ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

Volume EditorHarsh K. GuptaNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad, India

Editorial BoardKusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Hyderabad, India

Anny CazenaveLaboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales (LEGOS)CNES & Observatoire Midi-PyrénéesToulouse, France

Eric Robert EngdahlDenver, CO, USA

Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Hyderabad, India

Sukanta RoyMinistry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of IndiaBorehole Geophysics Research LaboratoryKarad, India

Kalachand SainWadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyUttarakhand, India

Seiya UyedaTokyo, Japan

Aims of the SeriesThe Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises afocused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one ofthe world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to beessential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back ofthis volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series EditorProfessor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the Executive Directorof the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the past 35 years. He is also the SeriesEditor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU)(Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes theInternational Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning & Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). Hehas published numerous peer-reviewed technical research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified ProfessionalGeological Scientist (Arvada, Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and aChartered Marine Scientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida InternationalUniversity (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port Everglades, Florida) and FullProfessor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica; Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacificislands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies includingthe Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America; Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists.He is a recipient of the International Beach Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor(Russian Academy of Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).

Founding Series EditorProfessor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleumgeologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil andNew Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA ofSOLID EARTHGEOPHYSICS

Second Edition

edited by

HARSH K. GUPTANational Geophysical Research Institute

Council of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad, India

EditorHarsh K. GuptaNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad, India

ISBN: 978-3-030-58630-0
This publication is available also as:Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-030-58631-7 andPrint and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-030-58632-4
Cover illustration: C.B. 3D ILLUSTRATION & ANIMATION | illustration by Christoph Burgstedt

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced fromother sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that dueacknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions: Earthquake Sounds; Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation;Gravity, Data to Anomalies; Gravity, Global Models; Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity; Sentinel Satellites InitiateNew Era in Earth Observatories

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 20211st edition published by: © Springer Science þ Business Media B.V. 2011

The original Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics was compiled by David E. James, and was first published in theEncyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series in 1989.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material isconcerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply,even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulationsand therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to betrue and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressedor implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Thepublisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

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About the Editor

Contributors

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition x

Acknowledgments

Absolute Age Determinations: RadiometricRichard W. Carlson

Anthropogenic Seismicity Related to Exploitation ofGeoresources

Stanislaw Lasocki and Beata Orlecka-Sikora

ArchaeomagnetismDonald H. Tarling

Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes,with Special Emphasis on Koyna, India

Harsh K. Gupta

BiogeophysicsLee Slater and Estella Atekwana

Body WavesMahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh

Borehole Seismic Networks and ArraysMarco Bohnhoff and Peter Malin

Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic GapsDavid D. Jackson and Yan Y. Kagan

Continental Crustal StructureRolf Meissner and Hartmut Kern

Continental DriftAlan G. Smith

Continental RiftsA. M. Celâl Şengör

Core DynamoUlrich R. Christensen

Core-Mantle CouplingPaul H. Roberts and Jonathan M. Aurnou

Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and MagmaChamber

Satish C. Singh

Curie TemperatureVincenzo Pasquale

Deep Scientific DrillingUlrich Harms and Harold Tobin

Deep Seismic Reflection and RefractionProfiling

Kabir Roy Chowdhury

Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner CoreXiaodong Song

Earth RotationHarald Schuh and Sigrid Böhm

Earth TidesJohn M. Wahr

Earth, Density DistributionFrank D. Stacey and Paul M. Davis

Earth’s Structure, CoreLianxing Wen

Earth’s Structure, GlobalJean-Paul Montagner

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vi CONTENTS

Earth’s Structure, Lower MantleEdward J. Garnero, Allen K. McNamara andJames A. Tyburczy

Earth’s Structure, Upper MantleGuust Nolet

Earthquake LightsJohn S. Derr, France St-Laurent, FriedemannT. Freund and Robert Thériault

Earthquake Precursors and PredictionToshiyasu Nagao, Masashi Kamogawa andSeiya Uyeda

Earthquake Prediction, M8 AlgorithmAlik Ismail-Zadeh and Vladimir Kossobokov

Earthquake Rupture: The Inverse ProblemShamita Das

Earthquake SoundsAndrew J. Michael

Earthquake Source TheoryRaul Madariaga

Earthquake, AftershocksMian Liu and Seth Stein

Earthquake, ArchaeoseismologyKlaus-G. Hinzen

Earthquake, Focal MechanismEmile A. Okal

Earthquake, ForeshocksMian Liu

Earthquake, MagnitudePeter Borman

Earthquakes and CrustalDeformation

Robert McCaffrey

Earthquakes in the HimalayaDibyashakti Panda, Bhaskar Kundu andVineet K. Gahalaut

Earthquakes on Oceanic Transform Faults,Unexpectedly Large

Shamita Das

Earthquakes, Did You Feel It?David J. Wald, Vincent Quitoriano andJames W. Dewey

Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion WarningRichard M. Allen

Earthquakes, EnergyDomenico Di Giacomo and Peter Borman

Earthquakes, IntensityGottfried Grünthal and Roger M. W. Musson

Earthquakes, IntraplatePrantik Mandal

Earthquakes, Location TechniquesClifford H. Thurber

Earthquakes, PAGERDavid J. Wald, Kishor S. Jaiswal, Kristin D. Maranoand Michael Hearne

Earthquakes, ShakeCastKuo-wan Lin, David J. Wald and Daniel Slosky

Earthquakes, ShakeMapDavid J. Wald, C. Bruce Worden, Eric M. Thompsonand Michael Hearne

Earthquakes, Strong-Ground MotionGiuliano F. Panza, Cristina La Mura,Fabio Romanelli and Franco Vaccari

Earthquakes, VolcanogenicJ. W. Neuberg

Electrical Properties of RocksTakashi Yoshino

Electrical Resistivity Surveys and DataInterpretation

M. H. Loke, D. F. Rucker, J. E. Chambers,P. B. Wilkinson and O. Kuras

Electromagnetic Methods, Imaging Magma BodiesKathryn A. Whaler

Electromagnetic Pulsations and Magnetic StormsG. S. Lakhina and B. T. Tsurutani

Electronic Geophysical YearWilliam K. Peterson, Daniel N. Baker, C. E. Barton,Peter Fox, Mark A. Parsons andEmily A. CoBabe-Ammann

Energy Budget of the EarthJean-Claude Mareschal and Claude Jaupart

Energy Partitioning of Seismic WavesKalachand Sain

Equatorial ElectrojetArchana Bhattacharyya

Fault Zone Guided WavesPeter Eric Malin

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_141

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_159

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_46

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_46

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_271

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_156

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_199

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_64

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_59

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CONTENTS vii

Fiber Optic Distributed Strain Sensing for SeismicApplications

Thomas Reinsch, Philippe Jousset andCharlotte M. Krawczyk

Fiber-Optic Sensing in Geophysics, TemperatureMeasurements

Jan Henninges and Ali Masoudi

Floating Seismographs (MERMAIDS)Yann Hello and Guust Nolet

Fractal Scaling of EarthquakesSimanchal Padhy and Vijay P. Dimri

Fractals and ChaosRavi P. Srivastava, Nimisha Vedanti andVijay P. Dimri

Free Oscillations of the EarthSarva Jit Singh and Sunita Rani

Geodesy, Figure of the EarthKusumita Arora

Geodesy, Ground Positioning, and LevellingStelios P. Mertikas

Geodesy, Networks, and Reference SystemsHayo Hase

Geodesy, PhysicalV. Chakravarthi

Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad BandCarla Braitenberg

GeodynamicsAlessandro M. Forte

GeoelectromagnetismAntal Adam and Laszló Szarka

GeoidParamesh Banerjee

Geoid Determination, Computational MethodsMichael G. Sideris

Geoid Determination, Theory and PrinciplesMichael G. Sideris

Geoid Undulation, InterpretationPetr Vaníček

Geomagnetic ExcursionsMartha Schwartz

Geomagnetic Field, Global PatternSusan Macmillan

Geomagnetic Field, IGRFAude Chambodut

Geomagnetic Field, Measurement TechniquesMioara Mandea and Anca Isac

Geomagnetic Field, Polarity ReversalsCarlo Laj

Geomagnetic Field, Secular VariationMonika Korte

Geomagnetic Field, TheoryFriedrich H. Busse

Geomagnetically Induced CurrentsG. S. Lakhina, R. Hajra and B. T. Tsurutani

Geophysical Well LoggingMiroslav Kobr

Geothermal Heat PumpsLadislaus Rybach

Geothermal Record of Climate ChangeMichael G. Davis, David S. Chapman andRobert N. Harris

