Engineering,Math and Medicine in the Ancient Indian World

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RESEARCH PAPERANCIENT SCIENTIFIC PRACTICES IN THEINDIANWORLD

This is a research paper enumerates detailed informationand analysis on the ancient scientific practices in Indiaand its contribution to the scientific world.

2012

NEIL SENGUPTA

DELHI PRIVATE SCHOOL, SHARJAH25/5/2012

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INTRODUCTION

Ancient India was a land of renowned scientists and scholars with remarkable

contributions to the field of Science and technology.

Vedas the oldest scriptures of India is thought to be the pillar of modern scientific

knowledge.

The word Veda means knowledge and the sages of the ancient times discovered

the subtle nature of reality, and coded it in the form of the Vedas.

Hence the Vedas were considered to be very honourable and deemed as an

important scripture of ancient India. So extraordinary steps were taken to preserve it

over the ages, though its meaning is little understood as of today.

The Rig Veda is the oldest Indian text and one of the oldest surviving in

the world

Today, though we have made tremendous advances in the field of science and

technology all over the world the great contributions of ancient India cannot be

undermined and a thorough study of our rich past should be undertaken by every

Indian.

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In this research work an attempt is made to capture Indias illustrious past by first

highlighting some great interpretation of the ancient scriptures and then the

practices in various fields of science and technology.

Some great researchers & indologists who have unearthed Indias past have been

summarized below.

Nancy Wilson Ross who served on the board of the Asia Society of New

York has written:

Many of Indias ancient theories about the universe are startlingly modern in scope

and worthy of a people who are credited with the invention of the zero, as well as

algebra and its application of astronomy and geometry; a people who so carefullyobserved the heavens that they determined the moons syndical revolution much

more correctly than the Greeks.

Many hundreds of years before those great European pioneers, Galileo and

Copernicus, a section of the Vedas known as the Brahmanas contained this

astounding statement:

The sun never sets or rises. When people think the sun is setting, he only changes

about after reaching the end of the day and makes night below and day to what is

on the other side. Then, when people think he rises in the morning, he only shifts

himself about after reaching the end of the day night, and makes day below andnight to what is on the other side. In truth, he does not see at all.

"The Indians, whose theory of time, is not linear like ours that is, not proceeding

consecutively from past to present to future have always been able to accept,

seemingly without anxiety, the notion of an alternately expanding and contracting

universe, an idea recently advanced by certain Western scientists.

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Dick Teresi is an author and coauthor of several books about science andtechnology, including The God Particle. He is cofounder ofOmni magazineand has written for Discover, The New York Times Magazine, and TheAtlantic Monthly. He writes as below :

"The big bang is the biggest-budget universe ever, with mind-boggling numbers to

dazzle us a technique pioneered by fifth-century A.D. Indian cosmologists, the firstto estimate the age of the earth at more than 4 billion years.

"Two thousand years before Pythagoras, philosophers in northern India had

understood that gravitation held the solar system together, and that therefore the

sun, the most massive object, had to be at its center."

"Twenty-four centuries before Isaac Newton, the Hindu Rig-Veda asserted that

gravitation held the universe together. The Sanskrit speaking Aryans subscribed to

the idea of a spherical earth in an era when the Greeks believed in a flat one. The

Indians of the fifth century A.D. calculated the age of the earth as 4.3 billion years;

scientists in 19th century England were convinced it was 100 million years."

Dick Teresis article on the Earth as a sphere:

The existence of rather advanced concepts like the Earth as sphere and the cause

of seasons is quite clear in Vedic literature. For example, the Aitareya Brahmana

declares:

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The Sun does never set nor rise. When people think the Sun is setting (it is not so).For after having arrived at the end of the day it makes itself produce two oppositeeffects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other sideHavingreached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, makingday to what is below and night to what is on the other side. In fact, the Sun neversets.

Dick Teresis article on Earth as Flat at Poles:

"Twenty-four centuries before Isaac Newton, the Hindu Rig-Veda asserted that

gravitation held the universe together. The Sanskrit speaking Aryans subscribed to

the idea of a spherical earth in an era when the Greeks believed in a flat one. The

Indians of the fifth century A.D. calculated the age of the earth as 4.3 billion years;

scientists in 19th century England were convinced it was 100 million years."

