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PREFACEThe wide availability of essential precursors and chemicals, their free trafficking through international trade channels, and the many legitimate ways in which they can be used, particularly in the case of essential chemicals of cocaine, make it difficult to control the diversion of these chemicals into illicit drug production. Traffickers often direct shipments of chemicals through several countries to foil attempts by authorities to track them down. The problem is compounded by the fact that no universally accepted code for the identification of these substances yet exists. Consequently, even shipments identified with counterfeit documents can easily escape detention by customs authorities. Governments of the countries of the hemisphere are concerned over the serious problems caused by drugs in our societies and recognize that the widespread availability of precursors and specific chemicals for preparing psychotropic substances, particularly in the Americas, exacerbates the situation. It is therefore critical to establish legal mechanisms that will permit an uninterrupted supply of chemicals to firms that have a legitimate need for them, and that will at the same time prevent precursors and chemicals from falling into the hands of producers of illicit drugs. Accordingly, the Executive Secretariat of CICAD is pleased to present this Manual on Chemicals Used in the Illicit Production of Drugs, as a contribution to national involvement in the difficult task of controlling precursors and substances.

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE..2 INTRODUCTION.5 EXPLANATORY NOTES7 TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS...8 COCAINE PRODUCTION.10 HEROIN PRODUCTION14 CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINES..18 REGULATED CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES23 Acetic Anhydride Acetone N-Acetylanthranilic Acid Acetyl Chloride Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Formate Ammonium Hydroxide Anthranilic Acid Benzaldehyde Benzene Benzyl Chloride Benzyl Cyanide N-Butyl Acetate N-Butyl Alcohol Sec-Butyl Alcohol Calcium Carbonate Calcium Hydroxide Calcium Oxide Chloroform Cyclohexane Cyclohexanone Diacetone Alcohol Diethylamine Ephedrine Ergonovine Ergotamine Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol Ethylamine N-Ethylephedrine Ethyl Ether Ethylidene Diacetate N-Ethyl-pseudoephedrine Formamide Formic Acid Hexane Hydriodic Acid Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Peroxide Iodine Isobutyl Alcohol Isopropyl Acetate Isopropyl Alcohol Isosafrole Kerosene Lysergic Acid Methyl Alcohol Methylamine Methylene Chloride 3,4-Methylene Dioxyphenyl-2-Propanone N-Methylephedrine Methyl Ethyl Ketone Methyl Isobutyl Ketone N-Methylpseudoephedrine Nitroethane Norpseudoephedrine Petroleum Ether Phenylacetic Acid Phenylpropanolamine Phenyl-2-Propanone Piperidine Piperonal Potassium Carbonate Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Permanganate

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Propionic Anhydride Pseudoephedrine Red Phosphorus Safrole Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Carbonate Sodium Cyanide Sodium Dichromate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypoclorite Sodium Sulfate Sodium Thiosulfate Sulfuric Acid Tartaric Acid Thionyl Chloride

Toluene O-Toluidine Trichloroethylene Urea Xylenes REFERENCES79 APPENDIX I: Model Regulations to Control Chemical Precursors and Chemical Substances, Machines and Materials APPENDIX II: Clandestine Chemical Laboratories

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INTRODUCTIONThe illicit trafficking in and use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances is one of the most serious problems affecting many countries today. None of these drugs except marijuana can be produced without the aid of chemical substances. In most cases such substances have legitimate industrial uses, and so can be freely acquired in the market. Two types of chemicals are used to manufacture narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. Precursor chemicals are defined as substances that can be used in the production, manufacture, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or substances with a similar effect, and that incorporate their molecular structure to the final product, and so are fundamental to those processes. Essential chemicals are defined as substances other than precursor chemicals that may be used in the production, manufacture, extraction, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, and substances with a similar effect, as a solvent, reagent, or catalyst. Many rules and verification mechanisms are in place with respect to the acquisition of such precursors, but it was not until the late 1980s that emphasis was placed on national and international control of the production, manufacture, preparation, import, export, and distribution, of precursor chemicals and other specific chemical products for the production and manufacture of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or other substances with a similar effect. There has been a significant increase in the amounts of chemicals required to manufacture cocaine shipped in recent years to the Caribbean Basin. It has not been possible to determine whether these shipments were earmarked for legitimate uses, but the notable increase suggests that something more is going on, especially because there are no indications of a proportional increase in the legitimate needs of the countries of that region. It is necessary that the supplier countries, the transshipment countries, and the countries to which the shipments are sent establish legal mechanisms that allow for the uninterrupted supply of chemicals to persons and businesses that have a legitimate need for them, and that simultaneously prevent the chemicals from falling into the hands of the drug traffickers. The United Nations Convention Against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, adopted in Vienna in December 1988, was a major first step towards establishing controls on the distribution of precursor chemicals and essential chemicals. In 1988, the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) of the Organization of American States (OAS) authorized a consultation with the member states on whether to create a Group of Experts on precursor and essential chemicals. That group was entrusted with drawing up regulations that the governments could adopt or

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amend with a view to establishing genuinely uniform laws to control chemicals in the nations of the hemisphere. The draft model regulations prepared by the working group were submitted to the representatives of the member states of CICAD during its meeting held in March 1990 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where it was recommended that they be adopted. Finally, the regulations were submitted to the General Assembly OAS in April 1990, which approve the Model Regulations for the Control of Precursors and Chemical Substances, Materials, and Equipment.

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EXPLANATORY NOTES1. ABBREVIATIONS USED: CSA: Controlled Substances Act of the United States OAS: Organization of American States UN: United Nations US: United States MT: metric ton kg: kilograms gr: grams lt: liters ml: milliliters BMK: Benzyl Methyl Ketone LSD: Lisergic Acid Diethylamide MDA: 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine MDE: 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine MDMA: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine MEK: Methyl Ethyl Ketone MIBK: Methyl Isobutyl Ketone PCC: 1-Piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile PCP: Phencyclidene P2P: Phenyl-2-Propanol WCO: World Custom Organization 2. SOURCES OF INFORMATION: The information on chemical products was obtained from the publication Chemicals Used in the Clandestine Production of Drugs, United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control, Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, 1995. The information on chemical laboratories was obtained from the publication Hazards of Chemical Laboratories, Wayne K. Jeffery I/c Toxicology Section, Forensic Laboratory, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. For the purposes of this publication, such information has been edited by CICADs Executive Secretariat.

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TECHNICAL DEFINITIONSDENSITY: Mass per unit of volume, generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter or per liter. Apparent density is weight per unit of volume in powder, and is generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, determined by a specific method. Overall density is an alternative term for apparent density. CHEMICAL FORMULA: A written expression, using symbols, of a chemical entity or a relationship. There are several types of formulas: (1) Empirical formula: expresses in simple terms the relative number and type of atoms that form a molecule; it indicates only the composition, not the structure. (2) Molecular formula: shows the real number and the type of atoms of a chemical entity (i.e., molecule, radical, or ion). (3) Structural formula: indicates the location of the atoms, radicals, or ions in relation to one another, as well as the number and location of the chemical bonds. (4) Generic formula: expresses a general type of organic compound, in which the variables are the number of atoms or the class of radicals in a homologous series. (5) Electrical formula: a structural form in which the bonds are replaced by points that indicate the electrical pairs, with a simple bond being a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. ATOMIC WEIGHT: The mass of an atom of an element compared to the mass of the carbon 12 isotope, which is used as the standard, with a value of 12. MOLECULAR WEIGHT: The molecular weight of a chemical compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms that constitute it. By agreement, all the atomic weights, and thus all the molecules as well, are expressed with respect to the arbitrary value 16, which is assigned to the oxygen atom. The value of the molecular weight is naturally expressed in arbitrary units, but it may be expressed in grams, in which case it is defined as gram molecular weight, or mole. PRECURSOR CHEMICAL: A substance that may be used in the production, manufacture, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or substances with similar effect, and whose molecular structure is incorporated into the final product. BOILING POINT: The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is slightly higher than the external pressure. For water, at sea level it is 100 C (212F).

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MELTING POINT The melting of a pure substance is the temperature at which its crystals are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at atmospheric pressure. Normally it is called melting point when the equilibrium temperature is reached by heating the solid. Consequently, in ordinary circumstances melting points refer to temperatures greater than 0 C, the melting point of ice. SUBLIMATION POINT The sublimation point is the point at which a substance changes from solid to gas directly, and returns to the solid form, without it ever assuming liquid form.