GPS, Data Acquisition, and AnalysisCarine Bruyninx, Wim Aerts and Juliette Legrand

GPS, Tectonic GeodesyJeffrey T. Freymueller

GravimetersAndrew Hugill

Gravity Anomalies, InterpretationMikhail K. Kaban

Gravity Data, Advanced ProcessingChristopher J. Swain and Jonathan F. Kirby

Gravity Data, Regional-Residual SeparationKumarendra Mallick, Vasanthi Anthwarand Krishna Kant Sharma

Gravity Field of the EarthChristopher Jekeli

Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from SpaceTechniques

Anny Cazenave, J. L. Chen and G. Ramillien

Gravity Field, Time Variations from SurfaceMeasurements

Virendra M. Tiwari and Jacques Hinderer

Gravity Measurements, AbsoluteMark A. Zumberge

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_274

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_34

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_160

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_178

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_227

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_231

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_214

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_129

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_101

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_225

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_154

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_110

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_115

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_111

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_117

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_116

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_103

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_245

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_173

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_70

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_71

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_137

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_77

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_87

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_88

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_89

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_90

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_91

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_96

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_96

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_236

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viii CONTENTS

Gravity Method, AirborneUwe Meyer

Gravity Method, PrinciplesHans-Jürgen Götze

Gravity Method, SatelliteG. Balmino

Gravity Method, SurfaceDinesh Chandra Mishra and Virendra M. Tiwari

Gravity Modeling, Theory and ComputationJean-Pierre Barriot and Lydie Sichoix

Gravity, Data to AnomaliesRon Hackney

Gravity, Global ModelsNikolaos K. Pavlis

Gravity, GradiometryChristopher Jekeli

Great EarthquakesRoger M. W. Musson

Heat and Ground Water FlowVincenzo Pasquale, Massimo Verdoya andPaolo Chiozzi

Heat Flow Determinations, ContinentalJohn H. Sass and Graeme Beardsmore

Heat Flow, ContinentalPaul Morgan

Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and ObservationsEarl E. Davis and Andrew T. Fisher

Height Systems, Vertical Datums and TheirUnification

Michael G. Sideris

High-Frequency SeismologySimanchal Padhy

Impact Craters on EarthRichard A. F. Grieve and Gordon R. Osinski

Instrumentation, Electrical ResistivityM. H. Loke, O. Kuras, J. E. Chambers, D. F. Ruckerand P. B. Wilkinson

Instrumentation, EMSteven Constable

International Geophysical YearRalph W. Baird

International Gravity FormulaHans-Jürgen Götze

International Polar Year 2007–2008David J. Carlson

International Year of Planet EarthEduardo F. J. de Mulder and Wolfgang Eder

Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural NetworksWilliam A. Sandham and David J. Hamilton

Inverse Theory, Global OptimizationMrinal K. Sen and Paul L. Stoffa

Inverse Theory, LinearPravin K. Gupta

Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo MethodMalcolm Sambridge and Kerry Gallagher

Inverse Theory, Singular Value DecompositionAjay Manglik

IsostasyA. B. Watts

Isostasy, ThermalDerrick Hasterok and David S. Chapman

KTB Depth Laboratory: AWindow into theUpper Crust

Ulrich Harms and Jochem Kück

Legal Continental Shelf: Geology, Geophysics, andTectonics

Elana Geddis, Ray Wood and Vaughan Stagpoole

Lithosphere, ContinentalDavid E. James

Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal StructureClaude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal

Lithosphere, Mechanical PropertiesEvgueni Burov

Lithosphere, OceanicJames S. McClain

Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal StructureEarl E. Davis and David S. Chapman

Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies from SatelliteData

Stavros Kotsiaros

Magnetic AnisotropyLeonardo Sagnotti

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_286

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_273

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_174

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_191

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_47

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_237

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_102

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_194

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_35

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_192

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_133

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_81

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_223

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_242

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_242

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_285

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_285

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CONTENTS ix

Magnetic Anomalies: InterpretationE. Thébault

Magnetic Anomaly Map, GlobalKumar Hemant Singh

Magnetic Data Enhancements and DepthEstimation

Clive Foss

Magnetic DomainsSusan L. Halgedahl

Magnetic GradiometryHarald von der Osten-Woldenburg

Magnetic Gradiometry in Archaeo-geophysicsHarald von der Osten-Woldenburg

Magnetic Methods, AirborneMike Dentith

Magnetic Methods, PrinciplesKusumita Arora

Magnetic Methods, SurfaceNandini Nagarajan

Magnetic Modeling, Theory, and ComputationMioara Mandea, Carmen Gaina and Vincent Lesur

MagnetometersIvan Hrvoic

Magnetotelluric Data ProcessingGary Egbert

Magnetotelluric InterpretationJohn F. Hermance

Magnetotellurics, Crustal ImagingPrasanta K. Patro

Magnetovariation StudiesNandini Nagarajan

Mantle ConvectionDavid Bercovici and Elvira Mulyukova

Mantle D00 LayerThorne Lay

Mantle Plume: Spreading Ridge InteractionsK. S. Krishna and M. Ismaiel

Mantle PlumesCinzia G. Farnetani and Albrecht W. Hofmann

Mantle ViscosityW. R. Peltier

Mapping of Magnetic Variations from SpaceNandini Nagarajan

MicrocontinentsCarmen Gaina and Joanne Whittaker

Numerical Methods for Flow in Fractured PorousMedia

Luca Formaggia, Alessio Fumagalli andAnna Scotti

Numerical Methods, Boundary ElementMichele Cooke

Numerical Methods, DomainDecomposition

Alfio Quarteroni and Luca Formaggia

Numerical Methods, Finite DifferenceJohan O. A. Robertsson and Joakim O. Blanch

Numerical Methods, Finite ElementJ. N. Reddy

Numerical Methods, MultigridWim A. Mulder

Ocean Bottom SeismicsIngo A. Pecher, Jörg Bialas and Ernst R. Flueh

Ocean, Spreading CenterK. S. Krishna

Orogenic BeltsA. M. Celâl Şengör

Paleomagnetic Field IntensityAndrew Biggin, Greig A. Paterson, Neil Suttie andJohn Shaw

Paleomagnetism, MagnetostratigraphyDonald R. Prothero

Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques andInstrumentation

T. Radhakrishna, J. D. A. Piper andAsanulla R. Mohamed

Paleomagnetism, Polar WanderJean Besse, Vincent Courtillot and Marianne Greff

Paleomagnetism, PrinciplesWilliam Lowrie

PaleoseismologyShinji Toda

Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving andResisting Forces

Giampiero Iaffaldano and Hans-Peter Bunge

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x CONTENTS

Plate Tectonics, PrecambrianY. J. Bhaskar Rao, T. Vijaya Kumar andE. V. S. S. K. Babu

Plate-Driving ForcesAlessandro M. Forte

Plates and PaleoreconstructionsAlan G. Smith

PoroelasticityRan Bachrach

Propagation of Elastic Waves:Fundamentals

Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma andUrsula Iturrarán-Viveros