From the Crises in Modern Thought: The Crises of Reason - By Swami

Kriyananda (J. Donald Walters) we also get -

Rig Veda quotes "Seven horses draw the chariot of Surya".

These seven horses are the seven colors compromising light. These seven colors

become visible in a rainbow or when light passes through a prism.

Vedic literature used large numbers and employed modern decimal enumeration,

compared with the primitive Greek and Roman arithmetic. The first recorded

evidence of "Hindu" numerals is at least as old as the Ashoka's edicts , 250 B. C.

Not just astronomy, but other physical concepts appear in quite a developed form in

ancient Indian literature. These include atomism, superposition of various sound

notes, the division of time into very small units of the order of a 100,000th of a

second, and so on.

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The Laya Yoga Samhita stated that just as the beams of sunlight entering a roomreveal the presence of innumberable motes, so infinite space is filled with countlessbrahmandas (solar systems). The atomic structure of matter was discussed in theancient Vaisesika treatises. And in the Yoga Vashista it was stated, in a passage verysimilar to the foregoing: "There are vast worlds all placed way within the hollows ofeach atom, multifarious as the motes in a sunbeam."

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Jean-Sylvain Baily

India has left a universal legacy determining for instance the dates of solstices, as

noted by 18th century French astronomer Jean-Sylvain Baily.

Bailly said:

"The movement of stars which was calculated by Hindus 4,500 years ago, does not

differ even of astronomy are much more ancient than those of the Egyptians - even

the Jews derived from the Hindus their knowledge."

Detailed information and analysis on the ancient scientific practices in India are

covered next in the following areas:

Mathematics

Astronomy

Physics

Chemistry

Biology

Metallurgical Sciences

Civil Engineering & Architecture

Shipbuilding & Navigation

Medical Science & Surgery

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MATHEMATICS

In ancient India mathematical practices and concepts can be traced to Vedic

literature, which was around 4000 years old when a number of mathematical

treatises were developed.

India is considered the birth place of ZERO which owes its origin to the Indian

philosophy that had a concept of 'sunya'. The literal translation of which is 'void' and

zero emerged as a derivative symbol.

Concepts of decimal system, algebra, square root and cube root also originated in

ancient India.

The great mathematician Aryabhatta wrote in his book Aryabhatiaya on the

following:

Algebra (which Aryabhatta calls as Bijaganitam ) consisting of solutions of

equations of form by = ax +c

Quadratic equations

Calculation of circumference of a circle of a given diameter and proposed that

=62832/20000 which is approximately 3.1416.

Trigonometry, which gives a table of sines calculating the approximate values

at intervals of 90/24 = 3 45'

Sum of the first n integers, the squares of these integers and also their cubes

Formulae for the areas of a triangle and of a circle.

Another mathematician of the 12th century, Bhaskaracharya also authored several

treatises on mathematics and one of them, named Siddantha Shiromani has a

chapter on algebra. He is known to have given a basic idea of the Rolle's theorum

and was the first to conceive of differential calculus.

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The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava along with other mathematicians

of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and

iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations.

Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which

explores methods and ideas of calculus.

The Shulbasutras (ancient texts) gave precise geometric expression of the so called

Pythagorean Theorem. Right angles were made by ropes marked to give the triads

(3,4,5) and (5,12,13).

Examples of other geometrical operations in the Shulbasturas:

Squaring the circle geometrically constructing a square having the same

area as a given area.

Adding or subtracting the area of two squares to produce two squares.

In the last construction 2 works out to 577/408 or 1.414215 correct to the

5th decimal.(Same precision as 3).

Solutions in integers Nx2 +1=y2 were proposed by Brahmagupta (the bhavana

method).

Brahmagupta in his Brahmasputa Siddhanta gave the idea of the inverse

relationship between zero and infinity.

Bhaskara II(12th century) developed the improved cyclic method (chkravala);

eg.,smallest solutions to 61x2+1=y2 are 226153980 and 1766319049. Lagrange

reached the same solutions in the 18th century, but through a much longer method.

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ASTRONOMY

Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy was well documented.

