Encoding and Image Formation Gradients Slice selection Frequency encoding Phase encoding Sampling Data collection
Feb 24, 2016
Encoding and Image Formation
GradientsSlice selectionFrequency encodingPhase encodingSampling Data collection
Introduction►Encoding means the location of the MR
signal and positioning it on the correct place in the image
►RF at precessional frequency of hydrogen applied at 900 to B0 resonates and flips the NMV into transverse plane.
►The individual magnetic moments of hydrogen is put into phase.
►The coherent transverse magnetization precesses at Larmor frequency in the transverse plane.
►A voltage (signal) is induced in the receiver coil placed in the transverse plane
►This signal has a frequency equal to Larmor frequency of hydrogen (at 1.5 T : 63.86 MHz)
►The system must be able to locate the signal spatially in three dimensions, so that it can position each signal at the correct point on the image.
► First it locates a slice.►Then it is located or encoded along both
axes of the image.►This task is performed by magnetic
gradients
Magnetic Gradients►Gradients are alterations to the main
magnetic field and are generated by coils of wire located within the bore of the magnet.
►The passage of current through a gradient coil induces a gradient magnetic field.
►The gradient field either adds to or subtracts from B0.
►B0 is altered in a linear fashion.
►Magnetic field strength and therefore the precessional frequency of the nuclei situated in the long axis is deferent and is predictable.
►This is called spatial encoding
A B C
negative
positive
9998 G42.5614 MHz
10000 G42.57 MHz
10002 G42.5785 MHz
gradient 1 G per cm
2 cm 2 cm
X,Y,Z Gradient coils
►There are three gradient coils (X,Y,Z) situated within the bore of the magnet
►Z gradient alters the magnetic field strength along the Z- (long) axis
►Y gradient alters the magnetic field strength along the Y- (vertical) axis of the magnet
►X gradient alters the magnetic field strength along the X- (horizontal /transverse) axis of the magnet
Y
Z
X
►The magnetic isocentre is the centre point of the axis of all three gradients, and the bore of the magnet.
►The field strength remains unaltered at the isocentre
isocentre
ZY
X
► When a gradient coil is switched on, the magnetic field strength is either subtracted from or added to B0 relative to the isocentre
► The slope of the resulting magnetic field is the amplitude of the magnetic field gradient and it determines the rate of change of the magnetic field strength along the gradient axis.
► Steep gradient slopes alter the magnetic field strength between two points more than shallow gradient slopes.
► Steep gradient slopes therefore alter the precessional frequency of nuclei between two points, more than shallow gradients slopes
Steep & shallow gradients
Slice selection►This is done by
first switching the appropriate gradient coil to alter the field strength and the precessional frequency at points along the corresponding axis, and
then by transmitting a selected band of RF frequencies to selectively excite the nuclei which precess in that particular frequencies.
►Resonance of nuclei within the slice occurs because RF appropriate to that position is transmitted
►Nuclei situated in other slices does not resonate because their precessional frequency is different.
►Z-gradient selects axial slices
►Y gradient selects coronal slices
►X gradient selects sagittal slices
Y
Z
X
Slice thickness►To give each slice a thickness, a band of
nuclei must be excited by the excitation pulse
►The slope of the slice-select gradient determines the difference in precessional frequency between two points on the gradient.
►Once a certain gradient slope is applied, the RF pulse transmitted to excite the slice, must contain a range of frequencies to match the difference in precessional frequency between two points
►This frequency range is called the bandwidth.
►As the RF is being transmitted at this point it is called the transmit bandwidth.
►To achieve thin slices, a steep slice select slope and/or narrow bandwidth is applied
►To achieve thick slices, a shallow slice select slope and/or broad transmit bandwidth is applied.
Tran
smit
band
widt
h
Steep gradient Shallow
gradient
Thin slice
Thick slice
broa
d Ba
ndwi
dth
Narro
w Ba
ndwi
dth
Thin slice Thick slice
slice select gradient
Gradient strength & slice thicknessShallow (weaker
gradient)Steeper ( strong) gradient
►The system automatically applies the appropriate gradient slope and transmit bandwidth according to the thickness of slice required.
►The slice is excited by transmitting RF at the centre frequency corresponding to the precessional frequency of nuclei in the middle of the slice,
►The bandwidth and gradient slope determine the range of nuclei that resonate on either side of the centre.
In Practice
► The gap between the slices is determined by the gradient slope and by the thickness of the slice.
► In spin echo pulse sequences, the slice select gradient is switched on during the application of the 900 excitation pulse and during the 1800 rephasing pulse, to excite and rephase each slice selectively.
► In gradient echo, the slice select gradient is switched on during the excitation pulse only.