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CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION OF COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDECocaine is a naturally occurring alkaloid obtained from the coca plant of the Genus Erythroxylon by the extraction of the leaves followed by a number of purification steps. The coca plant used in the illicit production of cocaine is principally grown in Bolivia and Peru. The alkaloid content of the leaves of the South American coca plant is between 0.5 and 1.5 percent with cocaine being the principal alkaloid. The production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves is generally performed in three steps. They are: (1) the extraction of cocaine and other alkaloids from coca leaves to produce coca paste. (2) the purification of coca paste to cocaine base, and (3) the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. These processes may be performed at three different locations or two or more of the steps may be performed at the same location. Each of the steps requires chemicals with specific properties to reach the desired end point. The stage of processing can be determined by the type of chemicals identified at the laboratory site. The chemicals required for each of the steps are as follows: (1) production of coca paste - kerosene, gasoline or other organic solvents with similar properties, alkaline material such as sodium, Calcium or potassium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, calcium oxide and an acid such as sulfuric acid. (2) production of cocaine base - oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate or hydrogen peroxide, sulfuric acid and alkaline material such as ammonia water. (3) production of cocaine hydrochloride - organic solvent such as ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone or toluene and hydrochloric acid. It is important to note that these processes require only modest equipment and relatively few chemicals. The most critical of these chemicals are used in the final steps of the production of cocaine hydrochloride and are the oxidizing agent, potassium permanganate, and the organic solvents ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and toluene. These chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are involved in international commerce. By controlling the diversion and trafficking of these chemicals by cocaine producers, the production and availability of cocaine hydrochloride can be effectively curtailed. The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the clandestine production of cocaine hydrochloride:

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Step 1. (Production of Coca Paste) Production of Coca Paste In the initial extraction procedure, dried coca leaves are moistened with an alkaline solution to convert the cocaine to a water insoluble form. Alkaline materials that can be and have been used in this initial extraction procedure are sodium, potassium or calcium carbonate (limestone), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) calcium oxide (lime) and ammonia water. The moistened leaves are soaked and the cocaine extracted using kerosene, or other organic liquids in which cocaine is soluble. Gasoline has been used in place of kerosene; however its physical properties (flammability and high volatility) make it less desirable. Kerosene extracts other alkaloids in addition to cocaine from the coca leaves. The kerosene solution is mixed with dilute sulfuric acid; the cocaine and other alkaloids are converted to sulfate salts which are soluble in the aqueous acid solution, which is retained. This extraction procedure separates the waxes and fats extracted from the coca leaves from the cocaine and other alkaloids. Other acids which can be used in place of sulfuric acid are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid. Sulfuric acid is commonly used, however, because of its availability and physical characteristics. Its low volatility and acid strength make it safer, easier to handle and a more efficient acid than the others. Ammonia water is added to the sulfuric acid solution containing the cocaine sulfate; this converts the cocaine sulfate to cocaine base which is water insoluble. The cocaine and other alkaloids are filtered out of aqueous solution. This product is termed coca paste or sulfate. The product obtained is approximately fifty percent cocaine base. None of the chemicals used in this first step is regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. They are readily and widely available throughout the world including in the countries in which cocaine is produced and there are practical substitutes for each of the chemicals. Step 2. (Production of Cocaine Base) In order to refine the cocaine, the coca paste is purified to cocaine base and then converted to cocaine hydrochloride. The coca paste is dissolved in a dilute sulfuric acid solution which converts the cocaine base and other alkaloids in the paste to water soluble sulfate salts. A dilute solution of an oxidizing agent, most often potassium permanganate, is added to the acid solution. Hydrogen peroxide can also be used as an oxidizing agent and has occasionally been identified in clandestine cocaine laboratories. Oxidizing agents are used to convert (oxidize) cinnamoylcocaine and other unwanted alkaloids to water insoluble forms, which can be removed from the cocaine containing acid solution by filtering. The removal of these impurities aids in the crystallization of cocaine hydrochloride in the final step and promotes the formation of the clean white product sought after by cocaine distributors and users. Potassium permanganate is the preferred oxidizing agent and the one most frequently used by clandestine laboratory operators. Its violet pink color in solution makes it useful as an indicator to determine when the alkaloidal impurities have been completely oxidized. Potassium permanganate, because of

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its importance to the production of a high quality cocaine hydrochloride product, is regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. The impurities are filtered from the sulfuric acid solution which is then made alkaline with ammonia water or other previously mentioned alkaline material. This converts the cocaine to its base form, which is insoluble in water. The solution is filtered and the water insoluble cocaine is separated and dried. This product is cocaine base. Step 3. (Production of Cocaine HydroChloride ) The third and final step in the production of cocaine hydrochloride converts cocaine base into crystalline cocaine hydrochloride. The chemicals used in this procedure are organic solvents which dissolve cocaine base and hydrochloric acid which provides a source of chloride ions for the formation of the hydrochloride salt of cocaine. The solvents most commonly used and those which are regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act are ethyl ether, acetone,2-butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) and toluene. Hydrochloric acid is not a regulated chemical because of the small quantities used, its readily availability and the number of easily obtainable substitutes. In this process, the dried cocaine base is dissolved in a minimal amount of organic solvent such as ethyl ether or acetone and the mixture is filtered to remove any undissolved material (impurities). A solution of hydrochloric acid in a water miscible organic solvent such as acetone is added to the liquid. The cocaine base is converted to cocaine hydrochloride which is insoluble in the organic solvent. The solution is filtered and the crystalline cocaine hydrochloride is retained and dried. The product from this step is usually 90-98 percent pure cocaine hydrochloride. Although there are a large number of organic solvents there are several critical factors that must be considered and that limit the selection of an appropriate solvent in this process. A suitable organic solvent is: (a) one in which cocaine base is soluble; (b) one in which cocaine hydrochloride is insoluble or only slightly soluble; (c) one which is miscible with water and the other organic solvent used; (d) volatile; and (e) readily available Substitutes for the regulated solvents which meet some but not all of these criteria include benzene, ethyl acetate, hexane, methylene chloride, chloroform, isopropyl alcohol and methyl isobutyl ketone. For example, cocaine base is soluble in methylene chloride and chloroform but so is cocaine hydrochloride. Analysis of powder cocaine hydrochloride samples by Drug Enforcement Administration laboratories since 1986 show that the solvents most commonly used are acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone and toluene. Seizures of chemicals at South American clandestine cocaine hydrochloride laboratories substantiate the almost exclusive use of these solvents. Thus, although there are a number of alternatives to the regulated solvents, the limitations described above make them less practical and desirable.

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CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION OF HEROINHeroin is a semi-synthetic narcotic analgesic prepared by the chemical reaction of morphine with an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride. Morphine, itself a narcotic analgesic, is one of the alkaloids found in and obtained from opium. Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsules of the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum L). Opium contains about 20 alkaloids, with morphine (10-16 percent) being the most important and most abundant. Other alkaloids (10-15 percent) found in opium include codeine, thebaine, noscapine and papaverine. Considerable quantities of the opium poppy are grown commercially for the medicinal value of the alkaloids, for the seed-extractable oil, and for foodstuffs. It is also grown illicitly for the production of heroin. Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, Central and South America are the major source areas for opium used in the production of heroin. Heroin is generally produced in clandestine laboratories outside of the United States. The preferred form in the United States is heroin hydrochloride, which is watersoluble and can be injected intravenously and snorted. Smaller quantities of heroin base are also smoked in the United States. Heroin is generally converted to its hydrochloride salt before shipment to the United States. The clandestine processing of heroin from opium can be divided into three basic stages: (1) Extraction of morphine from opium and purification of morphine base. (2) Synthesis of heroin base from morphine. (3) Conversion of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride. The entire process is usually, but not always, performed at one location. Processes vary somewhat from area to area, particularly in the extent of purification of morphine. The process can be performed by individuals with little or no chemical education using a few chemicals and simple equipment. Common chemicals used in the production of heroin hydrochloride from morphine and opium are the following: alkaline material such as calcium oxide (lime), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate (limestone); acids such as tartaric acid, hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride; an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride; solvents such as acetone, ethyl ether, ethyl alcohol and methyl ethyl ketone; and an adsorptive agent such as activated charcoal for filtering and decolorizing. The most critical of these chemicals is acetic anhydride which is reacted with morphine to produce heroin. Other important chemicals are the solvents acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid, which are used primarily in the conversion of heroin to heroin hydrochloride, the sought after street product. These chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are in international commerce. Nevertheless, their regulation provides an effective means of curtailing the production and availability of heroin hydrochloride. The other chemicals, which include the alkaline and acidic materials, are very common and readily available in the countries in which the heroin process occurs. Further,

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their use in the heroin process requires no properties unique to any one of them and thus there are many practical substitutes for them. For these reasons they are not regulated under the CDTA or the 1988 Vienna Convention. The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the production of morphine from opium, its purification, and ultimate conversion to heroin hydrochloride: Step 1. (Extraction and Purification of Morphine) A. Extraction from Opium: Opium is dispersed in water, and the mixture is heated and made alkaline with calcium oxide (lime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). This forms the calcium salt of morphine which is soluble in the aqueous solution and precipitates other major alkaloids of opium. The aqueous solution is filtered to remove the precipitated alkaloids and ammonium chloride is added to the solution. This converts the calcium salt of morphine to morphine base. The solution is allowed to stand for several hours and the morphine base precipitates out of solution. The solution is then filtered and the morphine base is dried. The crude dried morphine base, which is dark brown, is usually about 50-70 percent pure. B. Purification of Morphine Base: Crude morphine base is first washed with small amounts of acetone to remove unwanted alkaloids. The morphine base is then dissolved in a solution of tartaric acid (heated to 80-90C) which converts the morphine base to its bitartrate salt. The solution is treated with activated charcoal and is filtered. The activated charcoal is used as a decolorizing agent and removes the brown color. This aqueous acidic solution is made alkaline with ammonia which converts the morphine bitartrate to morphine base. The morphine base precipitates out of solution, is recovered by filtration and dried. Purified morphine base is usually 85-95 percent pure. In the extraction and purification of morphine from opium, only acetone is regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. The other chemicals which include general acids and alkaline materials are readily available worldwide. Any number of substances can be and have been used in this first step. Step 2. (Synthesis of Heroin Base from Morphine) This step involves the chemical reaction of morphine with an acetylating agent to form heroin (diacetylmorphine). Dried morphine base is mixed with acetic anhydride (excess quantities) and heated until the morphine base is completely dissolved. The solution is further heated to a near boil and retained at that temperature for approximately 1 hour. A chemical reaction takes place between morphine and acetic anhydride which converts morphine base to heroin base. Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international commerce. Acetic anhydrides main application is in the chemical process industry in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic morphine and acetic anhydride which converts morphine base to heroin base.

