England and Scotland in the 17th century England and Scotland in the 17th century A) regional difference A) regional difference B) religion B) religion.

England and Scotland in England and Scotland in the 17th centurythe 17th century

A) regional differenceA) regional difference B) religionB) religion C) revolution 1688C) revolution 1688 D) Act of UnionD) Act of Union

Developments in IrelandDevelopments in Ireland

Rise of GB in 18th Rise of GB in 18th centurycentury

A) SocietyA) Society B) PoliticsB) Politics

British colonial British colonial expansionexpansion

A) first British EmpireA) first British Empire B) warsB) wars

George III. and the George III. and the American revolutionAmerican revolution

A) domestic politicsA) domestic politics B) colonial unrestB) colonial unrest

Act of union with Act of union with IrelandIreland

Revolution and WarRevolution and War A) French revolutionA) French revolution B) Napoleonic WarsB) Napoleonic Wars

Industrialization and Industrialization and ProgressProgress

A) The impact of A) The impact of IndustrializationIndustrialization

B) Political reformsB) Political reforms

A union of England and Scotland seemed unlikely at A union of England and Scotland seemed unlikely at the beginning of the 17th century. The two nations the beginning of the 17th century. The two nations had been periodically at war with each other for had been periodically at war with each other for almost 700 years as a result of disputes over control almost 700 years as a result of disputes over control of border regions and occasional attempts by the of border regions and occasional attempts by the English to expand northward into Scotland. In order English to expand northward into Scotland. In order to protect its independence, Scotland maintained a to protect its independence, Scotland maintained a traditional alliance with France, England’s primary traditional alliance with France, England’s primary enemy on the European continent. When Elizabeth I enemy on the European continent. When Elizabeth I of England died childless in 1603, James VI of of England died childless in 1603, James VI of Scotland, a member of the royal house of Stuart and Scotland, a member of the royal house of Stuart and a relative of Elizabeth, inherited the English throne. a relative of Elizabeth, inherited the English throne. In addition to ruling as James VI of Scotland, he now In addition to ruling as James VI of Scotland, he now became James I of Englandbecame James I of England

Regional DifferencesRegional Differences ScotlandScotland

James held royal authority in two kingdoms that were very differentJames held royal authority in two kingdoms that were very different:: Scotland wasScotland was::

sparsely populatedsparsely populated its land was largely barren and infertile. Rocky soil, a cold and wet its land was largely barren and infertile. Rocky soil, a cold and wet

climate, and insufficient irrigation prevented agriculture from climate, and insufficient irrigation prevented agriculture from thriving. A long tradition of self-sufficient farms and estates thriving. A long tradition of self-sufficient farms and estates discouraged trade and limited the growth of industry. discouraged trade and limited the growth of industry.

Scotland was divided into two distinct regions, the Highlands and Scotland was divided into two distinct regions, the Highlands and Lowlands. By far the largest concentration of population in Scotland Lowlands. By far the largest concentration of population in Scotland was in the southern Lowlands around the two principal cities: was in the southern Lowlands around the two principal cities: Glasgow and the capital city, Edinburgh. The Lowlands were fully Glasgow and the capital city, Edinburgh. The Lowlands were fully integrated into royal government; the king ruled with little integrated into royal government; the king ruled with little opposition.opposition.

Scotland’s Parliament met rarely and dealt with limited issues. In the Scotland’s Parliament met rarely and dealt with limited issues. In the Highlands, however, the royal government had little direct influence. Highlands, however, the royal government had little direct influence. Clans—social groups based on extended family ties—still dominated Clans—social groups based on extended family ties—still dominated the region.the region.

EnglandEngland In contrast, England at the beginning of the 17th century was a dynamic In contrast, England at the beginning of the 17th century was a dynamic

society, growing rapidly in population and wealth. England’s south and society, growing rapidly in population and wealth. England’s south and east had fertile agricultural land. In the north and west, estates carried east had fertile agricultural land. In the north and west, estates carried out sheep herding on a large scale. A thriving export trade existed in out sheep herding on a large scale. A thriving export trade existed in wool, grain, and other products. England’s capital city, London, was one of wool, grain, and other products. England’s capital city, London, was one of the largest cities in the world.the largest cities in the world.

The Tudor monarchs, who ruled England from 1485 to 1603, had The Tudor monarchs, who ruled England from 1485 to 1603, had effectively centralized English government by the early 17th century. The effectively centralized English government by the early 17th century. The nobility—the once powerful class of landowning aristocrats—no longer nobility—the once powerful class of landowning aristocrats—no longer formed a powerful independent political force, but instead served the formed a powerful independent political force, but instead served the Crown and became dependent on royal support. The gentry—landowners Crown and became dependent on royal support. The gentry—landowners with country estates—formed the core of royal government in the with country estates—formed the core of royal government in the countryside, enforcing the law as sheriffs or serving as justices in the local countryside, enforcing the law as sheriffs or serving as justices in the local courts. courts.

Although the Tudors centralized administration, they failed to implement Although the Tudors centralized administration, they failed to implement a financial system to pay for the escalating costs of government. Rents on a financial system to pay for the escalating costs of government. Rents on royal lands, supplemented by limited taxes on imports and on the church, royal lands, supplemented by limited taxes on imports and on the church, barely financed government administration. During wars or times of barely financed government administration. During wars or times of emergency, the monarchy had to request funds from Parliament, which emergency, the monarchy had to request funds from Parliament, which alone had the right to approve additional taxes and to pass new lawsalone had the right to approve additional taxes and to pass new laws

Religious DifferencesReligious Differences Religious issues also separated the two nations. Religious issues also separated the two nations.

Both the Church of Scotland and the Church of Both the Church of Scotland and the Church of England were Protestant churches. However, in England were Protestant churches. However, in England the monarch reigned as head of a England the monarch reigned as head of a compliant, centralized church. Henry VIII had compliant, centralized church. Henry VIII had established the Church of England in 1534 with established the Church of England in 1534 with the monarch as its supreme head. His successors the monarch as its supreme head. His successors maintained tight royal control over church affairs maintained tight royal control over church affairs and held the final say in matters of religion. and held the final say in matters of religion.

