaneous speakers and the writers of ad copy. In other contexts, they will seem to be evidence of carelessness.

Don't write:An incomplete sentence is just that. It's missing something. A verb. Or maybe a noun. Sounds bad, too. Choppy. Irritating.Instead, write:An incomplete sentence is just that. It's missing something—typically, a verb or a noun—and it often sounds choppy and irritating.Don't write:Ever wonder why the market keeps going up?Instead, write:Have you ever wondered why the market keeps going up?

Adverse/Averse Adverse means "opposing, harmful or unfavorable." Averse means "unwilling."With her daughters-in-law she was never averse to administering criticism. In fact, she often said that she thought adverse comments from close relatives built character.

Affect/Effect Affect and effect are often confused. Here are some simple guidelines.

VERBSTo affect means "to influence."

The news didn't affect me at all.

To effect means "to bring about, to accomplish."

We must effect more fundamental changes if we wish to live in a just society.

NOUNSThe noun effect means "impact."

The news had a powerful effect on me.

The noun affect (accent on the first syllable) refers to someone's emotional state. It is used most commonly by psychiatrists or others involved in therapeutic work.

Mr. D's affect was one of restrained fury, although a sense of humor was not altogether lacking.Don't write:If you wish to have an affect on the system, you must do more than vote.Instead, write:If you wish to have an effect on the system, you must do more than vote.

Don't write:We were deeply effected by the preacher's stirring words.Instead, write:We were deeply affected by the preacher's stirring words.

Aggravate/Irritate To aggravate means "to make a bad situation or condition worse." To irritate means "to annoy."

Don't scratch that rash, you'll only aggravate the itching.

This rash is so irritating!

Don't write:Try not to aggravate Papa when he's relaxing with the evening paper.Instead, write:Try not to irritate Papa when he's relaxing with the evening paper.

In the sentence above, irritate could be replaced with provoke, vex, annoy, or any other appropriate verb.

All Right/Alright The correct spelling of this expression is all right. In formal writing, alright is never correct.

Don't write:"Hey," she shouted, "are you alright?"Instead, write:"Hey," she shouted, "are you all right?"

And/or The expression and/or is best suited for technical legal documents such as contracts. In formal writing it is awkward and confusing.Don't write:Please call and/or e-mail me with your response.Instead, write:Please call or e-mail me with your response.Don't write:Those with impaired sight and/or hearing may need special assistance from the hotel staff.Instead, write:Those with impaired sight or hearing may need special assistance from the hotel staff

Apprise/Appraise Apprise means "to inform." Appraise means "to assess the value of, to evaluate."

"I will apprise her Grace of your presence," said the footman stiffly.

The duchess looked at me appraisingly, as if unsure whether to offer me a seat or have me ejected.

Better/Best, More/Most Use better when speaking of two people or objects, best when speaking of more than two. This rule applies to all intensifiers (words that mean "more") and superlatives (words that mean "most").

Don't write:My brother and I are both good at math, but I'm the best at solving equations in my head.

Instead, write:My brother and I are both good at math, but I'm better at solving equations in my head.

Don't write:The whole class was in dread of the principal, Miss Grimm, but Andre feared her even more.

Instead, write:The whole class was in dread of the principal, Miss Grimm, but Andre feared her the most.

Between/Among Use between when speaking of two people, objects or groups, and among when speaking of more than two.Don't write:Between watching the kids, keeping the house clean and trying to run his business, Joey really has his hands full.Instead, write:Joey really has his hands full watching the kids, keeping the house clean and trying to run his business by himself.Don't write:Please divide the jelly beans evenly between Emma, Eliza and Lydia.Instead, write:Please divide the jelly beans evenly among Emma, Eliza and Lydia.

Can/May/Might In formal writing, can means "able to" and may means "allowed to."

Don't write:First-class passengers can board the plane before coach passengers.

Instead, write:First-class passengers may board the plane before coach passengers.

Might, as the past tense of may, is used to indicate a condition or state contrary to fact.

I might loan you the money if I had it, but I'm flat broke.

Might also serves as a weaker form of may.

Stick around, though; I might win the lottery.

In addition, might also provides a polite or deferential present-tense form of may or should.

If I might have a word with your Grace ...?

Centered On/Centered Around X cannot be around Y at the same time it is at the center of Y. Write is centered on or revolves around.

Don't write:The plot centers around a businessman who is slowly losing his memory.

