England and Constitutional ism
Dec 27, 2015
England and Constitutionalism
James VI (King of Scotland) becomes James I of England in 1603 (upon Elizabeth I death)
Believed in absolute monarchy
“a deo rex, a rege lex:
King’s power restricted due to Magna Carta & Parliament
Restriction important for 3 reasons:
the people once rose up in arms to defend their rights
king could not levy taxes w/out consent of people
restriction of royal power in administering justice
Tudor monarchs had reigned for 100 yrs. Independent of Parliament
good economy
careful collection of taxes
irregular expenditures
confiscation of religious property
tampering w/currency
Parliament held irregular meetings (3-4 weeks a year)
Conflict arises: James I extravagant: needs $ but does not empower parliament
Parliament refuses $ King requests
To raise needed $, James I imposed
customs duties
grants of monopolies
forced loans
Parliament protests: James I imprisons leaders of Parliament
1621—Commoners entered Protestation against the King; James dissolves Parliament
James I religious tendencies also anger the English
By 1625, majority of Parliament was Puritain
Charles I (1625-1649)
He was to marry Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France
1623: Charles jilted by his Spanish fiancé
Returns to England; wants war w/Spain
Charles I spent all $ and demands more
Charles I dissolved Parliament
Experiences:
difficulties in administration
fleet destroyed at Cadiz
Defeated by Huguenots in France
1628, Charles I calls 3rd Parliament:In return for funds, must sign
Petition of Right:
No taxes w/out Parliament’s consent
No quartering of soldiers in private homes
No martial law in time of peace
No arbitrary imprisonment
Charles agrees: Parliament also demands Buckingham’s removal—he was later assassinated
Parliament dissolved again!!
For 11 years: Charles I ruled w/out Parliament
revived old feudal dues
courts levied huge fines
monopolies of wine, salt, soap sold
ship money
Under William Laud: Catholic restrictions relaxed; Puritan restrictions increasedCatholic practices, vestments & dogmas were re-introduced to Anglican ChurchIn Scotland, tried to make Presbyterian church Episcopal1638: Scottish signed Great Covenant defend their religion; deposed bishops and revolted against Charles ICharles I defeated and forced to call Parliament for funds for an army
Short Parliament: only 3 weeks
Nothing resolved
Charles dissolved it, but desperate for $ to put down rebellion, he calls another Parliament
Long Parliament: 1640-1660John Pym
Archbishop Laud and Thomas Wentworth to Tower of LondonCourt of High Commission and Court of Star Chamber abolishedNo more irregular expenditures King could no longer dissolve Parliament Law required Parliament to meet at least one time every 3 yrs.Granted $ to fight Scots
English Civil War (1642-1649)
Charles and nobles, landed gentry, Roman Catholics, most Anglicans: Cavaliers
Parliamentarians: business classes, farmers, Puritan religious sects: Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell
Battle of Marston Moor (1644)
gave Roundheads control of northern England
After victory, Parliament abolished office of Bishop; removed altars; communion rails; allowed smashing of crucifixes, images, stained glass windows
New Model Army--Cromwell1645—Battle of Naseby—New Model army destroyed Cavalier forces1646—Charles surrendered to ScotsScottish Army invaded England to restore Charles I as kingPuritan forces split—smaller group supported by Cromwell’s armyCromwell’s army intimidated Presbyterian Parliament 1648—Battle of Preston Cromwell says Charles must die; executed military coup on Parliament—
143 Presbyterian members purged—known as Pride’s Purge
60 men—all independents, (Rump Parliament) determined fate of England
Rump Parliament: sentenced Charles to death as traitor, murderer, public enemy of the people
Charles beheaded January 30, 1649
Commonwealth 1649-1660
Officially England becomes republic—no monarchy or House of Lords
Cromwell—commander in chief of army, ruled as dictator
Rump Parliament did not call for new election
1653, Cromwell dissolved Rump ParliamentHe becomes military and religious dictator of England, Scotland, IrelandAppoints new members of ‘Legislative Body’Wrote Instrument of Government—1st modern constitution
Cromwell becomes ‘Lord Protector’ for life1655: Cromwell became military dictator; office becomes hereditary.Successful war against Spain (1656-59) gained Jamaica in West Indies & Port of Dunkirk on the Continent for England