The earliest references to astronomy were found in the Rig Veda, which are dated

2000 BC.

However Aryabhatta was the first to gives a systematic treatment of the position of

the planets in space.

He believed that the apparent rotation of the heavens was due to the axial rotation

of the Earth. This observation was mentioned by him at three places in Aryabhatiya

(a treatise by Aryabhatta). The Skanda-Purana also described the Earth as revolvinglike a Bhramarika (spinning top).

Aryabhatta believed that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight, and also

that the orbits of the planets are ellipses.

He correctly explained the causes of eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. He pointed

out that for an eclipse to occur, the moon should be at one of its nodes, that is, at

one of the two points where the lunar orbit intersects the ecliptic path. He wrote in

his Aryabhatiya The moon covers the sun and the great shadow of the earth ie Bhu

Chaya eclipses the moon

Varahamihira in his famous Brihat Samhita explained at length the scientific causeof an eclipse and tells that at at solar eclipse the moon enters (covers) the suns

disc. He also explained that at the lunar eclipse the moon enters the shadow of the

Earth.

Aryabhatta gave the circumference of the earth as 4,967 yojanas and its diameter

as 1 5811/24 yojanas. Since 1 yojana = 5 miles this gives the circumference as 24

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835 miles, which is an excellent approximation to the currently accepted value of 24

902 miles.

He also gave the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the

Earth/Sun orbit.

Aryabhatta describes orbit of the sky as 12,474,720,576,000 yojanas which hasbeen calculated to be of the same order as the distance illuminated by the sun. This

is quite likely a coincidence but his conception of the scale of the universe is

noteworthy.

Aryabhattas period of one sidereal rotation of the earth (ie with reference to the

fixed stars in the sky) works out to be 23hours 56minutes 4 seconds, which is so

accurate.

Another ancient scientist Bhaskara I had mentioned For us , the sky extends as far

as it is illuminated by the rays of the Sun. Beyond that the sky is immeasurable

.The sky is beyond limit ; it is impossible to state its measure.

The above highlights the concept of infinity of universe conceived in those days.

Bhaskara II a scientist was credited with devising a rather versatile instrument

Phalaka Yantra which was used in field of astronomy also.

PHYSICS

As in modern physics, ages ago, Indian philosophers envisaged the universe as

having a cyclical nature. The end of each kalpa brought about by Shiva's (an Indian

deity) dance is also the beginning of the next. Rebirth follows destruction. This wasthe birth of cosmology.

The ancient Indian scriptures illustrates time scales as follows with years shown

against them:

Satya : 1,728,000 years

Treta : 1,296,000 years

Dvapara : 864,000 years

Kali : 432,000 years

Chaturyauga : 4,320,000 years

They also mention duration of a day of Brahma = One kalpa = 1000 chaturyaga

The above is about 4.32 billion years.

Based on above the famous US Astronomer Carl Sagan said :

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The ancient Indian scripture is the only one of the worlds great faiths dedicated to

the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, and indeed an infinite,

number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only one that mentions of the time scales

correspond, no doubt by accident, to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its

cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion

years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the timesince the Big Bang. And there are much longer time scales still.

The ancient Indian scientists came closest to modern ideas of atomic structure,

quantum physics, and other current theories. India developed very early, enduring

atomic theories of matter. Possibly Greek atomic thought was influenced by India,

via the Persian civilization. The Puranas (ancient Indian text) describe time units

from the infinitesimal truti, lasting 1/1,000,0000 of a second to a mahamantavara

of 311 trillion years. Hindu sages describe time as cyclic, an endless procession of

creation, preservation and dissolution. Scientists such as Carl Sagan have expressed

amazement at the accuracy of space and time descriptions given by the ancient

sages of India, who fathomed the secrets of the universe through their mystically

awakened senses.

The Indian philosophers believed that except ether or space, all other elements were

physically palpable and hence comprised of small and minuscule particles of matter.

They believed that the smallest particle which could not be subdivided further was

paramanu. Paramanu a Sanskrit word literally means 'beyond atom' and this was

a concept at an abstract level which indicated the possibility of splitting atom, which

is now the source of atomic energy.