Instead, write:The plot centers on a businessman who is slowly losing his memory.Or:The plot revolves around a businessman who is slowly losing his memo

Compare to/Compare with/Contrast To compare to means "to compare in order to note similarities."

I compared her to a delicate flower in full bloom, and all she did was laugh.

To compare with means "to compare in order to illuminate differences."

If you compare this month's figures with last month's, you will see that sales are actually up.To contrast with (or to) is a stronger version of compare with: Here differences are the main point—as when a dark color contrasts with a light color.Ladies and gentleman of the jury, I ask you to contrast the monstrous portrait the prosecution has offered with the respectful, mild-mannered teenage girl who sits before you.

Compliment/Complement Compliment refers to an expression of praise, admiration or congratulation. Complimentary means "expressing, using or resembling a compliment." Complimentary also refers to something that is given free of charge as an act of courtesy or to repay a favor.

My compliments to your esteemed mother.

Open an account this month and receive a complimentary toaster oven!

A complement is something that completes or brings to perfection; it can also mean "the number or quantity needed to make up a whole."

This wine complements the grilled fish perfectly.

We stock a full complement of pet care products.

Comprise/Compose Comprise and compose are often confused.

Comprise means "embrace" or "contain." The whole always comprises the parts—never the other way around. Synonyms: include; consist of. Never write comprised of.

The collection comprises some 38 volumes, including essays and poetry never previously published.

Compose means "to be the elements or parts of." The parts compose the whole. Synonyms: make up; constitute.

The choir is composed of three sopranos, two altos and a bass.

Don't write:The forest is comprised principally of maples, elms and walnuts.

Instead, write:The forest is composed principally of maples, elms and walnuts.Or:Maples, elms and walnuts constitute the principal growth of the forest.Or:Maples, elms and walnuts make up the principal growth of the for

Different than, Different from Use different from when drawing a direct comparison between two people or objects.

I did not plagiarize anything; my poem is completely different from hers.

Use different than when the object of comparison is stated by a full clause.

I don't know why this place feels so different than the last time we were here.

Or add language to clarify:

I don't know why this place feels so different from the way it did last time.

Don't write:The house looked very different than the picture of it we saw.

Instead, write:The house looked very different from the picture of it we saw.Or:The house looked very different than the picture had led us to expect.

Disinterested Disinterested means "neutral, impartial or unbiased." It does not mean "uninterested."

Jury members are supposed to be disinterested, but that one looks suspiciously like the plaintiff's brother.Don't write:I started to tell her more about microprocessors, but she looked completely disinterested.

Instead, write:I started to tell her more about microprocessors, but she looked completely uninterested.

Due to Many writers believe due to means "because of" or "owing to." It does not. It means "attributable to" and is always preceded by a form of the verb to be.

My client maintains that the unfortunate accident was not due to any negligence on his part.

Don't write:Due to the Thanksgiving holiday, we will be closed on Thursday, Nov. 26, and Friday, Nov. 27.

Instead, write:Because of the Thanksgiving holiday, we will be closed on Thursday, Nov. 26, and Friday, Nov. 27.

Either/Any Either is used only with pairs. If more than two people, groups or objects are referred to, use any, or rewrite the sentence.

Don't write:You can meet either in Conference Room C, Conference Room D or Bill's office.

Instead, write:You can meet in Conference Room C, Conference Room D or Bill's office.

Don't write:I don't like either of the three choices.

Instead, write:I don't like any of the three choices.

Either/Neither The trick with either and neither is to place them immediately before the word, phrase, or clause they are referring to.

Mom will either win the lottery or sell the house.

Note the clear either/or construction of this example. Mom has two choices. In the first sentence below, however, expanding sell the house into an independent clause, complete with the subject we, leaves either in the wrong spot.

Don't write:Mom will either win the lottery or we will have to sell the house. (Muddy)

Instead, write:Either Mom will win the lottery or we will have to sell the house. (Clear)

Don't write:We neither expected rain, nor did the organizers of the event. (Muddy)Instead, write:Neither we nor the organizers of the event expected rain. (Clear)

Enormity

Enormity does not, as is commonly supposed, mean "bigness." Its primary meaning is "monstrous wickedness." Although the use of enormity for enormousness or vastness is common, this use is still regarded as nonstandard by most authorities.

The enormity of the Holocaust cannot be easily assimilated even today.

