English Grammar

ENGLISH GRAMMARAssoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Do

LANGUAGELANGUAGE

Phonology Grammar Phonology Grammar MorphologyMorphology

Phonology (from the Phonology (from the GreekGreek: : φωνήφωνή, , phōnēphōnē, , "voice, sound" and λόγος, "voice, sound" and λόγος, lógoslógos, "word, , "word, speech, subject of discussion") is the speech, subject of discussion") is the systematic use of sound to encode systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken meaning in any spoken human languagehuman language, or , or the field of linguistics studying this use.the field of linguistics studying this use.

• MorphologyMorphology is the identification, analysis is the identification, analysis and description of structure of words (words and description of structure of words (words as units in the as units in the lexiconlexicon are the subject matter are the subject matter of of lexicologylexicology). While words are generally ). While words are generally accepted as being (with accepted as being (with cliticsclitics) the smallest ) the smallest units of units of syntaxsyntax, it is clear that in most (if not , it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other all) languages, words can be related to other words by rules. For example, words by rules. For example, EnglishEnglish speakers recognize that the words speakers recognize that the words dogdog, , dogsdogs, and , and dog catcherdog catcher are closely related. are closely related. English speakers recognize these relations English speakers recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer word formation in English. They infer intuitively that intuitively that dogdog is to is to dogsdogs as as catcat is to is to catscats; similarly, ; similarly, dogdog is to is to dog catcherdog catcher as as dishdish is to is to dishwasherdishwasher. .

• The rules understood by the speaker The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities reflect specific patterns (or regularities = tính quy tắc) in the way words are = tính quy tắc) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this smaller units interact in speech. In this way, way, morphology is the branch of morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and of word formation within and across languages, and attempts across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.those languages.

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?WHAT IS GRAMMAR?- The science which treats of the The science which treats of the principlesprinciples of of

language; the study of language; the study of formsforms of speech, and of speech, and their their relationsrelations to one another; the art to one another; the art concerned with the right use and application of concerned with the right use and application of the rules of a language, in speaking or writing. the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.

- The art of speaking or writing with correctness The art of speaking or writing with correctness or according to established usage; speech or according to established usage; speech considered with regard to the rules of a considered with regard to the rules of a grammar. grammar.

- A treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles of A treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles of language; a book containing the principles and language; a book containing the principles and rules for correctnessrules for correctness in speaking or writing. in speaking or writing.

ENGLISHENGLISH GRAMMARGRAMMARI. PART OF SPEECHI. PART OF SPEECHNouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns, Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns, Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions, Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions, Articles, InterjectionsArticles, InterjectionsII. GRAMATICAL UNITSII. GRAMATICAL UNITSSentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words, Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words, Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)III. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIESIII. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIESTenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers, Tenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers, Genders, Cases, Persons, MoodsGenders, Cases, Persons, Moods

ELEMENTS OF GRAMMARELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence- SubjectSubject and and PredicatePredicate::JohnJohn carefully searched the roomcarefully searched the room [1][1]The girlThe girl is now a student at a large universityis now a student at a large university [2] [2]His brother grew happier graduallyHis brother grew happier gradually [3] (p. 10) [3] (p. 10)

* The * The subjectsubject has a close general relation to ‘what has a close general relation to ‘what is being discussed’ , the ‘is being discussed’ , the ‘themetheme’ of the sentence; ’ of the sentence; with the normal implication that something new with the normal implication that something new (the (the predicatepredicate) is being said about a ‘subject’.) is being said about a ‘subject’.

- The subject determines The subject determines concordconcord (p. 11); It (p. 11); It changes its position as we go from changes its position as we go from statement to question (ex. P. 11)statement to question (ex. P. 11)

Operator, auxiliary, and predicationOperator, auxiliary, and predication- Auxiliary as Operator (as in the following Auxiliary as Operator (as in the following

sentence) from what we may call the sentence) from what we may call the predicationpredication

Range of operatorsRange of operators((operator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tố operator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tố

hóahóa))

sentencesentenceSubjectSubject predicatepredicate auxiliary auxiliary predicationpredication asas operatoroperator

He hadHe had given the girl an apple given the girl an apple

Had he given the girl an apple?Had he given the girl an apple?

- Range of operatorsRange of operators- Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be, Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be,

have) (p.12)have) (p.12)

SENTENCE ELEMENTS SENTENCE ELEMENTS (p12)(p12)

► SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT, SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT, ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)

John (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the roomJohn (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the room (O)(O) [1] [1]The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large

university (A)university (A) [2] [2]His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) graduallyHis brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) gradually (A) [3] (A) [3]It (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all dayIt (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all day (A) [4] (A) [4]He (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (OHe (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (O) [5]) [5]They (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every They (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every

year (A)year (A) [6] [6]

* We shall see in * We shall see in Element realization typesElement realization types that considerable variety is possible in that considerable variety is possible in realizing each element of structure. realizing each element of structure. S, O, and A can themselves readily have the S, O, and A can themselves readily have the internal constituents of Sentences:internal constituents of Sentences:

She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O)She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O) [7][7]

His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friend His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friend (S) arrived (V)] (A)(S) arrived (V)] (A) [8] [8]

That [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctly That [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctly (A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A)(A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A) [9] [9]

COMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTSCOMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTS

direct object (Odirect object (Odd))OBJECTOBJECT indirect (O indirect (Oii))COMPLEMENT subject complement (CCOMPLEMENT subject complement (Css)) object complement (Cobject complement (Coo))John carefully search John carefully search the roomthe room (O (Odd) [1]) [1]He had given He had given the girlthe girl (O (Oii) ) an applean apple (O (Odd) [5]) [5]The girl is now The girl is now a studenta student (C (Css) at a large university [2]) at a large university [2]His brother grew His brother grew happierhappier (C (Css) gradually [3]) gradually [3]They made him They made him the chairmanthe chairman (C (Coo) every year [6]) every year [6]He is He is a chairmana chairman (C (Css))

CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)INTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbs INTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbs Sentence [2] and [3] have Sentence [2] and [3] have Intensive verbsIntensive verbs and all and all other sentences have other sentences have Extensive verbsExtensive verbs. The latter are . The latter are INTRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE if as in: if as in: It rained steadily all day, It rained steadily all day, they they do not permit any of the four object and complement do not permit any of the four object and complement types so far distinguished. Extensive verbs are types so far distinguished. Extensive verbs are

otherwise otherwise TRANSITIVETRANSITIVE..((Intensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensive Intensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensive

verbs = động từ kết động/phân tánverbs = động từ kết động/phân tán))

All transitive verbs take a direct object; some, like All transitive verbs take a direct object; some, like givegive in [5], permit an indirect object, and these will be in [5], permit an indirect object, and these will be distinguished as distinguished as DITRANSITIVDITRANSITIVE (ngoai động từ song E (ngoai động từ song tân). A few verbs, like tân). A few verbs, like makemake in [6], take an object in [6], take an object complement (complement (COMPLEX TRANSITIVECOMPLEX TRANSITIVE) (ngoai động từ ) (ngoai động từ phức tân). The rest are phức tân). The rest are MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE (ngoai động (ngoai độngtừ đơn tân).từ đơn tân).*The *The aspectual contrastaspectual contrast of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non- of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non-progressive’:progressive’:

John carefully searched the roomJohn carefully searched the room [1][1] or John was carefully searching the room or John was carefully searching the room But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]* * The girl is now a student at a large universityThe girl is now a student at a large university [2] [2]

INTENSIVE VERBINTENSIVE VERBIf the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, a If the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, a preposition or an adjective and it tells us something preposition or an adjective and it tells us something about the subject of the sentence, then that sentence's about the subject of the sentence, then that sentence's verb is called "intensive":verb is called "intensive":

(a) Max became (a) Max became a doctora doctor. (noun). (noun)=> "a doctor" tells us who Max is. => "a doctor" tells us who Max is.

(b) The cat is (b) The cat is in the kitchenin the kitchen. (preposition). (preposition)=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.

(c) Sam seems (c) Sam seems happyhappy. (adjective). (adjective)=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.

Note, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed area Note, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed area (similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to (similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive" work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive" means, to cover a wider area.means, to cover a wider area.

Intensive verbsIntensive verbs are concentrated to one, fixed are concentrated to one, fixed structure. Words or phrases following an intensive structure. Words or phrases following an intensive verb function as subject complements; i.e., they verb function as subject complements; i.e., they complement the subject (they tell us about the complement the subject (they tell us about the subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.

Extensive verbsExtensive verbs are not concentrated to a fixed are not concentrated to a fixed structure. Words or phrases following an extensive structure. Words or phrases following an extensive verb function as the verb's object; they work with the verb function as the verb's object; they work with the verb, not the subject. verb, not the subject.

- All - All transitivetransitive verbs take a direct verbs take a direct object; some like object; some like givegive in [5], permits in [5], permits an indirect object, and these will be an indirect object, and these will be distinguished as distinguished as DITRANSITIVEDITRANSITIVE..

- A few verbs, like make in [6], take an object A few verbs, like make in [6], take an object complement and are referred to as complement and are referred to as COMPLEXT TRANSITIVECOMPLEXT TRANSITIVE. The rest are . The rest are MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE. (p 14). (p 14)

((transitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đt transitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đt bất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại động bất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại động song chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phức song chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phức chuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyểnchuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyển))

Transitive and Intransitive VerbsTransitive and Intransitive Verbs Depending on the type of object they take, Depending on the type of object they take,

verbsverbs may be transitive, intransitive, or may be transitive, intransitive, or linkinglinking..

The meaning of a The meaning of a transitive verbtransitive verb is is incomplete without a incomplete without a direct objectdirect object, as in the , as in the following examples:following examples:

INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE – The shelf The shelf holdsholds

COMPLETECOMPLETE – The shelf The shelf holdsholds three books and a vase of three books and a vase of

flowers. flowers. INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE

– The committee The committee namednamed COMPLETECOMPLETE

– The committee The committee namednamed a new chairperson. a new chairperson.

INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE – The child The child brokebroke

COMPLETECOMPLETE – The child The child brokebroke the plate. the plate.

An An intransitive verbintransitive verb, on the other hand, , on the other hand, cannotcannot take a direct object: take a direct object:– This plant has thrived on the south window sill. This plant has thrived on the south window sill.

The The compound verbcompound verb "has thrived" is "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no direct object in this intransitive and takes no direct object in this sentencesentence. The . The prepositional phraseprepositional phrase "on the "on the south windowsill" acts as an south windowsill" acts as an adverbadverb describing where the plant thrives.describing where the plant thrives.

– The sound of the choir carried through the The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral. cathedral.

The verb "carried" is used intransitively in The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct object. The this sentence and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" acts as an adverb describing where the acts as an adverb describing where the sound carried.sound carried.– The train from Montreal arrived four hours late. The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.

The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the direct object, and the noun phrasenoun phrase "four "four hours late" acts as an adverb describing hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the train arrived.when the train arrived.

In In grammargrammar, a , a ditransitive verbditransitive verb is a is a verbverb which takes a which takes a subjectsubject and two and two objectsobjects. According to certain linguistics . According to certain linguistics considerations, these objects may be considerations, these objects may be called called directdirect and and indirectindirect, or , or primaryprimary and and secondarysecondary. This is in contrast to . This is in contrast to monotransitivemonotransitive verbs verbs, which take only , which take only one, direct, object.one, direct, object.

Some verbs are followed by two phrases, but Some verbs are followed by two phrases, but they have a different order and function from they have a different order and function from VD (verb requires direct object) verbs:VD (verb requires direct object) verbs:

(16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering (16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering idiots = chi ngu].idiots = chi ngu].

In (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but In (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but notice that the relationship between the two notice that the relationship between the two is not what we saw with ditransitive verbs. is not what we saw with ditransitive verbs. The first NP, The first NP, teenagersteenagers is not receiving is not receiving idiotsidiots. It's not an indirect object at all. In fact, . It's not an indirect object at all. In fact, it's the direct object of it's the direct object of callscalls (the thing that's (the thing that's being named). The second NP isn't receiving being named). The second NP isn't receiving anything either. It's renaming the direct anything either. It's renaming the direct object. If that sounds similar to what an NP object. If that sounds similar to what an NP after a linking verb does that's no accident. after a linking verb does that's no accident.

