Empire and Expansion - Weeblyclarkushistory.weebly.com/uploads/3/7/0/7/37079553/...Empire and Expansion 1. America Turns Outward 1. By the 1890's, America turned away from its isolationist

Empire and Expansion 1. America Turns Outward 1. By the 1890's, America turned away from its isolationist policies and was

beginning to look overseas, toward imperialism. The European nations had been gobbling up colonies all during the 1800's, now America wanted a slice of the world pie.

2. There were several influences pointing toward imperialism… 1. Yellow journalism, or sensationalism in reporting, stirred up the

desire to take over lands. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers painted the far off lands as exotic, adventurous, and captured young people's imaginations.

2. Missionaries wanted to save souls in un-Christian lands. Namely, Rev. Josiah Strong pushed for imperialism in his book Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis.

3. Some people (like Theodore Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge) applied Darwin's survival-of-the-fittest theory to nations. It was the order of things for the strong to conquer the weak.

4. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783. It said that the key to a nation's power is through naval power. Thus, to become a world power, the U.S. needed to build up her navy.

3. The U.S. had several international, political balancing-acts and/or crises at the time…

1. James G. Blaine advocated the "Big Sister" policy toward Latin America. The idea was to get Latin American countries behind the leadership of the U.S. To that end, he led the Pan-American Conference in Washington D.C.

2. A U.S.—Germany standoff occurred down in Samoa. Samoa was split in half.

3. A U.S—Italy standoff occurred in New Orleans over captured Italians. The U.S. made payments.

4. A U.S.—Chile standoff occurred over murdered Americans. Chile made payments.

5. A U.S.—Canada standoff occurred over seal hunting rights. It was settled in arbitration (mediation).

6. A U.S.—Britain standoff occurred over gold discoveries down in Guiana. The actual dispute was between Britain and Venezuela; the U.S. just got in to stick up for her "little sister" by saying the Brits were breaking the Monroe Doctrine's "stay out!" policy.

1. Things got very tense, nearly to war. Finally, Britain (a) had

other distractions by the Germans down in South Africa and (b) decided a war with the U.S. simply wasn't worth it. The gold lands were basically split and the crisis was over.

2. Spurning the Hawaiian Pear 1. Hawaii had been alluring to Americans since the early 1800's when

shippers, sailors, whalers, and missionaries went there. 2. By the later 1800's, a few things were pertinent to the Hawaii situation… 1. America largely regarded Hawaii as an unofficial part of the U.S.

America had warned other nations to leave Hawaii alone (or, leave Hawaii to the U.S.).

2. American fruit and sugar companies were deeply entrenched in Hawaii. They largely ran the islands due to their economic power.

3. There was growing resistance by the native Hawaiians __toward the U.S. due to the increased influence by Americans.

3. The sugar companies grew restless. Concerns were that (a) Japan might try to take over and (b) the McKinley tariff had raised prices of Hawaiian sugar/fruit imported to the U.S.

1. The solution, they figured, was to get Hawaii officially__ and for good.

2. Queen Liliuokalani resisted. She said the native Hawaiians should run Hawaii.

3. In 1893, the whites staged a revolt and the U.S. military helped to dethrone the queen. Notably, this was all done locally in Hawaii, completely unofficially from Washington D.C. Papers were drawn up to annex Hawaii and sent to Washington.

4. Grove Cleveland had just become president and he didn't like the way Hawaii was taken and stopped the annexation. (The U.S. would get Hawaii 5 years later, in 1898).

3. Cubans Rise in Revolt 1. Cuba revolted against Spain in 1895. The Cuban "insurrectos" on the

Sugar plantations revolted against their Spanish overlords by burning everything.

2. America watched with interest and the U.S. rooted for the Cubans since (a) America loves liberty and independence, (b) it would be good for the Monroe Doctrine to get a European country out of the neighborhood, (c) Cuba was at the gateway to the Caribbean where the U.S. was dreaming of a Panama Canal.

3. Spain sent Gen. Valeriano "Butcher" Weyler to stop the revolt. He cracked down harshly and started prison camps where scores of insurrectos died from disease.

1. The "yellow press" in America loved the Cuban revolution and

Butcher Weyler's activities only made the storylines even juicier. William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer's newspapers tried to "outscoop" each other.

1. Hearst sent artist Frederic Remington down to Cuba and said, "You furnish the pictures, I'll furnish the war." Remington drew Spanish men stripping and searching American women (in actuality, women searched). Still, the result of the stories and pictures was to fire up Americans. The U.S. was decidedly leaning toward Cuba and away from Spain.