900 1800 900
Slice select gradient
Frequency encoding►Once a slice has been selected, the signal
coming from it must be spatially located (encoded) along both axes of the image
► Locating the signal along the long axis of anatomy is done by a process called frequency encoding
►A gradient is applied along the selected axis►The precessional frequency of signal along
the axis is therefore altered in a linear fashion.
►The signal can now be located along the axis of the gradient according to its frequency
For frequency encoding of►Coronal & sagittal images – use z gradient►Axial images – use X gradient ►Axial images of Head – use Y gradient
A B C
Nuclei in column A precess at frequency A
Nuclei in column B precess at frequency B
Nuclei in column C precess at frequency C
In practice►The frequency encoding gradient is switched
on when the signal is received and is often called the readout gradient
FID Echo FID
900 900
1800
Frequency encoding gradient
rephasing
dephasing
peak
The steepness of the slope of the frequency encoding gradient determines the size of the anatomy covered ; Field Of View (FOV) along the axis during scan.
Phase encoding►The location of the signal along the
remaining third axis is achieved by a process called phase encoding.
►This is achieved by applying a gradient along this remaining axis
►A gradient is switched on it alters the speed of precession as well as the accumulated phase of the nuclei along their precessional path.
► It produces a phase difference or shift between nuclei positioned along the axis.
nuclei travel slower
Nuclei travel faster
Loose phase
gain phase
14998 G 63.852 MHz
15000 G 63.86 MHz
15002 G 63.868 MHz
Gradient & phase difference
►When the phase encoding gradient is switched off, the magnetic field strength experienced by the nuclei returns to B0 and the precessional frequency of all the nuclei returns to the larmor frequency.
►However the phase difference between nuclei remains
►The nuclei travel at the same speed around their precessional paths, but their phases or positions are different.
►This difference in phase between the nuclei is used to determine their position along the phase encoding gradient (axis).
In practice► The phase encoding gradient is switched on just
before the application of the 1800 rephasing pulse in spin echo sequences.
Phase encoding gradient
900 900
1800
Summary of phase encoding►The phase encoding gradient alters
the phase along the short axis of the anatomy
►In Coronal images – x gradient ►In sagittal images - Y gradient►In axial images - Y gradient►Axial images of brain – x gradient
Summary spatial encoding►The slice-select gradient is switched
on during the 90 and 180 pulses in spin echo
pulse sequences , and during the excitation pulse only in
gradient echo pulse sequences►The slope of the slice-select gradient
determines the slice thickness and slice gap (along with transmit bandwidth)
►The phase encoding gradient is switched on just before the 180 pulse in spin echo, and between excitation and the signal collection in
gradient echo.►The slope of the phase encoding gradient
determines the degree of phase shift along the phase encoding axis.
►The frequency encoding gradient is switched on during the collection of the signal
►The amplitude of the frequency encoding gradient and the phase encoding gradient determines the two dimensions of the FOV
Gradient timing in spin echo
900
900
1800
echo
slice select
slice select
Phase encode Frequency
encode
TR
Sampling►The signal is collected during the
frequency encoding gradient (readout gradient)
►The duration of readout gradient is called sampling time
►The system samples up to 1024 frequencies during sampling time
►The rate at which the samples are taken is called the sampling rate
►The number of samples taken determines the number of frequencies sampled
►The range of frequencies is called the receive bandwidth
f1f2 f4f3 f5f6
Receive bandwidth
Frequency columns in FOV
Frequencies sampled are mapped across the FOV along the frequency axis
►Sampling time, sampling rate and receive bandwidth are linked by a mathematical principle called the Nyquist theorem.
► It states that any signal must be sampled at least twice per cycle in order to represent or reproduced it acurately.
► In addition enough cycles must occur during the sampling time to achieve enough frequency samples ( if 256 samples are to be taken 128 cycles must occur during the sampling time)
►Number of cycles occurring per second is determined by the receive bandwidth
►Receive bandwidth is proportional to the Sampling rate
►Sampling time is inversely proportional to: The sampling rate The receive bandwidth
The receive bandwidth affect the minimum TE ( because the sampling time is changed)
►Reducing the receive bandwidth increase the TE (sampling time increases) & vise versa
►Usually the receive bandwidth & sampling time are fixed
Nyquist theorumSampling once
Reproduced as a straight line
Sampling twice
Reproduced more accurately
Bandwidth versus sampling time
Bandwidth
Sampling time (8 ms)
16,000 Hz
8,000 Hz
128 cycles occur (256 samples can be taken)
64 cycles occur (only 128 samples can be taken)
If bandwidth is reduced, the sampling time must be increased so that the same number of samples can be taken
Data collection► Location of individual signals within the image by
measuring the number of times the magnetic moments cross the receiver coil (frequency), and their position around their precessional path (phase)
Freq
uenc
y sh
ift
Phase shift
1 cycle/s
2 cycles/s
3 cycles/s
K space► The data information is stored in the computer memory
location called the K space. Maximum number of lines are 1024
phas
e
frequency
+ve
-ve
central
outer
One line is filled for one phase encoding gradient
Data collection – step 1► During each TR the signal from each slice is phase
encoded and frequency encoded.► A certain value of frequency shift is obtained
according to the slope of the frequency encoding gradient, which is determined by the size of the FOV.