This too is a complement, but since it refers This too is a complement, but since it refers to the object, we will, sensibly enough, call it to the object, we will, sensibly enough, call it an object complement. An object complement an object complement. An object complement renames or defines a quality of the direct renames or defines a quality of the direct object. Like subject complements, object object. Like subject complements, object complements can also be adjective phrases:complements can also be adjective phrases:

(17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky] (17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky] [mistaken].[mistaken].

Just as linking verbs are a type of intransitive Just as linking verbs are a type of intransitive verb with complex predication, these verbs verb with complex predication, these verbs are a form of complex predication for are a form of complex predication for transitive verbs. We will label such verbs VC transitive verbs. We will label such verbs VC (verb requires complement).(verb requires complement).

A A monotransitive verbmonotransitive verb is a is a verbverb that that takes two arguments: a takes two arguments: a subjectsubject and a and a single single direct objectdirect object. For example, the verbs . For example, the verbs buybuy, , bitebite, , breakbreak, and , and eateat are are monotransitive in English.monotransitive in English.

Verbs are categorized in terms of Verbs are categorized in terms of transitivitytransitivity (i. e. how many and which (i. e. how many and which types of types of syntacticsyntactic argumentsarguments (tham tố) (tham tố) they may they may cooccurcooccur with), the basic with), the basic distinction being between distinction being between transitive verbstransitive verbs (taking two or more arguments) and (taking two or more arguments) and intransitive verbsintransitive verbs (taking one argument). (taking one argument). The transitive category is further divided The transitive category is further divided into subclasses.into subclasses.

The following examples show The following examples show monotransitive verbs in sentences (the monotransitive verbs in sentences (the direct object is in boldface):direct object is in boldface):

Yesterday, I Yesterday, I bought bought a cata cat. . The cat The cat bit bit meme! ! He He broke broke the toothpickthe toothpick. . The chef The chef ate ate his own watermelon his own watermelon

soupsoup. .

Traditionally, Traditionally, transitivitytransitivity patterns are assigned patterns are assigned to the verb as to the verb as lexicallexical information, but recent information, but recent research in research in construction grammarconstruction grammar has argued has argued that this is actually a wrong conception, since that this is actually a wrong conception, since the same verb very often appears in different the same verb very often appears in different contexts of contexts of transitivitytransitivity. Consider:. Consider:

The man bought his wife a ring.The man bought his wife a ring. ( (ditransitiveditransitive) ) Stop me before I buy again.Stop me before I buy again. (intransitive; (intransitive;

antipassiveantipassive construction) construction) The cat bit him in the arm.The cat bit him in the arm. (complex transitive) (complex transitive) Can you bite me a piece of banana?Can you bite me a piece of banana?

(ditransitive) (ditransitive) The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive; (intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice

construction) construction)

The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive; (intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice construction) construction)

Can you break me some toothpicks for my model Can you break me some toothpicks for my model castle?castle? (ditransitive) (ditransitive)

She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces.She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces. (complex transitive) (complex transitive)

Not now, I'm eating.Not now, I'm eating. (intransitive; antipassive (intransitive; antipassive construction) construction)

Thus, in Thus, in grammatical construction theorygrammatical construction theory, , monotransititivy is assigned to , which are monotransititivy is assigned to , which are schematic types of schematic types of grammatical constructiongrammatical construction, , rather than to the verb.rather than to the verb.

Transitivity is roughly Transitivity is roughly synonymoussynonymous with with subcategorization.subcategorization.

Retrieved from Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb"

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)Verbs in English can be classified into two Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: categories: stativestative verbs and verbs and dynamicdynamic verbs. verbs. Dynamic verbsDynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action (sometimes referred to as "action verbs") usually describe actions we can take, or verbs") usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen; things that happen; stative verbsstative verbs usually refer to a usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing or likely to state or condition which is not changing or likely to change. The difference is important, because change. The difference is important, because stative verbs cannot normally be used in the stative verbs cannot normally be used in the continuous (BE + ING) forms. continuous (BE + ING) forms.

((Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trang; Dynamic verbs = Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trang; Dynamic verbs = động từ hành độngđộng từ hành động))

There are many types of There are many types of dynamic verbsdynamic verbs, , but most of them describe activities or but most of them describe activities or events which can begin and finish. Here are events which can begin and finish. Here are some examples:some examples:

Play (activity)Play (activity) She plays tennis every Friday.She plays tennis every Friday.

She's playing tennis right now.She's playing tennis right now. Melt (process)Melt (process)The snow melts every spring.The snow melts every spring.

The snow is melting right now.The snow is melting right now.

Hit (momentary action)Hit (momentary action) When one boxer hits another, brain When one boxer hits another, brain

damage can result. (This suggests only damage can result. (This suggests only ONE punch.)ONE punch.)When one boxer is hitting another, When one boxer is hitting another, brain damage can result. (This brain damage can result. (This suggests MANY repeated punches.)suggests MANY repeated punches.)

Stative verbsStative verbs usually refer to a state or usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can be divided into verbs of They can be divided into verbs of perception perception or cognitionor cognition (which refer to things in the (which refer to things in the mind), or verbs of mind), or verbs of relationrelation (which describe (which describe the relationships between things). Here are the relationships between things). Here are some examples: some examples:

Hate (perception)Hate (perception) I hate chocolate.I hate chocolate. Believe (perception)Believe (perception) She believes in UFOs.She believes in UFOs. Contain (relation)Contain (relation) The box contains 24 cans of soda.The box contains 24 cans of soda. Own (relation)Own (relation) Yong owns three motorbikes.Yong owns three motorbikes.

In English language there are verbs that are In English language there are verbs that are not normally used in the Continuous Tense, not normally used in the Continuous Tense, because they describe rather state than an because they describe rather state than an action. They are called action. They are called state verbstate verb ( (stative stative verbsverbs, , non-progressive verbsnon-progressive verbs).).

The verbs that can be used in the Continuous The verbs that can be used in the Continuous Tense are called Tense are called action verbsaction verbs ( (dynamic dynamic verbsverbs).).

Some verbs can be both Some verbs can be both statestate and and action action verbsverbs depending on their meaning. depending on their meaning.

Here are some verbs that are not Here are some verbs that are not normally used in the Continuous Tense. normally used in the Continuous Tense.     

like, dislike; love, hatelike, dislike; love, hate    prefer, remember, forget, prefer, remember, forget,

believe,believe,  mean, seem, understand mean, seem, understand want,want,    need, know, belong, ownneed, know, belong, own

Here are some a few verbs that can be Here are some a few verbs that can be both both statestate and and action verbsaction verbs depending on their meaning.depending on their meaning.

I think you made a mistake.I think you made a mistake.think = believethink = believe

I am thinking about my mum now.I am thinking about my mum now.think = mental processthink = mental process

I have two cars.I have two cars.have = possess, ownhave = possess, own

I am having my lunch now.I am having my lunch now.have = eathave = eat

I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.see = meeting withsee = meeting with

I see what you mean.I see what you mean.See = understandSee = understand

Categories of Adverbial (p15)Categories of Adverbial (p15)The girl is The girl is nownow a student a student at a large universityat a large university

The girl is a student The girl is a student at a large universityat a large university The girl is a student The girl is a student The girl is The girl is nownow a student a student The girl is The girl is at a large university at a large university but we cannot say *The girl is but we cannot say *The girl is nownow We may say that We may say that nownow and and at a large at a large

universityuniversity are adverbials but belong to are adverbials but belong to different classes (time & place) (p. 15)different classes (time & place) (p. 15)

carefullycarefully in the following case can be in the following case can be replaced by many others:replaced by many others:

carefullycarefully slowlyslowlyJohn searched the room John searched the room noisily noisily

sternlysternly without delaywithout delay

But if these same adverbials were inserted in But if these same adverbials were inserted in stative verb sentences, these sentences would stative verb sentences, these sentences would become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex. become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex. * * The girl is now a student carefullyThe girl is now a student carefully

TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)

- She is in London- She is in London (now) [1] (now) [1]- She is a student- She is a student (in London) (now) [2] (in London) (now) [2] - John heard the explosion- John heard the explosion (from his office) (from his office) (when he was locking the door) [3] (when he was locking the door) [3] - - UniversitiesUniversities (gradually) (gradually) becamebecamefamous famous (in Europe) (in Europe) (during the Middle Ages) [4](during the Middle Ages) [4]

- - They ate the meatThey ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut) (hungrily) (in their hut) (that night) [5](that night) [5]- - He offeredHe offered (her) (her) some chocolatessome chocolates (politely) (outside the hall) [6](politely) (outside the hall) [6]- - They elected him chairmanThey elected him chairman(without argument) (in(without argument) (inWashington) (this morning) [7] Washington) (this morning) [7] - - The train had arrivedThe train had arrived (quietly) (quietly) (at the station) (before(at the station) (before We noticed it) [8] We noticed it) [8]

A place [[1]A place [[1] CCs s [2][2]

intens intens Vstat ext & tras: OVstat ext & tras: Od d [3][3]

S intens: CS intens: Css [4] (A (A [4] (A (A

momo: Omomo: Odd [5] place) [5] place) time)time)

trans di: (Otrans di: (O11) O) Odd [6] (A [6] (A

Vdyn complex: OVdyn complex: Odd C Coo [7] proc) [7] proc)

ext intransitive [8]ext intransitive [8]

ELEMENT REALIZATION ELEMENT REALIZATION TYPESTYPES

((p. 16p. 16)) Sentence elements can be realized by Sentence elements can be realized by

linguistic structures of very different form.linguistic structures of very different form. The verb element is always a The verb element is always a verb phraseverb phrase.. The verb element may be ‘finite’ (showing The verb element may be ‘finite’ (showing

tense, mood, aspecttense, mood, aspect,, and and voicevoice) or ‘non-finite’ ) or ‘non-finite’ (not showing (not showing tensetense or or moodmood but still capable but still capable of indicating of indicating aspectaspect and and voicevoice).).

Consider the three types of Consider the three types of non-finite verb non-finite verb phrasephrase functioning as the V element in the functioning as the V element in the italicized italicized non-finite clausesnon-finite clauses::

Mary wantedMary wanted [ [to beto be (v) (v) a studenta student (C (Css) ) at that at that universityuniversity (A)] (O (A)] (Odd).).

[[CarefullyCarefully (A) (A) searchingsearching (V) (V) the roomthe room (O (Odd)] (A), )] (A), John found a ringJohn found a ring[[MadeMade (v) (v) the chairmanthe chairman (C (Coo) ) every yearevery year (A)] (A)] (A), (A), he was very busyhe was very busy

non-finite clausesnon-finite clauses::

The The verb phraseverb phrase (VP) in English has a (VP) in English has a noticeably different structure, since the noticeably different structure, since the information it carries about information it carries about mood, tense, mood, tense, modality, aspectmodality, aspect, and , and voicevoice is quite different is quite different from the information carried by a from the information carried by a noun noun phrasephrase. The verb phrase has two functional . The verb phrase has two functional parts, parts, the the auxiliaryauxiliary, a grammatical morpheme , a grammatical morpheme carrying information about mood, tense, carrying information about mood, tense, modality, and voice; and modality, and voice; and the the main verbmain verb, a , a lexical morpheme carrying its lexical lexical morpheme carrying its lexical information and, usually, an inflection. information and, usually, an inflection.

The The moodmood system in English is divided into four system in English is divided into four subcategories. subcategories.

