Energy and the New Reality, Volume 1: Energy Efficiency and the Demand for Energy Services Chapter 6: Industrial Energy Use L. D. Danny Harvey [email protected]This material is intended for use in lectures, presentations and as handouts to students, and is provided in Powerpoint format so as to allow customization for the individual needs of course instructors. Permission of the author and publisher is required for any other usage. Please see www.earthscan.co.uk for contact details. Publisher: Earthscan, UK Homepage: www.earthscan.co.uk/?tabid =101807
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Energy and the New Reality, Volume 1:
Energy Efficiency and the Demand for Energy Services
This material is intended for use in lectures, presentations and as handouts to students, and is provided in Powerpoint format so as to allow customization for the individual needs of course instructors. Permission of the author and publisher is required for any other usage. Please see www.earthscan.co.uk for contact details.
- Food processing (Chapter 7)- General manufacturing
Figure 6.1 Industrial Energy use in 2005 as a percent of total energy use in various regions
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Pe
rce
nt
Ind
us
tria
l
Africa EuropeNorth
AmericaCentralAmerica
SouthAmerica Asia Oceania
Global Average: 37.5%
Figure 6.2a Industrial energy use in OECD countries in 2005
Iron and Steel16%
Chemical & Petro-
chemical20%
Pulp and Paper 13%
Non-Ferrous metals 6%
Non-specified11%
Non-metallic minerals 8%
Textile and leather 2%
Construction1%
Wood and wood
products 2%
Food and Tobacco 7%
Mining and Quarrying 2%
Transport equipment
2%
Machinery7%
Figure 6.2b Industrial energy use in non-OECD countries
Iron and Steel25%
Chemical & Petrochemical
13%
Non-Ferrous metals
5%
Non-specified25%
Non-metallic minerals
11%
Textile and leather
3%
Construction1%
Wood and wood products
1%
Food and Tobacco 7%
Mining and Quarrying 2% Transport
equipment2%Machinery
4%
Pulp and Paper 2%
Figure 6.3 Global primary energy use for production of the 12 commodities (other than the production of fuels)
using the most energy
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Go
bal
Pri
mar
y E
ner
gy
Use
(E
J/yr
)
Definitions:
• Primary metals: made from virgin ores (raw materials)• Secondary metals: recycled from scrap• Feedstock energy: The energy content of fossil fuels
that become part of the material in a commodity. It is equal to the heating value of the final product.
• Process energy: energy (in the form of heat or electricity) used to power a chemical transformation. It is equal to the total energy inputs to the production process minus the embodied energy of the final products
• Embodied energy: the total amount of energy (process + feedstock) that went into making something
Overview of global production of major commodities of energy interest
Figure 6.4: Trends in production of major commodities (solid lines use the left scale, dashed lines the right scale)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
An
nu
al P
rod
uct
ion
(Mt)
An
nu
al P
rod
uct
ion
(Mt)
Year
CementSteelPaperPlasticsAluminumCopper x 10Zinc x 10
Processing of Minerals
• Most minerals of interest occur as oxide minerals in ores (rock bodies with various minerals mixed together, besides the ones of interest)
• The steps in processing minerals are thus – separation of the minerals of interest from the other minerals in the ores
- removal of oxygen (reduction)- purification
Reduction of oxide minerals, calcination of CaCO3 (during production of cement), and processing of
silica and limestone to make glass all release CO2
• Iron: 2Fe2O3 +3C → 4Fe+3CO2
• Alumina (made first from bauxite):
2Al2O3 + 3C → 4Al+3CO2
• Cuprite (produced by roasting Cu-containing minerals):
2CuO+C→2Cu+CO2
• Calcination of limestone to make cement:
CaCO3→CaO+CO2
• Production of glass:
nSiO2 + mCaCO3 + xNa2CO3 + .... → Glass + CO2
In the case of iron, aluminum and copper, the C used for reduction comes from fossil fuel inputs, or from materials (such as C anodes) made from fossil fuels, and so is accounted for in the energy use data combined with the emission factors (kgC/kg fuel) for these energy inputs.
Thus, fossil fuel energy inputs play two roles in producing Fe, Al, or Cu – as a source of C for the reduction reaction and as a source of heat (through combustion) to drive the reaction.
In the case of calcination of limestone or transformation of raw materials into glass, however, the C that is released as CO2 comes from the raw materials themselves and so is not accounted for in the energy use data.
Thus, you will find that national CO2 emission data are given separately for coal, oil, natural gas, and production of cement. This latter category refers to the CO2 that is produced through the chemical reactions involved in the formation of cement, and is in addition to the CO2 released from burning the fossil fuels used at the cement plants.
Chemical emissions from the production of glass are only about 1% of those from cement (due to about 30 times less global production and a 3 times smaller emission factor), and tend to be ignored in compilations of national emissions.