Radioactivity in Earth’s CoreV. Rama Murthy

Radiogenic Heat Production in the ContinentalCrust

Claude Jaupart and Jean-Claude Mareschal

Radiogenic Heat Production of RocksChristoph Clauser

Recovery of Source Magnetization Direction fromMagnetic Field Data

Clive Foss

Remanent MagnetismLaurie Brown and Suzanne McEnroe

Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for TectonicStudies

Semere Solomon and Woldai Ghebreab

Remote Sensing, Applications toGeophysics

Hojjatollah Ranjbar

SAR InterferometryMasato Furuya

Satellite AltimetryStelios P. Mertikas and Constantine Kokolakis

Seafloor SpreadingRichard N. Hey

Sedimentary BasinsMagdalena Scheck-Wenderoth

Seismic Data Acquisition and ProcessingKabir Roy Chowdhury

Seismic DiffractionEnru Liu

Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition ZoneLev P. Vinnik

Seismic HazardAndrzej Kijko

Seismic Imaging, OverviewGerard T. Schuster

Seismic InstrumentationDuncan Carr Agnew

Seismic MicrozonationFumio Yamazaki and Yoshihisa Maruyama

Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear ExplosionsPaul G. Richards, Zhongliang Wu, Won-Young Kimand David P. Schaff

Seismic NoiseDhananjay Kumar and Imtiaz Ahmed

Seismic Phase Nomenclature: The IASPEIStandard

Johannes Schweitzer, Dmitry A. Storchak andPeter Borman

Seismic Properties of RocksNikolas I. Christensen

Seismic Quiescence and ActivationGennady Sobolev

Seismic Ray TheoryVlastislav Červený and Ivan Pšenčík

Seismic Reservoir CharacterizationDhananjay Kumar

Seismic SeichesArt McGarr

Seismic Signals in Well Water ObservationsR. K. Chadha

Seismic StereotomographyGilles Lambaré and Thibaut Allemand

Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean RidgesDonald W. Forsyth

Seismic TomographyGuust Nolet

Seismic Velocity and TemperatureRelationships

Kalachand Sain

Seismic Viscoelastic AttenuationVernon F. Cormier

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_198

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_175

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_246

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_171

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_185

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_186

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_188

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_279

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_166

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_28

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_161

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CONTENTS xi

Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media:Numerical Modeling Approaches

Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros and FranciscoJ. Sánchez-Sesma

Seismic Waves, ScatteringLudovic Margerin

Seismic ZonationYanxiang Yu, Mengtan Gao and Guangyin Xu

Seismic, Ambient Noise CorrelationMichel Campillo, Philippe Roux andNikolai M. Shapiro

Seismic, Artificial Intelligence to Neural Intelligencefor Advanced Interpretation

Kalachand Sain and Priyadarshi Chinmoy Kumar

Seismic, MigrationSamuel H. Gray and Nittala Satyavani

Seismic, Receiver Function TechniqueRainer Kind and Xiaohui Yuan

Seismic, Reflectivity MethodMrinal K. Sen

Seismic, Super-Virtual RefractionInterferometry

Sherif M. Hanafy

Seismic, Velocity, and Density RelationshipsKalachand Sain

Seismic, Waveform Modeling and TomographyYanghua Wang and Ying Rao

Seismicity, IntraplatePaul Bodin

Seismicity, Subduction ZoneAkira Hasegawa

Seismogram InterpretationOta Kulhanek and Leif Persson

Seismological NetworksIstván Bondár and Eric Robert Engdahl

Seismology and EnvironmentJean-Paul Montagner, Anne Mangeney andEléonore Stutzmann

Seismology, Global Earthquake ModelJohn F. Schneider, Jephraim Oro, Anselm Smolka,Peter Suhadolc and Zhongliang Wu

Seismology, Monitoring of CTBTZhongliang Wu and Paul G. Richards

Seismology, RotationalWilliam H. K. Lee

Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in EarthObservatories

Randy Showstack

Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics andEarthquake Stress-Forecasting

Stuart Crampin

Single and Multichannel SeismicsTamás Tóth

Slow EarthquakeTeruyuki Kato

Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to PotentialFields

Nikolaos K. Pavlis

Statistical SeismologyDavid A. Rhoades, Annemarie Christophersenand Sebastian Hainzl

Subduction ZonesGeoffrey A. Abers

Surface WavesBarbara Romanowicz

T WavesEmile A. Okal

Tectonic GeomorphologySampat Kumar Tandon and Vinee Srivastava

Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat

Christoph Clauser

Thermal Storage and Transport Properties ofRocks, II: Thermal Conductivity andDiffusivity

Christoph Clauser

Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard AssessmentZhongliang Wu

Time-Reversal in SeismologyCarène Larmat and Clarence S. Clay

TOPO-EUROPE: From the Deep Earth to theSurface of Continental Europe and Its Margins

Sierd Cloetingh and TOPO-EUROPE WorkingGroup

Total Electron Content in Seismo-ionosphericStudies

J. K. Catherine and R. Rajesh

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_6

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xii CONTENTS

Tracking Earth’s Water in Motion from SatelliteGravity Observations

J. L. Chen

Trans-European Suture ZoneH. Thybo and I. M. Artemieva

Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-SourceSeismic Data

Colin A. Zelt

TsunamiSteven N. Ward

Tsunami Watch and Warning CentersShailesh Nayak, Srinivasa Kumar Tummala andE. Pattabhi Rama Rao

Tsunami: Bay of BengalVineet K. Gahalaut

Uncertainties in Geomodelling Related toGeophysical Inversion

Hans-Jürgen Götze and Florian Wellmann

Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes thatGeneralizes the Fundamental Gutenberg-RichterRelationship

Vladimir Kossobokov

Vertical Seismic ProfilingJames W. Rector III and Maria-Daphne Mangriotis

Very Long Baseline InterferometryHelmut Wiesemeyer and Axel Nothnagel

Wavelet AnalysisMikhail Kulesh

Author Index

Subject Index

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_280

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_280

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_282

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_56

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_56

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_22

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_230

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_229

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_241

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_257

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_257

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_168

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_99

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58631-7_217

About the Editor

Harsh K. Gupta is currently a member of the AtomicEnergy Regulatory Board (India) and president of theGeological Society of India. He has previously been amember of the National Disaster Management Authority(India); secretary to the Government of India, Departmentof Ocean Development; director of the National Geophys-ical Research Institute, Hyderabad; vice chancellor ofCochin University of Science and Technology; and profes-sor at the University of Texas at Dallas, USA. He isinternationally respected for his work on artificial waterreservoir–triggered earthquakes and developing criteria todistinguish them from normal earthquakes. As leader of thethird Indian scientific expedition to Antarctica during1983–1984, he succeeded in setting up India’s first perma-nent Antarctic research station “Dakshin Gangotri” in justone Antarctic summer, which is still a record.

Prof. Gupta chaired the Steering Committee of the GlobalSeismic Hazard Program. After the disastrous 2004 Sumatraearthquake, he spearheaded the establishment of the IndianTsunami Early Warning System. He has published over200 articles in reviewed journals, authored 5 books thathave been published by Elsevier and Springer. Prof. Guptais a recipient of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize, WaldoE. Smith Medal of American Geophysical Union, USSRAcademyof Sciences “100 years of InternationalGeophysicsMemorial Medal,” the Axford Gold Medal of the Asia Oce-ania Geosciences Society (AOGS), and the National MineralAward of Excellence, among many honors. He is a fellow ofthe Indian National Science Academy, the World Academyof Sciences, and American Geophysical Union. Prof. Guptahas been president of the IUGG and the AOGS and is thefounder president of the Asian Seismological Commission.