Don't write:At such close range, the enormity of the whale took my breath away.

Instead, write:At such close range, the vastness of the whale took my breath away.

False Series A false series is created when a single conjunction is employed to do a job for which two are needed.

Don't write: Please read the article I handed out in class, pages 225 to 419 in your textbooks, and answer the questions in full by tomorrow.

This is a false series because a second verb, answer, was introduced in the final clause. Once a new verb is introduced, the series is no longer a series. The sentence needs a second conjunction. In this case, the conjunction must appear before the word pages.

Instead, write:Please read the article I handed out in class and pages 225 to 419 in your textbooks, and answer the questions in full by tomorrow.

Rule of thumb: one verb, one series!

Don't write:And on that farm he had a cow, a horse, some chicks and he kept a few sheep too.

Instead, write:And on that farm he had a cow, a horse and some chicks, and he kept a few sheep too.

Firstly, Secondly "First" is preferable to "firstly." If you decide to ignore this advice, be careful not to mix forms.

Don't write:First, the project is too expensive. Secondly, we don't have the staffing for it. Thirdly, it has no chance of success.

Instead, write:First, the project is too expensive. Second, we don't have the staffing for it. Third, it has no chance of success.

Flaunt/Flout To flaunt is to make an exaggerated display of something, to show it off in a deliberately provocative manner.My sister made no attempt to hide her recent good fortune; she used to visit us just so she could flaunt her expensive clothes.

Flout carries similar connotations of brazenness, but it means "to defy or show blatant disregard."

You have flouted the laws of this state once to often, Mr. Gewertz; I am revoking your license.Don't write:It is shameful how the younger members flaunt our ancient code of honor.

Instead, write:It is shameful how the younger members flout our ancient code of honor.

Former/Latter The words former and latter correctly apply only to pairs. When more than two people, groups or objects are meant, use the first and the last or repeat the noun.

Don't write:The company intends to extend its product line with an assortment of citrus-scented moisturizers, skin toners and exfoliants. There is growing demand for the latter especially.

Instead, write:The company intends to extend its product line with an assortment of citrus-scented moisturizers, skin toners and exfoliants. There is growing demand for the last especially.

Don't write:"The Three Marys," they were called: Mary McCloud, Mary O'Sullivan and Mary Kelly. The former was from Ohio, but Mary O'Sullivan and Mary Kelly both came from Detroit.Instead, write:"The Three Marys," they were called: Mary McCloud, Mary O'Sullivan and Mary Kelly. Mary McCloud was from Ohio, but Mary O'Sullivan and Mary Kelly both came from Detroit.

Further/Farther

Further refers to continuing time, quantity or action.

Further discussion would be fruitless at this point, Mr. Jackson.

At last the children could go no further.

Farther refers to distance.

The house is much farther from town than I had thought.Note: Even expert writers frequently ignore this disctinction, but is nevertheless worth observing in formal text.

Hopefully The common use of hopefully to mean "one would hope that" is controversial. It is true that analogous coinages (such as frankly) are perfectly acceptable—and that the English language offers no precise substitute for this use of hopefully.All the same, most stylists frown on using hopefully to mean "I hope" or "it is to be hoped that," and this usage is among the most frequently flagged errors in formal English. Perhaps as a result, this usage still conveys a slangy and unprofessional feeling after more than 30 years of popular use. In formal writing, play it safe: Write I hope or it is to be hoped or if all goes as hoped or some similar formulation.Don't write:Hopefully, the letter will come today.Instead, write:I hope the letter will come today.

Impact Impact is not a verb. Use the verb affect, or write have an impact on.

Don't write:This policy will drastically impact the poor.

Instead, write:This policy will drastically affect the poor.Or:This policy will have a drastic impact on the poor.

Imply/Infer Imply means "to suggest or hint." Infer means "to deduce from hints or clues."

"Are you implying that I murdered the butler?" gasped Willoughby.

She inferred from his many long letters that he had a great deal of time on his hands.

"In Terms of" Some writing errors seem to achieve almost universal status, and this is one of them. In terms of is so popular that it almost seems a shame to forbid its use. The phrase is, however, sloppy and grammatically meaningless.

In terms of often serves as a signal that the writer or speaker is uncomfortable or unfamiliar with a particular topic, and hopes to sound authoritative when raising it. Virtually any sentence that includes in terms of can be improved through rewriting.

Don't write:How is your project coming along in terms of the deadline?