Stuart Restoration (1660-1680)Charles II swore to uphold Magna Carta and Petition of RightNobles paid Charles 100,000 Pounds annually Charles wanted more 1670: Secret Treaty of Dover
Charles’ religious policiesacts passed against Puritans
English saw his favoritism of Catholics
1672, Prince James (Charles II brother) converted to Catholicism
Charles issued ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ Rumors spread about Dover
1673: Test Act
Tales of ‘Popish’ plot
1679 Exclusion Bill
The Exclusion Bill caused much dissent in Parliament, and the two factions split into Whigs—supporters of Parliament, Protestantism and merchant class—motto: life, liberty, property
Tories—court faction motto: the king, the church, and the land
1685-1688 James II
James II openly Catholic, wants to make England CatholicTries to create standing army w/Catholic officersKing’s right to suspend laws and statutes enacted by Parliament1687 ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ exempting Catholics and dissenters from punishment for infractions of the laws
Appointed Catholics to office in army and civil government
1688: second ‘Declaration of Indulgence’ ordered to be read in all Anglican Churches
Glorious Revolution (1688-89)Whigs and Tories extend invitation to Mary and William to “invade” England from Holland and take the throne1688—William’s armies enter London/James’ armies desert him/he flees to FranceEarly 1689—Parliament offered crown to William III and Mary II jointly,
Declaration of RightsSupremacy of Parliament (rulers denied
right to make or suspend laws, levy money, or maintain a standing army w/out consent of Parliament)
Free elections
Freedom of debate for members of Parliament, who would meet frequently
Reasonable bail and trial by jury for the people
The Bill of Rights (Dec, 1689)
additional provisions, including the barring of a Catholic as ruler
1689—Toleration Act granted dissenters freedom of conscience, legal right to worship in public, but tightened restrictions on Catholics
1690—James II forces in Ireland defeated by William III
Other Developments to 1715
Lloyd’s of London insurance company founded 1688
Bank of England (commercial bank) founded 1694
London Stock Exchange founded 1698
Mary II dies, 1694William III ruled alone until his death in 1702
Queen Anne 1702-1714:last of Stuarts
Act of Settlement 1702 passed, to ensure succession of crown would pass to German House of Hanover 1707—Act of Union combined Scotland and England into Great Britain
Age of Walpole
1714: Hanoverian dynasty came to the throne
George I faced challenge to his title
Stuart James Edward (1688-1766) son of James II landed in Scotland 1715
Troops marched southward, but were defeated by George I troops
Robert Walpole (1676-1745)Debt in England controlled by South Sea Company
Gov’t bonds traded for stock in company
Stock price soared; then crashed in 1720
Investors sold holdings; exchanged profits
Parliament intervened
Under Walpole, parliament honored national debt
Saved England’s financial integrity
Walpole=England’s 1st prime minister
Originator of Cabinet system of gov’t
Not chosen by House of Commons
Real source of power: personal support of King
Ability to handle House of Commons
Ironfisted control of government patronage:
Bought support for himself/his policies
He supplied people jobs, appointments, favor, gov’t contracts
Corruption=glue of political loyalty
“Let sleeping dogs lie”—peace abroad; status quo home
Parliament, 1700’s: House of Commons: not democratic nor representative
Members elected from boroughs: only a few were large enough to hold elections
Most had few electors
Rotten boroughs: Old Sarum—Pitt family
Supremacy of Parliament=strong unity
British monarch & parliament could raise tax revenues and loans to wage warAll Britons paid taxes—no exemptionsBank of England secured credit marketStrong finances=cornerstone of British powerFreedom of political beliefs—debate in newspapers flourished; speech/associationNo large standing army
Netherlands:
UP—led by William of Orange; William III of England
Gov’t was republic: States General
Provinces had authority
States General negotiated w/provinces
Holland dominated States General
Dutch religiously tolerant
Calvinist Reformed Church—official church of nation
Catholics and Protestants also lived in UP
Haven for Jews
All people lived peacefully together
Urban Prosperity: enriched themselves and had high standard of living