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Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international commerce. Acetic anhydrides main application is in the chemical process industry in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic anhydride is the reagent of choice in the conversion of morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride is another acetylating agent which is readily available, however, it is extremely corrosive, more volatile and difficult to handle. For these reasons, it is seldom substituted for acetic anhydride. The solution is cooled and water is added to rid the solution of unreacted acetic anhydride. With the addition of water, the heroin base is converted to heroin acetate which is soluble in the aqueous solution. The solution is filtered and made alkaline with sodium carbonate. Other alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate or ammonium hydroxide may be substituted for the sodium carbonate. The dissolved heroin acetate is converted to heroin base, a water insoluble form. The contents are filtered and the heroin base is retained and dried. The purity of the heroin base depends on the purity of the morphine base and on the completeness of the acetylation process. Step 3. (Conversion of Heroin Base to Heroin Hydrochloride) Heroin base is dissolved in hot acetone and activated charcoal is added. The activated charcoal again is used as a decoloring agent. The solution is mixed and filtered. The liquid portion is retained and contains heroin base. Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) is added to the acetone solution which is mixed and allowed to sit. This converts the heroin base to heroin hydrochloride. The solution is filtered and the heroin hydrochloride is retained and dried. This product can have a range of purity of 80-95 percent. Some of the major impurities may be monoacetylmorphine and acetylcodeine. The ultimate purity of heroin hydrochloride is dependent on the effort put forth to purify morphine base. The solvents acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid have been used in the heroin hydrochloride process and are regulated under the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. The critical property of these solvents is their ability to dissolve heroin base but not heroin hydrochloride.

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CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINESAmphetamines and methamphetamines are sympathomimetic amines whose illicit use is widespread due to their stimulant effects on the central nervous system. Nowadays, there is a certain amount of lawful production of these drugs for medical use in the treatment of obesity, attention disorders, and narcolepsy. While some of these pharmaceutical products are diverted to illicit trafficking, most amphetamine and methamphetamine found in the illicit traffic are produced in clandestine laboratories. In contrast to cocaine and heroin, amphetamine and methamphetamine are produced only by means of chemical syntheses. A wide variety and large number of syntheses are useful for the manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Nonetheless, the clandestine laboratories use only a few of these. It would appear that the synthesis for amphetamine generally uses 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) as the principal raw material. The main raw materials used in the synthesis of methamphetamine are ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and 1-phenyl-2-propanone. While 1-phenyl-2-propanone can be acquired commercially, it is often prepared in the clandestine laboratories from phenylacetic acid, benzyl cyanide or benzoic aldehyde, and nitroethane. These syntheses are relatively simple and do not require very complex equipment, or exotic chemicals. Each procedure takes a few steps, is carried out in one or two days, and has relatively abundant yields. These syntheses occur through one or more reactions to produce amphetamine and basic methamphetamine, which are oily liquids. These bases are purified and then become salts, usually hydrochloride for methamphetamines and sulfate for amphetamine, which are crystalline substances. Purification and conversion require only organic solvents (for example, ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, etc.), alkaline substances (for example, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, etc.), and the corresponding acid (for example, hydrochloric acid or gaseous hydrogen chloride for hydrochloride or sulfuric acid for sulfate). There are two optical isomers and one racemic sample (mixture of equal parts of the two optical isomers) of amphetamine and methamphetamine. The dextrorotary isomers (d) are more powerful stimulants of the central nervous system than the levorotary ones (l) or than the racemic mixtures (d,l). In most cases, the initial raw material determines the isomer of the final product. The syntheses that begin with 1-ephedrine or dpseudoephedrine (the isomers that are commonly found) produce d-methamphetamine. The reduction of ephedrine to synthesize methamphetamine is a simple onestep reaction that produces methamphetamine oil (base) that is purified and converted to hydrochloride. The normal yield of this process is 50% to 75%. One can use pseudoephedrine instead of ephedrine, with similar results. Ephedrine is used in bulk or in tablets (with or without extraction). Ephedrine or pseudoephedrine may be heated with reflux in acid and red phosphorus for 16 hours or more. It would appear that even if it is not heated small amounts of methamphetamines can be produced. Although other reducing agents can also be used, rarely have they been found in the clandestine laboratories. Some

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laboratories produce their own hydriodic acid from iodine, red phosphorus, and a strong acid. The Leuckart reaction is used to produce amphetamines or methamphetamines from 1- phenyl-2-propanone using a somewhat more complicated procedure. The 1-phenyl-2- propanone is refluxed in ammonium formide or formamide (for amphetamine) or N- methylformamide (for methamphetamine) for several hours. Then hydrochloric acid is added to the mixture (which contains the formate derivative) and this is refluxed for several more hours to produce amphetamine or methamphetamine; it is then purified and converted into amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride. The reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone is another relatively simple method that is used in clandestine laboratories to produce amphetamines and methamphetamines. 1- phenyl-2-propanone is reacted with ammonium (to produce amphetamine), or with methylamine (to produce methamphetamines) in the presence of mercuric chloride and aluminum foil for a few hours. Then the base is purified and converted to amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride. A common method to synthesize 1-phenyl-2-propanone is using phenylacetic acid, acetic anhydride and acetate as starting materials. These three ingredients are refluxed together for 18 hours, cooled, and basified. The resulting 1phenyl-2-propanone is purified by distillation or extraction. Distillation of phenylacetic acid and lead acetate also produces 1- phenyl-2-propanone. Sometimes, phenylacetic acid is synthesized in clandestine laboratories from benzoic chloride and sodium cyanide or benzyl cyanide. If certain modifications are introduced into these syntheses, a variety of stimulant and hallucinogenic analogs of amphetamine and methamphetamine can be produced. For example, the substitution of ethylamine for methylamine during reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone produces ethamphetamine (ethylamphetamine), a central nervous system stimulant. If, in place of 1-phenyl-2-propanone, 3,4methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone is used in the synthesis, MDA, MDMA, or MDE may be obtained; all are controlled substances with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.

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CHEMICALS PRODUCTIONACETIC ACID

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Other names: Ethanoic acid, methanecarboxylic acid; glacial acetic acid. Molecular formula: CH3COOH Molecular weight: 60,05 (C2H4O2) Harmonized code: 2915.21.0000 Density: 1,05 Boiling point: 118C Freezing point: 16,6C Description: Colorless, corrosive liquid with a pungent odor. A 5-6% solution in water is vinegar. Glacial acetic acid refers to a solution which is at least 99.5% concentrated. Hazards: Flammable; vapor irritating to respiratory system, eyes and skin; can cause severe burns to eyes and skin; ingestion causes irritation and damage. Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of P-2-P for amphetamine and methamphetamine synthesis; possibly used to produce acetic anhydride for heroin production. Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS) Legitimate uses: Manufacture of vinyl acetate (45%), cellulose acetate (20%), acetic anhydride, acetate rayon, plastics and rubber, in tanning; printing calico and dyeing silk; food preservative; solvent for gums, resins, volatile oils and many other substances; used in other organic synthesis. Manufacturing process: Carbonylation of methanol; direct oxidation of saturated hydrocarbons; oxidation of acetaldehyde. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel, glass or polyethylene. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Finland, France, Belgium, Italy, Norway, United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela. Central America: Mexico. Remarks: The reaction of acetic acid and phenylacetic acid to yield P2P has not been frequently encountered in U.S. clandestine labs. The majority of the companies manufacturing acetic acid in the U.S. convert it to either vinyl acetate or cellulose acetate. Reports from SE Asian countries indicates that acetic acid has been used in the past to produce acetic anhydride through a reaction with ketene. Acetic acid alone will not acetylate morphine to heroin. It can be used as a substitute for ammonium chloride in the extraction of morphine from opium. ACETIC ANHYDRIDE Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide. Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3) CSA code: 8519 Harmonized code: 2915.24.000026

Density: 1,08 Boiling point: 139C Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air. Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting. Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic acid. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS). Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%); production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries; explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin, theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and herbicides. Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine. ACETIC ANHYDRIDE Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide. Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3) CSA code: 8519. Harmonized code: 2915.24.0000 Density: 1,08. Boiling point: 139C Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air. Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting. Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic acid. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS). Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%); production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries; explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin, theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and herbicides. Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene.

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Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine. ACETONE Other names: Dimethyl ketone, -ketopropane; pyroacetic ether; 2-propanone. Molecular formula: (CH3)2CO Molecular weight: 58,08 (C3H6O) Harmonized code: 2914.11.1000 Density: 0,79 Boiling point: 56,5 C Description: Colorless, mobile, flammable liquid with a mildly pungent and somewhat aromatic odor. Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to eyes and nose in high concentrations; inhalation of vapor may cause dizziness, narcosis and coma; liquid is irritating to eyes and may cause severe damage; ingestion of liquid may cause gastric irritation, narcosis and coma. Illicit use: Solvent in purification of morphine base leading to the manufacture of heroin; conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Where controlled or regulated: CSA; United Nations; Organization of American States. Legitimate uses: Solvent and chemical intermediary for a variety of substances including plastics, paints, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agricultural products, fats, oils, waxes, resins, rubber, lacquers, varnishes and rubber cements; used in the extraction of various principals from animal and plant substances; in varnish removers, purifying paraffin; hardening and dehydrating tissue; manufacture of methyl isobutyl ketone, mesityloxide, acetic acid, diacetone alcohol, chloroform, iodoform, bromoform, explosives, rayon, photographic films and isoprene. Manufacturing process: Fermentation of cornstarch and molasses; chemical synthesis from isopropanol; from cumene or a by-product in phenol manufacture; oxidation of propane. Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel drums, tank trucks, and rail cars; stored in closed containers in well ventilated area away from heat, sparks and flames. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Finland, France, Italy, The Netherlands,United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela. Australia. Remarks: It is a solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride and in the purification of morphine base in the production of heroin. It can be produced by a reaction of diacetone alcohol with an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or in the presence of a catalyst such as zinc or aluminum oxide. It may also be produced from isopropyl alcohol at cocaine laboratory sites. N-ACETYLANTHRANILIC ACID