4. More strain emerged with the de Lôme letter. Spanish official Dupuy de Lôme wrote a letter which criticized Pres. McKinley and pointedly called him a wimp. William Randolph Hearst published the letter for all to read; Americans were upset.

5. The greatest event occurred on February 15, 1898, when the U.S.S. Maine exploded at night in Havana harbor killing 260 American sailors.

1. The cause of the explosion was a mystery, but in the public's mind, the cause was simple—Spain had done it. (Though still a bit of a mystery today, it was much later concluded that the explosion was an accident.)

2. The yellow press went berserk with the Maine story. The American public clamored for war with the battle cry, "Remember the Maine!". Pres. McKinley was still sluggish to enter the war though.

1. War-hawk Teddy Roosevelt said that McKinley had "the backbone of a chocolate éclair."

3. McKinley gave in to the public demand and on April 11, 1898 he sent a message to Congress asking for war. Congress happily voted for war.

1. Congress also passed the Teller Amendment that said the U.S. would give Cuba its freedom after kicking out Spain.

4. Dewey’s May Day Victory at Manila This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

1. America entered the war in a giddy, confident mood. 2. Even before war was declared, under-secretary of the Navy Teddy

Roosevelt ordered Commodore George Dewey to move to the Philippines (controlled by Spain) if war broke out.

1. On May 1, 1898, Dewey carried out Roosevelt's orders. 2. America had 6 ships, Spain had 10. But, America's were modern

whereas Spain's were antiques. Plus, America's guns could literally out-shoot Spain's. The naval battle was very one-sided for the Americans.

3. Dewey had won the naval battle, but could not storm the fort ashore in Manila with sailors. Tensions grew when German ships arrived. He had to wait until foot soldiers arrived—they did and they captured Manila on August 13th.

1. The U.S. was aided by Emilio Aguinaldo who led a group of Filipino insurgents against Spain. He'd been exiled in Asia, but was brought along for this mission—a decision the U.S. would later regret when he turned against the U.S.

3. The U.S. grabbed the Philippines quickly. Now, the U.S. wanted to grab Hawaii to use as a half-way coaling station between California and the Philippines. Congress and McKinley agreed to annex Hawaii on July 7, 1898.

5. The Confused Invasion of Cuba 1. When war broke, Spain sent their fleet to Santiago, Cuba where they

entered a narrow harbor there. 2. The U.S. hastily mounted up in Tampa, FL. 1. The Spanish-American War is known for being very ill-prepared.

For example, the men had wool uniforms for use against Indians out west, not for the Caribbean tropics. Also, more U.S. soldiers would die from disease than from fighting due to poor medication and planning.

2. The U.S. was led by Gen. William Shafter, a large, gouty man. 3. The "Rough Riders" cavalry were organized by Teddy Roosevelt.

Eager for action, he'd resigned his navy administration post. The Rough Riders were headed by Col. Leonard Wood, Roosevelt served as Lt. Col.

1. As another example of poor planning, the Rough Riders would eventually fight on foot, horseless. No one had planned how to get the horses to the beach, so they forced the horses to swim ashore—most of them drowned.

3. The U.S. sent ships and troops down to Santiago. The navy trapped the Spanish fleet by blockading the mouth of the harbor and the Army went ashore further up the beach.

1. The Army swept around behind Santiago and began a strangle-hold on the city. The Spanish fleet was surrounded and decided to run the gauntlet out of the harbor. They did so, and the U.S. navy mowed down the Spanish ships.

4. U.S. forces quickly went into Puerto Rico, met little resistance, and took the island.

5. Seeing the loss, Spain signed an armistice on August 12 and the so-called "splendid little war" was over.

6. The U.S. forces that lingered in Cuba began dying by scores due to disease. There were 4,000 deaths in battle, 5,000 deaths from

disease. 6. America’s Course (Curse?) of Empire 1. Peace negotiations were held in Paris to "settle" the war. The

stipulations were… 1. Cuba was free and independent, as the Teller Amendment had said

it would be. But there were strings attached (see below). 2. The U.S. gained (1) Puerto Rico, (2) Guam, and (3) assumed

control of the Philippines. 2. The Philippines posed the largest problem. Following are America's

options and their consequences: 1. Give the Philippines back to Spain. This option was out due to

decades of Spanish misrule and abuse. 2. Let the Filipino people run the country themselves. This was luring

but the fear was that competitive warlords would throw the country into total chaos.

3. Take over the islands. This would make the U.S. look like an imperial bully. Plus, after finally getting Spain off of their backs, the Filipino people didn't really want the U.S. controlling them.

4. McKinley fretted over the decision, then finally decided the U.S. should take over the Philippines. This decision conveniently meshed with the interests of the public and businesses.