   John Knox preached a form of Protestantism to the John Knox preached a form of Protestantism to the

people of 16th-century Scotland. Later called people of 16th-century Scotland. Later called Presbyterianism, this religion became a symbol of Presbyterianism, this religion became a symbol of Scottish nationalism. Church leaders strongly Scottish nationalism. Church leaders strongly resisted efforts by Scottish monarchs to establish resisted efforts by Scottish monarchs to establish control over the churchcontrol over the church..

James had less control over Scotland’s church. James had less control over Scotland’s church. Protestantism had made major gains among the Protestantism had made major gains among the people, and a Presbyterian system, built upon people, and a Presbyterian system, built upon independent local church organizations, formed independent local church organizations, formed without royal approval. In 1560 the Scottish without royal approval. In 1560 the Scottish Parliament accepted the Presbyterian form of Parliament accepted the Presbyterian form of Protestantism as the official religion. James Protestantism as the official religion. James appointed bishops to establish his authority over appointed bishops to establish his authority over the church, but the Presbyterian system remained the church, but the Presbyterian system remained intact on the local level and continued to decide intact on the local level and continued to decide many religious matters independently of the king many religious matters independently of the king and the bishops. and the bishops.

Revolution of 1688Revolution of 1688

Protestant political leaders launched a revolt against James II. Protestant political leaders launched a revolt against James II. The Revolution of 1688 deposed James in favour of his The Revolution of 1688 deposed James in favour of his nephew, William of Orange. William was a Dutch Protestant nephew, William of Orange. William was a Dutch Protestant noble who had married James’s daughter Mary. An act of noble who had married James’s daughter Mary. An act of Parliament made Mary II and William III joint monarchs in Parliament made Mary II and William III joint monarchs in 1689.1689.

The revolution deeply divided the Scots. As the head of The revolution deeply divided the Scots. As the head of Scotland’s royal family, James II continued to attract loyalty, Scotland’s royal family, James II continued to attract loyalty, especially in the Highlands. The most powerful Scottish especially in the Highlands. The most powerful Scottish politicians and aristocrats were willing to accept William III politicians and aristocrats were willing to accept William III only if he gave Scotland greater freedom to govern itself. only if he gave Scotland greater freedom to govern itself. William granted the Scots a nearly independent Parliament William granted the Scots a nearly independent Parliament and pledged not to interfere in the Scottish church. William and pledged not to interfere in the Scottish church. William later made several overtures for a political union, offering the later made several overtures for a political union, offering the Scots the benefits of free trade with England, participation in Scots the benefits of free trade with England, participation in the emerging English Empire, and guarantees to preserve the emerging English Empire, and guarantees to preserve Scotland’s legal, religious, and political institutions. The Scots Scotland’s legal, religious, and political institutions. The Scots rejected these proposals.rejected these proposals.

The Act of Union The Act of Union William and Mary were William and Mary were

childless, as was Mary’s sister, childless, as was Mary’s sister, Anne, who succeeded to the Anne, who succeeded to the throne in 1702. To assure a throne in 1702. To assure a smooth transition of power to smooth transition of power to a Protestant monarch, in 1701 a Protestant monarch, in 1701 the English Parliament passed the English Parliament passed the Act of Settlement, which the Act of Settlement, which stated that a German branch stated that a German branch of the royal family, the of the royal family, the Hannovers, would succeed Hannovers, would succeed Anne as the monarchs of Anne as the monarchs of England. The Scottish England. The Scottish Parliament refused to ratify Parliament refused to ratify the act, creating the potential the act, creating the potential that the two kingdoms would that the two kingdoms would split after more than 100 split after more than 100 years under the same years under the same monarchsmonarchs..

Queen Anne Anne, queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland,

based much of her administration on the advice of her ministers. Anne had no children, and her

ministers, fearful that Scotland might ally with the French following her death, pressured the Scottish Parliament into agreeing to merge the two nations

into a single kingdom.

The English feared that an independent Scotland might ally itself The English feared that an independent Scotland might ally itself with France and provide a backdoor for a French invasion of with France and provide a backdoor for a French invasion of England. The English fear of an invasion was especially strong at England. The English fear of an invasion was especially strong at the beginning of the 18th century. At this time, England led a the beginning of the 18th century. At this time, England led a coalition of nations that were struggling to prevent Louis XIV of coalition of nations that were struggling to prevent Louis XIV of France from gaining mastery over Europe. After 1701 the stakes France from gaining mastery over Europe. After 1701 the stakes increased as Louis attempted to establish his grandson on the increased as Louis attempted to establish his grandson on the throne of Spain. The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession throne of Spain. The ensuing War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) engulfed most of western Europe as England, The (1701-1714) engulfed most of western Europe as England, The Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, and later Portugal formed an Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, and later Portugal formed an alliance against France and Spain.alliance against France and Spain.

To avoid facing an enemy on the northern border, Anne’s To avoid facing an enemy on the northern border, Anne’s ministers threatened the Scottish Parliament. They warned ministers threatened the Scottish Parliament. They warned Scotland that they would treat all Scots as aliens in England, stop Scotland that they would treat all Scots as aliens in England, stop all trade between the nations, and capture or sink Scottish ships all trade between the nations, and capture or sink Scottish ships that traded with France. These threats led the Scots to accept the that traded with France. These threats led the Scots to accept the union with England. union with England.

In 1707 Great Britain was born. Fear had led the politicians of both In 1707 Great Britain was born. Fear had led the politicians of both nations to a union that would prove durable for hundreds of years. nations to a union that would prove durable for hundreds of years. The Act ofThe Act of Union of 1707Union of 1707 created a single national created a single national administration, removed trade barriers between the countries, administration, removed trade barriers between the countries, standardized taxation throughout the island, and created a single standardized taxation throughout the island, and created a single Parliament. However, England and Scotland continued to have Parliament. However, England and Scotland continued to have separate traditions of law and separate official churches. separate traditions of law and separate official churches.