Iron and Steel
Figure 6.5a: World production of primary + secondary raw steel
Figure 6.6 Anthropogenic iron flows in 2000 (Tg Fe/yr)
Source: Wang et al (2007, Environmental Science and Technology 41, 5120–5129)
Traditional Steps in Making Steel:
• Beneficiation of iron ores (removal of impurities)• Agglomeration of fine particles• Reduction of iron ore to make crude iron• Refining of crude iron to make steel (removing
impurities, adding trace elements)• Shaping of steel into final products
Reduction of iron ore
• Commonly done in a blast furnace• C from coke (which is like charcoal, and made from
coal by driving off volatile materials) is used as a reducing agent
• Theoretical minimum energy requirement is 6.8 GJ/t• Practical lower limit is 10 GJ/t, best blast furnaces
use about 12 GJ/y, world average is about 14.4 GJ/t• Coke provides some of the heat energy required (as
well as serving as a reducing agent), with the balance supplied by coal
Refining of crude iron
• 3 options are: Open-hearth furnace, Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF), Electric air furnace (EAF)
• BOF requires pure oxygen (separated from air)• EAF is used for scrap metal and in the new
direct-reduction process• Energy by EAFs per tonne of steel fell in half
between 1960-1900
Figure 6.7 Refining of reduced iron to produce steel
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1975 1990 2003
Year
Pro
dcu
tio
n (
Mt/
yr)
Other
Electric arc furnace
Basic oxygen furnace
Open Hearth Furnace
Figure 6.8 Energy used by EAFs per tonne of crude steel
High power/long arc operation
Water cooledwalls
Oxygenlancing
Secondarymetallurgy
630 kWh/tcs
Electricity consumption
6.5 kg/tcs Electrode consumption
DC technology
2.2 kg/tcs
350 kWh/tcs
Higher electric powersupply
Scrap preheating
EBT (slag-free)
Pneumaticbath stirringLadle furnace
Bottom tap hole
Water cooled roof/oxy-fuel burner
Foaming slag practice
Computer control
Oxygen andcarbon lancemanipulator
year
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
10
8
6
4
2
0
Source: de Beer et al (1998a, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 23, 123–205)
Shaping of Steel, Traditional Method
Produce steel in cubical blocks, small bars, or slabs using a continuous caster, then convert into final products using various hot mills (heating and cooling occurs between steps, with an energy loss each time)
Shaping of Steel, Alternative approaches: Cast the molten steel closer to the desired final shape, using thin-slab casting, thin-strip casting, or powder metallurgy
• Thin-strip casting has the potential to reduce energy use for shaping by 90-95%
• In thin-strip casting, the length of the production line has been reduced from 500-800 m to 60 m – about a factor of ten reduction!
Alternative Approaches for Reducing Iron Ore:
• Blast Furnace with coke through reaction with CO while the ore is still solid (traditional approach)
• Direct reduction of the ore using coal or natural gas to produce a H2-rich gas (or direct use of purchased H2) combined with a DC current
• Smelting reduction of the ore in the liquid state, directly using coal
Figure 6.9a Primary energy use with best current blast-furnace/BOF route for making primary steel
C o a l
Iron o re
1 .9
C o keo ven
O re p re -p ara tio n
2 .6
12 .4
B la s tfu rn ace P ig
iron
F lu x in g ag en tP e lle ts
0 .3
B as ico xyg enfu rn ace
C ru d estee l
S crap (10% )
0 .6
R efin in gcas tin g C as t
s tee l
2 .1
R o llin gS ha pin g
19.9 GJ/t
Q u ality fla tan d lo ngp ro d u c ts
Figure 6.9b Primary energy use with advanced blast-furnace/BOF making primary steel
By comparison, the present world average primary energy requirement for primary steel is
about 36 GJ/t
Coal
Iron ore
1.2
Cokeoven
Ore pre-paration
2.2
11.9
Blastfurnace Pig
iron
Fluxing agentPellets
-1.0Basic
oxygenfurnace
Crudesteel
Scrap (10%)
0.6
Refiningcasting Cast
steel
1.5
RollingShaping
16.9 GJ/t
Quality flatand longproducts
Figure 6.9c Primary energy use with best current direct reduction/EAF steel making
Iron ore1 .4
O re p re -para tio n
N atural gasor C o al
D irectredu ction
13.4
S po ngeiron
3 .5
O xygenFo ss il fue l
C ru des teel
0 .6
R efin ingcas ting C ast
s teel
1 .0
R ollingS hapin g
20.0 GJ/t
Fla tprodu cts/
shapes
Figure 6.9d Primary energy use with advanced direct reduction/EAF steel making and advanced refining,
casting, and shaping
Iron ore1.4
Ore pre-paration
Natural gasor Coal
Directreduction
11.3
Spongeiron
3.5
Electricarc furnace Crude
steel
OxygenFossil fuel
0.75
Refiningcastingshaping
16.9 GJ/t
Flatproducts/shapes
Figure 6.9e Primary energy use with advanced smelting-reduction/BOF steel making and advanced
refining, casting, and shaping
This is a reduction by 63% (~two thirds) compared to the present average primary energy use for primary steel of
36 GJ/t. The savings is due in part to an assumed improvement in the efficiency in generating the electricity
that is supplied to the steel plant from 40% to 60%.
Iron ore
Coal
Smeltingreduction
13.4
Pigiron
-1.0
Basicoxygen furnace
Crudesteel
0.75
RefiningCastingShaping
13.2 GJ/t
Quality flat and long products(Scrap)Oxygen
Figure 6.10a Current mill using scrap steel to make secondary steel
3.4Electric
arcfurnace
Crudesteel
Scrap0.6
Refiningcasting Cast
steel
1.0
RollingShaping
5 GJ/tcs
Bar/shapesFlat products
OxygenFossil fuel
Source: de Beer et al (1998a, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 23, 123–205)
Figure 6.10b Advanced mill using scrap steel to make secondary steel
This is a reduction by 50% from the present world average of 7 GJ/t for secondary steel. The savings is due in part to an assumed improvement in the efficiency in generating the electricity that is supplied to the steel plant from 40%
to 60%.