Kanada, a 6th century, Indian philosopher was the first person who went deep

systematically in such theorization. Another Indian, philosopher Pakudha Katyayana,

who was a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas about the atomic

constitution of the material world.

Kanada taught that light and heat are variations of the same reality.

In Rig Veda there is a hymn as below:

Tatha ca smaryate yojananam

Sahasre dve dve sate dve ca yojane

Ekena nimisaradhena kramamana

The above is translated as:

[O Surya(sun)] you who traverse

2202 yojana in half a nimesa

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With a yojana of 13.6 km and a nimesa of 16/75th of a second this amounts to

280,755 km/s just 6% from the speed of light (299,792 km/s)

Quite an inspiring fact on the speed of light calculated in ancient India.

Bhaskara II (in his treatise Sidhanta Siromani) gives the smallest unit of weight

which is 1 dhansi = 0.123mg used in the ancient times.

Ghati Yantra as shown below was used in the ancient times as water clock. It

consisted of a bowl with a small hole at its bottom sinks after 24mn (a unit of time

called ghati equal to 1/60th of a day)

Ancient texts refer to various devices like gnomons, sun dials etc which havedisappeared but point to a long scientific practice of observation.

Today we see the massive structures like the Jantar Mantar in Jaipur, New Delhi

which were used as sundials in ancient India and for many scientific work &

measurements.

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Sun dial at Jantar Mantar Delhi

Sun dial at Jantar Mantar Jaipur

Ancient Indian scriptures also mentions the existence of gravitational force.

A definition to gravity is discussed in Naya Kandili

Gravity is the cause for falling of liquids and solids. It is invisible and is inferred

motion . Gravity acts not only on the body , but also equally on its finer constituents.

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In another ancient text Surya Sidhanta it is written :

Everyone on the earth feels that he is at the top of the earth . But this is not true .

Earth is not flat instead it is spherical in shape. As the earth is round, every person

considers himself at the top of the earth where he or she is standing. So downward

direction is towards the centre of the earth for everyone.

Ancient Indians had identified two kinds of motion, one caused without contact and

the other produced by material or physical contact. The later is divided further into

four types as below.

1) Nodana - Motion due to direct contact with a body exercising continued

pressure

2) Abhighata - Motion due to direct contact for an instant with a body thatstrikes and produces an impact.

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3) Sthitisthapaktva - Motion due to direct contact with a n elastic body which

exercise a moving force by means of its elasticity in the act of restitution of

original form.

4) Vegavaddravya SamyuktaSamyoga - Motion due to contact with a body

which is itself in contact with another which possesses Vega(momentum or

impresses motion)

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Measuring Instruments found from the ruins of Indus Valley Civilization exhibits the

measurement practices of ancient India.

Lothals measuring scale.

Kalibangans terracotta scale.

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The description of Tides is accurately given in Vishnu Purana as follows :

"In all the oceans the water remains at all times the same in quantity and never

increases or diminishes; but like the water in a cauldron, which in consequence of its

combination with heat, expands, so the waters of the ocean swell with the increase

of the Moon. The waters, although really neither more nor less, dilate or contract as

the Moon increases or wanes in the light and dark fortnights..

CHEMISTRY

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The advance nature of ancient India's chemical science is exhibited in the distillation

of perfumes and ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, polishing of

mirrors, preparation of pigments and colours.

The ancient text Rasaratna Samuchchaya gives a detailed method of distillation as

below.

The above translates as:

Place the chemical in a vessel provided with a long tube inserted in a an incline

position which enters the interior of another vessel arranged as a receiver. The

mouth of the vessel and the joint should be covered with clay and cloth. Now put a

strong fire at the bottom of the vessel containing chemicals while the other vessel is

in cold water. The apparatus is used for distillation.

This apparatus was first introduced by Nagarjuna for the extraction of essence from

cinnabar and was called Tiryak Patana Yantra.

The paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora which look fresh even after 1000

years testify to the high level of chemical science practiced in ancient India.

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AJANTA CAVE PAINTINGS

An interesting procedure that gives proof of the usage and preparation of the

battery cell is recorded in the Agastya Samhita. The following lines illustrate the

electrical cell.