Developments in IrelandDevelopments in Ireland Catholics had gained hope of a return to power in Ireland Catholics had gained hope of a return to power in Ireland

during the reign of James II, who appointed Catholics to during the reign of James II, who appointed Catholics to positions of authority in the royal administration and the positions of authority in the royal administration and the military hierarchy of the island. Following the Revolution of military hierarchy of the island. Following the Revolution of 1688, James II fled to Ireland, where he raised an army of 1688, James II fled to Ireland, where he raised an army of Catholic supporters. William III defeated the Catholics and Catholic supporters. William III defeated the Catholics and once again imposed the firm rule of Protestant nobles. once again imposed the firm rule of Protestant nobles. Although Ireland had its own Parliament, which was Although Ireland had its own Parliament, which was composed of Protestant landowners, the real power lay with composed of Protestant landowners, the real power lay with royal officials, who administered the island based on orders royal officials, who administered the island based on orders from London. The Protestant rulers of Ireland instituted a from London. The Protestant rulers of Ireland instituted a series of highly restrictive laws that excluded Catholics series of highly restrictive laws that excluded Catholics from owning land or firearms, from practicing certain from owning land or firearms, from practicing certain professions, and from holding public office. These professions, and from holding public office. These discriminatory laws united Ireland’s Catholic population in discriminatory laws united Ireland’s Catholic population in opposition to Protestantopposition to Protestant..

Rise of Great BritainRise of Great Britain Great Britain emerged from the War of Great Britain emerged from the War of

the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) as the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) as one of the world’s great military powers. one of the world’s great military powers. Traditionally a naval power, Britain had Traditionally a naval power, Britain had built a modern, professional army during built a modern, professional army during the reign of William III. This army, under the reign of William III. This army, under the brilliant military leadership of John the brilliant military leadership of John Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, led Churchill, 1st duke of Marlborough, led the anti-French alliance to decisive the anti-French alliance to decisive victories. On the seas, the British navy victories. On the seas, the British navy captured the island of Minorca in the captured the island of Minorca in the Mediterranean and the strategic fortress Mediterranean and the strategic fortress of Gibraltar, which guards the entrance to of Gibraltar, which guards the entrance to the Mediterranean, on the southern coast the Mediterranean, on the southern coast of Spain. These victories gave Britain of Spain. These victories gave Britain control over the Mediterranean.control over the Mediterranean.

In 1713 and 1714 a series of treaties In 1713 and 1714 a series of treaties known as the Peace of Utrecht brought known as the Peace of Utrecht brought the war to a formal conclusion. As a result the war to a formal conclusion. As a result of the war, Britain gained Gibraltar and of the war, Britain gained Gibraltar and important trade concessions from Spain, important trade concessions from Spain, including a monopoly on the slave trade including a monopoly on the slave trade to the Spanish colonies. From the French to the Spanish colonies. From the French they won the colonies of Nova Scotia, they won the colonies of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson BayNewfoundland, and Hudson Bay

John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough

John Churchill, known as Marlborough, was one of

England’s greatest military commanders

18th-Century Britain18th-Century Britain British society was stratified in British society was stratified in

the 18th century, with a tiny the 18th century, with a tiny aristocracy and landed gentry at aristocracy and landed gentry at the top and a vast mass of poor the top and a vast mass of poor at the bottom. For the at the bottom. For the aristocracyaristocracy, the 18th century , the 18th century was its greatest age. British was its greatest age. British lords who controlled large lords who controlled large estates saw their wealth estates saw their wealth increase from a boom in increase from a boom in agricultural production, an agricultural production, an expansion of investment expansion of investment opportunities, and the opportunities, and the domination of the government domination of the government by the aristocracy. They built by the aristocracy. They built vast palaces and developed new vast palaces and developed new areas of London, Edinburgh, and areas of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. The monarchy almost Dublin. The monarchy almost exclusively appointed exclusively appointed aristocrats to the most aristocrats to the most

important politicalimportant political offices. offices.

Blenheim Palace in Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, England, was Oxfordshire, England, was designed in 1705 by British designed in 1705 by British architects Sir John Vanbrugh architects Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor. and Nicholas Hawksmoor. Blenheim is an example of the Blenheim is an example of the stately mansions constructed stately mansions constructed during the 18th century by during the 18th century by England’s increasingly England’s increasingly wealthy aristocracy.wealthy aristocracy.

In contrast to the aristocracy, In contrast to the aristocracy, the gentrythe gentry lost much of the political lost much of the political and financial influence it had wielded since the days of the Tudor and financial influence it had wielded since the days of the Tudor monarchs. Many holders of small estates found that land was no monarchs. Many holders of small estates found that land was no longer the secure source of wealth it had once been, especially with longer the secure source of wealth it had once been, especially with the high taxes imposed on landowners to finance Britain’s wars. The the high taxes imposed on landowners to finance Britain’s wars. The immense estates of Britain’s aristocratic class provided their owners immense estates of Britain’s aristocratic class provided their owners with a constant flow of funds, while higher taxes often consumed the with a constant flow of funds, while higher taxes often consumed the profits generated by the smaller estates of the gentry. Although the profits generated by the smaller estates of the gentry. Although the gentry’s status in the local community was secure, merchants who gentry’s status in the local community was secure, merchants who traded luxury commodities overseas soon eclipsed the gentry in traded luxury commodities overseas soon eclipsed the gentry in wealth and influence on the national level during the 18th century. wealth and influence on the national level during the 18th century.

Society in the 18th century was becoming more fluid than in the Society in the 18th century was becoming more fluid than in the

past, in part because of the growth of the middle classes in towns past, in part because of the growth of the middle classes in towns and cities. and cities. Middle-classMiddle-class families earned their livings in trade or in families earned their livings in trade or in professions, such as law and medicine. They valued literacy, thrift, professions, such as law and medicine. They valued literacy, thrift, and education, ideas that were spread by thinkers of the Age of and education, ideas that were spread by thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment. Especially influential were philosophers John Locke Enlightenment. Especially influential were philosophers John Locke and David Hume and economist Adam Smith. Locke and Hume and David Hume and economist Adam Smith. Locke and Hume stressed the importance of the senses and the environment in stressed the importance of the senses and the environment in shaping the individual. Locke also described the human mind as a shaping the individual. Locke also described the human mind as a blank slate that was to be filled by education and experience. Smith, blank slate that was to be filled by education and experience. Smith, in his book in his book The Wealth of NationsThe Wealth of Nations (1776), demonstrated how the (1776), demonstrated how the efficient organization of economic activity created wealth.efficient organization of economic activity created wealth.