► As the FOV remains unchanged during the scan, the frequency shift value remains the same.
► A certain value of phase shift is also obtained according to the slope of the phase encoding gradient
► The slope of the phase encoding gradient will determine which line of K space is filled with the data from that frequency and phase encoding
Phase shift & pseudo-frequency
►The system cannot measure the phase values directly
► It can measure frequency►The phase shift values are converted to a
sine wave►The frequency of this sine wave is called a
pseudo-frequency►Different phase shift gradient produce
different sine waves with different pseudo-frequency
The pseudo frequency curve
Phase shift value
time
Phase encoding gradient & pseudo frequency
►Steeper gradients results in high pseudo frequencies
►Shallow gradients results in low frequencies
► In order to fill out different lines of K space, the slope of the phase encoding gradient must be altered after each TR
►With each phase encoding one line of K space is filled
►Different lines in K space are filled after every TR
►The phase encoding gradient is altered for every TR
► In order to complete the acquisition all the lines of selected K space must have been filled
►The number of lines that are filled is determined by the number of different phase encoding slopes that are applied
K spaceLine 1 phase encode 1 frequency/phase dataLine 2 phase encode 2
Line 128 phase encode 128
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)►The data in K space is converted into an
image mathematically by Fourier Transform.►The receive signal is a composite of multiple
signals with different frequencies and amplitudes
►The signal intensity/time domain is converted to a signal intensity/frequency domain
RF
inte
nsity
Time
Ampl
itud
eFrequency
Time domain Frequency domain
Matrix & FOV►The FOV relates to the amount of
anatomy covered►It can be square or rectangular►Image consists of a matrix of pixels►Te number of pixels depends on the
number of frequency samples and phase encodings
►Matrix = frequency samples x phase encodings
Matrix
Coarse matrix 4x4 Fine matrix 8 x 8
4 frequency samples
8 ph
ase
sam
ples
8 frequency samples
4 ph
ase
sam
ples
Data collection - step 2, NSA (NEX)
►When all the lines of K space is filled the acquisition is over
►But the signal can be sampled more than once with the same slope of phase encoding gradient.
►Doing so each line of K space is filled more than once
►The number of times each signal is sampled with the same slope of phase encoding gradient is usually called the number of signal averages (NSA) or the number of excitations (NEX).
►The higher the NEX, the more data is stored and the amplitude of the signal at each frequency and phase shift is greater
Scan timing►Every TR, each slice is selected, phase
encoded and frequency encoded.►The maximum number of slices that
can be selected and encoded depends on the length of the TR.
►E.g. TR of 500ms may allow 12 slices. TR of 2000 ms may allow 18 slices
TR & number of slicesTR
Slice 1
Slice 2
Slice 3
Slice 4
Slice 1 second TR
90 180echo
TE
Phase encode 1
Phase encode 2
►The phase encoding gradient slope is altered every TR and is applied to each selected slice in order to phase encode it.
►At each phase encode a different line of k space is filled. The number of phase encoding steps therefore affects the length of the scan
►E.g. 256 phase encodings require 256 x TR to complete the scan.
►The scan time is also affected by the number of times the signal is phase encoded with the same phase encoding gradient slope, or NEX . So,
Scan time = TR x Number of phase encodings x NEX
K space filling►The negative half of the k space is a mirror
image of the positive half.►The polarity of the phase gradient
determines whether the positive or negative half is filled
►Gradient polarity depends on the direction of the current through the gradient coil
►The central lines are filled with data produced after the application of shallow phase encoding gradients
►The outer lines are filled with data produced with steep phase encoding gradients
►The steepness of the slope of the phase encoding gradient depends on the current driven through he coil.
►The central lines of K space are usually filled first. (if 256 phase encodings are performed 128 positive lines and 128 negative lines are filled.