0.5
Scrapupgrading
2.3
Electricarc
furnace Crudesteel
0.75
RefiningcastingShaping
3.5 GJ/tcs
Bar/shapesFlat products
Oxygen
Scrap
Fossil fuel
de Beer et al (1998a, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 23, 123–205)
Source: de Beer et al (1998a, Annual Review of Energy and the Environment 23, 123–205)
Steel Summary: Primary Energy Requirements
• Primary Steel:
- 36 GJ/t world average today, assuming electricity supplied at 40% efficiency
• Secondary Steel:
- 7 GJ/t world average today – a reduction by about a factor of 5 compared to primary steel
Steel Summary (continued):
• Current average with 32% secondary: 26.3 GJ/t• Future average with 90% secondary and current best practice as average: 6.9 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 3.8 • Future average with 90% secondary, best projected energy intensities for primary and secondary steel: 5.9 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 4.5• All of the above plus 60% electricity supply efficiency instead of 40%: 4.5 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 5.8
• Thus, the overall potential reduction in the average primary energy intensity of steel is a factor of 4.5 to 6
Aluminium
Figure 6.11a World production of primary aluminium
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Year
Pri
mar
y A
lum
iniu
m P
rod
uct
ion
(kt
/yr)
Other
US
Canada
Russia
China
Figure 6.11b Production of primary aluminium in 2007
China32%
Russia11%
Canada8%
US7%
Australia5%
Other22%
Brazil 4%
India 4%
Norway 3%
S Africa 2%
UAE 2%
Figure 6.11c End uses of aluminium in the US in 2003
Construction16%
Containers & Packaging
23%
Electrical7%
Machinery & Equipment
7%
Transportation36%
Other4%
Consumer Durables
7%
Production of Aluminium
• Mining of bauxite (mostly Al(OH)3 and AlO(OH)) (most of the mining is through strip mining)
• Refining of bauxite into alumina (Al2O3)-grinding, then digestion with caustic soda at high T and P
• Smelting of alumina into aluminium, through electrolysis of alumina that has been dissolved into cryolite (Na3AlF6) at 900oC
-both the cathode and anode are made of C
-the net reaction is 2Al2O3+3C→4Al+3CO2
Figure 6.12 Aluminium Mass Flow in 2005
From this diagram it can be seen that a little over 4 t of dry bauxite are mined for every tonne of primary aluminium that is produced
Bauxite 168.2
A lum ina 61.3
MATERIAL FLO W METAL FLOW
Ingots 63.8Prim ary
A lum in ium used31.6
R em eltedA lum in ium 32 .3
TradedN ew
Scrap 1.3
Fabrica torScrap
17.0
Bauxite Residues 70.8and Water 36.1 M etal Loss es 1.3
o .a .R ecycledA lum in ium 15 .3
OtherA pplications
1.1
TradedN ewScrap 7.9
O ldScrap
7.4
Not Recycled in 2005 3.5
Under Investigation: 3.3
Total Produc tsStored in U seSince 1888560 .7
F in ishedProducts (output)37.6
Fabrica ted and F in ishedProducts ( input)62.5
B uild ing 32% Transport 28%o.a.Autom otive 16%
O ther 11%
Engineeringand Cable 28%
P ackaging 1%
N et A ddition 2005: 22 .2
Source: IAI (www.world-aluminium.org)
Figure 6.13 Secondary energy used in making aluminium metal
Mining0.4%
Refining, Electricity
1.7%
Refining, Fuels23.9%
Smelting, Electricity
56.4%
Materials, Fuels17.6%
Figure 6.14: World average electricity use for the production of aluminium
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Ele
ctri
city
Use
(M
Wh
/t)
Year
Figure 6.15 Efficiencies of individual processes in producing aluminium
Figure 6.16: World production of primary and secondary aluminium, and the secondary share of total production
0
10
20
30
40
50
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Pro
du
ctio
n (M
t/yr
) o
r %
Sec
on
dar
y
Year
Primary aluminum
Secondary aluminum
Percent Secondary
Aluminium Summary: Primary Energy Requirements
• Primary aluminium:
- 193 GJ/t world average today, assuming electricity supplied at 40% efficiency
• Secondary aluminium:
- 17 GJ/t world average today – more than a factor of 10 smaller than for primary aluminium
• Average of the above (with 18.7% recycled) is
160.3 GJ/t (more than 5 times that of steel)
Aluminium Summary (continued): • Future average with 90% secondary and current average energy use separately for primary and secondary Al: 34.5 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 4.6 • Future average with 90% secondary, best projected energy intensities for primary and secondary steel: 23.3 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 6.9• All of the above plus 60% electricity supply efficiency instead of 40%: 19.1 GJ/t This is a reduction by a factor of 8.4
• Thus, the overall potential reduction in the average primary energy intensity of aluminium is a factor of 5 to 8
Copper
Figure 6.17a World copper mining
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Year
Co
pp
er E
xtra
ctio
n (
Mt/
yr)
OtherRussiaIndonesiaAustraliaUSPeruChile
Figure 6.17b Copper mining in 2007
Chile36%
Peru8%US
8%
Other19%
Australia 6%
Indonesia 5%
Russia 5%
Canada 4%
Zambia 3%
Poland 3%
Kazakhstan 3%
Figure 6.17c End uses of copper in the US in 2003
Building Construction
48%
Electrical & Electronic Products
21%
Industrial Machinery & Equipment
10%
Transportation Equipment
10%
Consumer & General
Products 11%
Figure 6.18 Anthropogenic copper flows in ca. 1994 in Gg Cu/yr
Source: Graedel et al (2004, Environmental Science and Technology 38, 1242–1252)
Production of Copper Metal
• Copper minerals occur either as oxides (combined with CO3 or SiO2) or as sulfides (combined with S).