Increased literacy and education spread throughout the country. In towns, the Increased literacy and education spread throughout the country. In towns, the middle classes established lending libraries to distribute books, clubs to discuss middle classes established lending libraries to distribute books, clubs to discuss ideas, and coffeehouses to debate politics. Newspapers became the most ideas, and coffeehouses to debate politics. Newspapers became the most popular form of media, and more than 50 towns produced their own popular form of media, and more than 50 towns produced their own newspapers by the end of the century.. newspapers by the end of the century..

The newest form of literature was the novel. The newest form of literature was the novel. Pamela; or Virtue RewardedPamela; or Virtue Rewarded (1740) (1740)

by Samuel Richardson was one of the first works of this genre. The writings of by Samuel Richardson was one of the first works of this genre. The writings of novelist Jane Austen were popular toward the end of the century. The rise of the novelist Jane Austen were popular toward the end of the century. The rise of the middle class was also seen in the most important religious movement of the middle class was also seen in the most important religious movement of the era, Methodism. Founded by theologian John Wesley, Methodism encouraged era, Methodism. Founded by theologian John Wesley, Methodism encouraged the population at large to believe personal salvation could be achieved without the population at large to believe personal salvation could be achieved without relying on the formal rituals of the Church of England. Wesley directed his relying on the formal rituals of the Church of England. Wesley directed his energies to labourers and the poor, but his message was derived from the energies to labourers and the poor, but his message was derived from the attitudes of the middle class.attitudes of the middle class.

PovertyPoverty dominated the lower reaches of British society, especially as  dominated the lower reaches of British society, especially as the population grew and food prices rose in the middle of the century. the population grew and food prices rose in the middle of the century. Towns swarmed with homeless families, the sick, and individuals with Towns swarmed with homeless families, the sick, and individuals with disabilities. The government and charitable organizations established disabilities. The government and charitable organizations established orphanages and hospitals, as well as workhouses where the orphanages and hospitals, as well as workhouses where the unemployed could find temporary work. While women and children unemployed could find temporary work. While women and children were left to live in poverty, the government forced able-bodied men were left to live in poverty, the government forced able-bodied men into military service by the thousands. London experienced the worst into military service by the thousands. London experienced the worst of this situation. Poor migrants flooded the city seeking work or of this situation. Poor migrants flooded the city seeking work or charity; most found an early death instead. charity; most found an early death instead.

Paradoxically, improvements in sanitation, medicine, and food Paradoxically, improvements in sanitation, medicine, and food production allowed many poor people to live longer lives, increasing production allowed many poor people to live longer lives, increasing the population of poor and adding to the problems. The epidemics of the population of poor and adding to the problems. The epidemics of plague and smallpox, which had routinely killed a third of the people in plague and smallpox, which had routinely killed a third of the people in towns during earlier centuries, were now a thing of the past. The towns during earlier centuries, were now a thing of the past. The production of cheap alcoholic beverages, such as gin and rum, eased production of cheap alcoholic beverages, such as gin and rum, eased some of the pain of the poor, but increased alcohol consumption also some of the pain of the poor, but increased alcohol consumption also raised the level of violence and crime.raised the level of violence and crime.

Crime was so common in 18th-century Britain that Parliament made Crime was so common in 18th-century Britain that Parliament made more than 200 offences punishable by death. Executions were weekly more than 200 offences punishable by death. Executions were weekly spectacles. To deal with excess prison populations, the British spectacles. To deal with excess prison populations, the British government deported many inmates to British overseas colonies. The government deported many inmates to British overseas colonies. The government sent tens of thousands of convicts to the Americas as government sent tens of thousands of convicts to the Americas as indentured servants and established the colony of Australia as a prison indentured servants and established the colony of Australia as a prison colony at the end of the century.colony at the end of the century.

Penal Colony The Port Arthur penal settlement in Australia was in service from 1830 to the 1870s. The high-security colony housed 2000 prisoners at a time

and was known for its harsh discipline. It was restored in 1979 and today is a popular tourist destination.

18th-Century British Politics18th-Century British Politics Following the union with Following the union with

Scotland, the British Scotland, the British government functioned government functioned according to an unwritten according to an unwritten constitution put in place after constitution put in place after the Revolution of 1688. This the Revolution of 1688. This agreement between the agreement between the monarchs and Parliament monarchs and Parliament provided for the succession of provided for the succession of Anne’s German Protestant Anne’s German Protestant cousin, cousin, George ofGeorge of HannoverHannover, and his heirs. It , and his heirs. It excluded from the throne the excluded from the throne the Catholic descendants of James Catholic descendants of James II who now lived in France and II who now lived in France and who periodically attempted to who periodically attempted to regain the throne. Their regain the throne. Their supporters were known as supporters were known as Jacobites, and they rose in an Jacobites, and they rose in an unsuccessful rebellion in unsuccessful rebellion in 1715. The Church of England 1715. The Church of England remained the official religious remained the official religious establishment, but most establishment, but most Protestants who belonged to Protestants who belonged to other churches enjoyed other churches enjoyed toleration. toleration.

The revolution also resolved The revolution also resolved the struggle for power the struggle for power between the monarch and between the monarch and Parliament, which had been Parliament, which had been an ongoing issue under the an ongoing issue under the Stuarts. Parliament emerged Stuarts. Parliament emerged as the leading force in as the leading force in government. The government. The Hannoverians ruled as Hannoverians ruled as constitutional monarchs, constitutional monarchs, limited by the laws of the limited by the laws of the land. During the 18th century, land. During the 18th century, British monarchs ruled British monarchs ruled indirectly through appointed indirectly through appointed ministers who gathered and ministers who gathered and managed supporters in managed supporters in Parliament..Parliament..

The Hannoverian monarchs The Hannoverian monarchs associated the Whig Party with the associated the Whig Party with the revolution that brought them to revolution that brought them to power and suspected the Tory Party power and suspected the Tory Party of Jacobitism. As a result, the Whigs of Jacobitism. As a result, the Whigs dominated the governments of dominated the governments of George I (1714-1727) and his son, George I (1714-1727) and his son, George II (1727-1760). Neither king George II (1727-1760). Neither king was a forceful monarch. George I was a forceful monarch. George I spoke no English and was more spoke no English and was more interested in German politics that interested in German politics that he was in British politics. George II he was in British politics. George II was preoccupied with family was preoccupied with family problems, particularly by an problems, particularly by an ongoing personal feud with his son. ongoing personal feud with his son. Although they both were concerned Although they both were concerned with European military affairs with European military affairs (George II was the last British (George II was the last British monarch to appear on a battlefield), monarch to appear on a battlefield), they left British government in the they left British government in the hands of their ministers, the most hands of their ministers, the most important of whom was Sir Robert important of whom was Sir Robert Walpole.Walpole.