Urban consolidation; transformation of agriculture—drained & reclaimed much land from sea—steady supply of grain—cheap grain = land for meat and dairy; tulips extensive trade and finance; overseas commercial empire; manufacture; shipbuilding; 1675: More people lived in cities than anywhere else in Europe; 60%Decline: began in 18th centuryUpon William III death in 1702, various local provinces prevented the emergence of another strong Stadtholder
Unified political leadership vanished
Naval supremacy passed to British
Fishing industry declined
Dutch lost technological superiority in shipbuilding
Countries traded w/each other directly, not using Dutch ships
Disunity in provinces hastened economic decline
BUT maintained financial dominance
Emergence of Prussia
1415—received Brandenburg (Berlin)
1618—inherited duchy of Prussia, but size=weakness—geographical separation
Legacy of Frederick William Great Elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688)
1660—E. Prussia independent of Polish rule
Monarchy allied w/Junkers
1701: Brandenburg becomes Prussia—recognized in 1713 Treaty of Utrecht
Frederick King in Prussia:
Built palaces
Founded Halle University 1694
Patronized the arts
Lived luxuriously
1701: War of Spanish Succession
King in Prussia”Becomes Frederick I, passed on title to Frederick William I in 1713
Frederick William I King of Prussia (r.1713—1740)
Eccentric
One of most effective Hohenzollerns
Imposed strict austerity
Some jobs abolished
Salaries lowered
Kabinettall lower officials submitted relevant documents to Frederick William IFWI examined papers, made decisions, issued ordersOrganized bureaucracy along military linesAll departments united: General-Ober-Finanz-Kriegs-und-Domanen-Direktorium(General Directory)Imposed taxed on noblesMade remaining feudal dues monetary paymentsAdministrative loyalties=duties to monarch as political institution
Army
grew from 39,000 to 80,000 by 1740
Third/fourth largest army in Europe
Each local district (canton) supplied quota of soldiers
1725: FWI wore officer’s uniform
One regiment=tallest soldiers in Europe
Laws, customs, royal attention made officer corps highest social class in state
Junker nobility, army, monarchy=one political unit
FWI had best army in Europe; but avoided conflict
1740—FWI dies; son Frederick II (the Great) inherits the throne
Sweden:Elevated to rank of first class power by Vasa dynasty
Gustavus I, successfully revolted against Danish rule in 1520
Swedish kings, incl. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII established absolute rule
Sweden’s population and resources insufficient to maintain position during many wars; Sweden becomes second-class powerBy disastrous Great Northern War, Sweden’s supremacy in Baltic ended1720-21—Treaties of Stockholm—Sweden lost holdings in Germany (Prussia)1721—Treaty of Nystadt w/Russia—Sweden lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part of Finland (including Karelian Isthmus and Viborg)
Ottoman Empire
Greatest empire in Europe at death of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1566, state of tremendous decline since 1585;
Corrupt administration
Intrigues among court officials
Many wars w/Austria, Russia, Venetians—still possessed extensive empire
In Europe, most of the Balkans, most of the Aegean Islands, island of Crete
In Near East: modern Turkey, Mesopotamia, area of Syria and Palestine; part of Persia, part of Arabia; island of Cyprus
In Africa: Egypt and N. African Coast
European holdings were coveted by both Austria and Russia—led to continuous enmity between the two countries
Poland
Late 10th century, Western Slavic tribes united under Piast familyForced to develop a militaristic state to defend against Prussians, Germans, Bohemians, Hungarians, and later RussiansPolish state expanded in all directions: became kingdom by early 11th century
Many wars, both internal and external
13th century, Poles came into contact w/Teutonic Knights, who conquered Prussia and blocked Polish access to Baltic Sea
1410—Battle of Tannenberg: Poland defeated Teutonic Knights
1456-66—Poles won other battles and gained access to Baltic
Made Teutonic Order a vassal of Polish king
Poland allied w/Lithuania, which was three times the size of Poland
1569—Union of Lublin officially merged Poland and Lithuania—it was the strongest state in Eastern Europe
Under Jagiello dynasty (1386-1572) Poland at its zenith
After 1572, nobility had gained so much power that it was in fact a ‘royal republic’, with its king elected by the entire nobility
By early 18th century, Poland was extremely weak, dominated by Russia
Had fought numerous wars w/Sweden and Russia, capped w/disastrous Great Northern War, fought mainly on Polish territory