1. $20 million was paid to Spain for the Philippine islands. 3. The Senate still had to okay the treaty so the question then became,

"Should the U.S. Senate accept the Paris treaty and thus acquire the Philippines?"

1. Those against acquiring the island got organized. The Anti-Imperialist League emerged to halt annexation.

1. The difference was that the other lands were generally in North America. Plus, Alaska and Hawaii were sparsely populated.

2. The League held some prominent members including Mark Twain, William James, Samuel Gompers, and Andrew Carnegie.

2. Imperialists countered the argument. They said that the Philippines could eventually flourish, like Hong Kong.

1. Brit Rudyard Kipling (author of The Jungle Book) wrote of "The White Man's Burden." He encouraged the U.S. to hold onto and civilize the Philippines.

2. Passage of the Paris treaty was in the balance until William Jennings Bryan threw his weight in favor of it. Once he did, the treaty passed by a single vote.

7. Perplexities in Puerto Rico and Cuba

1. Puerto Ricans was owned by the U.S. but was neither a territory nor state. It was given a limited elected government under the Foraker Act. Full U.S. citizenship was granted to Puerto Ricans in 1917.

1. Much improvement was done to the island in terms of sanitation, transportation, etc. Many islanders moved to New York to become "New York Ricans."

2. A question arose over taking Puerto Rico and the Philippines…"Do American laws and rights apply to these lands and peoples?"

1. The Supreme Court declared in the so-called Insular Cases that America's laws and customs do not necessarily extend to these new lands.

3. In Cuba, a military government was set up by Col. Leonard Wood. Much improvement was done there in government, education, agriculture, etc.

1. Col. William C. Gorgas and Dr. Walter Reed combined efforts to nearly wipe out the mosquitoes and yellow fever.

2. The Teller Amendment had said that the U.S. would leave Cuba to be independent; the U.S. kept this promise and left in 1902. But, the U.S. wrote the Platt Amendment which said…

1. Cuba couldn't make treaties that the U.S. didn't like. 2. Cuba couldn't take on too much debt. The U.S. could

intervene in these situations if necessary. 3. Cuba must lease coaling stations for the U.S. military to use.

This became the "Guantanamo Bay" military base. 8. New Horizons in Two Hemispheres 1. Sec. of State John Hay called the 113 day Spanish-American War a

"splendid little war." 1. It showed the world that the U.S. was a world power, likely the

world's strongest. Other nations, like Russia, Britain, and France, took note and stepped up their diplomatic headquarters in Washington D.C.

2. America was marching to a joyous patriotism. 1. Literally, they marched to the 2/4 marching beat of band-master

John Philip Sousa, such as his with "Stars and Stripes Forever."

2. A strong military was accepted as a need. Folks were convinced of Cpt. Alfred Thayer Mahan's concept of a powerful navy. And, Sec. of War Elihu Root started a War College.

3. The old North-South divide seemed to narrow a bit. At least in part, the enemy ceased to be one another and became Spain. Old Confederate Gen. Joseph "Fighting Joe" Wheeler had even been given command in Cuba. He'd apparently yelled in battle, "To hell with the Yankees! Dammit, I mean the

Spaniards." 3. Despite the spoils of war, however, the Philippines pan out to be a thorn

in America's side. 9. “Little Brown Brothers” in the Philippines 1. The Filipino people felt tricked when they weren't given their

independence after the Spanish-American War. 2. An insurrection began against the American troops by the Filipinos on

February 4, 1899. 1. Their leader was Emilio Aguinaldo, who'd fought with the U.S.

and against Spain. Like most Filipino's, he'd believed the Philippines would gain independence from Spain. When it didn't happen, he simply turned his aggression toward the U.S.

2. America stooped below her ideals by (1) using the "water cure" of forcing water down throats to force cooperation, (b) setting up prison camps similar to the ones Butcher Weyler had made in Cuba, and (c) attacking people who simply wanted freedom.

3. Fighting was sporadic and guerrilla-style, frustrating the Americans. It lasted well over a year and killed 4,234 Americans.

3. The Americans gained the upper hand in 1901. Pres. McKinley sent William H. Taft to serve as the Philippines' civil governor.

1. A large (350 pounds) and jovial man, Taft got along well with the Filipinos. They generally like him and he called them his "little brown brothers."

2. Under Taft, America pursued a policy called "benevolent assimilation"—to kindly bring the Philippines up to civilization. The process was slow but it bore fruits…

1. With millions in American money, the infrastructure (roads, sanitation, etc.) was greatly improved. Public health improved as well.