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Other names: Orto-acetaminobenzoic acid; 2-acetamidobenzoic acid. Molecular formula: (CH3CONH)C6H4(COOH) Molecular weight: 179,18 (C9H9O3) Harmonized code: 2924.29.4700 Melting point: 184-186C. Description: Fine white or off-white crystalline powder with a sweetish taste. Hazards: Harmful if swallowed. Illicit use: Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS); United Nations. Legitimate uses: Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, plastic and fine chemicals. Manufacturing process: From anthranilic acid and acetic anhydride. Shipping and storage: Shipped in 100 lb (45.5 kg) fiber drums; stored in tightly closed containers in cool dry area. Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Unknown. Remarks: N-acetylanthranilic acid is the immediate precursor used in the synthesis of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It is often synthesized from anthranilic acid. Esters of NAcetylanthranilic Acid such as Ajacine are now included under the CSA. ACETYL CHLORIDE Other names: Ethanoyl chloride. Molecular formula: CH3COCl Molecular weight: 78,5 (C2H3ClO. Harmonized code: 2903.29.0000 Density: 1,104 Boiling point: 52C Description: Colorless fuming liquid with a pungent odor. Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to the respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin; ingestion of the liquid causes severe internal irritation and damage; its vapor forms explosive mixtures with air and it reacts violently with water. Illicit use: Acetylating agent used for converting morphine to heroin. Where controlled or regulated: Hong Kong; Thailand. Legitimate uses: Synthesis of pharmaceuticals and dyes; determination of water in organic liquids; manufacturing lubricating grease and rubber; in polymerization processes. Manufacturing process: Reaction of acetic anhydride and hydrogen chloride; reaction of acetic acid and phosphorus trichloride or 1,1,2-trichloroethylene or 1,1,1-trichloroethane or sulfur mono-chloride or thionyl chloride. Shipping and storage: Polyethylene lined drums in cool dry area with adequate ventilation. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: India, Japan. Remarks: This chemical can be substituted for acetic anhydride which is the most widely used acetylating agent in converting morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride however is more hazardous to use in this procedure than acetic anhydride and has rarely been encountered.

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AMMONIUM CHLORIDE Other names: Sal ammoniac, ammonium muriate; salmiac; Darammon; Amchlor. Molecular formula: NH4Cl Molecular weight: 53,5 Harmonized code: 2827.10.0000 Density: 1,53 Melting point: At 340C it goes from a solid to a gas and then back to a solid again without going through the liquid phase. Description: Colorless, odorless crystals or white granular powder, saline taste; absorbs moisture from the air giving it a tendency to cake. Illicit use: Extraction of morphine from opium for conversion to heroin. Where controlled or regulated: Unknown. Legitimate uses: Flux for coating iron with zinc; tinning; in dry cell batteries; dyeing; freezing mixtures; electroplating; to clean soldering irons; lustering cotton; tanning; in washing powders; for snow treatment (slows melting on ski slopes). Manufacturing process: Direct reaction between hydrochloric acid and ammonia; reaction with ammonia and carbon dioxide in aqueous sodium chloride. Shipping and storage: Shipped in sacks or bags of paper or polyethylene; stored in vessels or tanks which have internal coatings of epoxide or phenoxy resins. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, France, United Kingdom. Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Japan. Remarks: It is used to adjust the pH in the extraction of morphine from opium. It is not a critical chemical in this extraction process and other acid substitutes, such as acetic acid, can be used. AMMONIUM FORMATE Other names: Formic acid ammonium salt. Molecular formula: HCOONH4 Molecular weight: 63,06 (CH5NO2) Harmonized code: 2915.12.0000 Density: 1,27 Melting point: 119-121C Description: Crystals have a tendency to become a liquid by absorbing moisture from the air. Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and MDA. Where controlled or regulated: Unknown Legitimate uses: Chemical analysis, especially to precipitate base metals from salts of the noble metals (gold, platinum, etc.). Manufacturing process: Prepared from formic acid and ammonia; from methyl formate and ammonia. Shipping and storage: Tightly closed containers. Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Italy, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. North America: United States.

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Remarks: It is a precursor in the clandestine production of amphetamine and MDA from P2P and 3,4-MDP2P respectively. Formic acid and ammonia are sometimes substituted for ammonium formate. AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE Other names: Ammonia solution; ammonium hydrate; aqua ammonia; Spirit of Hartshorn. Molecular formula: NH4OH Molecular weight: 35,0 (NH5O) Harmonized code: 2814.20.0000 Density: 0,91 Description: Colorless liquid with a pungent, suffocating odor. Ammonium hydroxide is a 25-30% solution of ammonia gas in water. Hazards: Severely irritating to eyes; poisonous if ingested and possibly if inhaled. Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste and cocaine base; reagent for producing alkaline solutions in chemical syntheses. Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS) Legitimate uses: Detergent, removing stains, bleaching calico printing, extracting plant colors and alkaloids, manufacturing ammonium salts and aniline dyes. Manufacturing process: Reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen under pressure with a catalyst produces ammonia gas; ammonium hydroxide is produced by bubbling ammonia gas into water. Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel (sometimes stainless) vessels and polyethylene canisters for ammonium hydroxide; stored and distributed as a liquefied gas in spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels and insulated cylindrical tanks. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: United Kingdom, Estonia. Asia: Singapore, Thailand. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Africa: Nigeria. Middle East: Syria. Remarks: This chemical has been frequently found at cocaine production sites. There are many other liquid and solid alkaline substances which can be substituted for ammonium hydroxide in cocaine production. Approximately 80% of the ammonia gas produced in the U.S. is used in the production of fertilizers. ANTHRANILIC ACID Other names: Ortho-aminobenzoic, 1-amino-2-carboxybenzene, vitamin L1; aminobenzoic acid; ortho-carboxyaniline. Molecular formula: NH2C6H4COOH Molecular weight: 137,13 (C7H7NO2) CSA Code: 8530 Harmonized code: 2922.49.3700 Density: 1,41 Melting point: 144-146C Description: White to pale yellow crystalline powder with sweetish taste. Hazards: Harmful is swallowed. 2-

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Illicit use: Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone by forming N-acetylanthranilic. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United Nations. Legitimate uses: Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of dyes (indigo), pharmaceuticals and perfumes; in general organic syntheses. Manufacturing process: Reaction of isatoic anhydride and alkalis; reduction of orthonitrobenzoic acid. Shipping and storage: Shipped in 150 lb. (68.2 kg) fiber drums and as bulk powder; stored in tightly closed containers in cool dry areas. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Denmark. Asia: Japan. Remarks: Anthranilic acid along with acetic acid is used to synthesize N-acetylanthranilic acid which is used in the clandestine production of methaqualone and mecloqualone. Esters of anthranilic acid such as pindocaine are now controlled under the CSA. BENZALDEHYDE Other names: Benzoic aldehide; artificial essential oil of almond; benzenecarbonal. Molecular formula: C6H5CHO Molecular weight: 106,12 (C7H6O) CSA Code: 8526 Harmonized code: 2912.21.0000 Density: 1,05 Boiling point: 179C Description: Strongly refractive liquid, becoming yellowish on storage; oil of almond odor; burning aromatic taste. Illicit use: Production of P2P and amphetamine. Where controlled or regulated: CSA. Legitimate uses: Manufacture of dyes, perfumes, cinnamic and mandelic acids, pharmaceutical, agricultural and other organic chemicals; solvent; ingredient in flavors. Manufacturing process: Hydrolysis of benzal chloride; partial oxidation of toluene. Shipping and storage: Keep tightly closed and protected from heat. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. Remarks: Oxidizes in air to form benzoic acid. It can be used to clandestinely manufacture a nitropropene intermediate by a reaction with nitroethane and butylamine. This intermediate can then be converted into P2P or amphetamine. This reaction has been encountered in clandestine P2P and amphetamine labs. BENZENE Other names: Benzol; cyclohexatriene, phenyl hydride. Molecular formula: C6H6 Molecular weight: 78.11 Harmonized Codes: 2902.20.0000 (>90%) / 2707.10.0120 (

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PREFACEThe wide availability of essential precursors and chemicals, their free trafficking through international trade channels, and the many legitimate ways in which they can be used, particularly in the case of essential chemicals of cocaine, make it difficult to control the diversion of these chemicals into illicit drug production. Traffickers often direct shipments of chemicals through several countries to foil attempts by authorities to track them down. The problem is compounded by the fact that no universally accepted code for the identification of these substances yet exists. Consequently, even shipments identified with counterfeit documents can easily escape detention by customs authorities. Governments of the countries of the hemisphere are concerned over the serious problems caused by drugs in our societies and recognize that the widespread availability of precursors and specific chemicals for preparing psychotropic substances, particularly in the Americas, exacerbates the situation. It is therefore critical to establish legal mechanisms that will permit an uninterrupted supply of chemicals to firms that have a legitimate need for them, and that will at the same time prevent precursors and chemicals from falling into the hands of producers of illicit drugs. Accordingly, the Executive Secretariat of CICAD is pleased to present this Manual on Chemicals Used in the Illicit Production of Drugs, as a contribution to national involvement in the difficult task of controlling precursors and substances.