Jealous nobility did not allow authority or national army for effective national security
AustriaAbsolute rule of Hapsburgs, held rule over HRE, but authority was really limitedThrough warfare, obtained most of Hungary from Ottomans by 16991703-1711—revolt of Hungarians forced Hapsburgs to make concessions to Francis II Rakoczy (of Transylvanian nobility)
Transylvania joined the rest of Hungary as an Austrian possession
Austrian Hapsburgs had acquired Spain’s holdings in the Netherlands (Union of Arras)
and Italy by the Treaty of Rastadt (1714) following the War of Spanish Succession
Vast land holdings and diverse minority groups were source of weakness, but Austria continually sought more territory: at the expense of the Ottoman Empire
Russia
Ivan III (1462-1505) ended Mongol domination and laid foundations for Russian State
Succeeded by his son Basil III (1505-33 )
1589—Russian church becomes independent of Constantinople
Ivan IV (the Terrible) 1533-84
1549, marries Anastasia Romanova Zakarina
1552—Conquered Tatars at Kazan
1557-1571—Livonian War
1571—Tatars sack Moscow
1578-79—Swedes defeated Ivan in Baltic
1582—Poles defeated Ivan
Time of Troubles (1604-13)
Ivan’s son Fyodor I (1584-98)
Boris Godunov
1591—Fyodor’s brother, Dmitri, age 10, found dead
Boris Godunov tsar (1598-1605)
False Dmitri I
Poland, and Catholic support
1604—“Dmitri” invades w/force of Cossacks, Polish warriors, peasants
1605, victory at hand and Godunov dies
Dmitri crowned tsar—reigned 13 months
Prince Shuisky elected tsar (1606-1613)
1670-71—Ivan Bolotnikov,
Other Pretenders come to throne
Sweden and Poland seized territories
Russian people rallied together
Novgorod
Zemsky Sobor and elected tsar: 16 yr old Michael Romanov
Michael not strong tsar, nor was his son Alexis, or grandson Fyodor III;
Society up to Peter I
Serfdom of peasants firmly established
Local self-government disappeared
National assembly ceased to meet regularly
Russian adventurers crossed Siberia and reached Pacific in 1637
Vast areas of Ukraine won by war w/Poland (1654-67)
Cities of Smolensk and Kiev returned—primarily due to Cossacks
Bolotnikov’s revolt crushed
First of Russo-Turkish wars over Ukraine fought successfully 1677-81
Peter I (the Great) 1689-1725
1) Make power of tsar absolute
curbed nobility and enforced state service for all landowners: army, civil service, or courts
when Alexis, his son, opposed his policies, he was imprisoned and tortured to death
abolished the patriarchate and made Russian church a department of the State
2) To westernize Russia
1) made long tour of w. Europe early in his reign
2) fascinated by western dress, technology, and customs
3) decrees of westernization were only temporarily successful—did not
last after his rule (beard tax, forced western dress)
3)Obtain Window on the West
1) successful in Baltic against Sweden (Great Northern War 1700-21)
a) 1700: fought Charles XII at Narva—Sweden outnumbered 4-by Russians, but Charles XII attacks anyway and wins
b) Russia open to invasion; Peter retreats to Moscow
c) melts church bells for cannons
2) 1701, Charles XII turns to Poland, defeating Poland and deposing the king and installing his own candidate on the throne
3) 1703—Peter attacks Swedish forts at Naenskance and wins
4) Peter decides to build a city: St. Petersburg, on this land
5) all materials imported; all nobles had to build a palace here
6) 1708—Charles XII returns; Peter adopts a ‘scorched earth policy’ as winter takes its toll on Swedes;
7) 1709-armies meet at Poltava; Swedes outnumbered 5-1 Charles becomes wounded in heel; can’t lead his troops
Peter wins and Sweden never strong enough to challenge Russia again.
Turks entered war against Russia (Charles sought sanctuary in Turkish territory)
From 1710-11;
1714, new coalition of England, Hanover, Denmark, Saxony, and Prussia joined Russia against Sweden and shortly after Charles XII was killed in action (1718)
Sweden forced to accept defeat
1721—Treaty of Nystadt: Russia gained Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, part of Finland (Karelian Isthmus and Viborg) from Sweden
In wars against Ottoman Empire, Peter not successful
Russian expeditions captured Azov on the Black Sea in 1696
In war of 1710-11, Turks captured Peter I and was forced to ransom himself and return Azov to the Turks
Russian expansion to Amur River, bordering Manchuria and Siberia was halted by Chinese with Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) forcing Russia to evacuate its occupied territory