• A given ore body tends to have oxide minerals in the upper zone (close to air) and sulfide minerals in the lower zone
• There are two different produciton routes: Hydrometallurgy (acid related) – tends to be applied
to oxide minerals Pyrometallurgy (heat related) – tends to be applied
to sulfide minerals• In the transition zone of the ore body, either
technique can be applied, but there has been a shift to more use of hydrometallurgy
Steps in Pyrometallurgy (1):
• Extraction from the mine, crushing, and grinding• Froth flotation – mix with chemical foaming agents, as
ore minerals adhere to bubbles and float to surface and can be skimmed off. Produces a concentrate of 25-30% copper, mostly CuFeS2.
• Smelting – heating the concentrate in oxygen-enriched air to 1200-1250oC, with addition of silica (SiO2), partially oxidizing the Fe and S, releasing SO2 gas, and producing a molten copper matte (Cu2S*FeS) and molten slag (FeO*SiO2):
• Converting – separating the Cu2S from the FeS in the copper matte and oxidizing the S. Produces blister copper (99% copper) and further iron slag
Cu2S + O2 → 2Cu° + 2SO2 + heat
2FeS + 3O2 + SiO2 → 2FeO•SiO2 + 2SO2 + heat
The smelting and converting reactions are exothermic –and the heat released is sufficient to maintain the required temperature once the process has started. This eliminates the need for fuel energy in state-of-the-art smelters & converters, but requires continuous rather than batch processing.
Steps in Pyrometallurgy (3):
• Fire refining. This is a process for removing most of the remaining O and S and, like previous steps, is carried out at a temperature of about 1200oC. The O is removed as CO2 through reaction with a hydrocarbon reducing agent (typically 5-7 kg per tonne of copper), while S is removed as SO2 through reaction with atmospheric oxygen. Fire refining is carried out in special rotating furnaces that are heated by combusting hydrocarbon fuels. The liquid product is directly cast into thin anodes that are interleaved with cathodes in electro-refining cells. The copper anodes still contain about 0.15% O and 0.002% S.
Steps in Pyrometallurgy (4):
• Electro-refining. This is an electrolysis process that involves electrochemically dissolving copper from impure copper anodes into a CuSO2-H2SO4-H2O electrolyte and electroplating pure copper from the electrolyte onto a cathode without the impurities. After 7-14 days the cathodes are removed from the cell and the pure metal is scrapped off. The reactions are:
Cuºanode → Cu 2+ + 2e- at the anode, and
Cu 2+ + 2e- → Cuº at the cathode.
Steps in Hydrometallurgy:• Leaching – excavate ores, pile in a heap, and add acid to
dissolve the ore, or drill holes into the ore body and pump in acid, and weeks to months later, pump out the leachate
• Concentration – add organic solvents to the acid solution, to selectively absorb copper from the solution
• Refining – an electrolysis process called electro-winning, similar to electro-refining except that the anode consists of an inert Pb-Sn-Ca mixture. The copper is electroplated onto the cathode from the Cu solution supplied from the concentration step rather than supplied by dissolution of a copper anode.
The combination of acid leaching and electro-winning is called the solvent-extraction electro-winning process, or SX-EW.
As previously noted, SX-EW (hydrometallurgy) is being used more and more. There are three disadvantages with this process:
• Any gold, silver, or molybdenum in the ore is lost• The fraction of the Cu present in the ore that can be
extracted is much less than using pyrometallurgy• Electro-winning requires much more electricity (1800-
2800 kWh/t) than the electro-refining process (300-400 kWh/t) used in pyrometallurgy
On the other hand, hydrometallurgy only requires crushing the mined ore to a 10-13 cm size, rather than grinding it
down to the size of individual mineral grains (100-200 μm) (as in pyrometallurgy). The grinding stage is very energy intensive. If 20 kWh of electricity are required per tonne of ore, the amount require per tonne of copper is 20 kWh/(copper fraction in the ore). Thus, for ore with 1% copper (a grade of 1%), the grinding energy requirement is 2000 kWh/tonne – comparable to the energy used for electro-winning (1800-2800 kWh/t) in the hydrometallurgy route.
Thus, the amount of energy used in producing copper increases rapidly with decreasing grade of ore.