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TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE..2 INTRODUCTION.5 EXPLANATORY NOTES7 TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS...8 COCAINE PRODUCTION.10 HEROIN PRODUCTION14 CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINES..18 REGULATED CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES23 Acetic Anhydride Acetone N-Acetylanthranilic Acid Acetyl Chloride Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Formate Ammonium Hydroxide Anthranilic Acid Benzaldehyde Benzene Benzyl Chloride Benzyl Cyanide N-Butyl Acetate N-Butyl Alcohol Sec-Butyl Alcohol Calcium Carbonate Calcium Hydroxide Calcium Oxide Chloroform Cyclohexane Cyclohexanone Diacetone Alcohol Diethylamine Ephedrine Ergonovine Ergotamine Ethyl Acetate Ethyl Alcohol Ethylamine N-Ethylephedrine Ethyl Ether Ethylidene Diacetate N-Ethyl-pseudoephedrine Formamide Formic Acid Hexane Hydriodic Acid Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Peroxide Iodine Isobutyl Alcohol Isopropyl Acetate Isopropyl Alcohol Isosafrole Kerosene Lysergic Acid Methyl Alcohol Methylamine Methylene Chloride 3,4-Methylene Dioxyphenyl-2-Propanone N-Methylephedrine Methyl Ethyl Ketone Methyl Isobutyl Ketone N-Methylpseudoephedrine Nitroethane Norpseudoephedrine Petroleum Ether Phenylacetic Acid Phenylpropanolamine Phenyl-2-Propanone Piperidine Piperonal Potassium Carbonate Potassium Cyanide Potassium Dichromate Potassium Hydroxide Potassium Permanganate

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Propionic Anhydride Pseudoephedrine Red Phosphorus Safrole Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Carbonate Sodium Cyanide Sodium Dichromate Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Hypoclorite Sodium Sulfate Sodium Thiosulfate Sulfuric Acid Tartaric Acid Thionyl Chloride

Toluene O-Toluidine Trichloroethylene Urea Xylenes REFERENCES79 APPENDIX I: Model Regulations to Control Chemical Precursors and Chemical Substances, Machines and Materials APPENDIX II: Clandestine Chemical Laboratories

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INTRODUCTIONThe illicit trafficking in and use of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances is one of the most serious problems affecting many countries today. None of these drugs except marijuana can be produced without the aid of chemical substances. In most cases such substances have legitimate industrial uses, and so can be freely acquired in the market. Two types of chemicals are used to manufacture narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. Precursor chemicals are defined as substances that can be used in the production, manufacture, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or substances with a similar effect, and that incorporate their molecular structure to the final product, and so are fundamental to those processes. Essential chemicals are defined as substances other than precursor chemicals that may be used in the production, manufacture, extraction, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, and substances with a similar effect, as a solvent, reagent, or catalyst. Many rules and verification mechanisms are in place with respect to the acquisition of such precursors, but it was not until the late 1980s that emphasis was placed on national and international control of the production, manufacture, preparation, import, export, and distribution, of precursor chemicals and other specific chemical products for the production and manufacture of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or other substances with a similar effect. There has been a significant increase in the amounts of chemicals required to manufacture cocaine shipped in recent years to the Caribbean Basin. It has not been possible to determine whether these shipments were earmarked for legitimate uses, but the notable increase suggests that something more is going on, especially because there are no indications of a proportional increase in the legitimate needs of the countries of that region. It is necessary that the supplier countries, the transshipment countries, and the countries to which the shipments are sent establish legal mechanisms that allow for the uninterrupted supply of chemicals to persons and businesses that have a legitimate need for them, and that simultaneously prevent the chemicals from falling into the hands of the drug traffickers. The United Nations Convention Against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, adopted in Vienna in December 1988, was a major first step towards establishing controls on the distribution of precursor chemicals and essential chemicals. In 1988, the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) of the Organization of American States (OAS) authorized a consultation with the member states on whether to create a Group of Experts on precursor and essential chemicals. That group was entrusted with drawing up regulations that the governments could adopt or

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amend with a view to establishing genuinely uniform laws to control chemicals in the nations of the hemisphere. The draft model regulations prepared by the working group were submitted to the representatives of the member states of CICAD during its meeting held in March 1990 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, where it was recommended that they be adopted. Finally, the regulations were submitted to the General Assembly OAS in April 1990, which approve the Model Regulations for the Control of Precursors and Chemical Substances, Materials, and Equipment.

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EXPLANATORY NOTES1. ABBREVIATIONS USED: CSA: Controlled Substances Act of the United States OAS: Organization of American States UN: United Nations US: United States MT: metric ton kg: kilograms gr: grams lt: liters ml: milliliters BMK: Benzyl Methyl Ketone LSD: Lisergic Acid Diethylamide MDA: 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine MDE: 3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine MDMA: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine MEK: Methyl Ethyl Ketone MIBK: Methyl Isobutyl Ketone PCC: 1-Piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile PCP: Phencyclidene P2P: Phenyl-2-Propanol WCO: World Custom Organization 2. SOURCES OF INFORMATION: The information on chemical products was obtained from the publication Chemicals Used in the Clandestine Production of Drugs, United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of Diversion Control, Drug and Chemical Evaluation Section, 1995. The information on chemical laboratories was obtained from the publication Hazards of Chemical Laboratories, Wayne K. Jeffery I/c Toxicology Section, Forensic Laboratory, Royal Canadian Mounted Police. For the purposes of this publication, such information has been edited by CICADs Executive Secretariat.

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TECHNICAL DEFINITIONSDENSITY: Mass per unit of volume, generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter or per liter. Apparent density is weight per unit of volume in powder, and is generally expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, determined by a specific method. Overall density is an alternative term for apparent density. CHEMICAL FORMULA: A written expression, using symbols, of a chemical entity or a relationship. There are several types of formulas: (1) Empirical formula: expresses in simple terms the relative number and type of atoms that form a molecule; it indicates only the composition, not the structure. (2) Molecular formula: shows the real number and the type of atoms of a chemical entity (i.e., molecule, radical, or ion). (3) Structural formula: indicates the location of the atoms, radicals, or ions in relation to one another, as well as the number and location of the chemical bonds. (4) Generic formula: expresses a general type of organic compound, in which the variables are the number of atoms or the class of radicals in a homologous series. (5) Electrical formula: a structural form in which the bonds are replaced by points that indicate the electrical pairs, with a simple bond being a pair of electrons shared by two atoms. ATOMIC WEIGHT: The mass of an atom of an element compared to the mass of the carbon 12 isotope, which is used as the standard, with a value of 12. MOLECULAR WEIGHT: The molecular weight of a chemical compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms that constitute it. By agreement, all the atomic weights, and thus all the molecules as well, are expressed with respect to the arbitrary value 16, which is assigned to the oxygen atom. The value of the molecular weight is naturally expressed in arbitrary units, but it may be expressed in grams, in which case it is defined as gram molecular weight, or mole. PRECURSOR CHEMICAL: A substance that may be used in the production, manufacture, and/or preparation of narcotics, psychotropic substances, or substances with similar effect, and whose molecular structure is incorporated into the final product. BOILING POINT: The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is slightly higher than the external pressure. For water, at sea level it is 100 C (212F).

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MELTING POINT The melting of a pure substance is the temperature at which its crystals are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at atmospheric pressure. Normally it is called melting point when the equilibrium temperature is reached by heating the solid. Consequently, in ordinary circumstances melting points refer to temperatures greater than 0 C, the melting point of ice. SUBLIMATION POINT The sublimation point is the point at which a substance changes from solid to gas directly, and returns to the solid form, without it ever assuming liquid form.

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CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION OF COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDECocaine is a naturally occurring alkaloid obtained from the coca plant of the Genus Erythroxylon by the extraction of the leaves followed by a number of purification steps. The coca plant used in the illicit production of cocaine is principally grown in Bolivia and Peru. The alkaloid content of the leaves of the South American coca plant is between 0.5 and 1.5 percent with cocaine being the principal alkaloid. The production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves is generally performed in three steps. They are: (1) the extraction of cocaine and other alkaloids from coca leaves to produce coca paste. (2) the purification of coca paste to cocaine base, and (3) the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. These processes may be performed at three different locations or two or more of the steps may be performed at the same location. Each of the steps requires chemicals with specific properties to reach the desired end point. The stage of processing can be determined by the type of chemicals identified at the laboratory site. The chemicals required for each of the steps are as follows: (1) production of coca paste - kerosene, gasoline or other organic solvents with similar properties, alkaline material such as sodium, Calcium or potassium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, calcium oxide and an acid such as sulfuric acid. (2) production of cocaine base - oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate or hydrogen peroxide, sulfuric acid and alkaline material such as ammonia water. (3) production of cocaine hydrochloride - organic solvent such as ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone or toluene and hydrochloric acid. It is important to note that these processes require only modest equipment and relatively few chemicals. The most critical of these chemicals are used in the final steps of the production of cocaine hydrochloride and are the oxidizing agent, potassium permanganate, and the organic solvents ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone and toluene. These chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are involved in international commerce. By controlling the diversion and trafficking of these chemicals by cocaine producers, the production and availability of cocaine hydrochloride can be effectively curtailed. The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the clandestine production of cocaine hydrochloride:

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Step 1. (Production of Coca Paste) Production of Coca Paste In the initial extraction procedure, dried coca leaves are moistened with an alkaline solution to convert the cocaine to a water insoluble form. Alkaline materials that can be and have been used in this initial extraction procedure are sodium, potassium or calcium carbonate (limestone), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) calcium oxide (lime) and ammonia water. The moistened leaves are soaked and the cocaine extracted using kerosene, or other organic liquids in which cocaine is soluble. Gasoline has been used in place of kerosene; however its physical properties (flammability and high volatility) make it less desirable. Kerosene extracts other alkaloids in addition to cocaine from the coca leaves. The kerosene solution is mixed with dilute sulfuric acid; the cocaine and other alkaloids are converted to sulfate salts which are soluble in the aqueous acid solution, which is retained. This extraction procedure separates the waxes and fats extracted from the coca leaves from the cocaine and other alkaloids. Other acids which can be used in place of sulfuric acid are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and phosphoric acid. Sulfuric acid is commonly used, however, because of its availability and physical characteristics. Its low volatility and acid strength make it safer, easier to handle and a more efficient acid than the others. Ammonia water is added to the sulfuric acid solution containing the cocaine sulfate; this converts the cocaine sulfate to cocaine base which is water insoluble. The cocaine and other alkaloids are filtered out of aqueous solution. This product is termed coca paste or sulfate. The product obtained is approximately fifty percent cocaine base. None of the chemicals used in this first step is regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. They are readily and widely available throughout the world including in the countries in which cocaine is produced and there are practical substitutes for each of the chemicals. Step 2. (Production of Cocaine Base) In order to refine the cocaine, the coca paste is purified to cocaine base and then converted to cocaine hydrochloride. The coca paste is dissolved in a dilute sulfuric acid solution which converts the cocaine base and other alkaloids in the paste to water soluble sulfate salts. A dilute solution of an oxidizing agent, most often potassium permanganate, is added to the acid solution. Hydrogen peroxide can also be used as an oxidizing agent and has occasionally been identified in clandestine cocaine laboratories. Oxidizing agents are used to convert (oxidize) cinnamoylcocaine and other unwanted alkaloids to water insoluble forms, which can be removed from the cocaine containing acid solution by filtering. The removal of these impurities aids in the crystallization of cocaine hydrochloride in the final step and promotes the formation of the clean white product sought after by cocaine distributors and users. Potassium permanganate is the preferred oxidizing agent and the one most frequently used by clandestine laboratory operators. Its violet pink color in solution makes it useful as an indicator to determine when the alkaloidal impurities have been completely oxidized. Potassium permanganate, because of

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its importance to the production of a high quality cocaine hydrochloride product, is regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. The impurities are filtered from the sulfuric acid solution which is then made alkaline with ammonia water or other previously mentioned alkaline material. This converts the cocaine to its base form, which is insoluble in water. The solution is filtered and the water insoluble cocaine is separated and dried. This product is cocaine base. Step 3. (Production of Cocaine HydroChloride ) The third and final step in the production of cocaine hydrochloride converts cocaine base into crystalline cocaine hydrochloride. The chemicals used in this procedure are organic solvents which dissolve cocaine base and hydrochloric acid which provides a source of chloride ions for the formation of the hydrochloride salt of cocaine. The solvents most commonly used and those which are regulated under the United States Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act are ethyl ether, acetone,2-butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) and toluene. Hydrochloric acid is not a regulated chemical because of the small quantities used, its readily availability and the number of easily obtainable substitutes. In this process, the dried cocaine base is dissolved in a minimal amount of organic solvent such as ethyl ether or acetone and the mixture is filtered to remove any undissolved material (impurities). A solution of hydrochloric acid in a water miscible organic solvent such as acetone is added to the liquid. The cocaine base is converted to cocaine hydrochloride which is insoluble in the organic solvent. The solution is filtered and the crystalline cocaine hydrochloride is retained and dried. The product from this step is usually 90-98 percent pure cocaine hydrochloride. Although there are a large number of organic solvents there are several critical factors that must be considered and that limit the selection of an appropriate solvent in this process. A suitable organic solvent is: (a) one in which cocaine base is soluble; (b) one in which cocaine hydrochloride is insoluble or only slightly soluble; (c) one which is miscible with water and the other organic solvent used; (d) volatile; and (e) readily available Substitutes for the regulated solvents which meet some but not all of these criteria include benzene, ethyl acetate, hexane, methylene chloride, chloroform, isopropyl alcohol and methyl isobutyl ketone. For example, cocaine base is soluble in methylene chloride and chloroform but so is cocaine hydrochloride. Analysis of powder cocaine hydrochloride samples by Drug Enforcement Administration laboratories since 1986 show that the solvents most commonly used are acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone and toluene. Seizures of chemicals at South American clandestine cocaine hydrochloride laboratories substantiate the almost exclusive use of these solvents. Thus, although there are a number of alternatives to the regulated solvents, the limitations described above make them less practical and desirable.

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CHEMICALS USED IN THE ILLICIT PRODUCTION OF HEROINHeroin is a semi-synthetic narcotic analgesic prepared by the chemical reaction of morphine with an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride. Morphine, itself a narcotic analgesic, is one of the alkaloids found in and obtained from opium. Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsules of the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum L). Opium contains about 20 alkaloids, with morphine (10-16 percent) being the most important and most abundant. Other alkaloids (10-15 percent) found in opium include codeine, thebaine, noscapine and papaverine. Considerable quantities of the opium poppy are grown commercially for the medicinal value of the alkaloids, for the seed-extractable oil, and for foodstuffs. It is also grown illicitly for the production of heroin. Southeast Asia, Southwest Asia, Central and South America are the major source areas for opium used in the production of heroin. Heroin is generally produced in clandestine laboratories outside of the United States. The preferred form in the United States is heroin hydrochloride, which is watersoluble and can be injected intravenously and snorted. Smaller quantities of heroin base are also smoked in the United States. Heroin is generally converted to its hydrochloride salt before shipment to the United States. The clandestine processing of heroin from opium can be divided into three basic stages: (1) Extraction of morphine from opium and purification of morphine base. (2) Synthesis of heroin base from morphine. (3) Conversion of heroin base to heroin hydrochloride. The entire process is usually, but not always, performed at one location. Processes vary somewhat from area to area, particularly in the extent of purification of morphine. The process can be performed by individuals with little or no chemical education using a few chemicals and simple equipment. Common chemicals used in the production of heroin hydrochloride from morphine and opium are the following: alkaline material such as calcium oxide (lime), calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), ammonium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate (limestone); acids such as tartaric acid, hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride; an acetylating agent such as acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride; solvents such as acetone, ethyl ether, ethyl alcohol and methyl ethyl ketone; and an adsorptive agent such as activated charcoal for filtering and decolorizing. The most critical of these chemicals is acetic anhydride which is reacted with morphine to produce heroin. Other important chemicals are the solvents acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid, which are used primarily in the conversion of heroin to heroin hydrochloride, the sought after street product. These chemicals have legitimate uses worldwide and are in international commerce. Nevertheless, their regulation provides an effective means of curtailing the production and availability of heroin hydrochloride. The other chemicals, which include the alkaline and acidic materials, are very common and readily available in the countries in which the heroin process occurs. Further,

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their use in the heroin process requires no properties unique to any one of them and thus there are many practical substitutes for them. For these reasons they are not regulated under the CDTA or the 1988 Vienna Convention. The following is a description of the procedures and chemicals used in the production of morphine from opium, its purification, and ultimate conversion to heroin hydrochloride: Step 1. (Extraction and Purification of Morphine) A. Extraction from Opium: Opium is dispersed in water, and the mixture is heated and made alkaline with calcium oxide (lime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). This forms the calcium salt of morphine which is soluble in the aqueous solution and precipitates other major alkaloids of opium. The aqueous solution is filtered to remove the precipitated alkaloids and ammonium chloride is added to the solution. This converts the calcium salt of morphine to morphine base. The solution is allowed to stand for several hours and the morphine base precipitates out of solution. The solution is then filtered and the morphine base is dried. The crude dried morphine base, which is dark brown, is usually about 50-70 percent pure. B. Purification of Morphine Base: Crude morphine base is first washed with small amounts of acetone to remove unwanted alkaloids. The morphine base is then dissolved in a solution of tartaric acid (heated to 80-90C) which converts the morphine base to its bitartrate salt. The solution is treated with activated charcoal and is filtered. The activated charcoal is used as a decolorizing agent and removes the brown color. This aqueous acidic solution is made alkaline with ammonia which converts the morphine bitartrate to morphine base. The morphine base precipitates out of solution, is recovered by filtration and dried. Purified morphine base is usually 85-95 percent pure. In the extraction and purification of morphine from opium, only acetone is regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. The other chemicals which include general acids and alkaline materials are readily available worldwide. Any number of substances can be and have been used in this first step. Step 2. (Synthesis of Heroin Base from Morphine) This step involves the chemical reaction of morphine with an acetylating agent to form heroin (diacetylmorphine). Dried morphine base is mixed with acetic anhydride (excess quantities) and heated until the morphine base is completely dissolved. The solution is further heated to a near boil and retained at that temperature for approximately 1 hour. A chemical reaction takes place between morphine and acetic anhydride which converts morphine base to heroin base. Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international commerce. Acetic anhydrides main application is in the chemical process industry in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic morphine and acetic anhydride which converts morphine base to heroin base.

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Acetic anhydride is an essential chemical regulated by the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. It is a readily available industrial chemical involved in international commerce. Acetic anhydrides main application is in the chemical process industry in the manufacture of plastics and synthetic fibers (cellulose acetate). Acetic anhydride is the reagent of choice in the conversion of morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride is another acetylating agent which is readily available, however, it is extremely corrosive, more volatile and difficult to handle. For these reasons, it is seldom substituted for acetic anhydride. The solution is cooled and water is added to rid the solution of unreacted acetic anhydride. With the addition of water, the heroin base is converted to heroin acetate which is soluble in the aqueous solution. The solution is filtered and made alkaline with sodium carbonate. Other alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide, sodium bicarbonate or ammonium hydroxide may be substituted for the sodium carbonate. The dissolved heroin acetate is converted to heroin base, a water insoluble form. The contents are filtered and the heroin base is retained and dried. The purity of the heroin base depends on the purity of the morphine base and on the completeness of the acetylation process. Step 3. (Conversion of Heroin Base to Heroin Hydrochloride) Heroin base is dissolved in hot acetone and activated charcoal is added. The activated charcoal again is used as a decoloring agent. The solution is mixed and filtered. The liquid portion is retained and contains heroin base. Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) is added to the acetone solution which is mixed and allowed to sit. This converts the heroin base to heroin hydrochloride. The solution is filtered and the heroin hydrochloride is retained and dried. This product can have a range of purity of 80-95 percent. Some of the major impurities may be monoacetylmorphine and acetylcodeine. The ultimate purity of heroin hydrochloride is dependent on the effort put forth to purify morphine base. The solvents acetone, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone, and hydrochloric acid have been used in the heroin hydrochloride process and are regulated under the CDTA and the 1988 Vienna Convention. The critical property of these solvents is their ability to dissolve heroin base but not heroin hydrochloride.