George IIGeorge II   

Walpole led British government Walpole led British government for almost 20 years. He spent for almost 20 years. He spent most of his life in government, most of his life in government, first as a member of Parliament, first as a member of Parliament, then in increasingly important then in increasingly important offices, and finally as prime offices, and finally as prime minister. Walpole had skillful minister. Walpole had skillful political influence over a wide political influence over a wide range of domestic and foreign range of domestic and foreign policy matters.. Walpole kept policy matters.. Walpole kept Britain out of war during most of Britain out of war during most of his administration. A growing his administration. A growing sentiment in Parliament for British sentiment in Parliament for British involvement in European conflicts involvement in European conflicts forced Walpole to resign in 1742.forced Walpole to resign in 1742.

In 1745 a Jacobite rebellion posed In 1745 a Jacobite rebellion posed a serious threat to Whig rule. Led a serious threat to Whig rule. Led by Charles Edward Stuart, the by Charles Edward Stuart, the grandson of James II, the rebellion grandson of James II, the rebellion broke out in Scotland. The rebels broke out in Scotland. The rebels captured Edinburgh and captured Edinburgh and successfully invaded the north of successfully invaded the north of England. The rebellion crumbled England. The rebellion crumbled after William Augustus, who was after William Augustus, who was the duke of Cumberland and a son the duke of Cumberland and a son of George II, defeated the of George II, defeated the Jacobites at Culloden Moor in Jacobites at Culloden Moor in Scotland in 1746.Scotland in 1746.

British Colonial ExpansionBritish Colonial Expansion First British EmpireFirst British Empire Britain already controlled many overseas areas by the 18th Britain already controlled many overseas areas by the 18th

century. For more than 100 years English explorers had ventured century. For more than 100 years English explorers had ventured east and west in search of raw materials, luxury goods, and east and west in search of raw materials, luxury goods, and trading partners. The eastern coast of Canada gave the British trading partners. The eastern coast of Canada gave the British access to rich fishing grounds, New England provided timber for access to rich fishing grounds, New England provided timber for the Royal Navy, the southern American colonies exported tobacco, the Royal Navy, the southern American colonies exported tobacco, and the West Indies produced sugar and molasses. From Asia and the West Indies produced sugar and molasses. From Asia came coffee, tea, spices, and richly colored cotton cloth. From came coffee, tea, spices, and richly colored cotton cloth. From western Africa came slaves who were sent to work on plantations western Africa came slaves who were sent to work on plantations in the Americas and the Caribbean. in the Americas and the Caribbean.

The first British Empire sprang from the enterprises of individuals The first British Empire sprang from the enterprises of individuals and government-sponsored trading companies. They risked and government-sponsored trading companies. They risked money, ships, and lives to establish England’s presence around money, ships, and lives to establish England’s presence around the world. The British government created royal monopolies—the world. The British government created royal monopolies—private companies to whom the monarch granted exclusive rights private companies to whom the monarch granted exclusive rights to trade in a particular region or field of commerce. For example, to trade in a particular region or field of commerce. For example, the East India Company had a monopoly to trade in the east, the the East India Company had a monopoly to trade in the east, the Royal African Company to enter the slave trade, and the Hudson’s Royal African Company to enter the slave trade, and the Hudson’s Bay Company to exploit the fisheries of Nova Scotia and Bay Company to exploit the fisheries of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. The lands that these companies claimed became Newfoundland. The lands that these companies claimed became possessions of the Crown, and investors bought shares in possessions of the Crown, and investors bought shares in successful companies on the London Stock Exchange.successful companies on the London Stock Exchange.

Hudson’s Bay Company For over 200 years the Hudson’s Bay Company sent explorers and traders into the wilderness of Canada’s Northwest Territories. This

1882 illustration shows an expedition loading up on supplies at one of the company’s trading posts.

The most important of Britain’s imperial possessions, however, The most important of Britain’s imperial possessions, however, were not trading posts but settled colonies in the Americas. In were not trading posts but settled colonies in the Americas. In Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, settlers Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, settlers established communities for religious reasons; in Virginia and established communities for religious reasons; in Virginia and Barbados, farmers, trades people, and merchants were in search Barbados, farmers, trades people, and merchants were in search of economic opportunity. As a result of successful wars with The of economic opportunity. As a result of successful wars with The Netherlands and Spain, England acquired New York and Jamaica, Netherlands and Spain, England acquired New York and Jamaica, both thriving settlements. Prosperous cities sprang up along the both thriving settlements. Prosperous cities sprang up along the eastern seaboard of North America in imitation of the towns of eastern seaboard of North America in imitation of the towns of Britain. England’s colonies grew rapidly. The tens of thousands of Britain. England’s colonies grew rapidly. The tens of thousands of settlers in the mainland North American colonies in 1650 grew to settlers in the mainland North American colonies in 1650 grew to 1.2 million inhabitants by 1750.1.2 million inhabitants by 1750.

The Navigation Act of 1651 regulated trade between England and The Navigation Act of 1651 regulated trade between England and its colonial outposts. The act followed an economic philosophy its colonial outposts. The act followed an economic philosophy known as mercantilism. Under this system, governments known as mercantilism. Under this system, governments regulated economic activities by increasing exports and limiting regulated economic activities by increasing exports and limiting foreign imports in an effort to generate wealth. According to the foreign imports in an effort to generate wealth. According to the theory of mercantilism, the value of colonies lay in their natural theory of mercantilism, the value of colonies lay in their natural resources, which could be transported to Britain and converted resources, which could be transported to Britain and converted into exportable products. The Navigation Act benefited British into exportable products. The Navigation Act benefited British merchants by restricting the types of products produced in the merchants by restricting the types of products produced in the colonies, mandating that only British ships transport products to colonies, mandating that only British ships transport products to and from the colonies, and prohibiting direct trade between the and from the colonies, and prohibiting direct trade between the colonies and other nations. Mercantile policies made Britain the colonies and other nations. Mercantile policies made Britain the greatest centre of trade in the world.greatest centre of trade in the world.