►The lines are usually filled sequentially either from top to bottom or from bottom to top
Signal amplitude & phase shift gradient
►The shallow phase encoding gradients have smaller phase shifts. The resultant signal therefore has a large amplitude
►The steeper phase encoding gradients have larger phase shift along their axis and therefore small signal amplitudes
Phase encoding slope & signal amplitude
Steeper gradient
medium gradientshallow gradient
Low amplitude
medium amplitude
high amplitude
Signal amplitude & frequency gradient
►The vertical axis of k space correspond to the frequency encoding
►The left of the k space is a mirror image of the right
►The centre represents the maximum signal amplitude because all the magnetic moments are in phase
►The magnetic moments on either side are either rephasing and dephasing and therefore the amplitude is less
Signal amplitude & frequency gradient
Rephasing Dephasing
Peak
K space filling & spatial resolution
►Number of phase encodings determines the number of pixels in the FOV along the phase encoding direction
► If the FOV is fixed voxels of smaller dimensions result in an image with high spatial resolution
►The steeper gradients result in high spatial resolution (two adjacent points have different phase values and can be differentiated)
►The outer lines of K space contain data with high spatial resolution
►The central lines of k space contain data with a low spatial resolution
►The central portion of k space contains data that has high signal amplitude & low spatial resolution
►The outer portion of k space contains data that has low signal amplitude and high spatial resolution
Resolution & Amplitude
High spatial resolution
High signal
High spatial resolution
Way of filling K space►The amplitude of frequency encoding
gradient determines how far to the left and right K space is traversed and this in turn determines the size of the FOV in the frequency direction of the image
►The amplitude of the phase encoding gradient determines how far up and down a line of K space is filled and in turn determines the size of the FOV in the phase direction of the image (or the spatial resolution when the FOV is square)
►The polarity of each gradient defines the direction traveled through K space
K space filling in gradient echo
►The frequency encoding gradient switches negatively to forcibly dephase the FID and then positively to rephase and produce a gradient echo
► Frequency encoding gradient is negative, k space traversed from left to right
► Frequency encoding gradient is positive, k space traversed from right to left
►Phase encode gradient is positive , fills top half of K space
►Phase encode gradient is negative, fills bottom half of K space
K space filling in gradient echoPhase encode amplitude determines distance B
B
A
Negative gradient traverse from centre through distance A
Positive gradient traverse from centre through distance C
C
Line of k space filled
Manipulation of K space filling
►The way in which K space is filled depends on how the data is acquired and can be manipulated to suit the circumstances of the scan; e.g. in the following Rectangular field of view Anti-aliasing Ultra fast pulse sequences Respiratory compensation Echo planar imaging
Partial or fractional echo imaging
►This refers to when only part of the signal is read (sampled) during application of frequency encoding gradient
►As the sampling time is reduced minimum TE can be reduced
►This allows maximum T1 and proton density weighting and number of slices for a given TR
Readout gradient
Minimum TE
Minimum TE reduced Only half of the k Space is
filledThis extrapolated from filled segment
Partial echo imaging
Only this half is read
Partial or fractional averaging► The negative and positive halves of K space on
each side of the phase axis are symmetrical and mirror image of each other
► The filling of at least half of the lines is adequate to produce an image
► If 60% of lines are to be filled only 60% of phase encodings are required and the remaining lines are filled with zeros
► The scan time is there fore reduced► E.g. 256 phase encodings and, 1 TR and ¾ NEX is
selected► This is called partial or fractional averaging
Partial averaging75% of k space is filled with data
25% is filled with zeros
If phase encodings = 256TR = 1sNEX=3/4,
Scan time = 256 x ¾ x 1 = 192 s
If phase encodings = 256TR = 1sNEX=1,
Scan time = 256 x 1 x 1 = 256 s
PRE-SCAN►This is a method of calibration that should be performed
before every data acquisition. It includes;► Finding the centre frequency on which to transmit RF.
I.e. Resonant frequency of water protons within the area under examination
► Finding the exact magnitude of RF that must be transmitted to generate maximum signal in the coil. (to flip the NMV through 900)
►Adjustment of the magnitude of the received signal so that it is not too large nor too small.
Reasons for failing pre-scan►The coil is not plugged in properly►The coil is faulty►Chemical saturation techniques are
utilized and there is an uneven distribution of fat and water in the area to be saturated
►The patient is either very large or very small
Types of acquisition► Sequential :– data collected for slice by slice (k-
space for each slice is filled one by one)► Two-dimensional volumetric :– data collected for all
the slices simultaneously (line 1 in first slice, then line 1 in slice 2)
► Three-dimensional volumetric (volume imaging):-collect data from total volume. The excitation pulse is not slice selective, and the whole prescribed volume is excited. At the end of acquisition the volume is divided into partitions by slice select gradient which separates the slices according to their phase value along the gradient. (This is called slice encoding)
End