This is because mining and concentrating the Cu account for 1/3 to 1/2 half of the total energy used in producing the pure metal for 1% ores, in contrast to iron and aluminum, where the metal concentrations in the ores are high (40-50% for Al, 60-70% for Fe) and mining and concentrating are a very small fraction of the total energy use
Figure 6.19 Estimated primary energy requirement to produce rolled copper tubes
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Pri
mar
y E
ner
gy
(GJ/
t o
f co
pp
er)
Grade of Ore (% copper)
Pyrometallurgy, High
Pyrometallurgy, Low
Hydrometallurgy, High
Hydrometallurgy, Low
Table 6.12: Average grade of the remaining Cu ores in different parts of the world
R e g i o n G r a d e ( % c o p p e r )
N o r t h A m e r i c a 0 . 4 7L a t i n A m e r i c a 1 . 0 0E u r o p e 1 . 5 0O c e a n i a 1 . 5 6E a s t A s i a 1 . 1 3C e n t r a l A s i a 1 . 5 1A f r i c a 3 . 0 0
Source: Giurco (2005, Towards sustainable metal cycles: The case of copper’, PhD Thesis, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Sydney)
Energy Use in Producing Secondary Copper
• Depends strongly on the extent to which the scrap copper is contaminated with other materials
• Purest copper can be simply melted and recast• Less pure copper is re-melted and cast as
anodes, followed by electro-refining• Impure copper must be smelted and converted
Figure 6.20 Flowchart for refining and smelting of contaminated copper
B last fu rnace
A node furnace
C onverting fu rnace
E lectro lytic fu rnace
R eductionfurnace
C opper bearingscrap and coke
M olten black copper (80+% C u)
S crap(2-6% S n)
M olten rough copper (95+% C u)
S crap(>96% C u)
A nodes (99 .5% C u)
S n-P balloys
ZnOfum e
M ixed S n /P b /Znoxide dust
N ickel su lfa te &C u + precious m etals
s lim es
C athodes< 20 ppm im purities
Low grade ZnO fum e
G ranu lated s lag
A nodes scrap
S olid ified anodefurnace s lag
S olid ified converter slag
Source: Davenport et al (2002, Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam)
Figure 6.21a Global production of primary and secondary copper, and scrap flow
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001
An
nu
al F
low
(Mt)
Year
Primary Production
Secondary Production
Old scrap flow
2005
Figure 6.21b Recycling rate of scrap copper
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
1966 1976 1986 1996
Fra
ctio
n R
ecyc
led
Pri
ce (
2005
US
$/t)
Year2005
Price
Fraction Recycled
Figure 6.22 Distribution of the copper stock in the US of 238 kg per person
Infrastructure, 95, 40%
Plumbing, 32
Wiring, 28
Air conditioning and
refrigeration, 16
Industrial, 26
Domestic, 13
Motor Vehicles,16
Railway, ships,aircraft, 12
Building &Construction
76, 32%
Equipment39, 16%
Transportation28, 12%
Energy requirements for recycling Cu:
• ~ 4 GJ/t for Grade 1 scrap• ~ 20 GJ/t for Grade 2 scrap (≥ 94% Cu)• ~ 50 GJ/t for Grade 3 scrap (contaminated)
By comparison, 80-90 GJ/t are required for 1% ore and 180 GJ/t for 0.3% ore (however, one worker gives the primary energy requirement as only ~ 50 GJ/t for 0.35% ore)
So, except possibly for contaminated scrap compared to cases of primary Cu with low energy requirements, recycling saves a lot energy – potentially reducing the energy requirement by more than a factor of 40
This dismal picture will likely change soon, as Cu mining is expected by some analysts to peak in about 20
years, due to supply constraints
Figure 6.23 Quantity of metals vs grade of ores, showing two modes – corresponding to mineral crystals and atomic substitution
Atomicsubstitution
Mineralcrystals
Ore Grade
Source: Ayres et al (2003, The Life Cycle of Copper, Its Co-Products and Byproducts, Kluwer, Dordrecht)
Ways to limit demand for copper:
• More compact and smaller housing – less length of wire needed
• Smaller growth in electricity demand
• Replacement of copper with glass fibre in telecommunications
• Replacement of copper with PVC pipes in plumbing (PVC pipes are less energy-intensive)
Figure 6.24c Disposition of cement produced in the US in 2003
Ready-mix concrete
72%
Concrete products
13%
Contractors 6%
Building material dealers 3%
Other 2% Masonry cement4%
Production of Cement
• Crushing, grinding, and blending of raw materials into a homogenous powder
• Heating the raw materials to over 1400ºC in a kiln to produce clinker
• Grinding the clinker to a fine powder and mixing it with additions to form cement
Concrete is a mixture of about 10% cement and 90% aggregates (sand and gravel), with cement serving as the binding material. When stronger concrete is required, the proportion of cement is increased, so this increases the embodied energy of the concrete (as cement is the energy-intensive part of concrete).
Table 6.17: Composition of Portland cement
Portland cement (named after the Peninsula Portland in England) is 95% clinker and 5% gypsum. The elemental
composition of clinker is as follows:
Source: van Oss and Padovani (2002, Journal of Industrial Ecology 6, 89–105 )
C h em ic a l fo r m u la
S h o rth a n d n o ta tio n
A m o u n t
C a O C 6 5 .0 % S iO 2 S 2 2 .0 % A l2 O 3 A 6 .0 % F e 2O 3 F 3 .0 % M g O M 1 .0 % K 2 O +N a 2 O K + N 0 .8 % O th er (in c l. S O 3)
… (? ) 2 .2 %
Reactions occurring inside a cement kiln:
• Calcination,
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
• Clinkering,
29C+8S+2A+F→2C2S + 6C3S+C4AF “alite” “belite”
Table 6.18: Composition of clinker and roles of the different components
C h em ica l form ula
S h or th an d n ota tion
D escr ip tion A m ou n t C om m en t
C a3S iO 5 C 3S Trica lc iu m silica te (“a lite” )
50 -70% Im p arts ea rly stren g th
C a2S iO 4 C 2S D ica lciu m silica te (“b e lite” )
10 -30% Im p arts lo n g- term stren g th
C a3A l2O 6
C 3A
Trica lc iu m a lu m in ate
0 -15 %
A cts a s a f lu x an d c on tr ib u tes to ear ly stren g th
C a4A l2F e 2O 1 0
C 4A F
Te traca lc iu m a lu m in oferr ite
0 -15 %
A cts a s a f lu x; con trib u te s to lon g-term stren gth , an d im p ar ts g ra y co lor
C aS O 4 •2 H 2 O C ? H 2 C a lc iu m su lfa te d ih y dra te (gyp su m )
3 -7% C on tro ls ea rly s ettin g
Source: van Oss and Padovani (2002, Journal of Industrial Ecology 6, 89–105 )
Figure 6.25 Layout of the zones in various cement kilns
20-200 Co 200-750 Co 1200-1450 Co750-1000 Co 1450-1300 CoFuel
Burner
Clinker
ClinkerCooler
DryingZone
PreheatZone
Sintering orBurning Zone
CoolingZone
RawMateria ls
Rotary K iln
CalciningZone
W et K iln 200m~
Long Dry K iln 130m~
Dry, Preheater Kiln 90m~
Dry, PreheaterPrecalcinor K iln
~ 50m
Preheater/ProcalcinorTower
PreheaterTower
Upper, “cool” end Lower, “hot” end
HeatingDrive offWater
CaCO 3 CaO+CO 2
CaO+SiO +Al O +Fe O2 2 3 2 3 C S+C S+C A+C A F3 2 3 4
C S A F
Source: Van Oss and Padovani (2002, Background Facts and Issues Concerning Cement and Cement Data, Open File Report 2005-1152, US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia)
The binding properties of cement occur when it is mixed with water, which forms hydrated molecules that cling to each other. The binding requires materials with a high surface area (which must therefore be ground to a very fine powder) and materials that can form hydrates. This is relevant to the possibility of producing lower-energy alternatives to traditional Portland cement.