Instead, write:Is your project on schedule?Or:Do you expect to complete your project on time?

Irregardless Irregardless is not a standard word. Use regardless instead.

Don't write:There will be a party at the VFW irregardless of whether we win the election.

Instead, write:There will be a party at the VFW regardless of whether we win the election

Lay/Lie Lay is a transitive verb. It performs an action upon something else. He lays the book on the table.

Lie is an intransitive verb. It performs an action, but not on something else. The book lies on the table.

LAY: I lay the baby in her crib; I laid the baby in her crib; I have laid the baby in her crib; I am laying the baby in her crib.

LIE: I go and lie down; I went and lay down; I have gone and lain down; I am going and lying down.

Don't write:I could just lay down and die.

Instead, write:I could just lie down and die.

Don't write:It has laid there for over 200 years.

Instead, write:It has lain there for over 200 years.

Less/Fewer Should the express lane at your local supermarket be for those with eight items or less? Or should it be reserved for shoppers with eight items or fewer? Less refers to quantity or intensity, fewer to number. Eight items or fewer is correct (but, alas, uncommon in supermarket signage).

The jar contains less than 12 ounces.

The baby weighed less than four pounds at birth.

But: Cars carrying fewer than three passengers may not use the carpooling lane.

Don't write:Less than 10 people showed up for the staff meeting.

Instead, write:Fewer than 10 people showed up for the staff meeting.

Don't write:The distance cannot be fewer than seven miles.

Instead, write:The distance cannot be less than seven miles.

Like/As Like, when used as an adjective that means "similar to", should not be confused with the adverb as.

You didn't wash the dishes as I asked.

Don't write:I want to celebrate Christmas like we used to.

Instead, write:I want to celebrate Christmas as we used to.Or alternatively:I want to celebrate Christmas the way we used to.

Literally Literally is often used incorrectly to boost extravagant exaggeration and metaphor. This sometimes has an accidental comic effect:

Don't write:Cassie literally exploded when she heard the news.

Literally sends the following message: "What you're about to read or hear is not a figure of speech; the words mean exactly what they say." Thus, unless Cassie was somehow blown to bits (or combusted spontaneously) when she heard the news, the literally in the above sentence should be omitted.

Don't write:He was literally consumed by desire.Instead, write:He was consumed by desire.Don't write:We worked literally round-the-clock for a month.Instead, write:We worked virtually round-the-clock for a month.

Loan/Lend Loan is a noun. Lend is a verb.

Don't write:Could you loan Jack $50 until Thursday?

Instead, write:Could you lend Jack $50 until Thursday?

More It's easy to misuse phrases like more and greater. Writers must always ask themselves: "More than what? Greater than what?"

Don't write:

My life has changed. I'm busier now and don't have as much time to exercise.

Instead, write:My life has changed in the past year. As my responsibilities at work increase, I am busier and have less time to exercise than before.

Nauseous/Nauseated "Oh," the woman groans, "I feel nauseous." Little does she know that she has just claimed to have a sickening effect on others! Nauseous means "causing nausea;" it does not mean "experiencing nausea."

The nauseous odor that had forced them to evacuate the building was traced to apartment 3B.

Don't write:Most of the rides were fun, but the Tilt-a-Whirl made me really nauseous.Instead, write:Most of the rides were fun, but the Tilt-a-Whirl made me sick to my stomach.Or:Most of the rides were fun, but the Tilt-a-Whirl nauseated me.

Neither/None Neither is used only with pairs. If more than two people, groups or objects are referred to, use none, or rewrite the sentence.

Don't write:Neither the woman, her husband nor her son had ever been in a boat.Instead, write:None of the three had ever been in a boat.Or:The woman had never been in a boat, nor had her husband or her son.

In the last case, or her son is less emphatic than nor had her son. Depending on the context, either is acceptable.

Nonstandard Verbs Many common English verbs originally came into the language as nouns-to field a play, to pilot an airplane, and so on. However, the coinage of new verbs has created a jargon epidemic in the past couple of decades. Clear writing favors the use of standard verbs.

Don't write:The library has acquisitioned a set of books on urban culture.Instead, write:The library has acquired a set of books on urban culture.

Nor Use nor instead of or only after the word neither or in the second of two independent clauses.

He neither endorsed the measure nor denounced it.

He has not endorsed the measure, nor has he denounced it.