The above translates as:

Place copper plates in an earthen pot, Cover it copper sulphate and moistened saw

dust. Spread zinc powder and cover it with mercury. Due to chemical reaction

positive and negative electricity is produced. It further says that due to this water is

decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen.

BIOLOGY

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In addition to the physical sciences, very interesting and modern concepts of botany

and biology, including the concepts of micro-organisms, are also encountered in the

ancient texts, for example, in the Mahabharata:

They (trees) drink water by their roots. They catch diseases of diverse kinds. Those

diseases again are cured by different operations as one can suck up water througha bent lotus stalk, trees also, with the aid of the wind, drink thorough their roots.They are susceptible to pleasure and pain, and grow when cut or chopped they arenot inanimate

Vrihi and other so-called seeds of rice are all living organismsagain (men) whilewalking about hither and thither kill innumerable creatures hidden in the ground bytrampling on them; and even men of wisdom and enlightenment destroy animal life,even while sleeping or in repose themselves the Earth and the air all swarm withliving organisms.

METALLURGICAL SCIENCES

In all the early civilizations found in ancient India metallurgy was always an

important practice and profession among the people. This is largely evident in the

coinage found dating from the 8th Century B.C. to the 17th Century A.D revealing

the advances made in smelting technology in ancient India.

By the side of Qutab Minar, in Delhi, stands an Iron Pillar which is believed to be cast

in the Gupta period around 500 AD. The pillar has been standing in the open for last

1500 years withstanding the wind, heat and weather, but still has not rusted, which

throws light on the advanced metallurgical practices used in those days.

IRON PILLAR NEAR THE QUTAB MINAR

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Taxila, located about 20 miles north of Rawalpindi in Pakistan, has yielded few brass

objects such as two bangles, one vase and a pot datable to 3rd century BC to 1st

century AD. Some of them contain very high quantity of zinc i.e., 34.34% which

requires pure zinc to be mixed with copper and could have been possible only after

discovery of zinc as a separate metal and its preparation by a process such as

distillation. This demonstrates the metallurgical process practiced in ancient Indiawith respect to Zinc production.

In Kautilyas Arthasastra there is a chapter that begins with the importance of

'mines and metals' in the society where it is told gold, silver, diamonds, gems,

pearls, corals, conch-shells, metals, salt and ores derived from the earth, rocks and

liquids were recognized as materials coming under the purview of mines. The

metallic ores had to be sent to the respective Metal Works for producing 'twelve

kinds of metals and commodities'. This fact underlines the importance of

metallurgical process during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya as back as the 4th

century BC

CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

India's urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, where planned

urban townships existed 5000 years before.

The city of Mohenjo-daro had a planned layout based on a street grid of rectilinear

buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried

mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The city is divided into two parts, the

Citadel and the Lower City.

The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual householdsor groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was

channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably

those of wealthier inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for

bathing, and one building had an underground furnace, possibly for heated bathing.

Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some

buildings had two stories.

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THE WELL

One large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary" which appeared to be grain

storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. Close to the "Great Granary"

is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath.

THE GREAT BATH

Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of

some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex building comprising 78

rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.

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GATEWAY AT HARAPPA

From then onwards, the ancient Indian architecture and Civil engineering continued

to develop and grow. It found manifestation in construction of temples, palaces and

forts across the Indian peninsula and the neighbouring regions. In ancient India,

architecture and Civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala.

In India today, there are several marvels of ancient architecture like:

Ajanta, Ellora Caves.

Temples like Khajuraho , Mahabodhi, Brihadisvara , Mahabalipuram , Konark

etc.

Sanchi Stupa (picture below)

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SHIPBUILDING & NAVIGATION

The science of shipbuilding and navigation was well known to ancient Indians.

There is an account of a naval expedition sent out by King Turga under the

command of his son Bhujyu in the Rigveda. However, the ship broke down in a

storm, but some of the occupants including King Turga and Ashvins, the twin

brothers, who came in their hundred-oared galley, rescued his followers.

This account tells us three different things:

Ships were sent to foreign countries for the purpose of trade;

Multi-oared boats were used in expeditions;

Vedic Aryans had knowledge of sea routes.