ThiS is a FM Blank Page

Contributors

Geoffrey A. AbersLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY, USA

Antal AdamGeodetic and Geophysical Research, Institute of theHungarian Academy of SciencesSopron, Hungary

Wim AertsKU Leuven, Electrical Engineering (ESAT) TCDiepenbeek CampusDiepenbeek, Belgium

Duncan Carr AgnewInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, ScrippsInstitution of OceanographyUniversity of California San DiegoLa Jolla, CA, USA

Imtiaz AhmedBPHouston, TX, USA

Thibaut AllemandCGGMassy, France

Richard M. AllenBerkeley Seismological Laboratory, Department of Earthand Planetary ScienceUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA, USA

Vasanthi AnthwarNational Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Kusumita AroraNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)Hyderabad, India

I. M. ArtemievaMarine GeodynamicsGEOMAR Helmholtz Center for Ocean ResearchKiel, GermanyandDepartment of GeophysicsStanford UniversityPalo Alto, CA, USA

Estella AtekwanaCollege of Earth, Ocean, and EnvironmentUniversity of DelawareNewark, DE, USA

Jonathan M. AurnouDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA, USA

E. V. S. S. K. BabuGeochronology DivisionCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Ran BachrachGeophysics and Planetary Sciences DepartmentTel Aviv UniversityTel Aviv, Israel

Ralph W. BairdBaird Petrophysical InternationalHouston, TX, USA

xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Daniel N. BakerLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO, USA

G. BalminoCentre National d’Etudes SpatialesToulouse, France

Paramesh BanerjeeEarth Observatory of SingaporePrayukti Geomatics Pte LtdSingapore, Singapore

Jean-Pierre BarriotObservatoire Géodésique de TahitiUniversity of French PolynesiaFaaa-Tahiti, French Polynesia

C. E. BartonAustralian National UniversityCanberra, ACT, Australia

Graeme BeardsmoreUniversity of MelbourneParkville, VIC, AustraliaandHot Dry Rocks Pty LtdWindsor, VIC, Australia

David BercoviciDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesYale UniversityNew Haven, CT, USA

Jean BesseLaboratoire de PaléomagnétismeInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Archana BhattacharyyaIndian Institute of GeomagnetismNavi Mumbai, India

Jörg BialasLeibniz-Institut für MeereswissenschaftenUniversity of KielKiel, Germany

Andrew BigginGeomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean andEcological SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool, UK

Joakim O. BlanchBHPHouston, TX, USA

Paul BodinPacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN)University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA

Sigrid BöhmResearch Division Higher Geodesy, Department ofGeodesy and GeoinformationTU WienVienna, Austria

Marco BohnhoffGFZ German Research Center for GeosciencesGeomechanics and Scientific DrillingPotsdam, Germany

István BondárResearch Centre for Astronomy and Earth SciencesGeodetic and Geophysical InstituteKövesligethy Radó Seismological ObservatoryBudapest, Hungary

Peter Borman(Deceased)

Carla BraitenbergDepartment of Mathematics and GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, Italy

Laurie BrownDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of MassachusettsAmherst, MA, USA

Carine BruyninxDepartment of Reference Systems and PlanetologyRoyal Observatory of BelgiumBrussels, Belgium

Hans-Peter BungeGeophysics Section, Department of Earth andEnvironmental SciencesLudwig Maximilians University of MunichMunich, Germany

Evgueni Burov(Deceased)

CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Friedrich H. BusseInstitute of Physics, University of BayreuthBayreuth, Germany

Michel CampilloObservatoire de GrenobleUniversité Joseph Fourier and CNRSGrenoble, France

David J. CarlsonBritish Antarctic SurveyIPY International Programme OfficeCambridge, UK

Richard W. CarlsonDepartment of Terrestrial MagnetismCarnegie Institution of WashingtonWashington, DC, USA

J. K. CatherineCSIR-NGRIHyderabad, India

Anny CazenaveLEGOS, Observatoire Midi PyrénéesToulouse, France

Vlastislav ČervenýDepartment of Geophysics, Faculty of Mathematics andPhysicsCharles UniversityPraha, Czech Republic

R. K. ChadhaCSIR:National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

V. ChakravarthiCentre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of HyderabadHyderabad, India

J. E. ChambersGeophysical Tomography TeamBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham, UK

Aude ChambodutInstitut de Physique du Globe de StrasbourgUniversité de Strasbourg/Ecole et Observatoire desSciences de la Terre, CNRSStrasbourg Cédex, France

David S. ChapmanDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsThe University of UtahSalt Lake City, UT, USA

J. L. ChenCenter for Space ResearchUniversity of TexasAustin, TX, USA

Paolo ChiozziDepartment of Earth, Environment and Life SciencesUniversity of GenoaGenoa, Italy

Nikolas I. ChristensenDepartment of Earth and Ocean SciencesUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouver, BC, Canada

Ulrich R. ChristensenMax-Planck-Institut für SonnensystemforschungGöttingen, Germany

Annemarie ChristophersenGNS ScienceLower Hutt, New Zealand

Christoph ClauserInstitute for Applied Geophysics and Geothermal EnergyRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

Clarence S. Clay(Deceased)

Sierd CloetinghTectonics Group, Department of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrecht, The Netherlands

Emily A. CoBabe-AmmannResearch and Innovations OfficeUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO, USA

Steven ConstableInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsScripps Institution of OceanographyLa Jolla, CA, USA

Michele CookeGeosciences DepartmentUniversity of Massachusetts at AmherstAmherst, MA, USA

Vernon F. CormierPhysics DepartmentUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, CT, USA

xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Vincent CourtillotInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Stuart CrampinBritish Geological SurveyMurchison HouseEdinburgh, UK

Shamita DasDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxford, UK

Earl E. DavisPacific Geoscience CentreGeological Survey of CanadaSidney, BC, Canada

Michael G. DavisDepartment of Physical SciencesArkansas Tech UniversityRussellville, AR, USA

Paul M. DavisEarth and Space SciencesUCLALos Angeles, CA, USA

Eduardo F. J. de MulderEarth Science Matters FoundationHaarlem, The Netherlands

Mike DentithSchool of Earth Sciences (M004)The University of Western AustraliaCrawley, WA, Australia

John S. DerrTijeras, NM, USA

James W. DeweyU.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Domenico Di GiacomoDepartment 2: Physics of the EarthGFZ German Research Center for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Vijay P. DimriCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Wolfgang EderGeoCentre, GeobiologyUniversity of GöttingenGöttingen, Germany

Gary EgbertCollege of Oceanic and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR, USA

Eric Robert EngdahlCenter for Imaging the Earth’s Interior, Department ofPhysicsUniversity of Colorado at BoulderBoulder, CO, USA

Cinzia G. FarnetaniInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Andrew T. FisherDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA, USA

Ernst R. FluehLeibniz-Institut für MeereswissenschaftenUniversity of KielKiel, Germany

Luca FormaggiaMOX, Department of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoMilan, Italy

Donald W. ForsythDepartment of Geological SciencesBrown UniversityProvidence, RI, USA

Alessandro M. ForteDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of FloridaGainesville, FL, USA

Clive FossMineral ResourcesCSIROLindfield, NSW, Australia

Peter FoxRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY, USA

CONTRIBUTORS xix

Friedemann T. FreundCode SCRNASA Ames Research Center/San Jose State UniversityMoffett Field, CA, USA

Jeffrey T. FreymuellerDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI, USA

Alessio FumagalliDepartment of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoMilan, Italy

Masato FuruyaDepartment of Natural History SciencesHokkaido UniversitySapporo, Japan

Vineet K. GahalautNational Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR)Hyderabad, India

Carmen GainaDepartment of Geosciences, CEED – Centre for EarthEvolution and DynamicsUniversity of OsloOslo, Norway

Kerry GallagherUMR 6118 – Géosciences RennesGeosciences, Université de Rennes 1Rennes Cedex, France

Mengtan GaoInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationBeijing, China

Edward J. GarneroSchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ, USA

Elana GeddisHarbour ChambersWellington, New Zealand

Woldai GhebreabDepartment of Geology and Environmental ScienceUniversity of AkronAkron, OH, USA

Hans-Jürgen GötzeInstitute of Geosciences, Working group Satellite- andAerogeophysicsChristian-Albrechts-Universität zu KielKiel, Germany

Samuel H. GrayCGGVeritasCalgary, AB, Canada

Marianne GreffInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Richard A. F. GrieveDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Western OntarioLondon, ON, CanadaandInstitute for Earth and Space ExplorationUniversity of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada

Gottfried GrünthalHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGerman Research Centre for Geosciences GFZPotsdam, Germany

Harsh K. GuptaNational Geophysical Research InstituteCouncil of Scientific and Industrial ResearchHyderabad, India

Pravin K. GuptaDepartment of Earth SciencesIndian Institute of Technology RoorkeeRoorkee, Uttarakhand, India

Ron HackneyPetroleum and Marine DivisionGeoscience AustraliaCanberra, ACT, Australia

Sebastian HainzlGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

R. HajraIndian Institute of Technology IndoreSimrol, Indore, India

Susan L. HalgedahlDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of UtahSalt Lake City, UT, USA

David J. HamiltonConsultrainingEdinburgh, UK

xx CONTRIBUTORS

Sherif M. HanafyCollege of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences (CPG)King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals(KFUPM)Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Ulrich HarmsScientific DrillingGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Robert N. HarrisCollege of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric SciencesOregon State UniversityCorvallis, OR, USA

Hayo HaseGeodätisches Observatorium WettzellBundesamt für Kartographie und GeodäsieBad Kötzting, Germany

Akira HasegawaRCPEV, Graduate School of ScienceTohoku UniversitySendai, Japan

Derrick HasterokEarth Sciences DepartmentUniversity of AdelaideAdelaide, SA, Australia

Michael HearneU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Yann HelloIRD Geoazur and Université Côte d’AZURSophia Antipolis, France

Jan HenningesGeoenergyGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

John F. HermanceDepartment of Geological SciencesBrown UniversityProvidence, RI, USA

Richard N. HeyHawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, School ofOcean and Earth Science and TechnologyUniversity of HawaiiHonolulu, HI, USA

Jacques HindererInstitut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, CNRSUniversité de StrasbourgStrasbourg, France

Klaus-G. HinzenDepartment of GeosciencesUniverstity of CologneCologne, Germany

Albrecht W. HofmannLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY, USAandMax-Planck-Institut für ChemieMainz, Germany

Ivan HrvoicGEM Systems, IncMarkham, ON, Canada

Andrew HugillScintrex LtdConcord, ON, Canada

Giampiero IaffaldanoDepartment of Geosciences and Natural ResourceManagementUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark

Anca IsacGeological Institute of RomaniaSurlari National Geomagnetic ObservatoryBucharest, Romania

M. IsmaielCentre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of HyderabadHyderabad, India

Alik Ismail-ZadehInstitute of Applied GeosciencesKarlsruhe Institute of TechnologyKarlsruhe, GermanyandInstitute of Earthquake Prediction Theory andMathematical GeophysicsRussian Academy of Sciences (IEPT RAS)Moscow, Russia

Ursula Iturrarán-ViverosFacultad de Ciencias, Departmento de MathemáticasUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CiudadUniversitariaMéxico City, Mexico

CONTRIBUTORS xxi

David D. JacksonDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of California Los AngelesLos Angeles, CA, USA

Kishor S. JaiswalU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

David E. JamesDepartment of Terrestrial MagnetismCarnegie Institution of WashingtonWashington, DC, USA

Claude JaupartUniversité de Paris Institut de Physique du GlobeParis, France

Christopher JekeliDivision of Geodetic Science, School of Earth SciencesOhio State UniversityColumbus, OH, USA

Philippe JoussetGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Mikhail K. KabanDepartment 1: Geodesy and Remote Sensing, Sektion 1.3:Earth-System ModellingDeutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam – GFZPotsdam, Germany

Yan Y. KaganDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of California Los AngelesLos Angeles, CA, USA

Masashi KamogawaDivision for Earthquake Prediction ResearchGlobal Center for Asian and Regional Research,University of ShizuokaShizuoka, Japan

Teruyuki KatoEarthquake Research InstituteThe University of TokyoBunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan

Hartmut KernKiel, Germany

Andrzej KijkoNatural Hazard Centre, AfricaUniversity of PretoriaPretoria, Republic of South Africa

Won-Young KimLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY, USA

Rainer KindHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, GermanyandFreie UniversitätFachrichtung GeophysikBerlin, Germany

Jonathan F. KirbySchool of Earth and Planetary SciencesCurtin UniversityPerth, WA, Australia

Miroslav KobrInstitute of Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology andApplied GeophysicsCharles University in PraguePrague, Czech Republic

Constantine KokolakisGeodesy and Geomatics Engineering Laboratory, Schoolof Mineral Resources EngineeringTechnical University of CreteChania, Greece

Monika KorteHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Vladimir KossobokovInstitute of Earthquake Prediction Theory andMathematical GeophysicsRussian Academy of Sciences (IEPT RAS)Moscow, Russia

Stavros KotsiarosPlanetary Magnetospheres LabNASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbelt, MD, USAandUniversity of Maryland College ParkCollege Park, MD, USAandTechnical University of Denmark (DTU)Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Charlotte M. KrawczykInstitute for Applied GeosciencesTechnical University BerlinBerlin, GermanyandGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

K. S. KrishnaCentre for Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric SciencesUniversity of HyderabadHyderabad, India

Jochem KückScientific DrillingGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Mikhail KuleshInformation TechnologyDIS AGMahlow, Germany

Ota KulhanekDepartment of Earth Sciences, Section of SeismologyUppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden

Dhananjay KumarChevronHouston, TX, USAandBPHouston, TX, USA

Priyadarshi Chinmoy KumarWadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India

T. Vijaya KumarGeochronology DivisionCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Bhaskar KunduDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesNIT RourkelaRourkela, India

O. KurasGeophysical Tomography TeamBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham, UK

Cristina La MuraDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, Italy

Carlo LajLaboratoire des Sciences du ClimatUnité mixte CEA-CNRS-UVSQGif-sur-Yvette, France

G. S. LakhinaIndian Institute of GeomagnetismNew Panvel (W), Navi Mumbai, India

Gilles LambaréCGGMassy, France

Carène LarmatGeophysics Group, EES-17, MS D542Los Alamos National LaboratoryLos Alamos, NM, USA

Stanislaw LasockiDepartment of SeismologyInstitute of Geophysics Polish Academy of SciencesWarsaw, Poland

Thorne LayEarth and Planetary Sciences DepartmentUniversity of CaliforniaSanta Cruz, CA, USA

William H. K. LeeU.S. Geological SurveyMenlo Park, CA, USA

Juliette LegrandDepartment of Reference Systems and PlanetologyRoyal Observatory of BelgiumBrussels, Belgium

Vincent LesurUniversité de Paris, Institut de physique du globe de Paris,CNRSParis, France

Kuo-wan LinU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Enru LiuChina University of Mining and TechnologyXuzhou, China

Mian LiuDepartment of Geological SciencesUniversity of MissouriColumbia, MO, USA

M. H. LokeGeotomo Software Sdn. Bhd.Penang, Gelugor, Malaysia

William LowrieInstitute of GeophysicsSwiss Federal Institute of TechnologyZürich, Switzerland

Susan MacmillanGeomagnetism TeamBritish Geological SurveyEdinburgh, UK

Raul MadariagaEcole Normale Supérieure, Université PSLParis, France

Peter MalinGFZ German Research Center for GeosciencesGeomechanics and Scientific DrillingPotsdam, Germany

Peter Eric MalinEarth and Ocean SciencesDuke UniversityDurham, NC, USA

Kumarendra MallickNational Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Prantik MandalEarthquake SeismologyCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, Telangana, India

Mioara MandeaCNES – Centre National d’Etudes SpatialesParis, France

Anne MangeneySeismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du GlobeUniversité de Paris, UMR CNRS/7154Paris, France

Ajay ManglikNational Geophysical Research Institute (Council ofScientific and Industrial Research)Hyderabad, India

Maria-Daphne MangriotisSchool of Geosciences and Grant Institute of Earth ScienceUniversity of EdinburghEdinburgh, UKandInstitute of GeoEnergy EngineeringHeriot-Watt UniversityEdinburgh, UK