Imperial Wars Imperial Wars As a consequence of its military exploits As a consequence of its military exploits

under William III and the duke of under William III and the duke of Marlborough, Britain had become a great Marlborough, Britain had become a great power. Britain’s military strength and its power. Britain’s military strength and its growing prosperity created an growing prosperity created an international rivalry among the three international rivalry among the three great colonial powers—Britain, Spain, great colonial powers—Britain, Spain, and France. and France.

Spain controlled extensive colonies in Spain controlled extensive colonies in Mexico and Central and South America. Mexico and Central and South America. Because the Spanish and British empires Because the Spanish and British empires both employed the restrictive mercantile both employed the restrictive mercantile system to regulate trade with their system to regulate trade with their colonies, Spanish and British colonies colonies, Spanish and British colonies were not allowed to trade directly with were not allowed to trade directly with one another. The Spanish navy attacked one another. The Spanish navy attacked British ships when they attempted to British ships when they attempted to trade in South American ports. However, trade in South American ports. However, Spanish traders carried on a lucrative Spanish traders carried on a lucrative smuggling operation with the British smuggling operation with the British colonies, exchanging sugar, rum, colonies, exchanging sugar, rum, molasses, and other goods for raw molasses, and other goods for raw materials and agricultural products from materials and agricultural products from the British colonies.the British colonies.

Relations were particularly tense between Relations were particularly tense between Britain and France. The French resented Britain and France. The French resented the expansion of Britain’s American the expansion of Britain’s American colonies as well as the ban on direct trade colonies as well as the ban on direct trade between the colonies and non-British between the colonies and non-British merchants. French territories in the merchants. French territories in the Americas included Saint-Domingue (the Americas included Saint-Domingue (the largest of the Caribbean sugar islands), largest of the Caribbean sugar islands), mainland North America from the Ohio mainland North America from the Ohio Valley to the Mississippi River, and all but Valley to the Mississippi River, and all but the easternmost part of Canada. Clashes the easternmost part of Canada. Clashes between French and English forces between French and English forces became frequent in the North American became frequent in the North American colonies. colonies.

. In the mid-1700s Britain became . In the mid-1700s Britain became embroiled in two major wars. Both the embroiled in two major wars. Both the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years’ War (1756-1748) and the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) were world wars, fought by great 1763) were world wars, fought by great armies on the European continent, by armies on the European continent, by navies in the Atlantic, and by privateers in navies in the Atlantic, and by privateers in the West Indies and the spice-rich islands the West Indies and the spice-rich islands of Asia.of Asia.

The War of the Austrian Succession erupted The War of the Austrian Succession erupted following the death of Charles VI, Holy following the death of Charles VI, Holy Roman emperor and archduke of Austria. The Roman emperor and archduke of Austria. The war was fought over the succession of his war was fought over the succession of his daughter, Maria Theresa. It pitted England, daughter, Maria Theresa. It pitted England, The Netherlands, and Austria, who were The Netherlands, and Austria, who were trying to defend Maria Theresa’s succession, trying to defend Maria Theresa’s succession, against an alliance of France, Spain, Bavaria, against an alliance of France, Spain, Bavaria, Prussia, Saxony (Sachsen), and Sardinia. Prussia, Saxony (Sachsen), and Sardinia. After eight years of fighting, the conflict After eight years of fighting, the conflict ended when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle confirmed Maria Theresa as Charles’s heir. confirmed Maria Theresa as Charles’s heir. The treaty returned almost all the conquered The treaty returned almost all the conquered lands to their original owners, except for the lands to their original owners, except for the Austrian province of Silesia, which was ceded Austrian province of Silesia, which was ceded to Prussia. to Prussia.

The Seven Years’ War was one of the The Seven Years’ War was one of the greatest of all British triumphs. A coalition of greatest of all British triumphs. A coalition of Britain, Prussia, and Hannover fought against Britain, Prussia, and Hannover fought against France, Spain, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and France, Spain, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Saxony. The war began as a European Saxony. The war began as a European conflict, when Maria Theresa attempted to conflict, when Maria Theresa attempted to regain Silesia from Prussia. It soon expanded regain Silesia from Prussia. It soon expanded into a major contest between Britain and into a major contest between Britain and France for control of their colonial empires.France for control of their colonial empires.

British prime minister William Pitt, British prime minister William Pitt, 1st earl of Chatham, engineered the 1st earl of Chatham, engineered the expansion of the war. Pitt was expansion of the war. Pitt was known as William Pitt the Elder to known as William Pitt the Elder to differentiate him from his son, differentiate him from his son, William Pitt the Younger, who William Pitt the Younger, who served as Britain’s prime minister in served as Britain’s prime minister in the late 18th and early 19th the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Pitt’s family made its centuries. Pitt’s family made its fortune in colonial trade, and Pitt fortune in colonial trade, and Pitt saw clearly that Britain’s best saw clearly that Britain’s best interest lay in enlarging its colonial interest lay in enlarging its colonial empire rather than in dominating empire rather than in dominating Europe. Europe.

In 1757 he captured In 1757 he captured Chandernagore, the principal Chandernagore, the principal French settlement in India, and at French settlement in India, and at the Battle of Plassey he defeated the Battle of Plassey he defeated the army of the Indian ruler of the army of the Indian ruler of Bengal. These victories established Bengal. These victories established a permanent British foothold in a permanent British foothold in India. In North America, where the India. In North America, where the war was known as the French and war was known as the French and Indian War, British general James Indian War, British general James Wolfe took Québec and drove the Wolfe took Québec and drove the French from the province. At the French from the province. At the conclusion of the war, Britain conclusion of the war, Britain secured all French territory in secured all French territory in Canada and east of the Mississippi Canada and east of the Mississippi and acquired Florida from Spain. and acquired Florida from Spain. The Treaty of Paris, which ended The Treaty of Paris, which ended the war in 1763, represented a the war in 1763, represented a French surrender around the globe.French surrender around the globe.