Set phrasesSet phrases The subjunctive is used in a number of fixed phrases, The subjunctive is used in a number of fixed phrases,

relics from an older form of the language where it was relics from an older form of the language where it was much more common. Some could be misconstrued much more common. Some could be misconstrued as the imperative mood. Common examples are:as the imperative mood. Common examples are:

if need beif need be (nếu cần)(nếu cần) as it wereas it were (nếu có thể nói như vậy / cứ y như là vậy)(nếu có thể nói như vậy / cứ y như là vậy) if I were you; were I youif I were you; were I you (giá như tôi là ban)(giá như tôi là ban) be that as it maybe that as it may (cứ cho nó là như vậy)(cứ cho nó là như vậy) (God) bless you!(God) bless you! (Chúa phù hộ ngài)(Chúa phù hộ ngài) come Monday (Tuesday, etc.)come Monday (Tuesday, etc.) (khi thứ Hai đến)(khi thứ Hai đến) come what maycome what may (cho dù xảy ra điều gì)(cho dù xảy ra điều gì) far be it fromfar be it from (or (or forfor) ) meme (còn lâu mới liên quan đến tôi)(còn lâu mới liên quan đến tôi) until death do us partuntil death do us part (cho đên khi cái chết chia lìa chúng ta)(cho đên khi cái chết chia lìa chúng ta) God save our gracious QueenGod save our gracious Queen, , God bless AmericaGod bless America, , God keep our land God keep our land

glorious and freeglorious and free, , God rest ye merry gentlemenGod rest ye merry gentlemen, etc. , etc.

Heaven forfend/forbiddenHeaven forfend/forbidden (lay trời đừng có chuyện đó)(lay trời đừng có chuyện đó) so be itso be it (đành vậy thôi)(đành vậy thôi) suffice it to saysuffice it to say (đủ để nói rằng)(đủ để nói rằng) woe betidewoe betide (chớ có làm mà chết)(chớ có làm mà chết) peace be with youpeace be with you (sự thanh thản sẽ đến với ban)(sự thanh thản sẽ đến với ban) long live the kinglong live the king (Hoàng đế van tuế)(Hoàng đế van tuế) albeitalbeit (a synthesis of (a synthesis of all be itall be it, i.e. , i.e. although it bealthough it be) ) (mặc (mặc

dù, dẫu)dù, dẫu) truth be toldtruth be told (thật tình mà nói)(thật tình mà nói) rue the dayrue the day (sẽ có lúc phải hối tiếc)(sẽ có lúc phải hối tiếc)

truth be toldtruth be told rue the dayrue the day would that it werewould that it were (giá mà mọi việc khác đi)(giá mà mọi việc khác đi) rest in peacerest in peace (an nghỉ ở chốn vĩnh hằng/ an giấc ngàn thu)(an nghỉ ở chốn vĩnh hằng/ an giấc ngàn thu) let (may) it be knownlet (may) it be known (hãy để mọi người cùng biết)(hãy để mọi người cùng biết) ...need only......need only... (duy nhất cần)(duy nhất cần) May the best man winMay the best man win (người giỏi nhất sẽ thắng)(người giỏi nhất sẽ thắng)

"May the best man win" is an example of the "May the best man win" is an example of the subjunctive. If may were used as a modal such as in subjunctive. If may were used as a modal such as in "the best man may win", this would not be the "the best man may win", this would not be the subjunctive. Other Indo-European languages use the subjunctive. Other Indo-European languages use the subjunctive in this same form such as in Spanish subjunctive in this same form such as in Spanish "que les vaya bien" (lit. may you go well) and "que "que les vaya bien" (lit. may you go well) and "que sea de alta prioridad" (lit. may it be of high priority). sea de alta prioridad" (lit. may it be of high priority). The subjunctive is used in this formula in Spanish The subjunctive is used in this formula in Spanish just as it is in English.just as it is in English.

Like all phrases, the constituents of the Like all phrases, the constituents of the English noun phrase can be analyzed into English noun phrase can be analyzed into both functional constituents and formal both functional constituents and formal constituents. From a functional point of view, constituents. From a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four major components, the noun phrase has four major components, occurring in a fixed order: occurring in a fixed order:

the the determinativedeterminative, that constituent which , that constituent which determines the reference of the noun phrase determines the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context; in its linguistic or situational context;

premodificationpremodification, which comprises all the , which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners; the head, other than the determiners;

the the headhead, around which the other constituents , around which the other constituents cluster; and cluster; and

postmodificationpostmodification, those which comprise all , those which comprise all the modifying constituents placed after the the modifying constituents placed after the head. head.

Ex. Ex. Several new mystery books which we Several new mystery books which we recently enjoyedrecently enjoyed..

SeveralSeveral (determiner/hạn định tố/); (determiner/hạn định tố/); new new mysterymystery (premodifier/tiền điều biến tố); (premodifier/tiền điều biến tố); bookbook (head/chủ tố); (head/chủ tố); which we recently which we recently enjoyedenjoyed (postmodifier/hậu điều biến tố) (postmodifier/hậu điều biến tố)

*modifier = điều biến tố; giơi định tố*modifier = điều biến tố; giơi định tố ModifierModifier may refer to: may refer to: Grammatical modifier, an adjective or Grammatical modifier, an adjective or

adverb that adverb that changeschanges the meaning of a the meaning of a noun, pronoun, or verb ; noun, pronoun, or verb ; limitslimits the the meaning meaning

PARTS OF SPEECH (p18)PARTS OF SPEECH (p18) The structures realizing sentence elements The structures realizing sentence elements

are composed of units which can be referred are composed of units which can be referred to as to as parts of speechparts of speech (p18). (p18).

(a)(a) noun – noun – John, room, playJohn, room, play adjective – adjective – happy, steady, newhappy, steady, new adverb – adverb – steadily, completely, readilysteadily, completely, readily verb – verb – search, grow, playsearch, grow, play(b)(b) article – article – the, anthe, an demonstrative – demonstrative – that, thisthat, this

pronoun – pronoun – he, they, anybody, one, whichhe, they, anybody, one, which preposition – preposition – of, at, in, without, in spite ofof, at, in, without, in spite of conjunction – conjunction – and, that, when, althoughand, that, when, although interjection – interjection – oh, ah, ugh, phewoh, ah, ugh, phew Closed-system itemsClosed-system itemsSet (b) comprises what are called ‘closed-system’ Set (b) comprises what are called ‘closed-system’

items (các đơn thể ‘đóng’); set (a) comprises items (các đơn thể ‘đóng’); set (a) comprises ‘open-classes’ (‘đơn thể/lơp từ mở’)‘open-classes’ (‘đơn thể/lơp từ mở’)

Static and dynamicStatic and dynamicBroadly speaking, nouns and adjectives can beBroadly speaking, nouns and adjectives can becharacterized naturally as ‘stative’; characterized naturally as ‘stative’; house, house, table, papertable, paper, or abstract like , or abstract like hope, lengthhope, length

On the other hand, verbs and adverbs can be equally On the other hand, verbs and adverbs can be equally naturally characterized as ‘dynamic’: most obviously, naturally characterized as ‘dynamic’: most obviously, verbs, which are fitted (by their capacity to show verbs, which are fitted (by their capacity to show tensetense and and aspectaspect, for example) to indicate action, activity, , for example) to indicate action, activity, and temporary or changing conditions. These relations and temporary or changing conditions. These relations between the open classes can be summerized thus:between the open classes can be summerized thus:STATIVESTATIVE noun adjectivenoun adjective

DYNAMICDYNAMIC verb adverbverb adverb* But some verbs such as * But some verbs such as know know can be regarded as can be regarded as

stativestative; some nouns like ; some nouns like a nuisancea nuisance (kẻ hay gây (kẻ hay gây phiền toái) is not stative at all; phiền toái) is not stative at all; naughtynaughty or or insolentinsolent (xấc (xấc láo, láo xược) are not láo, láo xược) are not stativestative but rather but rather dynamicdynamic..

And since And since bebe (when used to make predication (when used to make predication having any noun or adjective as complement) having any noun or adjective as complement) can be used dynamically, in the progressive, can be used dynamically, in the progressive, when the complement is dynamic:when the complement is dynamic:

a nuisance a nuisance He is being again He is being again naughty naughty

It is essential to realized that these primary It is essential to realized that these primary distinctions distinctions

are in the nature of general characteristics rather are in the nature of general characteristics rather than than

immutable (không thể biến đổi được) truths (p. immutable (không thể biến đổi được) truths (p. 21).21).

PRO-FORMS PRO-FORMS (hình-đại từ/đại tố/đại ngữ)(hình-đại từ/đại tố/đại ngữ)

John searched the big John searched the big roomroom and the small and the small oneone [1] [1]The manThe man invited invited the little Swedish girlthe little Swedish girl because because he he like like her her [2] [2]

Mary is Mary is in Londonin London and John is and John is therethere too too [3] [3]Mary arrived Mary arrived on Tuesdayon Tuesday and John arrived and John arrived thenthen too [4] too [4]John searched the big room very John searched the big room very carefully carefully and the small one less and the small one less soso [5] [5]She hoped that he would She hoped that he would searched the room searched the room carefullycarefully before her arrival but he didn’t before her arrival but he didn’t do sodo so

[6][6](P. 22)(P. 22)

SentenceSentence

subject predicatesubject predicate

auxiliary predication (vị tố)auxiliary predication (vị tố) asas operator operator

… …he would search the room carefully…he would search the room carefully… … …he didn’t do so he didn’t do so AA He didn’t He didn’t give her an applegive her an apple. B: Yes, he . B: Yes, he diddid [7] [7]They suggested that he had They suggested that he had given her an given her an appleapple and he and he had (done)had (done). [8] . [8]

QUESTION AND NEGATIONQUESTION AND NEGATIONWhWh-questions (where, who, whom, what, -questions (where, who, whom, what,

when)when)Yes-noYes-no questions (Is, Did, Had) (p. 23&24) questions (Is, Did, Had) (p. 23&24)

Negation and non-assertionNegation and non-assertion assertion – positive and declarativeassertion – positive and declarativeSentence positiveSentence positive interrogative negative interrogative negative non-assertion non-assertion negative negative

VERBS AND THE VERBS PHRASE (p25)VERBS AND THE VERBS PHRASE (p25)Types of verbsTypes of verbs

LEXICALLEXICAL walk, write, play, beautify, etc.walk, write, play, beautify, etc. Primary Primary do, have, bedo, have, beAUXILIARYAUXILIARY Modal Modal can, may, shall, willcan, may, shall, will could, might, should, would.could, might, should, would. must, ought to, used to, need, daremust, ought to, used to, need, dare * * Had better & tend to (‘semi-auxiliaries’)Had better & tend to (‘semi-auxiliaries’)

Verbal forms and verb phraseVerbal forms and verb phraseMany English verbs have five forms:Many English verbs have five forms:

the BASE, the -S FORM, the PAST, the –the BASE, the -S FORM, the PAST, the –INGING PARTICIPLE, and the -PARTICIPLE, and the -EDED PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE

(1) Base: (1) Base: call, drink, putcall, drink, put (a) all the present (a) all the present tense except 3tense except 3rdrd person singular: person singular: I/YOU/WE/THEY I/YOU/WE/THEY callcall every day every day

(b) imperative: Call at once!(b) imperative: Call at once! (c) subjunctive: He demanded that she (c) subjunctive: He demanded that she callcall

and see himand see him (d) the bare infinitive” He may (d) the bare infinitive” He may callcall; and the ; and the

to-to-infinitive: He wants her infinitive: He wants her to callto call

(2) –s form: (2) –s form: calls, drinks, putscalls, drinks, puts (3 (3rdrd person person singular presents) (p. 27)singular presents) (p. 27)

THE MORPHOLOGY OF LEXICAL VERBSTHE MORPHOLOGY OF LEXICAL VERBS► Regular lexical verbsRegular lexical verbsRegular lexical verbs have the following forms:Regular lexical verbs have the following forms:VV BASE BASE call like trycall like tryV-ing ING-PARTICIPLE V-ing ING-PARTICIPLE calling liking tryingcalling liking tryingV-s -S FORM V-s -S FORM calls likes triescalls likes triesV-ed PAST/ PARTICIPLE V-ed PAST/ PARTICIPLE called liked triedcalled liked tried► The The –ing–ing and and –s forms –s forms (p. 28)(p. 28)► The The –ing–ing form is a straightforward addition (as form is a straightforward addition (as

in in push ~ pushing; sleep ~ sleepingpush ~ pushing; sleep ~ sleeping))► Syllabic /l/ ceases to be syllabic before the Syllabic /l/ ceases to be syllabic before the

inflection (as in inflection (as in wriggle, wriggling wriggle, wriggling = vặn vẹo)= vặn vẹo)