Current national average energy use for producing cement:
• Theoretical minimum for clinkering: 1.67 GJ/t• Japan, 3.1 GJ/t• Germany, 3.8 GJ/t• European average, 4.1 GJ/t• China, 5.0 GJ/t• India, 5.0 GJ/t• Canada, 5.1 GJ/t• USA, 5.5 GJ/t• Columbia, 6.1 GJ/t
Options for reducing energy use in making cement:
• Shifting from wet to dry kilns• Better recovery of waste heat from kilns• Improved grinding techniques• Reducing the clinker portion (95% in Portland
cement) by blending in other materials, such as -blast furnace slag -fly ash from coal-fired powerplants -volcanic materials -natural limestone (easy to grind) -ordinary quartz sand (hard to grind)
Figure 6.26 Supply of fly ash and blast furnace slag
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Ca
na
da
US
A
L A
me
ric
a
W E
uro
pe
E E
uro
pe
FS
U
Mid
dle
Ea
st
Afr
ica
AU
& N
Z
Ch
ina
Ind
ia
Ko
rea
Ja
pa
n
SE
As
ia
Mt
in 2
020
Cement Demand
Slag supply
Fly Ash supply
Source: Humphreys and Mahasenan (2002, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry, Substudy 8: Climate Change, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Cement Sustainability Initiative, www.wbcsdcement.org
Source: Ruth and Dell’Anno (1997, Resources Policy 23, 109–124)
Types of furnaces for melting of raw materials:
• Regenerative, recuperative
- use fuels (natural gas), maximum efficiency now ~50% ((heat added to raw materials) / (fuel energy used)), could be pushed to 75% (giving a 1/3 reduction in fuel use)
• Electric – efficiency of 70-90%, but must account for losses in generating and transmitting electricity.
- applied to fibrous glass
Typical primary energy use today
• Flat and container glass: ~ 20-30 GJ/t• Fibrous glass at 40%
electricity supply efficiency: ~ 60 GJ/t• Fibrous glass at 60%
Figure 6.27 Rates of Recycling of Glass Containers
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Au
str
ia
Ne
the
rla
nd
s
Ge
rma
ny
Sw
ed
en
Be
lgiu
m
De
nm
ark
Fin
lan
d
Fra
nc
e
Po
rtu
ga
l
Ire
lan
d
Sp
ain
Ita
ly
Gre
ec
e
UK
US
A
Per
cen
t R
ecyc
led
Paper and Paper Products
Production of Paper and Paper Products
• Acquisition of fibres• Pulping• Bleaching• Manufacture of paper from pulp
Figure 6.28a Production of different kinds of paper and paper products
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Year
Pro
du
ctio
n (
Mt/
yr)
Other
Wrapping & Packaging
Household & Sanitary
Printing and Writing
Newsprint
Figure 6.28b Production of paper and paper products by region
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Year
Pro
du
ctio
n (
Mt/
yr)
Africa
Oceania
L America & Caribbean
North America
Europe
Asia
Figure 6.29 Annual per capita paper consumption
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
kg/p
erso
n/y
ear
Year
USA South AmericaCanada AsiaOceania Middle East & North AfricaEurope Sub-Saharan AfricaCentral America & Caribbean
Figure 6.30 Rates of paper recycling
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Ire
lan
dN
orw
ay
Sw
itze
rla
nd
Ne
the
rla
nd
sS
we
de
nU
KS
lov
en
iaA
us
tria
Sp
ain
De
nm
ark
Po
rtu
ga
lF
ran
ce
Fin
lan
dH
un
ga
ryIt
aly
Be
lgiu
mE
sto
nia
Slo
va
k R
ep
ub
licR
om
an
iaL
atv
iaC
zec
h R
ep
ub
licL
ith
ua
nia
Gre
ec
eP
ola
nd
Bu
lga
ria
Cy
pru
sM
alt
a
Ja
pa
nC
an
ad
aU
S
Pap
er R
ecyc
lin
g R
ate
(%)
Sources of Fibre for Paper:
• Roundwood (wood removed from forests or other areas)
• Sawmill residues• Discarded paper
Pulping Processes
• Mechanical • Chemical• Semi-chemical
Mechanical Pulping
• Breaks apart the wood by grinding • Both fibre and lignin are turned into pulp, so the
pulp yield is high - 85% of the original wood mass.