Don't write:I could not see nor hear what was taking place in the kitchen.Instead, write:I could not see or hear what was taking place in the kitchen.Or:I could neither see nor hear what was taking place in the kitchen.

Personally Personally is often unnecessary. When in doubt, leave it out.

Don't write:Personally, I prefer simple vanilla.

Instead, write:I prefer simple vanilla.

Principle/Principal A principle is a basic truth, law or assumption; also, a rule for good behavior.

As a matter of principle, I always eat the skins of baked potatoes.

Principal is an adjective meaning "leading or most important." A principal is the chief administrator of an elementary, junior high or high school.

The principal would like to see you in his office.

Our principal goal in renovating is to improve wheelchair access.

"The Reason Is Because" Replace this (incorrect) expression with because or the reason is that, or simply restructure the sentence.

Don't write:The reason we rescheduled our flight is because we wanted to avoid traffic.Instead, write:We rescheduled our flight in order to avoid traffic.

Don't write:The reason we paid Sara Jane's rent this month is because we didn't want her to get evicted right before finals.

Instead, write:The reason we paid Sara Jane's rent this month is that we didn't want her to get evicted right before finals.

Regretfully For the overused (and frequently confusing) regretfully, it is often appropriate to substitute I regret or I'm sorry or unfortunately.

Don't write:Regretfully, we cannot attend the luncheon.

Instead, write:I'm sorry that we cannot attend the luncheon.

Stationary/Stationery Stationary is an adjective meaning "not moving" or "not capable of being moved."

Stationery is writing paper and envelopes.

The writing desk is stationary.

I keep my stationery in the top drawer.

Than Confusion sometimes arises in sentences that employ comparisons using than. For example, in the sentence Laura has more experience in accounting than tax returns, the writer seems to be saying that tax returns have less experience in accounting than Laura does. Try:

Laura has more experience in accounting than she does with tax returns.

Don't write:The grass is greener on my side than the neighbor's side.

Instead, write:The grass is greener on my side than on the neighbor's side.

"Try and" Try and is appropriate to spoken discourse and very informal writing. Try to is required in formal writing.

Don't write:Try and get to the lecture on time.

Instead, write:Try to get to the lecture on time.

Their/There/They're Their is the possessive form of the pronoun they.

That's their problem.There is an adverb meaning "in that place" or "at that point" or "in that matter." It is often used to introduce a clause or sentence.

There seem to be an awful lot of cats in this apartment all of a sudden.

They're is a contraction of they are.

They're on their way up there now.

Don't write:Their are too many variant spellings in English.Instead, write:There are too many variant spellings in English.

Unique Unique refers to something that is one-of-a-kind. Like the word pregnant, it describes an absolute state. It makes no sense to adorn such words with very or sort of or extremely or other modifiers. Something either is unique or it isn't; a woman either is pregnant or she isn't.

Don't write:I think you'll find her style very unique.Instead, write:I think you'll find her style very unusual.(Or arresting, bizarre or outlandish—or whatever other adjective is app

Utilize The verb to utilize is a modern scourge. Avoid it at all costs. Don't write:Ms. James utilizes her gifts creatively.Instead, write:Ms. James uses her gifts creatively.

Verbs with Multiple Subjects Which is correct?

Either the Bailiff or his men is up to no good.

Either the Bailiff or his men are up to no good.

When one of the elements linked by either is plural and the other is singular, purists insist that the sentence be rewritten.

Either the Bailiff is up to no good or his men are.

We take a more accommodating view. Below, the verb agrees with the second element, and is perfectly acceptable.

Either the Bailiff or his men are up to no good.

"Whether or Not" Whether or not has a more restricted use than many writers realize. It means "regardless of whether." Thus:

The game will take place as scheduled whether or not the sun is shining.

As a synonym for if, the single word whether suffices.

Don't write:Ask him whether or not he's planning to come with us.

Instead, write:Ask him whether he's planning to come with us.

While The literal meaning of while is "during the time that." Many writers use while as a synonym for and, although or but. This is acceptable only in those cases where the phrase at the same time could be used in a revised sentence without changing the writer's basic meaning.

While he loves ice cream, he does not like pistachio.(He loves ice cream; at the same time, he does not like pistachio.)

Don't write:My first novel was completed in six months, while my second took six years.

Instead, write:My first novel was completed in six months, but my second took six years.Or:My first novel was completed in six months; my second took six years.