The The –s form–s form is also predictable from the is also predictable from the base. It has three realizations: /iz/, /z/, and base. It has three realizations: /iz/, /z/, and /s/ and two spelling, /s/ and two spelling, -s-s and and -es-es

Pronounced /iz/ after bases ending in Pronounced /iz/ after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants (âm xuýt: s, z, voiced or voiceless sibilants (âm xuýt: s, z, , , , , , , ): ): pass~passes, buzz~buzzes, pass~passes, buzz~buzzes, catch~catches, budge~budges, catch~catches, budge~budges, push~phushes, camouflage~camouflagespush~phushes, camouflage~camouflages

Pronounced /z/ and spell –s after bases Pronounced /z/ and spell –s after bases ending in other voiced sounds: ending in other voiced sounds: call~calls, call~calls, rob~robs, flow~flowsrob~robs, flow~flows

Pronounced /s/ and spell –s after bases Pronounced /s/ and spell –s after bases ending in other voiceless sounds: ending in other voiceless sounds: cut~cuts, lock~locks, sap~saps (nhựa cut~cuts, lock~locks, sap~saps (nhựa cây) (p. 29)cây) (p. 29)

The past and the –ed participleThe past and the –ed participleThe past (The past (V-edV-ed11) and the –ed participle () and the –ed participle (V-edV-ed22) of ) of

regular verbs (spellregular verbs (spell-ed-ed unless the base ends in unless the base ends in –e–e) have three realizations:) have three realizations:

/id/ after bases ends in /d/ and /t/. Eg./id/ after bases ends in /d/ and /t/. Eg.pad~paddedpad~padded pat~pattedpat~patted/d/ after bases ends in voiced sounds other /d/ after bases ends in voiced sounds other

than /d/. Eg. than /d/. Eg. mow~mowedmow~mowedbudge~budgedbudge~budged

/t/ after bases ends in voiceless sounds other /t/ after bases ends in voiceless sounds other than /t/. Eg. than /t/. Eg. pass~passedpass~passed pack~packed (p. pack~packed (p. 29)29)

Further inflectional spelling rulesFurther inflectional spelling rulesFinal base consonant (except X) are doubledFinal base consonant (except X) are doubledbefore inflections beginning with a vowel before inflections beginning with a vowel letter when the preceding vowel is stressed letter when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a singular letter: and spelled with a singular letter: barbar barring barring bar bar permit permittingpermit permitting permittedpermittedThere is no doubling when the vowel is There is no doubling when the vowel is unstressed or written with two letters: unstressed or written with two letters: enter entering enteredenter entering entered dread dreading dreadeddread dreading dreaded

EXCEPTIONS:EXCEPTIONS:(1) Base ending in certain consonants (1) Base ending in certain consonants

are doubled also after single are doubled also after single unstressed vowels: -g unstressed vowels: -g –gg-, –gg-,

-c -c ck-: ck-: humbug humbugging humbuggedhumbug humbugging humbugged traffic trafficking traffickedtraffic trafficking trafficked(b) BrE, as distinct from AmE, breaks the (b) BrE, as distinct from AmE, breaks the rule with respect to certain other rule with respect to certain other consonants also: -l consonants also: -l -ll, -m -ll, -m -mm, -p -mm, -p - -

pp-:pp-:

signal signallingsignal signalling signalled signalled (BrE) (BrE) signal signaling signaledsignal signaling signaled

(AmE)(AmE) travel travelling travelledtravel travelling travelled

(BrE)(BrE) travel traveling traveledtravel traveling traveled

(AmE)(AmE) program(me) programming programmed program(me) programming programmed

(BrE) (BrE) program programing programed program programing programed

(AmE) (AmE)(p. 29&30)(p. 29&30)

Treatment of –yTreatment of –y(a) In base ending in a consonant +y, the following (a) In base ending in a consonant +y, the following changes occur before inflections that do not begin changes occur before inflections that do not begin

with with ii: : carrry ~carried but carry ~carryingcarrry ~carried but carry ~carryingThe past of the following two verbs has a change y The past of the following two verbs has a change y

i also after a vowel: i also after a vowel: lay ~laidlay ~laid pay pay ~paid~paid

(b) In bases i –ie, the (b) In bases i –ie, the ieie is replayed by is replayed by yy before the before the ––inging inflection: inflection: die ~dying lie ~lyingdie ~dying lie ~lying

Deletion ofDeletion of –e–eFinal –e is regularly dropped before the Final –e is regularly dropped before the –ing–ing and and ––

eded inflection: -ee: agree agreeing agreed inflection: -ee: agree agreeing agreed -ye: -ye: dye dyeing dyeddye dyeing dyed -oe: -oe: hoe hoeing hoedhoe hoeing hoed -ge: -ge: singe singeing singed singe singeing singed (thui)(thui)

Irregular lexical verbsIrregular lexical verbs(P. 30-35)(P. 30-35)

The auxiliaries do, have, beThe auxiliaries do, have, be1. Do1. Do2. Have: 2. Have: in stative sensein stative sense ( I haven’t/don’t have (AmE) ( I haven’t/don’t have (AmE)

any books).any books).In dynamic senses (In dynamic senses (receive, take, experiencereceive, take, experience, etc), , etc),

lexical have in both AmE and BrE normally has the lexical have in both AmE and BrE normally has the do-construction: do-construction:

- Does- Does he he havehave coffee with his breakfast? coffee with his breakfast?- Did- Did you you havehave any difficulty in getting here? any difficulty in getting here?The The dodo-construction is required in such expression as:-construction is required in such expression as:- - Did Did you you havehave a good time? a good time?

There is also the informal There is also the informal have gothave got, where , where havehaveis constructed as an auxiliary, which is frequentlyis constructed as an auxiliary, which is frequentlypreferred (especially in BrE) as an alternative topreferred (especially in BrE) as an alternative tohavehave. It is common in negative and interrogative. It is common in negative and interrogativesentences: sentences: I I haven’t gothaven’t got any books; I any books; I have have no booksno books3. Be3. Be[a] Aren’t I is widely used in BrE; Ain’t is [a] Aren’t I is widely used in BrE; Ain’t is

substandard in BrE and is so considered by substandard in BrE and is so considered by many in AmE (p. 36)many in AmE (p. 36)

[b] The lexical verb [b] The lexical verb bebe may have the may have the do-do-construction in persuasive imperative construction in persuasive imperative sentences and regularly has it with negative sentences and regularly has it with negative imperative: imperative: Do be quiet!Do be quiet! Don’t be silly!Don’t be silly!

The modal auxiliariesThe modal auxiliaries (p. 37) (p. 37)[a] [a] Mayn’tMayn’t is restricted to BrE, where it is rare. is restricted to BrE, where it is rare.[b] [b] Shan’tShan’t is rare in AmE. is rare in AmE.[c] [c] OughtOught regularly has the regularly has the to-to-infinitive, but AmE infinitive, but AmE

often has the often has the bare infinitivebare infinitive in negative in negative sentences and in questions (although sentences and in questions (although shouldshould is commoner in both cases); is commoner in both cases);

- You oughtn’t smoke so muchYou oughtn’t smoke so much;;- Ought you smoke so muchOught you smoke so much??Marginal modal auxiliariesMarginal modal auxiliariesUsed Used always takes the always takes the toto-infinitive and occurs -infinitive and occurs

only in the past tense. It may take the only in the past tense. It may take the do-do-construction, in which case the spelling construction, in which case the spelling didn’t didn’t used toused to and and didn’t usedidn’t use to to both occur. both occur.

The interrogative construction The interrogative construction used he toused he to is is especially BrE; especially BrE; did he useddid he used to is preferred in to is preferred in

bothboth AmE and BrE.AmE and BrE.DareDare and and needneed can be constructed either as can be constructed either as modal auxiliaries (with bare infinitive and modal auxiliaries (with bare infinitive and

with nowith no inflected inflected –s–s form) or as lexical verbs (with form) or as lexical verbs (with to-to-infinitive and with inflected infinitive and with inflected –s–s form). form). DareDare and and needneed as auxiliaries are probably as auxiliaries are probably

rarer inrarer in AmE than in BrE.AmE than in BrE.

MODAL AUXILIARY LEXICAL VERBMODAL AUXILIARY LEXICAL VERB CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION

positive He positive He needsneeds to go now to go nownegative He negative He needn’tneedn’t go now He go now He doesn’t need todoesn’t need to go now go nowInterrog. Interrog. NeedNeed he go now? he go now? Does he need toDoes he need to go now? go now?neg-inter. neg-inter. Needn’tNeedn’t he go now? he go now? Doesn’t he need toDoesn’t he need to go now? go now?

[a] Non-assertive forms are not confined to overtly [a] Non-assertive forms are not confined to overtly negative and/or interrogative sentences but can also be negative and/or interrogative sentences but can also be present in adverbials eg. present in adverbials eg. He need do it only under He need do it only under these these circumstancescircumstances. . He need not do it but onceHe need not do it but once. In . In determiners, eg. determiners, eg. He need have no fearHe need have no fear. . No soldier dareNo soldier daredsobeydsobey; in pronouns eg. ; in pronouns eg. No one dare predictNo one dare predict..[b] Blends of the two constructions are widely acceptable in the [b] Blends of the two constructions are widely acceptable in the case of case of daredare: : We do not dare speakWe do not dare speak (p. 38) (p. 38)

FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB PHRASEFINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB PHRASE(1). (1). Finite verb phrases have tense distinction: Finite verb phrases have tense distinction: - He studies/studied EnglishHe studies/studied English- (2) Finite verb phrases occur as the verb (2) Finite verb phrases occur as the verb element of a clause. There is person and numberelement of a clause. There is person and numberconcord between the subject and the finite verb (p. 38)concord between the subject and the finite verb (p. 38)(3) Finite verb phrase have mood (indicative, (3) Finite verb phrase have mood (indicative,

interrogative, imperative; exclamatory, conditional and interrogative, imperative; exclamatory, conditional and subjunctive)subjunctive)

(4) The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (((4) The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (( toto) ) callcall), the ), the –ing–ing participle ( participle (callingcalling), and the ), and the –ed–ed participle. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one or participle. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one or more such items.more such items.