Kristin D. MaranoU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Jean-Claude MareschalCentre GEOTOP-UQAMUniversity of QuébecMontréal, QC, Canada

Ludovic MargerinInstitut de Recherche en Astrophysique et PlanétologieObservatoire Midi-Pyrénées/C.N.R.S.Toulouse, France

Yoshihisa MaruyamaGraduate School of EngineeringChiba UniversityInage-ku, Chiba, Japan

Ali MasoudiORCUniversity of SouthamptonSouthampton, UK

Robert McCaffreyDepartment of GeologyPortland State UniversityPortland, OR, USA

James S. McClainDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesUniversity of California, DavisDavis, CA, USA

xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Suzanne McEnroeNorwegian Geological SurveyTrondheim, Norway

Art McGarrEarthquake Science CenterU.S. Geological SurveyMenlo Park, CA, USA

Allen K. McNamaraDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesMichigan State UniversityEast Lansing, MI, USA

Rolf Meissner(Deceased)

Stelios P. MertikasGeodesy and Geomatics Engineering Laboratory, Schoolof Mineral Resources EngineeringTechnical University of CreteChania, Greece

Uwe MeyerSub-Department Geophysical Reconnaissance –Resources and Near Surface ProcessesFederal Agency for Geosciences and Mineral ResourcesHannover, Germany

Andrew J. MichaelUSGSMoffett Field, CA, USA

Dinesh Chandra Mishra(Deceased)

Asanulla R. MohamedNational Centre for Earth Science StudiesTrivandrum, India

Jean-Paul MontagnerSeismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du GlobeUniversity Paris-Diderot, UMR CNRS/7154Paris, France

Paul MorganColorado Geological SurveyDenver, CO, USA

Wim A. MulderFaculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Departmentof Geoscience and EngineeringDelft University of TechnologyDelft, The NetherlandsandShell Global Solutions International BVAmsterdam, The Netherlands

Elvira MulyukovaDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesYale UniversityNew Haven, CT, USA

Roger M. W. MussonBritish Geological SurveyEdinburgh, UKandSchool of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburgh, UK

Toshiyasu NagaoInstitute of Oceanic Research and DevelopmentTokai UniversityShizuoka, Japan

Nandini NagarajanNational Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Shailesh NayakNational Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS)Bengaluru, India

J. W. NeubergInstitute of Geophysics and Tectonics, School of Earth andEnvironmentUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UK

Guust NoletIRD Geoazur and Université Côte d’AzurSophia Antipolis, France

Axel NothnagelVLBI Research Group, Institute of Geodesy andGeoinformationUniversity of BonnBonn, Germany

Emile A. OkalDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesNorthwestern UniversityEvanston, IL, USA

Beata Orlecka-SikoraDepartment of SeismologyInstitute of Geophysics Polish Academy of SciencesWarsaw, Poland

Jephraim OroGEM FoundationPavia, Italy

CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Gordon R. OsinskiDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Western OntarioLondon, ON, CanadaandInstitute for Earth and Space ExplorationUniversity of Western OntarioLondon, ON, Canada

Simanchal PadhySeismological ObservatoryCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Dibyashakti PandaDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric SciencesNIT RourkelaRourkela, India

Giuliano F. PanzaDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, ItalyandEarth System Physics Section/Sand GroupThe Abdus Salam International Centre for TheoreticalPhysicsTrieste, Italy

Mark A. ParsonsRensselaer Polytechnic InstituteTroy, NY, USA

Vincenzo PasqualeDepartment of Earth, Environment and Life SciencesUniversity of GenoaGenoa, Italy

Greig A. PatersonGeomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean andEcological SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool, UK

Prasanta K. PatroCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Nikolaos K. PavlisGeodesy and Geophysics Basic and Applied ResearchNational Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)Reston, VA, USA

Ingo A. PecherGNS ScienceLower Hutt, New ZealandandInstitute of Petroleum EngineeringHeriot-Watt UniversityEdinburgh, UK

W. R. PeltierDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of TorontoToronto, ON, Canada

Leif PerssonDepartment of Underwater ResearchFOIStockholm, Sweden

William K. PetersonLaboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of ColoradoBoulder, CO, USA

J. D. A. PiperGeomagnetism Laboratory, Department of Earth andOcean SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool, UK

Donald R. ProtheroDepartment of GeologyOccidental CollegeLos Angeles, CA, USA

Ivan PšenčíkDepartment of Geophysics, Faculty of Mathematics andPhysicsCharles UniversityPraha, Czech RepublicandInstitute of GeophysicsAcademy of Sciences of Czech RepublicPraha, Czech Republic

Alfio QuarteroniMOX, Department of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoMilan, ItalyandCMCS-MATHICSE, EPFLLausanne, Switzerland

Vincent QuitorianoU.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

T. RadhakrishnaNational Centre for Earth Science StudiesTrivandrum, IndiaandGITAM UniversityNagadenehalli, Bengaluru, India

R. RajeshCSIR-NGRIHyderabad, India

V. Rama Murthy(Deceased)

G. RamillienGET, Observatoire Midi PyrénéesToulouse, France

Sunita RaniDepartment of MathematicsGuru Jambheshwar University of Science and TechnologyHisar, India

Hojjatollah RanjbarDepartment of Mining EngineeringShahid Bahonar University of KermanKerman, Iran

E. Pattabhi Rama RaoEarth System Science Ogranisation–Indian NationalCentre for Ocean Information Services (ESSO–INCOIS)Hyderabad, India

Ying RaoCollege of GeophysicsChina University of Petroleum (Beijing)Beijing, China

Y. J. Bhaskar RaoGeochronology DivisionCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

James W. Rector IIIDepartment of Civil and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of California at BerkeleyBerkeley, CA, USA

J. N. ReddyDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA

Thomas ReinschGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

David A. RhoadesGNS ScienceLower Hutt, New Zealand

Paul G. RichardsLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY, USA

Paul H. RobertsInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsUniversity of CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA, USA

Johan O. A. RobertssonInstitute of Geophysics, Department of Earth SciencesETH-ZürichZürich, Switzerland

Fabio RomanelliDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, Italy

Barbara RomanowiczBerkeley Seismological LaboratoryBerkeley, CA, USAandCollège de FranceParis, France

Philippe RouxObservatoire de GrenobleUniversité Joseph Fourier and CNRSGrenoble, France

Kabir Roy ChowdhuryDepartment of Earth SciencesUtrecht UniversityUtrecht, The Netherlands

D. F. RuckerhydroGEOPHYSICS, Inc.Tucson, AZ, USA

Ladislaus RybachInstitute of GeophysicsETH ZurichZurich, Switzerland

Leonardo SagnottiIstituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VulcanologiaRome, Italy

Kalachand SainWadia Institute of Himalayan GeologyDehradun, India

CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Malcolm SambridgeSeismology and Mathematical GeophysicsResearch School of Earth Sciences, The AustralianNational UniversityCanberra, ACT, Australia

Francisco J. Sánchez-SesmaInstituto de IngenieríaUniversidad Nacional Autónoma de México, CiudadUniversitariaMéxico City, Mexico

William A. SandhamScotsigGlasgow, UK

John H. Sass(Deceased)

Nittala SatyavaniSeismic GroupNational Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

David P. SchaffLamont-Doherty Earth ObservatoryColumbia UniversityPalisades, NY, USA

Magdalena Scheck-WenderothHelmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centrefor GeosciencesPotsdam, GermanyandRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

John F. SchneiderGEM FoundationPavia, Italy

Harald SchuhDepartment 1 “Geodesy” at Helmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Gerard T. SchusterDivision of Environmental and Earth SciencesKing Abdullah University of Science and TechnologyThule, Saudi Arabia