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CLANDESTINE MANUFACTURE OF AMPHETAMINES AND METHAMPHETAMINESAmphetamines and methamphetamines are sympathomimetic amines whose illicit use is widespread due to their stimulant effects on the central nervous system. Nowadays, there is a certain amount of lawful production of these drugs for medical use in the treatment of obesity, attention disorders, and narcolepsy. While some of these pharmaceutical products are diverted to illicit trafficking, most amphetamine and methamphetamine found in the illicit traffic are produced in clandestine laboratories. In contrast to cocaine and heroin, amphetamine and methamphetamine are produced only by means of chemical syntheses. A wide variety and large number of syntheses are useful for the manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Nonetheless, the clandestine laboratories use only a few of these. It would appear that the synthesis for amphetamine generally uses 1-phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) as the principal raw material. The main raw materials used in the synthesis of methamphetamine are ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and 1-phenyl-2-propanone. While 1-phenyl-2-propanone can be acquired commercially, it is often prepared in the clandestine laboratories from phenylacetic acid, benzyl cyanide or benzoic aldehyde, and nitroethane. These syntheses are relatively simple and do not require very complex equipment, or exotic chemicals. Each procedure takes a few steps, is carried out in one or two days, and has relatively abundant yields. These syntheses occur through one or more reactions to produce amphetamine and basic methamphetamine, which are oily liquids. These bases are purified and then become salts, usually hydrochloride for methamphetamines and sulfate for amphetamine, which are crystalline substances. Purification and conversion require only organic solvents (for example, ethyl ether, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, etc.), alkaline substances (for example, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, etc.), and the corresponding acid (for example, hydrochloric acid or gaseous hydrogen chloride for hydrochloride or sulfuric acid for sulfate). There are two optical isomers and one racemic sample (mixture of equal parts of the two optical isomers) of amphetamine and methamphetamine. The dextrorotary isomers (d) are more powerful stimulants of the central nervous system than the levorotary ones (l) or than the racemic mixtures (d,l). In most cases, the initial raw material determines the isomer of the final product. The syntheses that begin with 1-ephedrine or dpseudoephedrine (the isomers that are commonly found) produce d-methamphetamine. The reduction of ephedrine to synthesize methamphetamine is a simple onestep reaction that produces methamphetamine oil (base) that is purified and converted to hydrochloride. The normal yield of this process is 50% to 75%. One can use pseudoephedrine instead of ephedrine, with similar results. Ephedrine is used in bulk or in tablets (with or without extraction). Ephedrine or pseudoephedrine may be heated with reflux in acid and red phosphorus for 16 hours or more. It would appear that even if it is not heated small amounts of methamphetamines can be produced. Although other reducing agents can also be used, rarely have they been found in the clandestine laboratories. Some

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laboratories produce their own hydriodic acid from iodine, red phosphorus, and a strong acid. The Leuckart reaction is used to produce amphetamines or methamphetamines from 1- phenyl-2-propanone using a somewhat more complicated procedure. The 1-phenyl-2- propanone is refluxed in ammonium formide or formamide (for amphetamine) or N- methylformamide (for methamphetamine) for several hours. Then hydrochloric acid is added to the mixture (which contains the formate derivative) and this is refluxed for several more hours to produce amphetamine or methamphetamine; it is then purified and converted into amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride. The reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone is another relatively simple method that is used in clandestine laboratories to produce amphetamines and methamphetamines. 1- phenyl-2-propanone is reacted with ammonium (to produce amphetamine), or with methylamine (to produce methamphetamines) in the presence of mercuric chloride and aluminum foil for a few hours. Then the base is purified and converted to amphetamine sulfate or methamphetamine hydrochloride. A common method to synthesize 1-phenyl-2-propanone is using phenylacetic acid, acetic anhydride and acetate as starting materials. These three ingredients are refluxed together for 18 hours, cooled, and basified. The resulting 1phenyl-2-propanone is purified by distillation or extraction. Distillation of phenylacetic acid and lead acetate also produces 1- phenyl-2-propanone. Sometimes, phenylacetic acid is synthesized in clandestine laboratories from benzoic chloride and sodium cyanide or benzyl cyanide. If certain modifications are introduced into these syntheses, a variety of stimulant and hallucinogenic analogs of amphetamine and methamphetamine can be produced. For example, the substitution of ethylamine for methylamine during reductive amination of 1-phenyl-2-propanone produces ethamphetamine (ethylamphetamine), a central nervous system stimulant. If, in place of 1-phenyl-2-propanone, 3,4methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone is used in the synthesis, MDA, MDMA, or MDE may be obtained; all are controlled substances with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.

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CHEMICALS PRODUCTIONACETIC ACID

USED

IN

ILLICIT

DRUG

Other names: Ethanoic acid, methanecarboxylic acid; glacial acetic acid. Molecular formula: CH3COOH Molecular weight: 60,05 (C2H4O2) Harmonized code: 2915.21.0000 Density: 1,05 Boiling point: 118C Freezing point: 16,6C Description: Colorless, corrosive liquid with a pungent odor. A 5-6% solution in water is vinegar. Glacial acetic acid refers to a solution which is at least 99.5% concentrated. Hazards: Flammable; vapor irritating to respiratory system, eyes and skin; can cause severe burns to eyes and skin; ingestion causes irritation and damage. Illicit use: Clandestine manufacture of P-2-P for amphetamine and methamphetamine synthesis; possibly used to produce acetic anhydride for heroin production. Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS) Legitimate uses: Manufacture of vinyl acetate (45%), cellulose acetate (20%), acetic anhydride, acetate rayon, plastics and rubber, in tanning; printing calico and dyeing silk; food preservative; solvent for gums, resins, volatile oils and many other substances; used in other organic synthesis. Manufacturing process: Carbonylation of methanol; direct oxidation of saturated hydrocarbons; oxidation of acetaldehyde. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel, glass or polyethylene. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Austria, Finland, France, Belgium, Italy, Norway, United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland. Asia: South Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela. Central America: Mexico. Remarks: The reaction of acetic acid and phenylacetic acid to yield P2P has not been frequently encountered in U.S. clandestine labs. The majority of the companies manufacturing acetic acid in the U.S. convert it to either vinyl acetate or cellulose acetate. Reports from SE Asian countries indicates that acetic acid has been used in the past to produce acetic anhydride through a reaction with ketene. Acetic acid alone will not acetylate morphine to heroin. It can be used as a substitute for ammonium chloride in the extraction of morphine from opium. ACETIC ANHYDRIDE Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide. Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3) CSA code: 8519 Harmonized code: 2915.24.000026

Density: 1,08 Boiling point: 139C Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air. Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting. Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic acid. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS). Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%); production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries; explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin, theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and herbicides. Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine. ACETIC ANHYDRIDE Other names: Acetic oxide, acetyl oxide. Molecular formulas: (CH3CO)2O Molecular weight: 102,09 (C4H6O3) CSA code: 8519. Harmonized code: 2915.24.0000 Density: 1,08. Boiling point: 139C Description: Colorless liquid with a penetrating, strong acetic odor. Fumes in moist air. Hazards: Flammable; vapors are irritating to respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin severely; ingestion causes irritation, pain and vomiting. Illicit use: Acetylating agent in the production of heroin, P2P and N-acetylanthranilic acid. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS). Legitimate uses: Acetylating and dehydrating agent; acetylation of cellulose (80%); production of polymethylacrylamide (Hard Foam); acetylated plastic auxiliaries; explosives; production of certain types of brake and drilling fluids; production of coldbleaching activators; dyeing, chiefly with nitric acid; preparation of organic intermediates; productions of pharmaceuticals, e.g., aspirin, acetanilide, phenacetin, theophylline; acetylation of animal and plant fats; production of flavors, fragrances and herbicides. Manufacturing process: Dehydration of acetic acid and carbonylation of methylacetate. Shipping and storage: Containers lined with stainless steel or polyethylene.