FINITE VERB PHRASE NON- FINITE VERB PHRASEFINITE VERB PHRASE NON- FINITE VERB PHRASEHe He smokessmokes heavily heavily To smokeTo smoke like that must be like that must be dangerousdangerousHe He is workingis working I found him I found him workingworkingHe He had beenhad been Having been offendedHaving been offendedoffendedoffended before before, he was sensitive before before, he was sensitive

The modal, perfective, progressive auxiliaries The modal, perfective, progressive auxiliaries follow a strict order in the complex verb follow a strict order in the complex verb

phrase phrase (p. 39)(p. 39)Contrasts expressed in the verb phraseContrasts expressed in the verb phrase (p. 39 & 40)(p. 39 & 40)

(a) (a) VoiceVoice, involving the active-passive relation, as in, involving the active-passive relation, as in- A doctor - A doctor will examinewill examine the applicants. the applicants. ~ ~ The applicants The applicants will be examinedwill be examined by a doctor. by a doctor.(b) (b) QuestionsQuestions requiring subject movement involve the requiring subject movement involve the

use ofuse ofan auxiliary as operator:an auxiliary as operator:- John John will singwill sing ~~ WillWill John John sing?sing?- JohnJohn sang sang ~~ Did Did JohnJohn sing? sing?(c) (c) NegationNegation makes analogous us of operators, as in makes analogous us of operators, as in- John John will singwill sing ~~ John John won’twon’t singsing- JohnJohn sang sang ~~ John John didn’t singdidn’t sing(d) (d) EmphasisEmphasis, which is frequently carried by the , which is frequently carried by the

operator as inoperator as in- John WILL sing!John WILL sing!- John DID sing!John DID sing!(e) (e) imperativesimperatives, as in , as in Go home, JohnGo home, John; ; You go home, You go home,

JohnJohn

peri-peri- phrastic phrastic

primaryprimary auxiliary auxiliary verbs aspectual auxiliary auxiliary verbs aspectual

passive passive modalmodalverbs auxiliaryverbs auxiliary

semi-auxiliary verbssemi-auxiliary verbs

lexical verbslexical verbs

DO

HAVE

BE

can couldmay mightShall shouldWill/’ll would/’d used tomust ought toneed dareHAVE TO, BE ABOUT TO…

WALK, PLAY,PROCRASTINATE

TENSE, ASPECT AND MOODTENSE, ASPECT AND MOOD Time is a universal concept with three divisions:Time is a universal concept with three divisions:

PAST TIME PRESENT TIME FUTURE TIMEPAST TIME PRESENT TIME FUTURE TIME

The units of time are extra-linguistic: They exist The units of time are extra-linguistic: They exist independently of the grammar of any particular independently of the grammar of any particular language. In our use of language, however, we make language. In our use of language, however, we make linguistic reference to these extra-linguistic realities linguistic reference to these extra-linguistic realities by means of the language-specific category of tense.by means of the language-specific category of tense.(P. 40).(P. 40).

By By tensetense we understand the we understand the correspondence between the form of the correspondence between the form of the verb and our verb and our concept of timeconcept of time.. Aspect Aspect concerns the manner in which concerns the manner in which

the verbal action is experienced or the verbal action is experienced or regarded (for example regarded (for example completedcompleted or in or in progressprogress).).

Mood Mood relates verb action to such relates verb action to such conditions as certainty, obligation, conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility (p40).necessity, possibility (p40).

In fact, however, to a great extent In fact, however, to a great extent three categories impinge on each three categories impinge on each other; in particular, the expression other; in particular, the expression of time present and past cannot be of time present and past cannot be considered separately from considered separately from aspectaspect, , and the expression of future is and the expression of future is closely bound up with closely bound up with moodmood (p.40) (p.40)

TENSE TENSE

English has two tenses: English has two tenses: PRESENT TENSE and PAST TENSE PRESENT TENSE and PAST TENSE We consider We consider presentpresent and and pastpast tensestenses in in

relation to the relation to the progressiveprogressive and and perfect perfect aspectsaspects..

‘‘I …………..with a special pen’, fill the blank I …………..with a special pen’, fill the blank with a phrase having the verb base with a phrase having the verb base writewrite..

SIMPLE COMPLEXSIMPLE COMPLEX progressiveprogressivepresent write am writing present write am writing presentpresent was writing was writing pastpast perfectiveperfective past wrote have written (past wrote have written (present present

perfectperfect)) had written (had written (pa. (or plu- ) pa. (or plu- )

progressiveprogressive have been writing (pr. Perf.)have been writing (pr. Perf.) had been writing (pas. Perf)had been writing (pas. Perf) (p. 41)(p. 41)

PresentPresent(a)(a) Timeless: I (always) Timeless: I (always) writewrite with a special pen with a special pen

(p. 41)(p. 41)

(b)(b) Limited: Limited: I I am writingam writing (on this occasion) (on this occasion) with a with a special penspecial pen; ; Normally he Normally he liveslives in London but at in London but at present he present he is livingis living in Boston in Boston..

(c)(c) Instantaneous, expressed with either the Instantaneous, expressed with either the simple (especially in a series) or the simple (especially in a series) or the progressive form: progressive form:

Watch careful now: first I Watch careful now: first I writewrite with my ordinary with my ordinary pen; now, I pen; now, I writewrite with a special pen. with a special pen.As you see, I As you see, I am droppingam dropping the stone into the the stone into the water.water.NoteNoteThe verbs The verbs keepkeep ( (onon), ), go ongo on have a similar have a similar function to the normal progressive auxiliary may function to the normal progressive auxiliary may be:be: keepskeeps goes ongoes on

John asking silly questionsasking silly questions

PastPast(1)(1) As having taken place at a particular point of time; As having taken place at a particular point of time; (2)(2) or over a period; if the latter, the period may be seenor over a period; if the latter, the period may be seen as (a) extending up to the present, or (b) relating only toas (a) extending up to the present, or (b) relating only tothe past; if the latter, it may be viewed as (i) having beenthe past; if the latter, it may be viewed as (i) having beencompleted or as (ii) not having been completedcompleted or as (ii) not having been completed Past Present FuturePast Present Future(1)(1)

(2a)(2a)

(2bi)(2bi)

(2bii)(2bii)

(1) I (1) I wrotewrote my letter of 16 June 1972 with a my letter of 16 June 1972 with a special penspecial pen

(2a) I (2a) I have writtenhave written with a special pen since 1972 with a special pen since 1972(2bi) I (2bi) I wrotewrote with a special pen from 1969 to with a special pen from 1969 to 19721972(2bii) I (2bii) I was writingwas writing poetry with a special pen. poetry with a special pen. Habitual activity can also be expressed with Habitual activity can also be expressed with simple past; used to or (less commonly would) simple past; used to or (less commonly would) may be used:may be used:- He He used to/wouldused to/would write with a special pen write with a special pen*** ‘historic present’ (p. 43)*** ‘historic present’ (p. 43)The past and the perfectiveThe past and the perfective- John - John livedlived in Paris for ten years in Paris for ten years- John - John has livedhas lived in Paris for ten years (p. 43) in Paris for ten years (p. 43)

The choice of perfective perspective is associated withThe choice of perfective perspective is associated withtime–orientation and consequently also with varioustime–orientation and consequently also with varioustime-indicators (time-indicators (lately, since, so far,lately, since, so far, etc) (p. 43) etc) (p. 43) yesterday (evening) since last Ja.yesterday (evening) since last Ja.I worked throughout January up to nowI worked throughout January up to now on Tuesday latelyon Tuesday lately alreadyalready todaytodayI this monthI this month for an hourfor an hour***Note***NoteThere is some tendency (especially in AmE) to use the There is some tendency (especially in AmE) to use the past informally in phrase of the perfect, as in ‘I saw it past informally in phrase of the perfect, as in ‘I saw it already’already’ (= ‘I have already seen it’) (p 44). (= ‘I have already seen it’) (p 44).

I have workedI have worked

worked

have worked

Past perfectPast perfect Past Present FuturePast Present Future relevant pointrelevant point

(I say now [(I say now [presentpresent] that) when I met him [] that) when I met him [relevant relevant point in the pastpoint in the past] John had lived in Paris for ten years.] John had lived in Paris for ten years.In some contexts, the simple past and the past In some contexts, the simple past and the past

perfect perfect are interchangeable; eg. are interchangeable; eg. - I ate my lunch after my wife I ate my lunch after my wife came/had comecame/had come

home home from her shopping.from her shopping.NoteNote:: There is no interchangeability when the past There is no interchangeability when the pastperfect is the past of the perfect (p.45).perfect is the past of the perfect (p.45).

VERBAL MEANING AND THE PROGRESSIVEVERBAL MEANING AND THE PROGRESSIVE

[A] DYNAMIC (p.46)[A] DYNAMIC (p.46)(1)(1) Activity vbs: Activity vbs: abandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eatabandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eat……(2)(2) Process vbs: Process vbs: change, deteriorate, grow, maturechange, deteriorate, grow, mature……(3)(3) Verbs of bodily sensation: Verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, itchache, feel, hurt, itch……(4)(4) Transitional event verbs: Transitional event verbs: arrive, die, fall, land, losearrive, die, fall, land, lose……(5)(5) Momentary verbs: Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, taphit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap……[B] STATIVE[B] STATIVE(1)(1) Verbs of inert (trì trệ) perception and cognition: Verbs of inert (trì trệ) perception and cognition: abhor, adore,abhor, adore,astonish, desire, detest, dislike, feel, forgive, guess…astonish, desire, detest, dislike, feel, forgive, guess…(2) Relational verbs: apply to (everyone), be, belong to, (2) Relational verbs: apply to (everyone), be, belong to, concern, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve (p.47)concern, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve (p.47)

THE FUTURE (p.47)THE FUTURE (p.47) There is There is no obvious future tenseno obvious future tense in English in Englishcorresponding to the time/tense relation for corresponding to the time/tense relation for present and past (p. 47).present and past (p. 47).Instead there are several possibilities for denotingInstead there are several possibilities for denotingfuture time.future time.FuturityFuturity, , modalitymodality, and , and aspectaspect are closely related, are closely related,and and future timefuture time is rendered by means of is rendered by means of modal modal auxiliaries or semi-auxiliariesauxiliaries or semi-auxiliaries, or by , or by simplesimplepresent forms or progressive formspresent forms or progressive forms..Will Will andand Shall Shall

Be going to + infinitiveBe going to + infinitiveThis construction denote ‘future fulfillment of the This construction denote ‘future fulfillment of the present’.present’.It has two more specific meaning (a) ‘future of present It has two more specific meaning (a) ‘future of present intention’: - When intention’: - When are are you you going to get marriedgoing to get married?, and (b)?, and (b)‘‘future of present cause’: - She is future of present cause’: - She is going to havegoing to have a baby; a baby; It’s It’s going to raingoing to rain..Present progressivePresent progressiveThe pres. progressive refers to future happening The pres. progressive refers to future happening anticipated in the present. Its basic meaning is ‘fixedanticipated in the present. Its basic meaning is ‘fixedarrangement, plan, or programme’: arrangement, plan, or programme’: He’s moving to He’s moving to LondonLondon..We can say: - They are washing the dishes We can say: - They are washing the dishes now/laternow/later..

The present progressive is especially frequent The present progressive is especially frequent with dynamic transitional verbs like with dynamic transitional verbs like arrive, come,arrive, come,go, land, start, stop, etcgo, land, start, stop, etc: - : - The plane The plane is taking offis taking offat 5.20at 5.20. . The President The President is comingis coming to the UN this to the UN this week.week.Simple present (p. 49)Simple present (p. 49)

The simple present is regularly used The simple present is regularly used in subordinate clauses that are conditional in subordinate clauses that are conditional (introduced by (introduced by if, unlessif, unless, etc) or temporal (, etc) or temporal (asassoon as, before, whensoon as, before, when, etc): - , etc): - What will you sayWhat will you sayif I if I marrymarry my boss? my boss? – – The guests will be drunk The guests will be drunk before they before they leaveleave (p. 49)(p. 49)

Be to + infinitiveBe to + infinitive(a)(a) arrangement: - arrangement: - We are to be married soonWe are to be married soon(b)(b) command: - command: - You are to be back by 10 o’clockYou are to be back by 10 o’clock(c)(c) contingent future: - contingent future: - If he is to succeed, he If he is to succeed, he

must work hardermust work harder..Be about to + infinitiveBe about to + infinitiveThis construction expresses near future, This construction expresses near future, ie ie immutable fulfillment:immutable fulfillment:- The taxi is here and we areThe taxi is here and we are about to leaveabout to leave..Future time in the pastFuture time in the past(1) Auxiliary verb construction with (1) Auxiliary verb construction with wouldwould..- The time was not far off when he The time was not far off when he wouldwould regret regret this decisionthis decision..