Seven Years' War, Indian Theater Britain defeated the French at the Battle of Plassey, thus denying France control of Indian territories. The victory

paved the way for more control by the English East India Company, which became the de facto government of the

region.

William Pitt, the earl of Chatham William Pitt, the earl of Chatham, led his

country to victory over France in the Seven Years' War. He is also known for his defense of the rights of the American colonists. His son, William Pitt, became one of England's

great prime ministers and led his country to prosperity after the financial ravages of the

American Revolution.

George III and the American George III and the American RevolutionRevolutiononon

Although William Pitt had Although William Pitt had become a national hero, he did become a national hero, he did not survive the change of not survive the change of monarchs in 1760. George III monarchs in 1760. George III came to the throne determined came to the throne determined to rule Britain without the help to rule Britain without the help of the Whigs. He chose his of the Whigs. He chose his former tutor, Lord Bute, as his former tutor, Lord Bute, as his first chief minister, but quickly first chief minister, but quickly replaced him with a series of replaced him with a series of successors. George III was successors. George III was determined to participate determined to participate actively in Parliament’s actively in Parliament’s political decisions; this brought political decisions; this brought him into conflict with his own him into conflict with his own ministers, who foresaw ministers, who foresaw parliamentary opposition to a parliamentary opposition to a politically active monarch. The politically active monarch. The king also faced opposition from king also faced opposition from critics such as political critics such as political reformer John Wilkes, a reformer John Wilkes, a member of Parliament who member of Parliament who was arrested for libel when he was arrested for libel when he criticized one of the king’s criticized one of the king’s speeches.speeches.

George III Britain’s King George III governed during the time of the American Revolution. Besides losing the American colonies, the war nearly bankrupted his country. He took an active role in the British government and new territories were acquired to replace the loss of the American colonies. In his later years he suffered from bouts of insanity.

Colonial Unrest Colonial Unrest Britain’s role in the imperial wars cost the country a staggering Britain’s role in the imperial wars cost the country a staggering

amount, and the national debt rose higher than it had ever been amount, and the national debt rose higher than it had ever been before. In order to lower the national debt, the king’s ministers before. In order to lower the national debt, the king’s ministers decided to make colonial government pay for itself. Beginning in decided to make colonial government pay for itself. Beginning in 1763 Parliament passed laws to tax colonial commodities such as 1763 Parliament passed laws to tax colonial commodities such as sugar, glass, cider, and tea. The most controversial of these duties sugar, glass, cider, and tea. The most controversial of these duties was the Stamp Act of 1765, which taxed legal documents and was the Stamp Act of 1765, which taxed legal documents and publications. Americans not only complained about the cost of publications. Americans not only complained about the cost of these taxes, they also questioned the British government’s right to these taxes, they also questioned the British government’s right to impose them. They decried being taxed by Parliament when they impose them. They decried being taxed by Parliament when they were not allowed representation in British government.were not allowed representation in British government.

The American Revolution (1775-The American Revolution (1775-1783) divided the governing 1783) divided the governing classes in Britain. Prominent classes in Britain. Prominent intellectuals such as political intellectuals such as political philosopher Edmund Burke were philosopher Edmund Burke were accused of treachery for accused of treachery for supporting the colonists. supporting the colonists. However, the government of However, the government of Prime Minister Lord North Prime Minister Lord North continued to try to enforce continued to try to enforce colonial taxation. In 1775, 13 of colonial taxation. In 1775, 13 of the American colonies rebelled the American colonies rebelled against British rule.against British rule.

The American Revolution gave The American Revolution gave France and Spain an France and Spain an opportunity to strike back at opportunity to strike back at the British Empire. Both the British Empire. Both supported the American supported the American colonists with money and colonists with money and ultimately declared war on ultimately declared war on Britain. The British army was Britain. The British army was unprepared for war in North unprepared for war in North America, and it suffered a America, and it suffered a series of humiliating defeats, series of humiliating defeats, culminating in the surrender culminating in the surrender of British general Charles of British general Charles Cornwallis to American forces Cornwallis to American forces at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. When hostilities ended, When hostilities ended, Florida was returned to Spain, Florida was returned to Spain, and the 13 rebellious colonies and the 13 rebellious colonies achieved independence as the achieved independence as the United States of America. United States of America.

The loss of the American colonies The loss of the American colonies came at great cost to Britain’s came at great cost to Britain’s self-image. George III was blamed self-image. George III was blamed for the disaster, and he decided to for the disaster, and he decided to withdraw from direct control of withdraw from direct control of government. He would soon have government. He would soon have the first of a series of bouts with the first of a series of bouts with mental illness that eventually left mental illness that eventually left him incapable of ruling the nation.him incapable of ruling the nation.

Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquis Cornwallis

British general, who achieved initial success against the American

continental army in the American Revolution. But General George Washington, with the aid of a

French fleet, surrounded Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, and forced Cornwallis to surrender, ensuring an American victory in the war.

Act of Union with IrelandAct of Union with Ireland In Ireland, Protestants formed volunteer military groups In Ireland, Protestants formed volunteer military groups

during the war, supposedly to defend the island from a during the war, supposedly to defend the island from a French invasion. Backed by these groups, the Irish French invasion. Backed by these groups, the Irish Protestants pressured the British government into granting Protestants pressured the British government into granting greater independence to the Irish Parliament in 1782. This greater independence to the Irish Parliament in 1782. This independence did not last long. independence did not last long.