• Lots of heat is generated that can be used elsewhere in the paper mill
Chemical Pulping
• Soften wood chips with steam• Then cook for several hours at 160-170oC under
pressure in a highly alkaline solution (contains NaOH and Na2S) called white liquor
• This dissolves the lignin, leaving only the fibres (40-55% of the wood) to form pulp
• The spent liquor (now called black liquor) and bark are burned to produce heat and electricity for use by the pulp and paper mill
Figure 6.31 Annual trade of different kinds of pulp
0
50
100
150
200
250
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Year
Pu
lp P
rod
uct
ion
(M
t/yr
)
Recycled
Non-wood
Dissolving
Semi-chemical
Chemical
Mechanical
Bleaching
• Process of removing residual lignin from the pulp, which otherwise causes the pulp to be dark
• Requires a chemical (Cl2, ClO2, H2O2 or O3) that oxidizes the lignin but not the fibre (cellulose and hemi-cellulose)
• Cl2 bleaching causes severe water pollution, so there is a move toward elemental chlorine-free (ECF) bleaching (using ClO2) or totally chlorine-free (TCF) bleaching (using H2O2 or O3)
Steps in making paper from pulp
• Addition of water sufficient to give a water:fibre ratio of 100:1 (i.e., a consistency of 1%).
• Forming – spread stock over a wire screen, then remove sufficient water through gravity and suction to give a consistency of 20%
• Pressing – increase consistency to 40-45% by passing the sheet with felt through 3-4 pairs of press cylinders
• Drying – pass sheet through 40-50 steam-heated cylinders, to give a consistency of 90-95%
Options to reduce energy use per unit of paper made
• Integration of pulp and paper mills• Heat recovery from mechanical pulping• Reductions in market demand for bleached
paper products (through consumer awareness)• More efficient drying of initial pulp sheets• More efficient cogeneration• Increased recycling
Cogeneration in the pulp and paper industry
• Currently very inefficient – only 10-15% electrical efficiency, in part to avoid producing excess electricity because it can’t be sent to the grid in many jurisdictions due to monopolistic practices by power utilities
• Potential electrical efficiency of 27-30% (and 72% overall efficiency) with gasification of black liquor followed by combined-cycle power generation. Some problems still to be worked out
• This could make the pulp and paper mill a net source of energy – this would be renewable, biomass-based energy
Other possibilities:
• Production of dimethyl ether (a substitute for diesel fuel in the transportation sector) from biomass wastes, integrated with pulp and paper production, is potentially more attractive in terms of energy saving than is cogeneration of heat and electricity
• Development of completely closed mills – all liquids flow back through the mill, rather than be ejected with heat (and pollutants) to the environment. At present it would be hard to make use of the saved heat.
The energy balance in recycling of paper includes:
• The net energy required to make paper from virgin fibres, taking into account the energy that can be produced from black liquor and forestry residues and the energy required to make any fertilizers that are applied to plantation forests
• The energy that can be obtained from incineration of waste paper to cogenerate heat and electricity if it is not recycled (landfilling is totally out of the question)
• The energy required during recycling of waste paper, including the energy required to collect waste paper and transport it to the recycling plant
• The energy that could be supplied from the biomass that is saved when waste paper is recycled
Rough energy balance:
• Paper from wood: gross energy requirement: ~ 29 GJ/t Potential energy production: ~ 31 GJ/t Net energy requirement: -2 GJ/t• Paper from waste paper: ~ 20 GJ/t
So, in terms of gross energy requirements,recycling gives a 30% savings. However, in termsof net energy use, recycling increases the energyrequirement.
There is, of course, more to it
• Incineration of waste paper with cogeneration saves ~26 GJ/t of primary energy, so the overall energy gain with production of paper from virgin fibres and later incineration is ~ 28 GJ/t
• BUT – for each tonne of waste paper that is recycled, 2.2 tonnes of biomass are saved.
• For the set of assumptions in Table 6.29, this saves 52 GJ of primary energy, for a net energy gain of ~ 32 GJ/t
• Thus, recycling is slightly better from an energy point of view, but for slightly different assumptions, it could be slightly worse.