(2) (2) be goingbe going to + infinitive (often the sense of to + infinitive (often the sense of ‘‘unfulfilled intention’: - You unfulfilled intention’: - You were going towere going to give me give me

youryouraddress.address.(3) Past progressive: - I was meeting him in (3) Past progressive: - I was meeting him in

Bordeaux the next day.Bordeaux the next day.(4) (4) be tobe to + infinitive (formal = ‘was destined’, + infinitive (formal = ‘was destined’,

‘was ‘was arranged’): - He was later arranged’): - He was later to regretto regret his decision. his decision.(5) (5) be about tobe about to (‘on the point of’): - He was (‘on the point of’): - He was about about

to hitto hitmeme..(p. 50)(p. 50)

THE SUBJUNCTIVETHE SUBJUNCTIVE (a) the (a) the MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVEMANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE in that-clauses in that-clauses Has only one form, the base (V). This subjunctive can be Has only one form, the base (V). This subjunctive can be used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when theused with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when themain clause contains an expression of recommendation, main clause contains an expression of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (resolution, demand, and so on (We demand, require, We demand, require, move, insist, suggest, ask, etc thatmove, insist, suggest, ask, etc that…).…).+ The use of this subjunctive (formal style) (AmE);+ The use of this subjunctive (formal style) (AmE);* Less formal contexts: to + infinitive or should + infinitive.* Less formal contexts: to + infinitive or should + infinitive.- It is/was necessary that every member It is/was necessary that every member iinformnform himselfhimselfof these rulesof these rules((should inform; to informshould inform; to inform))

(b) (b) The formulaic subjunctiveThe formulaic subjunctive- Come what mayCome what may- God save the Queen! God save the Queen! - Be that as it may (Be that as it may ((c) (c) The subjunctive The subjunctive werewere*- If she were/was to do something like that,…*- If she were/was to do something like that,…- He spoke to me as if I were/was deaf.He spoke to me as if I were/was deaf.- I wish I were/was dead. I wish I were/was dead. ButButonly only were were is used in ‘As it were” (= so to speak)is used in ‘As it were” (= so to speak)* Was less formal than were (p. 51).* Was less formal than were (p. 51).

Modal PastModal Past **It is the past tense that conveys the impossibilityIt is the past tense that conveys the impossibility- It’s time you It’s time you werewere in bed in bed- He behaves as though he He behaves as though he was/werewas/were a millionaire a millionaire- It’s not as though we It’s not as though we werewere poor poor- Just suppose/imagine someone Just suppose/imagine someone was/werewas/were

following usfollowing us- I’d rather we I’d rather we hadhad dinner now dinner now- If only I If only I hadhad listened to my parents! listened to my parents!*Unreal meaning in the past time is in past time is *Unreal meaning in the past time is in past time is indicated by had plus the indicated by had plus the –ed–ed participle participle::- If he If he had listenedhad listened to me, he to me, he wouldn’t have madewouldn’t have made

the the Mistakes. (p.338)Mistakes. (p.338)

THE USES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES THE USES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES CAN/COULDCAN/COULD MAY/MIGHTMAY/MIGHT SHALL/SHOULDSHALL/SHOULD WILL/WOULDWILL/WOULD MUSTMUST OUGHT TO OUGHT TO THE TENSE OF MODALTHE TENSE OF MODAL THE MODALS AND ASPECTTHE MODALS AND ASPECT

(P 52-58)(P 52-58)

NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND NOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND THE BASIC NOUN PHRASE THE BASIC NOUN PHRASE

The basic noun phrase (p. 59)The basic noun phrase (p. 59)(a)(a) The girlThe girl(b)(b) The pretty girlThe pretty girl(c)(c) The pretty girl is in the cornerThe pretty girl is in the corner is Mary Smith is Mary Smith(d)(d) The pretty girl who became angryThe pretty girl who became angry(e)(e) SheSheThe NP typically functions as subject, object, The NP typically functions as subject, object, complement of sentences, and as complement incomplement of sentences, and as complement inprepositional phrases.prepositional phrases. Noun classesNoun classes

Noun classes (p. 59)Noun classes (p. 59) Proper nounsProper nouns Common nounsCommon nouns Count-nounCount-noun Non-count nouns Non-count nouns

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNTNON-COUNT

I’ve had many I’ve had many difficultiesdifficulties He’s not has much He’s not has much difficultydifficultyHe’s had many He’s had many This job requires This job requires experienceexperienceodd odd experiencesexperiencesBuy an evening Buy an evening newspapernewspaper Wrap the parcel in brown Wrap the parcel in brown paperpaperShe was a She was a beautybeauty in She had in She had beautybeauty in her youth in her youthher youthher youthTheThe talks talks will take place I dislike will take place I dislike talktalkin Parisin ParisThere were bright There were bright lights lights Light travels faster than Light travels faster than soundsound and and soundssoundsThe The lambslambs were eating quietly There is were eating quietly There is lamblamb on the menu on the menu(p. 61)(p. 61)

Determiners Determiners (six classes) (tất định tố/tất định (six classes) (tất định tố/tất định từ)từ)

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNT NON-COUNT

SINGULARSINGULARPLURALPLURAL

[A] [A] thethe possessivepossessive ( (my, ourmy, our, etc.), etc.) whose, whichwhose, which((everever), ), whatwhat((everever))

somesome ( (stressedstressed) ) anyany ( (stressedstressed)) nono [B] [B] zero articlezero article (as in ‘They need (as in ‘They need furniturefurniture’)’) somesome ( (unstressedunstressed) ) any any ((unstressedunstressed) ) enoughenough

bottlebottlebottlebottless

furniture

√√ √√√√

See 4.92 f

√√√√

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNT NON-COUNT

SINGULARSINGULARPLURALPLURAL

[C] [C] this this that that

[D] [D] thesethese those those

bottlebottlebottlebottless

furniture

√√√√

√√

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNT NON-COUNT

SINGULARSINGULARPLURALPLURAL

[E] a(n)[E] a(n) everyevery eacheach either either neitherneither

[F] [F] much much

Note: Note: EitherEither book book ~ ~ EitherEither of the books of the booksHis His every every word (= ‘each of his word’)word (= ‘each of his word’) (p. 62) (p. 62)

bottlebottlebottlebottless

furniture

√√

√√

Predeterminers Predeterminers (p. 63)(p. 63)All, both, halfAll, both, half

SINGULAR COUNT NOUNSSINGULAR COUNT NOUNS

NON COUNT/MASS NOUNSNON COUNT/MASS NOUNS

PLULAR COUNT NOUNSPLULAR COUNT NOUNS

half

all

a

this, that

the, my,…

pen

book

half

all

both

the, my,…these, those article

pens

book

half

all

the, my,…

this, that ink

article

All, bothAll, both, and , and halfhalf have of-constructions, which have of-constructions, which are optional with nouns and obligatory with personal are optional with nouns and obligatory with personal

pronouns:pronouns: - - all all (of) the meat(of) the meat all ofall of it it - both (of) the students- both (of) the students both of themboth of them - - halfhalf ( (ofof) the time) the time half of half of itit With a qualifier following, the of-construction is With a qualifier following, the of-construction is

preferred (especially in AmE):preferred (especially in AmE): - - all of the many boysall of the many boys One-third, two-fifths, etcOne-third, two-fifths, etcThe fractions The fractions one-third, two-fifths, three-quartersone-third, two-fifths, three-quarters etc used with non-count and with singular and etc used with non-count and with singular and plural count nouns can also be followed by determiners, plural count nouns can also be followed by determiners, and have the alternative and have the alternative ofof-construction (p. 65).-construction (p. 65).

QuantifiersQuantifiers (Lượng từ) (Lượng từ) many, (a)few, severalmany, (a)few, several much (a)littlemuch (a)little a few biscuits (= several)a few biscuits (= several)He took few biscuits (= not many)He took few biscuits (= not many) a little butter (= some)a little butter (= some) little butter (= not much)little butter (= not much)*(a) little *(a) little ≠ the homonymous adjective: A little bird…≠ the homonymous adjective: A little bird…*(b) Many and few can be used predicatively in formal *(b) Many and few can be used predicatively in formal

style: His faults were style: His faults were manymany. . *Many an ambitious students (= many ambitious *Many an ambitious students (= many ambitious

students students * Enough can be used with both count and non-count * Enough can be used with both count and non-count

nouns (p. 66).nouns (p. 66).

Phrasal quantifiersPhrasal quantifiers (Lượng từ kết ngữ) (Lượng từ kết ngữ)- plenty of, a lot of, lots of ( (non-count and plural count)plenty of, a lot of, lots of ( (non-count and plural count)* lots (chiefly informally)* lots (chiefly informally)*a great/good deal of money *a great/good deal of money a large/small quantity/amount of moneya large/small quantity/amount of money*a great/large/good number of students (p. 67)*a great/large/good number of students (p. 67)*two pieces/a bit/an item of news/information/furniture*two pieces/a bit/an item of news/information/furniture*a slice of cake; a roast of meat; a few loaves of bread; a *a slice of cake; a roast of meat; a few loaves of bread; a howl of soup; a bottle of wine howl of soup; a bottle of wine *a pine of beer; a spoonful of medicine; a pound of *a pine of beer; a spoonful of medicine; a pound of butterbutter

Reference and the ArticlesReference and the Articles (p. 67) (p. 67)+ + Specific/generic referenceSpecific/generic reference- A lion and two tiger are sleeping in the cage (specific)A lion and two tiger are sleeping in the cage (specific)- Tigers are dangerous animal (generic)Tigers are dangerous animal (generic)**Tigers live in the jungleTigers live in the jungle & & The tiger lives in the jungle.The tiger lives in the jungle. The English drink beer in pubs &The English drink beer in pubs & The Englishmen (who live here) drink beer every day The Englishmen (who live here) drink beer every day

(p.68).(p.68).+ Non-count and plural count nouns+ Non-count and plural count nouns He likes wine, wood, music, lakes, gamesHe likes wine, wood, music, lakes, games He likes the wine(s), the music, the lakes of FranceHe likes the wine(s), the music, the lakes of France Venetian glassVenetian glass

the glass of Venicethe glass of VeniceMrs Nelson adores the glass of VeniceMrs Nelson adores the glass of Venice(p.71) glass from Venice(p.71) glass from Venice

NumberNumber Singular (one)Singular (one) Plural (more than one)Plural (more than one) Count nouns are variable (singular or plural) or haveCount nouns are variable (singular or plural) or haveinvariable plural (cattle) (p. 81).invariable plural (cattle) (p. 81). Irregular pluralsIrregular plurals: analysis : analysis →→ analyses; axis analyses; axis →→ axes; crisis axes; crisis → crises; ***brother → brothers → → crises; ***brother → brothers → Brethen, ***This sheep looks small &Brethen, ***This sheep looks small & All those sheep All those sheep are mine; ***a few fish & the fishes of Mediterraneanare mine; ***a few fish & the fishes of Mediterranean(p. 86).(p. 86).

Collective nounsCollective nouns+ The committee has/have met it has/they have + The committee has/have met it has/they have rejected the proposalrejected the proposal

PRONOUNS (p.100)PRONOUNS (p.100)

(1)(1) They do not admit determinersThey do not admit determiners(2)(2) They often have an objective caseThey often have an objective case(3)(3) They often have person distinctionThey often have person distinction(4)(4) They often have overt gender contrastThey often have overt gender contrast(5)(5) Singular and plural forms are often not Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related morphologically related (p. 100)(p. 100)

We can broadly distinguished between We can broadly distinguished between items with items with specificspecific reference and those reference and those with more with more indefiniteindefinite reference reference

personalpersonal central reflectivecentral reflective

reciprocalreciprocalpossessivepossessive

specificspecific relativerelativeinterrogativeinterrogativedemonstrativedemonstrativeuniversaluniversalassertiveassertive

indefiniteindefinite partitive partitive non-assertivenon-assertivenegativenegativegeneralgeneral

quantifying enumerativequantifying enumerative

PersonalPersonal: I, we, you, he, she, it, they: I, we, you, he, she, it, theyReflectiveReflective: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, : myself, ourselves, yourself, himself,

herself, itself, herself, itself, themselves themselvesReciprocalReciprocal: each other (with two antecedents), : each other (with two antecedents),

one another (more one another (more than two are than two are involved)involved)

PossessivePossessive: my, our, your, his, her, its, their : my, our, your, his, her, its, their (determiner function)(determiner function)

mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirstheirs

RelativeRelative: who, whom, which, whose, that, zero is : who, whom, which, whose, that, zero is used identicallyused identically to that to that

InterrogativeInterrogative: whose, which, who, what: whose, which, who, whatDemonstrativeDemonstrative: this, that, these, those: this, that, these, those

UniversalUniversal: each, everybody, everyone, : each, everybody, everyone, everywhere, all, every weekeverywhere, all, every week

AssertiveAssertive: - partitive pronoun: : - partitive pronoun: something/some, anything/any, something/some, anything/any, nothing/nonothing/no

- non-assertive: anyone, anybody, - non-assertive: anyone, anybody, anything, either, anyanything, either, any

- negative: no one, nobody nothing, - negative: no one, nobody nothing, nowhere, none, neithernowhere, none, neither

GeneralGeneral: many, much, few, a few, little, a : many, much, few, a few, little, a littlelittle

EnumerativeEnumerative: many, much, few, little, : many, much, few, little, several, enoughseveral, enough

CASECASE Common case (Common case (somebodysomebody)) Generative (Generative (somebody’ssomebody’s)) Subjective: I, we, he, she, they, whoSubjective: I, we, he, she, they, who Objective: me, us, him, her, them who(m)Objective: me, us, him, her, them who(m) Genitive: my, our, his, her, their, whoseGenitive: my, our, his, her, their, whose* No inflected or –s genitive with demonstratives * No inflected or –s genitive with demonstratives

or with the indefinites except in -one, -bodyor with the indefinites except in -one, -body(p. 101)(p. 101)

PERSONPERSON 11stst person person 22ndnd person person 33rdrd person personNote: The use of Note: The use of oneone (a) Numerical one (p. 111) (a) Numerical one (p. 111)(b) Replacive one (p. 112), (c) Indefinite one (p. (b) Replacive one (p. 112), (c) Indefinite one (p.