Martha SchwartzDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, CA, USA

Johannes SchweitzerNORSARKjeller, Norway

Anna ScottiDepartment of MathematicsPolitecnico di MilanoMilan, Italy

Mahmoud Mohamed Selim SalehDepartment of Nature and Applied SciencesAl-Aflaj Community College, AL-Kharj UniversityAl-Aflaj, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Mrinal K. SenDepartment of Geological Sciences, UT Institute forGeophysics, Jackson School of GeosciencesThe University of Texas at AustinAustin, TX, USA

A. M. Celâl ŞengörFaculty of Mines, Department of Geology and EurasiaInstitute of Earth SciencesIstanbul Technical UniversityIstanbul, Turkey

Nikolai M. ShapiroInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Krishna Kant SharmaDepartment of Applied GeologyUniversity of MadrasChennai, India

John ShawGeomagnetism Lab, Department of Earth, Ocean andEcological SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpool, UK

Randy ShowstackAmerican Geophysical UnionWashington, DC, USAandIndependent JournalistWashington, DC, USA

Lydie SichoixObservatoire Géodésique de TahitiUniversity of French PolynesiaFaaa-Tahiti, French Polynesia

Michael G. SiderisDepartment of Geomatics EngineeringUniversity of CalgaryCalgary, AB, Canada

xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Kumar Hemant SinghDepartment of Earth SciencesIndian Institute of Technology BombayMumbai, India

Sarva Jit SinghIndian National Science AcademyNew Delhi, India

Satish C. SinghLaboratoire de Géoscience MarinesInstitut de Physique du Globe de ParisParis, France

Lee SlaterDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesRutgers University NewarkNewark, NJ, USA

Daniel SloskyU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Alan G. Smith(Deceased)

Anselm SmolkaGEM FoundationPavia, Italy

Gennady SobolevInstitute of Physics of the EarthRussian Academy of SciencesMoscow, Russia

Semere SolomonDet Norske VeritasDNV Research and InnovationHøvik, Norway

Xiaodong SongDepartment of GeologyUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-ChampaignUrbana, IL, USA

Ravi P. SrivastavaEquinor ASABergen, Norway

Vinee SrivastavaDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesIISER BhopalBhopal, India

Frank D. StaceyDivision of Exploration and MiningCSIROKenmore, Australia

Vaughan StagpooleGNS ScienceLower Hutt, New Zealand

Seth SteinDepartment of Earth and Planetary SciencesNorthwestern UniversityEvanston, IL, USA

France St-LaurentLaSalle, QC, Canada

Paul L. StoffaDepartment of Geological Sciences, UT Institute forGeophysics, Jackson School of GeosciencesThe University of Texas at AustinAustin, TX, USA

Dmitry A. StorchakInternational Seismological Centre (ISC)Thatcham, UK

Eléonore StutzmannSeismological Laboratory, Institut de Physique du GlobeUniversité de Paris, UMR CNRS/7154Paris, France

Peter SuhadolcDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, Italy

Neil SuttieSchool of Archaeological and Forensic SciencesUniversity of BradfordBradford, UK

Christopher J. SwainSchool of Earth and Planetary SciencesCurtin UniversityPerth, WA, Australia

Laszló SzarkaGeodetic and Geophysical Research, Institute of theHungarian Academy of SciencesSopron, Hungary

Sampat Kumar TandonDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesIISER BhopalBhopal, India

CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Donald H. TarlingSchool of Earth, Ocean and Environmental SciencesUniversity of PlymouthPlymouth, UK

E. ThébaultLaboratoire Magma et Volcans, Université ClermontAuvergne (UCA), UMR CNRS 6524, Campus desCézeaux, 6, Avenue Blaise Pascal63178 AUBIERE, FRANCE

Robert ThériaultQuébec Ministry of Energy and Natural ResourcesQuébec, QC, Canada

Eric M. ThompsonU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Clifford H. ThurberDepartment of GeoscienceUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI, USA

H. ThyboEurasia Institute of Earth SciencesIstanbul Technical UniversityIstanbul, TurkeyandCentre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED)University of OsloOslo, Norway

Virendra M. TiwariGravity and Magnetic Studies GroupCSIR- National Geophysical Research Institute (CSIR)Hyderabad, India

Harold TobinDepartment of Earth and Space SciencesUniversity of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA

Shinji TodaDisaster Prevention Research InstituteKyoto UniversityUji, Kyoto, Japan

Tamás TóthGeomega LimitedBudapest, Hungary

B. T. TsurutaniJet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadena, CA, USA

Srinivasa Kumar TummalaEarth System Science Ogranisation–Indian NationalCentre for Ocean Information Services (ESSO–INCOIS)Hyderabad, IndiaandICG/IOTWMS SecretariatUNESCO IOC Perth Regional Programme OfficeWest Perth, WA, Australia

James A. TyburczySchool of Earth and Space ExplorationArizona State UniversityTempe, AZ, USA

Seiya UyedaJapan AcademyTokyo, Japan

Franco VaccariDepartment of GeosciencesUniversity of TriesteTrieste, Italy

Petr VaníčekDepartment of Geodesy and Geomatics EngineeringUniversity of New BrunswickFredericton, NB, Canada

Nimisha VedantiCSIR-National Geophysical Research InstituteHyderabad, India

Massimo VerdoyaDepartment of Earth, Environment and Life SciencesUniversity of GenoaGenoa, Italy

Lev P. VinnikInstitute of Physics of the EarthMoscow, Russia

Harald von der Osten-WoldenburgNational Heritage DepartmentRegional Government of Baden-WuerttembergEsslingen am Neckar, Germany

John M. Wahr(Deceased)

David J. WaldU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

xxx CONTRIBUTORS

Yanghua WangResource Geophysics Academy, Department of EarthScience and EngineeringImperial College LondonLondon, UK

Steven N. WardInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary PhysicsUniversity of California at Santa CruzSanta Cruz, CA, USA

A. B. WattsDepartment of Earth SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxford, UK

Florian WellmannComputational Geoscience and Reservoir EngineeringRWTH Aachen UniversityAachen, Germany

Lianxing WenDepartment of GeosciencesState University of New York at Stony BrookStony Brook, NY, USA

Kathryn A. WhalerSchool of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburgh, UK

Joanne WhittakerInstitute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS)University of TasmaniaHobart, TAS, Australia

Helmut WiesemeyerMillimeter and Submillimeter AstronomyMax-Planck-Institute for Radio AstronomyBonn, Germany

P. B. WilkinsonGeophysical Tomography TeamBritish Geological SurveyKeyworth, Nottingham, UK

Ray WoodCRP-OCS LtdHaumoana, New Zealand

C. Bruce WordenU.S. Geological SurveyDenver Federal CenterLakewood, CO, USA

Zhongliang WuInstitute of Earthquake ForecastingChina Earthquake AdministrationBeijing, China

Guangyin XuInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationBeijing, China

Fumio YamazakiNational Research Institute for Earth Science and DisasterResilienceTsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

Takashi YoshinoInstitute for Planetary MaterialsOkayama UniversityMisasa, Japan

Yanxiang YuInstitute of GeophysicsChina Earthquake AdministrationBeijing, China

Xiaohui YuanHelmholtz Centre PotsdamGFZ German Research Centre for GeosciencesPotsdam, Germany

Colin A. ZeltDepartment of Earth ScienceRice UniversityHouston, TX, USA

Mark A. ZumbergeInstitute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, ScrippsInstitution of OceanographyUniversity of California, San DiegoLa Jolla, CA, USA

Preface to the Second Edition

The oldest surviving encyclopedia is Naturalis Historia by coverage of central concepts and key topics of interest,
Pliny the Elder, a Roman statesman in the first centuryAD. It has 37 chapters covering the history, geography,geology, and various other aspects of the world. In today’sdigital world of easy access to information, encyclopediascontinue to be a valued source of reliable content contrib-uted by experts. Subject encyclopedias contain in-depthentries offering essential and up-to-date information on therespective field of study, reflecting the current state ofknowledge in the discipline as well as current trends.Encyclopedias published in electronic format are mucheasier to use than printed versions, given their searchfunctions.
All information about the Earth’s interior comes fromfield observations and measurements made within the topfew kilometers of the surface, from laboratory experimentsand from the powers of human deduction, relying oncomplex numerical modeling. Solid Earth geophysicsencompasses all these endeavors and aspires to defineand quantify the internal structure and processes of theEarth in terms of physical principles, corresponding math-ematical formulations, and computational procedures. Therole of solid Earth geophysics has gained prominence withincreasing recognition of the fact that understanding Earthprocesses is central to the continued well-being of human-ity. Apart from the exploration of natural resources, geo-physical investigations provide crucial insights regardingthe mutual relationships between climate and tectonics andon the effects of global change in terms of a broad range ofnatural hazards. The field continues to grow rapidly, bothin fundamental and applied aspects, parallel to advances inallied fields of science and technology.