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Archaeological excavations have revealed that during the Harappa period (2500 BC),

there was a prosperous naval trade between Kathiawar and the Persian Gulf

countries. The existence of a port city called Lothal, 80 km southwest of

Ahmedabad, is a significant evidence in the present context. This port city had

docking facilities analogous to modern ports . There were other ports also along the

Gujarat Makrau and Konkan-Malabar coasts. There is a reference on early maritimecommerce from India in the Bible also. In the days of Solomon items such as ivory,

spices and peacocks were available only from India.

For information on navigation during the Mauryan times, we depend mostly on the

Jataka stories. Greek writers such as Arrian and Curtius described that shipping was

a highly developed industry in India in the 4th century BC and the same made

possible the course of Alexander's army of over 100,000 soldiers through the Indus.

According to them, Mauryan kings not only encouraged sea trade but also

modernised naval administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra vividly describes the duties

of the head of the naval department and the port officers.

The author of Periplus who hailed from Alexandria provides the most important

source of information regarding seaports of India in those days. He describes various

ports on both the western and the eastern coasts in his book.

The Gupta emperors had shown a great interest in the field of navigation and also

encouraged inland and overseas navigation for trade. Hamza of Isahan writers (5th

century CE) mention that Indian ships used to be moored at Hira near Hufa on the

Euphrates river, the major role in the sea trade being played by the merchants from

Sindh and Gujarat.

Even around 500 AD something like sextants and mariner's compass were used bythe ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators.

J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, at

around the beginning of the 20th century published an article in the Bombay

Gazetteer that revealed the following:

The early Indians are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in

laying building foundations and other religious ceremonies. The compass was an

iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The Sanskrit word

'Maccha-Yantra or 'fish-machine' was used for this instrument which is known as the

mariner's compass today.

MEDICAL SCIENCE & SURGERY

Ayurveda practiced rampantly these days is a science of medicine which dates back

to its origins in ancient India. Ayurveda constitutes ideas about ailments and

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diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis and cure, and relies heavily on herbal

medicines, including extracts of several plants of medicinal values.

Ancient scholars of India like Atreya, and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of

Ayurveda as long back as 800 BC.

Their works and other developments were consolidated by Charaka who compiled acompendium of Ayurvedic principles and practices in his treatise Charaka-Samahita

It remained like a standard textbook almost for 2000 years and was translated into

many languages, including Arabic and Latin. 'Charaka-Samahita' deals with a variety

of matters covering physiology, etiology and embryology, concepts of digestion,

metabolism, and immunity. Preliminary concepts of genetics also find a mention, for

example, Charaka has theorized blindness from the birth is not due to any defect in

the mother or the father, but owes its origin in the ovum and the sperm.

In ancient India, several advances were also made in the field of medical surgery.

Specifically these advances included areas like plastic surgery, extraction of

cataracts, and even dental surgery. Roots to the ancient Indian surgery go back to

800 BC. Shushruta, a medical theoretician and practitioner wrote a medical

compendium called 'Shushruta-Samahita. This ancient medical compendium

describes at least seven branches of surgery: Excision, Scarification, Puncturing,

Exploration, Extraction, Evacuation, and Suturing. The compendium also deals with

matters like plastic surgery and ophthalmology. The compendium also focuses on

the study the human anatomy by using a dead body.

CONCLUSION

The detailed analysis, illustrations, citations cited in this research work shows the

glorious history of ancient India in the field of science and technology which every

Indian should feel proud of and it open up the window to the world as to what is the

position of India on the world map when it comes to its contribution to science and

technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) The Surya Siddhanta:The Hindu Book of Astronomy edited by EbenezerBurgess

2) Aryabhatta I and his Astronomy by S. Balachandra Rao.

3) Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Some Landmarks by S .Balachandra Rao

4) www.indianscience.org

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5) www.iisc.ernet.in

6) Encyclopedia of Classic Indian Sciences: Helaine Selin

7) A Concise History of Sciences in India by DM Bose

8) Chemistry and Chemical techniques in India by B.V Subbarayappa

9) www.crystalinks.com

10) www.hinduwisdom.info

This paper was awarded the prize for the second best research paper:

http://www.jsspsdubai.com/admin/upload/SchoolReport2012(2).pdf

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