112) 112)

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERSADJECTIVES AND ADVERSSyntactic functions of adjectivesSyntactic functions of adjectives AttributiveAttributive: the : the beautifulbeautiful painting painting PredicativePredicative adjective: (a) adjective: (a) subject complementsubject complement::-Your daughter is -Your daughter is prettypretty(b) (b) object complementobject complement:- He made his wife :- He made his wife happyhappy

(p. 115).(p. 115). They can be complement to a subject which is They can be complement to a subject which is a finite clause:- Whether he will resign is a finite clause:- Whether he will resign is uncertainuncertainor a non-finite clause:- Driving a bus isn’t or a non-finite clause:- Driving a bus isn’t easyeasy. .

Similarly, adjective can be complement to Similarly, adjective can be complement to clauses: clauses:

what he didwhat he did playing so hardplaying so hard The functioning as an object complement often The functioning as an object complement often expressed the result of the process by the verb:expressed the result of the process by the verb:

He pulled his belt He pulled his belt tighttightHe pulled the window He pulled the window openopen

Postpositive (indefinite pronouns Postpositive (indefinite pronouns –body, -one, –body, -one, -thing, -where-thing, -where can be modified only postpositively can be modified only postpositively - I want something (that is) I want something (that is) largerlargerPostposition is obligatory (p. 116)Postposition is obligatory (p. 116)- The president - The president electelect - the City of London - the City of London properproper The house (which is) The house (which is) ablazeablaze is next door to mine is next door to mine

I consider foolish

If an adjective is alone or pre-modified merely by If an adjective is alone or pre-modified merely by an an

intensifier, postposition normally is not allowed:intensifier, postposition normally is not allowed:- The - The rather timidrather timid soldiers soldiers- *The soldiers (*The soldiers (ratherrather) ) timidtimid However, if the noun phrase is generic or However, if the noun phrase is generic or indefinite, coordinated adjectives or adjectives with indefinite, coordinated adjectives or adjectives with

a a clause element added can be post-posedclause element added can be post-posed- Soldiers - Soldiers timidtimid or or cowardlycowardly don’t fight well don’t fight well- A man - A man usuallyusually honesthonest will sometimes cheat (p. 116) will sometimes cheat (p. 116) More commonly, we findMore commonly, we find- Timid- Timid or or cowardlycowardly soldiers soldiers- Soldiers who are - Soldiers who are timid or cowardlytimid or cowardly

approach their officer

don’t fight well

Head of noun phraseHead of noun phrase (p. 117) (p. 117) Adjectives can often function as heads of noun Adjectives can often function as heads of noun phrases (most commonly, such adjective have phrases (most commonly, such adjective have

personal personal reference: reference: - The extremely oldThe extremely old need a great deal of attention need a great deal of attention- We will nurse We will nurse your sickyour sick and feed and feed your hungry your hungry (p. (p.

118 & 119)118 & 119) Verbless adjective clauseVerbless adjective clause- An adjective (alone or as head of an adjective - An adjective (alone or as head of an adjective phrase) can function as a verbless clause:phrase) can function as a verbless clause:- (- (By thenBy then) ) nervousnervous, the man opened the letter, the man opened the letter- The man, (- The man, (by thenby then) ) nervousnervous, opened the letter, opened the letter- The man opened the letter, (- The man opened the letter, (by thenby then) ) nervousnervous

CONTINGENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSECONTINGENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSE - Enthusiastic- Enthusiastic, they make good students (= When , they make good students (= When enthusiastic,…) (p. 120)enthusiastic,…) (p. 120) Exclamatory adjective sentenceExclamatory adjective sentence- How good of you!- How good of you! Syntactic subclassification of adjectivesSyntactic subclassification of adjectives(1) both (1) both attributiveattributive and and predicativepredicative, eg.: a , eg.: a hungryhungry man ~ the man is man ~ the man is hungryhungry(2) (2) attributiveattributive only: an only: an utter utter foolfool(3) (3) predicativepredicative only: the woman is only: the woman is loathloath to admit it to admit it ***Attributive only***Attributive only: : oldold friend (p. 121) friend (p. 121) INTENSIFYING ADJECTIVESINTENSIFYING ADJECTIVES(emphasizers and amplifiers) (p. 121 & 122)(emphasizers and amplifiers) (p. 121 & 122)

Emphasizers are attributive only: a Emphasizers are attributive only: a certaincertain winner winner Amplifier: a Amplifier: a completecomplete victory victoryLIMITER ADJECTIVESLIMITER ADJECTIVES Limiter adjectives particularize the reference of a Limiter adjectives particularize the reference of a noun: the noun: the mainmain reason reason the the only only occasionoccasion

RELATED TO ADVERBIALSRELATED TO ADVERBIALS my my formerformer friend ~ formally my friend friend ~ formally my friend an an occasional occasional visitor ~ occasionally (p. 123)visitor ~ occasionally (p. 123)

DENOMINAL ADJECTIVEDENOMINAL ADJECTIVE (tính từ danh xưng) (tính từ danh xưng) Criminal Criminal law ~ law concerning lawlaw ~ law concerning lawPredicative onlyPredicative only: He is : He is illill (p. 124) (p. 124)

Semantic sub-classification of adjectivesSemantic sub-classification of adjectives[A] Static/dynamic: Adjectives are characterized as [A] Static/dynamic: Adjectives are characterized as stative, but many can be seen as dynamic. In particular, stative, but many can be seen as dynamic. In particular, most adjectives that are susceptible to subjective most adjectives that are susceptible to subjective measurement are capable of being dynamic (p/ 124): measurement are capable of being dynamic (p/ 124): awkward, brave, calm, careless, cruel… timidawkward, brave, calm, careless, cruel… timid[B] Gradable/ non-gradable: [B] Gradable/ non-gradable: tall taller, tallesttall taller, tallest[C] Inherent/non-inherent (p. 125).[C] Inherent/non-inherent (p. 125).

Semantic sets and adjectival orderSemantic sets and adjectival order(intensify, post-determiner and limiter, size or shape, (intensify, post-determiner and limiter, size or shape, age, colour, material, provenance or style)age, colour, material, provenance or style)

(a)(a) intensifying adjective: a intensifying adjective: a realreal hero hero(b)(b) pos-determiner, and limiter adjective: the pos-determiner, and limiter adjective: the fourthfourth

student, the student, the onlyonly occasion occasion(c)(c) general adjectives susceptible to subjective general adjectives susceptible to subjective

measure: measure: carefulcareful, , lovelylovely(d)(d) general adjectives susceptible to objective measure, general adjectives susceptible to objective measure,

including those denoting size or shape: including those denoting size or shape: wealthy, wealthy, large, squarelarge, square

(e)(e) age: age: young, new, oldyoung, new, old(f)(f) colour: colour: red, blackred, black(g)(g) material: material: woollen, silkenwoollen, silken(h)(h) provenance or style: a provenance or style: a BritishBritish ship, a ship, a ParisianParisian dress dress

(p. 125)(p. 125)

Opinion : an Opinion : an interestinginteresting book book Dimension: a Dimension: a bigbig apple apple Age: a Age: a newnew car car Shape: a Shape: a squaresquare box box Color: a Color: a pinkpink hat hat Origin: an Origin: an AmericanAmerican car car Material: a Material: a woodenwooden box box

Characteristics of adverbCharacteristics of adverb The most common characteristics of adverb is The most common characteristics of adverb is morphological (-ly) (two types of syntactic function, but morphological (-ly) (two types of syntactic function, but

an adverb need have only one of these:an adverb need have only one of these:(1)(1) adverbialadverbial(2)(2) modifier of adjective and adverb.modifier of adjective and adverb. Adverb as adverbialAdverb as adverbial Three classes of adverbials are establish: adjuncts, Three classes of adverbials are establish: adjuncts, disjuncts, conjunctsdisjuncts, conjuncts ADJUNCTS (gia ngữ/phụ ngữ, trang ngữ của vị từ) ADJUNCTS (gia ngữ/phụ ngữ, trang ngữ của vị từ) An adjunct is part of a An adjunct is part of a SentenceSentence and modifies the and modifies the

VerbVerb to show time, manner, place, frequency and to show time, manner, place, frequency and degree. Eg: It is nearly done. ('Nearly' describesdegree. Eg: It is nearly done. ('Nearly' describes

In linguistics, a In linguistics, a disjunctdisjunct is a type of adverbial is a type of adverbial adjunct that expresses information that is not adjunct that expresses information that is not considered essential to the sentence it appears considered essential to the sentence it appears in, but which is considered to be the speaker's in, but which is considered to be the speaker's or writer's attitude towards, or descriptive or writer's attitude towards, or descriptive statement of, the propositional content of the statement of, the propositional content of the sentence. For instance:sentence. For instance:

HonestlyHonestly, I didn't do it. , I didn't do it. Fortunately for youFortunately for you, I have it right here. , I have it right here. In my opinionIn my opinion, the green one is better. , the green one is better.

In linguistics, the term In linguistics, the term conjunctconjunct has three has three distinct uses:distinct uses:

A A conjunctconjunct is an adjunct that adds information is an adjunct that adds information to the sentence that not considered part of the to the sentence that not considered part of the propositional content (or at least not essential) propositional content (or at least not essential) but which connects the sentence with previous but which connects the sentence with previous parts of the discourse. Rare though this may parts of the discourse. Rare though this may be, conjuncts may also connect to the following be, conjuncts may also connect to the following parts of the discourse. parts of the discourse. It was raining. It was raining. ThereforeTherefore, we didn’t go swimming., we didn’t go swimming.

It was raining. It was raining. ThereforeTherefore, we didn’t go swimming., we didn’t go swimming. It was sunny. It was sunny. HoweverHowever, we stayed inside., we stayed inside. You are such a dork. You are such a dork. StillStill, I love you from the , I love you from the

bottom of my heart.bottom of my heart. A coordination structure connects two words, A coordination structure connects two words,

phrases or clauses together, usually with the phrases or clauses together, usually with the help of a coordinating conjunction: help of a coordinating conjunction: [[GretchenGretchen and and her daughterher daughter] bought [] bought [motor oilmotor oil, ,

spark plugsspark plugs, and , and dynamitedynamite]. ]. Take two of theseTake two of these and and call me in the morningcall me in the morning. .