The second edition of the Encyclopedia of Solid EarthGeophysics (ESEG) serves as a comprehensive compen-dium of information on important topics in solid earthgeophysics and provides systematic and up-to-date

while making no claims to represent every aspect of thismulti-disciplinary and multi-faceted field. The earliest ver-sion of the Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, editedby Prof. David E. James, was published by Van NostrandReinhold publishing company in 1989. The extraordinarygrowth and diversification of the field over the next20 years called for a major revision. A completely newwork, namely Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics,published by Springer in 2011, was edited by HarshK. Gupta. It brought together over 200 entries coveringestablished and new concepts in geophysics across sub-fields such as gravity, geodesy, geoelectricity, geomagne-tism, seismology, seismics, deep earth interior andprocesses, plate tectonics, geothermics, and computationalmethods in a consistent format. Less than 10 years later, theneed for an updated second edition was driven by the desireto expand the scope of the entries, which would include thenew knowledge derived through novel observations andtechniques. Consequently, this edition includes 256 entrieswritten by 347 authors, and includes 44 new topics, such asFiber Optics in Geophysics, Tracking Earth’s Water inMotion, A New Era of Earth Observatories and OthersBased on Satellite Observations, Deep Continental Bore-holes Like the KTB, Seismic Arrays in Boreholes, Envi-ronmental Seismology, High-Frequency Seismology,Floating Seismographs, and several other new topics thathave established themselves in recent years.

The entries, written by leading experts, are intended toprovide a holistic treatment of solid Earth geophysics andguide researchers to more detailed sources of knowledgeshould they require them. A basic understanding of solidEarth geophysics is essential for professionals in manyallied disciplines, such as civil engineering, environmentalsciences, and the mining, exploration and software Indus-tries, and for NGOs working on large-scale social agendas,

xxxii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

etc. This encyclopedia offers readers an authoritative andup-to-date reference source of extraordinary scope, draw-ing its unique strength from the contributions prepared byexperts from around the globe.

2021 is the diamond jubilee year of the creation of theNational Geophysical Research Institute, Council of Sci-entific & Industrial Research (CSIR-NGRI), where I spent

a major part of my academic life. It is a pleasure to com-memorate the diamond jubilee of CSIR-NGRI with thepublication of the second edition of ESEG.

Harsh K. Gupta

Preface to the First Edition

All information about the Earth’s interior comes from field extraordinary growth and diversification of this science
observations and measurements made within the top fewkilometers of the surface, from laboratory experiments andfrom the powers of human deduction, relying on complexnumerical modeling. Solid Earth Geophysics encompassesall these endeavors and aspires to define and quantify theinternal structure and processes of the Earth in terms of theprinciples of physics, corresponding mathematical formu-lations and computational procedures. The role of SolidEarth Geophysics has gained prominence with increasingrecognition of the fact that knowledge and understandingof Earth processes are central to the continued well being ofthe global community. Apart from persistent search fornatural resources, this research line is linked to basic inves-tigations regarding the mutual relationships between cli-mate and tectonics and on the effects of global change interms of a wide spectrum of natural hazards. Consequently,the pursuit of this science has seen spectacular progress allover the world in recent decades, both in fundamental andapplied aspects, necessarily aided by advancements inallied fields of science and technology.
The Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics aims toserve as a comprehensive compendium of information onimportant topics of Solid Earth Geophysics and provide asystematic and up-to-date coverage of its important aspectsincluding primary concepts as well as key topics of inter-est. It, however, does not claim to chronicle each and everyniche area that in reality is a part of this multidisciplinaryand multi-faceted science. Neither does it attempt todescribe the basic physics of matter and energy systems,which comprise the underlying tenets of geophysicalresearch. The first edition of this Encyclopedia, edited byProf. David James, was published in 1989 by the VanNostrand Reinhold publishing company. The

over the last twenty years called for a complete revision.This is realized by identifying the necessary topics andbringing together over 200 articles covering establishedand new concepts of Geophysics across the sub-disciplinessuch as Gravity, Geodesy, Geoelectricity, Geomagnetism,Seismology, Seismics, Deep Earth Interior and Processes,Plate Tectonics, Geothermics, Computational Methods,etc. in a consistent format. Exceptional Exploration Geo-physics and Geotechnical Engineering topics are includedfor the sake of completeness. Topics pertaining to nearEarth environs, other than the classical ‘Solid Earth’, arenot within the scope of this volume as it is felt that thegrowth of knowledge in these fields justify a dedicatedvolume to cover them.

Articles written by leading experts intend to provide aholistic treatment of Solid Earth Geophysics and guideresearchers to more detailed sources of knowledge shouldthey require them. As basic understanding and applicationof Solid Earth Geophysics is essential for professionals ofmany allied disciplines such as Civil Engineering; Envi-ronmental Sciences; Mining, Exploration and softwareindustries; NGOs working on large scale social agenda;etc., it would be useful to them to have access to a readyand up-to-date source of knowledge on key topics of SolidEarth Geophysics. Hopefully, this Encyclopedia wouldprove to be an authoritative and current reference sourcewith extraordinary width of scope, drawing its uniquestrength from the expert contributions of editors andauthors across the globe.

I am grateful to Anny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora, BobEngdahl, Seiya Uyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik,Kalachand Sain and Sukanta Roy, members of the EditorialBoard for their constant advice and guidance in developing

xxxiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

the framework of this Encyclopedia and help with theeditorial work. I am equally grateful to all the authorswho readily agreed to contribute and honoured the guide-lines and time schedule.

Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, SimoneGiesler and D. Nishantini from Springer were veryco-operative. It has been a pleasure working with Springer.

Ms. M. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistancein the preparation of this volume. My wife Manju anddaughters Nidhi & Benu supported me through the entireproject.

Harsh K. GuptaEditor-in-Chief

Acknowledgments

It has been a great pleasure working on the second editionof the Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics. My thanksgo to Springer, particularly Petra Van Steenbergen andSylvia Blago, for requesting it less than 10 years after therelease of the first edition in 2011. I am also grateful toAnny Cazenave, Kusumita Arora, Bob Engdahl, SeiyaUyeda, Rainer Kind, Ajay Manglik, Kalachand Sain, andSukanta Roy, the members of the editorial board, for theirconstant advice and guidance in developing the frameworkfor this encyclopedia and support with the editorial work.I am equally indebted to the 347 authors who readilyagreed to contribute and adhered to the guidelines andschedule.

The manuscripts went through several iterations duringtheir development, and at each stage, they were carefullyreviewed by prominent experts in their respective fields,

numbering over 200 from all over the world. Please acceptmy heartfelt thanks.

Petra van Steenbergen, Sylvia Blago, and Johanna Klutefrom Springer were very co-operative throughout this pro-ject, while Santhiya Rajarathinam helped with printing themanuscripts. It has been a pleasure working with Springeron this endeavor.

M. Uma Anuradha provided extraordinary assistance inthe preparation of this volume.

I gratefully acknowledge the support provided by theCSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Hydera-bad, and the National Academy of Sciences, India.

Last but certainly not least, my wife Manju and daugh-ters Nidhi and Benu gave their unflagging encouragementthroughout the entire project.

Harsh K. Gupta

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

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