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Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Japan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Remarks: Acetic Anhydride reacts with morphine to yield heroin. It also reacts with anthranilic acid to form N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, the immediate precursor of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It reacts with phenylacetic acid to give P2P, a precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine. ACETONE Other names: Dimethyl ketone, -ketopropane; pyroacetic ether; 2-propanone. Molecular formula: (CH3)2CO Molecular weight: 58,08 (C3H6O) Harmonized code: 2914.11.1000 Density: 0,79 Boiling point: 56,5 C Description: Colorless, mobile, flammable liquid with a mildly pungent and somewhat aromatic odor. Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to eyes and nose in high concentrations; inhalation of vapor may cause dizziness, narcosis and coma; liquid is irritating to eyes and may cause severe damage; ingestion of liquid may cause gastric irritation, narcosis and coma. Illicit use: Solvent in purification of morphine base leading to the manufacture of heroin; conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Where controlled or regulated: CSA; United Nations; Organization of American States. Legitimate uses: Solvent and chemical intermediary for a variety of substances including plastics, paints, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agricultural products, fats, oils, waxes, resins, rubber, lacquers, varnishes and rubber cements; used in the extraction of various principals from animal and plant substances; in varnish removers, purifying paraffin; hardening and dehydrating tissue; manufacture of methyl isobutyl ketone, mesityloxide, acetic acid, diacetone alcohol, chloroform, iodoform, bromoform, explosives, rayon, photographic films and isoprene. Manufacturing process: Fermentation of cornstarch and molasses; chemical synthesis from isopropanol; from cumene or a by-product in phenol manufacture; oxidation of propane. Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel drums, tank trucks, and rail cars; stored in closed containers in well ventilated area away from heat, sparks and flames. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Finland, France, Italy, The Netherlands,United Kingdom. Asia: South Korea, Japan, Taiwan. Central America: Mexico. South America: Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela. Australia. Remarks: It is a solvent used in the conversion of cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride and in the purification of morphine base in the production of heroin. It can be produced by a reaction of diacetone alcohol with an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or in the presence of a catalyst such as zinc or aluminum oxide. It may also be produced from isopropyl alcohol at cocaine laboratory sites. N-ACETYLANTHRANILIC ACID

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Other names: Orto-acetaminobenzoic acid; 2-acetamidobenzoic acid. Molecular formula: (CH3CONH)C6H4(COOH) Molecular weight: 179,18 (C9H9O3) Harmonized code: 2924.29.4700 Melting point: 184-186C. Description: Fine white or off-white crystalline powder with a sweetish taste. Hazards: Harmful if swallowed. Illicit use: Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS); United Nations. Legitimate uses: Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, plastic and fine chemicals. Manufacturing process: From anthranilic acid and acetic anhydride. Shipping and storage: Shipped in 100 lb (45.5 kg) fiber drums; stored in tightly closed containers in cool dry area. Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: Unknown. Remarks: N-acetylanthranilic acid is the immediate precursor used in the synthesis of methaqualone and mecloqualone. It is often synthesized from anthranilic acid. Esters of NAcetylanthranilic Acid such as Ajacine are now included under the CSA. ACETYL CHLORIDE Other names: Ethanoyl chloride. Molecular formula: CH3COCl Molecular weight: 78,5 (C2H3ClO. Harmonized code: 2903.29.0000 Density: 1,104 Boiling point: 52C Description: Colorless fuming liquid with a pungent odor. Hazards: Highly flammable; vapor is irritating to the respiratory system and eyes; liquid may burn eyes and skin; ingestion of the liquid causes severe internal irritation and damage; its vapor forms explosive mixtures with air and it reacts violently with water. Illicit use: Acetylating agent used for converting morphine to heroin. Where controlled or regulated: Hong Kong; Thailand. Legitimate uses: Synthesis of pharmaceuticals and dyes; determination of water in organic liquids; manufacturing lubricating grease and rubber; in polymerization processes. Manufacturing process: Reaction of acetic anhydride and hydrogen chloride; reaction of acetic acid and phosphorus trichloride or 1,1,2-trichloroethylene or 1,1,1-trichloroethane or sulfur mono-chloride or thionyl chloride. Shipping and storage: Polyethylene lined drums in cool dry area with adequate ventilation. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, United Kingdom, Switzerland. Asia: India, Japan. Remarks: This chemical can be substituted for acetic anhydride which is the most widely used acetylating agent in converting morphine to heroin. Acetyl chloride however is more hazardous to use in this procedure than acetic anhydride and has rarely been encountered.

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AMMONIUM CHLORIDE Other names: Sal ammoniac, ammonium muriate; salmiac; Darammon; Amchlor. Molecular formula: NH4Cl Molecular weight: 53,5 Harmonized code: 2827.10.0000 Density: 1,53 Melting point: At 340C it goes from a solid to a gas and then back to a solid again without going through the liquid phase. Description: Colorless, odorless crystals or white granular powder, saline taste; absorbs moisture from the air giving it a tendency to cake. Illicit use: Extraction of morphine from opium for conversion to heroin. Where controlled or regulated: Unknown. Legitimate uses: Flux for coating iron with zinc; tinning; in dry cell batteries; dyeing; freezing mixtures; electroplating; to clean soldering irons; lustering cotton; tanning; in washing powders; for snow treatment (slows melting on ski slopes). Manufacturing process: Direct reaction between hydrochloric acid and ammonia; reaction with ammonia and carbon dioxide in aqueous sodium chloride. Shipping and storage: Shipped in sacks or bags of paper or polyethylene; stored in vessels or tanks which have internal coatings of epoxide or phenoxy resins. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Belgium, Spain, France, United Kingdom. Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Japan. Remarks: It is used to adjust the pH in the extraction of morphine from opium. It is not a critical chemical in this extraction process and other acid substitutes, such as acetic acid, can be used. AMMONIUM FORMATE Other names: Formic acid ammonium salt. Molecular formula: HCOONH4 Molecular weight: 63,06 (CH5NO2) Harmonized code: 2915.12.0000 Density: 1,27 Melting point: 119-121C Description: Crystals have a tendency to become a liquid by absorbing moisture from the air. Illicit use: Production of amphetamine and MDA. Where controlled or regulated: Unknown Legitimate uses: Chemical analysis, especially to precipitate base metals from salts of the noble metals (gold, platinum, etc.). Manufacturing process: Prepared from formic acid and ammonia; from methyl formate and ammonia. Shipping and storage: Tightly closed containers. Manufacturers: Europe: Germany, Italy, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. North America: United States.

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Remarks: It is a precursor in the clandestine production of amphetamine and MDA from P2P and 3,4-MDP2P respectively. Formic acid and ammonia are sometimes substituted for ammonium formate. AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE Other names: Ammonia solution; ammonium hydrate; aqua ammonia; Spirit of Hartshorn. Molecular formula: NH4OH Molecular weight: 35,0 (NH5O) Harmonized code: 2814.20.0000 Density: 0,91 Description: Colorless liquid with a pungent, suffocating odor. Ammonium hydroxide is a 25-30% solution of ammonia gas in water. Hazards: Severely irritating to eyes; poisonous if ingested and possibly if inhaled. Illicit use: Alkaline material used in the production of coca paste and cocaine base; reagent for producing alkaline solutions in chemical syntheses. Where controlled or regulated: Organization of American States (OAS) Legitimate uses: Detergent, removing stains, bleaching calico printing, extracting plant colors and alkaloids, manufacturing ammonium salts and aniline dyes. Manufacturing process: Reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen under pressure with a catalyst produces ammonia gas; ammonium hydroxide is produced by bubbling ammonia gas into water. Shipping and storage: Shipped in steel (sometimes stainless) vessels and polyethylene canisters for ammonium hydroxide; stored and distributed as a liquefied gas in spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels and insulated cylindrical tanks. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: United Kingdom, Estonia. Asia: Singapore, Thailand. Central America: Mexico. South America: Brazil. Africa: Nigeria. Middle East: Syria. Remarks: This chemical has been frequently found at cocaine production sites. There are many other liquid and solid alkaline substances which can be substituted for ammonium hydroxide in cocaine production. Approximately 80% of the ammonia gas produced in the U.S. is used in the production of fertilizers. ANTHRANILIC ACID Other names: Ortho-aminobenzoic, 1-amino-2-carboxybenzene, vitamin L1; aminobenzoic acid; ortho-carboxyaniline. Molecular formula: NH2C6H4COOH Molecular weight: 137,13 (C7H7NO2) CSA Code: 8530 Harmonized code: 2922.49.3700 Density: 1,41 Melting point: 144-146C Description: White to pale yellow crystalline powder with sweetish taste. Hazards: Harmful is swallowed. 2-

31

Illicit use: Production of methaqualone and mecloqualone by forming N-acetylanthranilic. Where controlled or regulated: CSA, Organization of American States (OAS), United Nations. Legitimate uses: Chemical intermediate in the manufacture of dyes (indigo), pharmaceuticals and perfumes; in general organic syntheses. Manufacturing process: Reaction of isatoic anhydride and alkalis; reduction of orthonitrobenzoic acid. Shipping and storage: Shipped in 150 lb. (68.2 kg) fiber drums and as bulk powder; stored in tightly closed containers in cool dry areas. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Denmark. Asia: Japan. Remarks: Anthranilic acid along with acetic acid is used to synthesize N-acetylanthranilic acid which is used in the clandestine production of methaqualone and mecloqualone. Esters of anthranilic acid such as pindocaine are now controlled under the CSA. BENZALDEHYDE Other names: Benzoic aldehide; artificial essential oil of almond; benzenecarbonal. Molecular formula: C6H5CHO Molecular weight: 106,12 (C7H6O) CSA Code: 8526 Harmonized code: 2912.21.0000 Density: 1,05 Boiling point: 179C Description: Strongly refractive liquid, becoming yellowish on storage; oil of almond odor; burning aromatic taste. Illicit use: Production of P2P and amphetamine. Where controlled or regulated: CSA. Legitimate uses: Manufacture of dyes, perfumes, cinnamic and mandelic acids, pharmaceutical, agricultural and other organic chemicals; solvent; ingredient in flavors. Manufacturing process: Hydrolysis of benzal chloride; partial oxidation of toluene. Shipping and storage: Keep tightly closed and protected from heat. Manufacturers: North America: United States. Europe: Germany, Spain, Italy, The Netherlands, United Kingdom. Asia: Japan. Remarks: Oxidizes in air to form benzoic acid. It can be used to clandestinely manufacture a nitropropene intermediate by a reaction with nitroethane and butylamine. This intermediate can then be converted into P2P or amphetamine. This reaction has been encountered in clandestine P2P and amphetamine labs. BENZENE Other names: Benzol; cyclohexatriene, phenyl hydride. Molecular formula: C6H6 Molecular weight: 78.11 Harmonized Codes: 2902.20.0000 (>90%) / 2707.10.0120 (


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