THE SIMPLE SENTENCETHE SIMPLE SENTENCE (p. 166) (p. 166)

Clause patternsClause patterns Simple and complex sentencesSimple and complex sentencesElements such as V(erb) and O(bject) Elements such as V(erb) and O(bject)

were were constituents of sentences and also of constituents of sentences and also of clauses within sentences (p. 166).clauses within sentences (p. 166). Clause typeClause type Seven clause types (p. 166).Seven clause types (p. 166).

From now on we shall speak of From now on we shall speak of clauses clauses and and clause structureclause structure whenever a statement is true both whenever a statement is true both for sentences and for the clauses of for sentences and for the clauses of which it is composed.which it is composed.

In the present chapter, however, we In the present chapter, however, we shall be dealing with shall be dealing with only simple only simple sentencessentences: that is sentences : that is sentences consisting of only one clause (p. consisting of only one clause (p. 166).166).

S AS Aprocess process VVtranstrans O Odd A Atimetime

(conj) S (conj) S

VVintransintrans

I quickly shut the door before the animal could I quickly shut the door before the animal could escapeescape

Subordinate clauseSubordinate clause

Superordinate clauseSuperordinate clause (Siêu cú)(Siêu cú)

(1) (1) SVASVASS V Vintensintens AAplaceplace

Mary isMary is in the house in the house(2) (2) SVCSVC S S V Vintensintens CCss Mary is kind/ a nurseMary is kind/ a nurse(3) (3) SVO SVO S V S Vmonotranmonotran OOdd Somebody caught the ballSomebody caught the ball(4) (4) SVASVA S V S Vcomplex transcomplex trans O Odd A Aplaceplace

I put the place on the table I put the place on the table (5) (5) SVOCSVOC S V S Vcomplex transcomplex trans O Odd C Coo

We have proved him wrong/a foolWe have proved him wrong/a fool(6) (6) SVOOSVOO S V S Vditransditrans

OOii O Odd She gives me expensive presentShe gives me expensive present(7) (7) SVSV The child laughed (p. 167) The child laughed (p. 167)

ComplementationComplementation The element OThe element Odd, C, and A in the above , C, and A in the above patterns are obligatory elements of patterns are obligatory elements of

clause clause structure in the sense that they are structure in the sense that they are required for the complementation of the required for the complementation of the Verb (p. 167). Verb (p. 167). Clause elements syntactically definedClause elements syntactically defined A subject (p. 170)A subject (p. 170)(a)(a) a noun phrase or a clause:a noun phrase or a clause:

That she is still alive That she is still alive is a consolation is a consolation (sự an ủi)(sự an ủi)

(b) occurs: before the verb phrase in (b) occurs: before the verb phrase in declarative clauses, and immediately after declarative clauses, and immediately after the operator in question (p. 170 (p. 11) (p. the operator in question (p. 170 (p. 11) (p.

197)197)- - Had he given the girl an apple?Had he given the girl an apple?(c) Has number and person concord (p. 170)(c) Has number and person concord (p. 170)- - The window (s) is (are) open.The window (s) is (are) open. An objectAn object (direct or indirect) (direct or indirect)(a)(a) is a noun phrase or clauseis a noun phrase or clause(b)(b) normally follows the subjectnormally follows the subject(c)(c) by the passive transformation (p. 170)by the passive transformation (p. 170) An INDIRECT OBJECT An INDIRECT OBJECT *normally precedes the direct object, but *** *normally precedes the direct object, but ***

Give it me (BrE)Give it me (BrE)

A complement (subject or object) A complement (subject or object) (p. 170)(p. 170)

An Adverbial (p. 171)An Adverbial (p. 171) Clause elements semantically Clause elements semantically considered (p. 171)considered (p. 171)Agentive, affected, recipient, attribute Agentive, affected, recipient, attribute

(p. 171)(p. 171)- JohnJohn opened the letter opened the letter- Many MPs criticized Many MPs criticized the Prime the Prime

MinisterMinister- I’ve found I’ve found youyou a place. a place.

The role of the subject complement is The role of the subject complement is that of attribute of the subject … (p. 171)that of attribute of the subject … (p. 171)CURRENT ATTRIBUTECURRENT ATTRIBUTE: He’s my brother. He seems : He’s my brother. He seems unhappyunhappyRESULTING ATTRIBUTERESULTING ATTRIBUTE: He became : He became restlessrestless (p. 171) (p. 171) The role of the object complement is The role of the object complement is that of attribute of the object… (p. 171)that of attribute of the object… (p. 171)CURRENT ATTRIBUTECURRENT ATTRIBUTE: I ate the meat : I ate the meat coldcold.. RESULTING ATTRIBUTERESULTING ATTRIBUTE: They elected him : They elected him PresidentPresident (p. (p.

171)171) Agentive and instrumental subjectAgentive and instrumental subject (p. 172) (p. 172)- - The avalancheThe avalanche (tuyết lở) destroyed several houses (tuyết lở) destroyed several houses

Recipient subject (p. 172)Recipient subject (p. 172)… … a recipient role with verbs such as a recipient role with verbs such as have, have,

own, possess, benefitown, possess, benefit ( (fromfrom))- Mr. Smith has bought/given/sold his son a Mr. Smith has bought/given/sold his son a

radio radio So now his son So now his son has/owns/possesses a radiohas/owns/possesses a radio

… … perceptual verb perceptual verb seesee and and hearhear (p. 172) (p. 172)

Concord Concord Subject-verb concord (p. 176)Subject-verb concord (p. 176)+ Subject – verb concord+ Subject – verb concord- A clause in a position of subject counts as A clause in a position of subject counts as singular: singular: How they got there doesn’t concern meHow they got there doesn’t concern me..- * Nominal relative clause may have plural or * Nominal relative clause may have plural or singular concord: singular concord: what were once humanwhat were once human dwellings dwellings

are are now nothing but piles of rubble.now nothing but piles of rubble.*** *** Informal speech: There’s hundreds of people on Informal speech: There’s hundreds of people on the waiting list.the waiting list.***Plural words and phrases count as singular if ***Plural words and phrases count as singular if

they they are used as names, titles, quotations: - are used as names, titles, quotations: - Crime and Crime and PunishmentPunishment is perhaps the best…; but is perhaps the best…; but The Brother The Brother KaramazovKaramazov is undoubtedly his best novel is undoubtedly his best novel (176) (176)

- ‘‘The Cedars’The Cedars’ has a huge garden has a huge garden..- The Canterbury TalesThe Canterbury Tales exist/exists in many exist/exists in many Manuscripts.Manuscripts.Notional concord, and proximity (p. 176)Notional concord, and proximity (p. 176)- - TheThe government have broken all their promisesgovernment have broken all their promises (BrE) (BrE)***The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the ***The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with whatever noun or pronoun closely precedes it,verb with whatever noun or pronoun closely precedes it,sometimes in preference to agreement with the head sometimes in preference to agreement with the head Word of the subject:Word of the subject:- No oneNo one except his own supporter except his own supporter agreeagree with him with him..- OneOne in ten in ten ttakeake drugdrug (p. 177). (p. 177).Collective nounsCollective nouns**In BrE, collective nouns, notionally plural but In BrE, collective nouns, notionally plural but Grammatically singularGrammatically singular

- - The The public public areare tired of demonstrations tired of demonstrations- The - The audienceaudience werewere enjoying every minute of it enjoying every minute of it (p. (p.

177)177)*** The *** The audienceaudience waswas enormously enormouslyCoordinated subject (p. 177)Coordinated subject (p. 177)When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases coordinated by and, a coordinated by and, a distinctiondistinction has to be made has to be madebetween between appositionalappositional and and non-appositional non-appositional coordination.coordination.--Tom and Mary Tom and Mary areare now readynow ready ( ( Tom is now ready Tom is now ready and Mary is now ready)and Mary is now ready)- - What I say and what I think What I say and what I think are are my own affairmy own affair ( ( what I say is and what I think is).what I say is and what I think is).

****A single verb is used with conjoinings which A single verb is used with conjoinings which represents a single entityrepresents a single entity- - The hammer and sickle The hammer and sickle waswas flying from a tall flag flying from a tall flag polepole..**Conjoinings expressing a mutual relationship, even **Conjoinings expressing a mutual relationship, even though they can only indirectly be treated as reductionsthough they can only indirectly be treated as reductionsof clauses in this way, also take plural verb:of clauses in this way, also take plural verb:- - Your problem and mine Your problem and mine areare similar similar ( ( Your problem is Your problem issimilar to mine and mine is similar to yours) (177). similar to mine and mine is similar to yours) (177). ***But: The coordinated structures refer to the same ***But: The coordinated structures refer to the same Thing:Thing:- - This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste taste waswas erected at the Queen’s express wish erected at the Queen’s express wish..

***The following example, however, is ambiguous and ***The following example, however, is ambiguous and could have either a singular or plural verb according ascould have either a singular or plural verb according asthe brother and editor are one person or two:the brother and editor are one person or two:- - His young brother and the subsequent editor of his His young brother and the subsequent editor of his collected papers collected papers was/werewas/were with him as his death-bed. with him as his death-bed.***Abstract nouns can be interpreted with some ***Abstract nouns can be interpreted with some latitude:latitude:--Your fairness and impartiality Your fairness and impartiality has/havehas/have been much been much appreciatedappreciated (p. 178). (p. 178).+ A single noun head with coordinate modifiers may + A single noun head with coordinate modifiers may imply two separated sentence imply two separated sentence → → a plural verb may a plural verb may follow a singular non-count noun subject:follow a singular non-count noun subject:- Good and bad taste - Good and bad taste areare inculcated by example inculcated by example((Good taste is… and bad taste is…) (p. 178).Good taste is… and bad taste is…) (p. 178).

+ + Concord involving (either… or)Concord involving (either… or)- - EitherEither the Mayor the Mayor oror his deputy his deputy isis bound to come. bound to come.

[1][1]- Either- Either the strikers the strikers or or the bosses the bosses havehave to come. [2] to come. [2]- ?- ?EitherEither your brakes your brakes oror your eyesight your eyesight isis at fault [3] at fault [3]- Either- Either your eyesight your eyesight oror your brakes your brakes areare at fault [4] at fault [4]*** [3] neither singular nor plural seem to be right!*** [3] neither singular nor plural seem to be right!******Neither he or his wife Neither he or his wife havehave arrived arrived is more natural is more natural in spoken idiom than the form preferred by some:in spoken idiom than the form preferred by some:- Neither he or his wife - Neither he or his wife hashas arrived (p. 179) arrived (p. 179)

+ More than:+ More than:- - More thanMore than a thousand inhabitants a thousand inhabitants have have signed the signed the petition.petition.

- - More thanMore than one person one person hashas protested against protested against the proposal the proposal (notionally plural, a singular verb is (notionally plural, a singular verb is preferred because (one) person operates as head preferred because (one) person operates as head of a singular noun phrase.of a singular noun phrase.

Indefinite expressions of amountIndefinite expressions of amount+ + Indefinite and negative expressions of Indefinite and negative expressions of amountamount- - I’ve ordered tile shrubs, but none (of them) I’ve ordered tile shrubs, but none (of them)

have/has have/has arrived yetarrived yet..Has is more conventionally ‘correct’, but have is Has is more conventionally ‘correct’, but have is

more more idiomatic in speech (p. 179).idiomatic in speech (p. 179).

Concord Concord Subject-verb concord (p. 176)Subject-verb concord (p. 176)- Subject – verb concord- Subject – verb concord The Complex sentences (p.309)The Complex sentences (p.309) Coordination and subordinationCoordination and subordination Finite, non finite, and verbless clausesFinite, non finite, and verbless clauses- John has visited New York- John has visited New York Non-finite clause:Non-finite clause:- - Having seen the pictures…Having seen the pictures… Vebless clause:Vebless clause:- - Although always helpful…Although always helpful…

The complex sentence (p. 316)The complex sentence (p. 316) That-clausesThat-clauses To-infinitive nominal clauses (p. 320)To-infinitive nominal clauses (p. 320) Nominal –Nominal –inging clause clause Bare infinitive verbless clauses (p.322)Bare infinitive verbless clauses (p.322)