Plastics
• Produced by reacting steam with hydrocarbons at high T and P, thereby breaking the C-C bonds in the hydrocarbons (so this process is called steam cracking)
• Most are made from naptha, an intermediate product in the refining of petroleum
• Cracking produces methane, olefins, and aromatics, which are the precursors to various kinds of plastic
Figure 6.32a: Plastics production in 2007
Europe24%
NAFTA23%
China15%
Japan6%
Rest of Asia17%
FSU 3%
Middle East & Africa 8%
Latin America 4%
Figure 6.32b: Uses of plastics in Europe
Packaging37%
Building & Construction
21%
Automotive8%
Electrical and Electronic
6%
Other28%
Figure 6.33 Plastics and other petrochemicals made from petroleum
Source: Geiser (2001, Materials Matter: Towards a Sustainable Materials Policy, MIT Press, Cambridge)
Most plastics are long chains of molecules (monomers), hence the prefix “poly” in the names of most plastics. The major plastics are:
• Feedstock Energy: 20-40 GJ/t• Process energy: 20-120 GJ/t• Total energy: 50-160 GJ/t
Energy is used for heating to up to 1000oC (to “crack” naphtha or other raw materials), for chilling (sudden cooling to as low as -150oC is needed for some of the reaction and separation steps), and for pumps and motors
Figure 6.35 Primary energy inputs to make plastic
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Nylo
n-6
,6
Nylo
n-6
Ep
ox
y re
sin
Po
lya
cry
late
Po
lyc
arb
on
ate
Me
lam
ine
re
sin
Po
lyu
reth
an
e
Po
lys
tyre
ne
Po
lya
cry
lon
itri
le
Po
lye
thyle
ne
Syn
the
tic
ru
bb
er
Ph
en
ol f
orm
ald
eh
yd
e re
sin
s
PE
T
Po
lyvin
yl a
ce
tate
Po
lyvin
yl c
hlo
rid
e
Ure
a re
sin
En
erg
y In
pu
t (G
J/t
on
ne)
Process energy
Feedstock Energy
Energy Savings Potential
• For the cracking step – 25% or more savings should be typically possible in the medium term (with modest further improvement of existing state-of-the-art crackers)
• Improved cogeneration (if present) or implementation of cogeneration (if not already used) (both steam and electricity are required)
• Adjustment of piping systems, use of variable speed drives (mentioned in the Buildings chapter), better chiller controls and increasing the temperature of chilled water produced by the chillers reduced electricity use by 50% in one case
Energy Savings Through Recycling
• The feedstock energy is saved (except possibly for small material losses during the recycling process)
• Some (often large) portion of the process energy is also saved (no need to crack hydrocarbons again)
• Energy savings is typically 85-90% according to the one source
• Obstacle: the need to separate different kinds of plastic from one another
Figure 6.36 Disposition of plastics waste in Europe
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
Mt
per
Year
Year
Energy recovery
Mechanical recycling
Feedstock recycling
Sent to landfill
20%
28%
Source: Plastics Europe (2008, The Compelling Facts about Plastics 2007: An Analysis of Plastics Production, Demand and Recovery for 2007 in Europe, www.plasticseurope.org)
Where was this photo was taken?
Answer: in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, 1400 km north of
Hawaii!
Eastern and Western Pacific Garbage Patches – about 3-5 Mt each?
Floating debris occasionally washes ashore on Hawaii
Urban runoff
Contents of the gut of an albatross, killed by ingesting floating plastic garbage
For more information, go to
www.greatgarbagepatch.org
Petroleum refining
• Potential for 20% savings in the US if no other changes occur. However:
• 10% increase in energy use if S concentration is decreased from 30 ppm to 1 ppm to meet more stringent pollution emission requirements (current most-stringent regulations are around a 15 ppm limit)
• Increasing energy use with a shift to heavier grades of oil as the lighter grades are depleted.
• Big jump in processing energy use for oil shales and tar sands
Table 6.31: Energy Use for Petroleum Refining
Energy Use (GJ/tonne oil)Extraction Refining Total
Source: (S&T)2 Consultants (2005, Documentation for Natural Resources Canada’s GHGenius Model 3.0, www.ghgenius.ca )
Chemicals, General Considerations
• Importance of improved catalysts • Importance of advanced membranes (for
separating materials) in reducing general energy use in the chemical industry
• Importance in capturing exothermic heat (most reactions in the chemical industry are exothermic, and the total exothermic release equals 60% of the overall process energy used in the manufacture of products produced by exothermic reactions)
Figure 6.37 Membranes
MICROFILTRATION
ULTRAFILTRATION
REVERSE OSMOSIS
DIALYSIS
retains suspended matter
passes dissolved substancesand water
retains dissolved matter
passes some macromolecules,microsolutes, ions, and water
retains all ions
passes water
retains dissolved matter
passes microsolutes andwater
M MM
H H H
ELECTRODIALYSIS
GAS SEPARATION
COUPLED TRANSPORT
retains nonionic matter
passes ionic matter
retains membrane impermeablegases
passes membrane permeablegases
passes carrier complex ions
M denotes monovalent metal ion
H denotes hydrogen+
+
Source: Goldemberg et al (1998, Energy for a Sustainable World, Wiley Eastern, New Dehli)
Cogeneration and heat management
• It is estimated that the amount of waste heat in exhaust flows and pressurized gases in US industry that could be used in practice to generate electricity is sufficient to supply about 13% of US electricity demand, with no extra fuel use
• Efficiencies of electricity generation, and overall efficiencies in industrial cogeneration are quite low, but leave room for substantial improvement (although there are often logistical difficulties in upgrading existing facilities)
Figure 6.38a Industrial cogeneration using an internal combustion engine or simple-cycle gas turbine
Typical electrical and overall efficiencies: 30-36% and 60-70%
G as Turbine Steam Tu rb ine
W aste H eat
Heat R ecovery
Bo iler,
Useful Heat
e 3 e 4
6=0.29
F 3 h 8
8=0.12
F 4
h 9
h 11
h 1 0
h 1 3
h 1 2
9=0.51
7=0.8
e = Fh = (1- )F
3 5 3
8 6 3
h = (h +F )e = hh = (1 - )h
a 7 8 4
4 8 9
11 8 9
h = (1 - )(h +F )h = (h +h )
1 0 7 8 4
1 2 9 1 0 11
o ve ra ll 3 4 1 2 3 4 = (e +e +h )/F +F )
Pinch Analysis
• Many industrial processes have simultaneous heating and cooling requirements
• Pinch analysis is a powerful technique integrating the two (when cold and hot fluid streams are brought together, the hot stream will be cooled and the cold stream warmed)
• Heating and cooling energy savings of 50% or more can sometimes be achieved.
Figure 6.39 Pinch Analysis
• Heating only above the pinch point
• Cooling only below the pinch point
• No heat flow from above to below the pinch point should be allowed