In 1798 three antigovernment activities shook the In 1798 three antigovernment activities shook the confidence of the Irish Protestants. A revolt broke out in confidence of the Irish Protestants. A revolt broke out in May and June among Catholic peasants, while a group of May and June among Catholic peasants, while a group of dissenting Protestants in Ulster also rose in rebellion; in dissenting Protestants in Ulster also rose in rebellion; in August a small French army landed in western Ireland. All August a small French army landed in western Ireland. All three challenges were handled by British troops. These three challenges were handled by British troops. These events caused widespread concern among the Protestant events caused widespread concern among the Protestant elite about their ability to maintain political power in elite about their ability to maintain political power in Ireland. In 1800 the Irish Parliament approved an Act of Ireland. In 1800 the Irish Parliament approved an Act of Union that made Ireland an integral part of the new United Union that made Ireland an integral part of the new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Parliament Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Parliament was dissolved, and Irish representatives were seated in the was dissolved, and Irish representatives were seated in the British ParliamentBritish Parliament

Revolution and War Revolution and War In 1783 the king turned power over to William Pitt the Younger, who In 1783 the king turned power over to William Pitt the Younger, who

was only 24 when he became prime minister. Pitt, the son of a was only 24 when he became prime minister. Pitt, the son of a former prime minister, immediately set about repairing the damage former prime minister, immediately set about repairing the damage that had been done to the colonial empire by the recent losses. The that had been done to the colonial empire by the recent losses. The India Act of 1784 removed the administration of India from the India Act of 1784 removed the administration of India from the English East India Company and placed it directly under the control English East India Company and placed it directly under the control of the British government. Pitt’s greatest concern was to reduce the of the British government. Pitt’s greatest concern was to reduce the huge debt acquired from nearly a half century of warfare. He huge debt acquired from nearly a half century of warfare. He encouraged the resumption of trade with the United States. Pitt also encouraged the resumption of trade with the United States. Pitt also created a fund to pay government creditors and to accumulate the created a fund to pay government creditors and to accumulate the money necessary to repay long-term loans. This strategy might money necessary to repay long-term loans. This strategy might have resulted in financial stability had it not been for developments have resulted in financial stability had it not been for developments in Francein France..

French RevolutionFrench Revolution In 1789 the French Revolution erupted. French citizens rose against In 1789 the French Revolution erupted. French citizens rose against

their monarch, Louis XVI, eliminated the ancient legal distinctions their monarch, Louis XVI, eliminated the ancient legal distinctions based on social class, and established a republican government. based on social class, and established a republican government. The French revolutionaries invited all of the peoples of Europe to The French revolutionaries invited all of the peoples of Europe to follow their example. Conservative monarchs throughout Europe follow their example. Conservative monarchs throughout Europe were hostile toward the revolution. Within a few years wars broke were hostile toward the revolution. Within a few years wars broke out between France and a number of European powersout between France and a number of European powers..

Battle of Trafalgar Britain’s warships

defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape＠ ÿrafal ｧ ÿ ｲ ÿ ｩ ÿ 1805Ｎ ÿhe victory gave

Britain maritime supremacy that, except for clashes with French

fleets during the Napoleonic Wars,

remained unchallenged for more than a century.

Horatio Nelson British naval commander

Horatio Nelson gained fame and the gratitude of

his country when he destroyed a combined

French and Spanish fleet led by Napoleon that was

prepared to invade England

In 1793 France declared war on Britain, and the final phase of In 1793 France declared war on Britain, and the final phase of nearly 500 years of warfare between France and Britain began. It nearly 500 years of warfare between France and Britain began. It was a titanic struggle. Initially, Britain stayed out of the land war was a titanic struggle. Initially, Britain stayed out of the land war in Europe and chose instead to focus on defending its colonial in Europe and chose instead to focus on defending its colonial possessions and maintaining control of the seas. In 1798 British possessions and maintaining control of the seas. In 1798 British admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the French navy in Egypt, admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the French navy in Egypt, securing India’s safety throughout the war. The Royal Navy securing India’s safety throughout the war. The Royal Navy captured nearly all of the important French colonies in the West captured nearly all of the important French colonies in the West Indies and Africa. In 1805 Nelson achieved one of the greatest of Indies and Africa. In 1805 Nelson achieved one of the greatest of all naval victories at the Battle of Trafalgar when he defeated a all naval victories at the Battle of Trafalgar when he defeated a combined French and Spanish fleet. combined French and Spanish fleet.

Napoleonic WarsNapoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars were fought between France and a variety of The Napoleonic Wars were fought between France and a variety of

European nations from 1799 to 1815. European nations from 1799 to 1815. Napoleon’s policy of blockading trade between Britain and the Napoleon’s policy of blockading trade between Britain and the

European continent hurt British trade. In response Britain European continent hurt British trade. In response Britain instituted a blockade of goods going into or out of European ports instituted a blockade of goods going into or out of European ports controlled by Napoleon. The British policy of stopping and controlled by Napoleon. The British policy of stopping and searching ships suspected of travelling to French-held areas of searching ships suspected of travelling to French-held areas of Europe led to the War of 1812 (1812-1815) between Britain and Europe led to the War of 1812 (1812-1815) between Britain and the United States. The war began when the United States insisted the United States. The war began when the United States insisted that Britain had no right to stop, search, or seize ships belonging that Britain had no right to stop, search, or seize ships belonging to neutral countries.to neutral countries.

After Napoleon invaded Russia in After Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 and suffered a disastrous 1812 and suffered a disastrous defeat, Britain mobilized its forces defeat, Britain mobilized its forces for a land war and joined a for a land war and joined a coalition with Russia, Austria, and coalition with Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The center of fighting Prussia. The center of fighting shifted to Spain, where a British shifted to Spain, where a British force under the duke of force under the duke of Wellington successfully fought its Wellington successfully fought its way across the country and way across the country and invaded France in 1813. Two invaded France in 1813. Two years later Wellington led the years later Wellington led the coalition of forces that decisively coalition of forces that decisively defeated Napoleon at the Battle defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and ended the French of Waterloo and ended the French revolutionary wars. revolutionary wars.

The Congress of Vienna, which The Congress of Vienna, which ended the Napoleonic Wars, was a ended the Napoleonic Wars, was a great diplomatic victory for great diplomatic victory for Britain. France was left intact but Britain. France was left intact but its continental neighbors achieved its continental neighbors achieved security of their borders. The security of their borders. The treaty created a balance of power treaty created a balance of power among the nations of Europe that among the nations of Europe that led to 40 years of peace on the led to 40 years of peace on the continent. With peace established continent. With peace established in Europe, Britain was free to in Europe, Britain was free to spend its energy and resources on spend its energy and resources on expanding its overseas empireexpanding its overseas empire..

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

British general Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of

Wellington, is best known for his victory over Napoleon at

the famous Battle of Waterloo in 1815. A leader of the Tory

party in the British Parliament as well as a soldier,

Wellington was known as the Iron Duke for his steadfastness.

Industrialization and Progress Industrialization and Progress