2. Trade between the U.S. and the Philippines began, largely in sugar.

3. Schools were built and American teachers were sent over. 4. Still, the Filipino's wanted freedom. Independence was finally

granted just after WWII, on July 4, 1946. 10. Hinging the Open Door in China 1. After Japan had defeated China in 1894-1895, China had been sliced up

by Europe into "spheres of influence." 1. This usually meant that a European nation controlled a coastal city

and its surrounding area. The European nation held exclusive trade rights for that city and area (for example, Britain's control of Hong Kong).

2. Needless to say, the Chinese people despised this situation.

2. America was mostly uninvolved in this situation. Except, missionaries were concerned about access, and American businesses worried they'd be shut out.

1. Sec. of State John Hay drafted the Open Door Policy saying spheres of influence should be dropped and Chinese cities should be open to all nations for business. Europe was not interested in giving up their sweet situations.

3. China took matters into their own hands with the Boxer Rebellion. In this, the Chinese rose up to oust/kill foreigners who controlled their cities. 200 foreigners and thousands of Chinese Christians were killed.

1. Europe and the U.S. responded together and smashed China, then charged China for damages.

2. China's fine was $333 million; America's cut would be $24.5 million. Feeling guilty about such a high amount, the U.S. used $18 million to educate Chinese students in American universities.

3. Sec. of State Hay sent the Open Door Policy along again and this time it was accepted. China's borders were to be respected and its cities open to trade to all.

11. Imperialism or Bryanism in 1900? 1. The 1900 election was a repeat of 4 years earlier: William McKinley

versus William Jennings Bryan again. 1. McKinley just held fast while Bryan did the personal campaigning.

McKinley's running-mate was Teddy Roosevelt. "TR" did considerable campaigning for McKinley.

2. Bryan attacked imperialism. This was unproductive since people had grown weary of the subject by then.

3. McKinley attacked what he called "Bryanism" as being the problem. McKinley struck fear again by implying that a President Bryan would undercut America's prosperity.

1. McKinley won his reelection easily. 12. TR: Brandisher of the Big Stick 1. Only six months after being reelected, McKinley was shot and killed in

Buffalo, NY by a mentally unstable man. V.P. Teddy Roosevelt became the youngest president ever at only 42 years old.

2. Roosevelt was a very interesting character. Small of frame as a youth, and picked on, he put himself on a rigorous workout routine and built himself into a short, barrel-chested powerhouse.

1. He'd been born into an elite family and was a Harvard grad. His motto was, "Speak softly and carry a big stick," which was odd in that Roosevelt was not one to speak softly.

2. He had a temper, was boisterous, stubborn, decisive, passionate,

always thought he was right, and was always the center of attention.

3. Roosevelt was a fantastic politician. The people adored the likeable "Teddy." Cartoonists loved his wire-framed glasses, huge teeth, rowdy nature—he was almost a walking, living caricature of himself.

1. As president, TR's opinion was that the president should lead, and he did. He's often considered the "first modern president."

13. Building the Panama Canal 1. America, and Teddy Roosevelt, lusted after a canal across isthmus of

Central America. 1. The Spanish-American War showed that lacking a canal meant

naval weakness. The U.S.S. Oregon had been "trapped" in the Pacific Ocean and took weeks to travel around South America to the Caribbean.

2. A canal would also be a huge boost for business. 2. There were obstacles to building a canal. 1. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty with Britain (1850) said the U.S.

couldn't control the isthmus route alone. By the early 1900's, Britain was willing to let this slide however. Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) that gave the U.S. the okay to go solo.

2. The next question was the location of the canal. 1. Nicaragua was the initial choice, but the volcano Mt. Pelée

erupted, killed 30,000 people, and changed minds about the location.

2. A French company was eager to move the U.S.'s attention to Panama where it'd tried and failed at constructing a canal. Engineer Philippe Bunau-Varilla got the price of the canal holdings dropped from $109 to $40 million. Congress decided to give it a go.

3. Panama was a part of Colombia, posing the next problem. TR worked a deal with the Colombian president to lease

the canal zone, but the Colombian senate reneged on the deal. TR was furious.

Bunau-Varilla worried the whole deal would fall through. He incited Panama to revolt against Colombia. The revolution began on November 3, 1901 with the killing of a Chinese citizen and a donkey. The U.S. navy was conveniently offshore to give aid and the revolution was pulled off.

TR recognized Panama as independent and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed. It leased the canal to the U.S. for $10 million and $250,000/year

for a 10 mile wide canal strip. 3. Roosevelt didn't try to sever Panama from Colombia, but it looked that

way and was perceived that way. U.S.—Latin American relations took a major hit by Teddy Roosevelt's use of his Big Stick policy (bullying).

4. Construction began in 1904. There were huge obstacles yet again. 1. Obstacle #1 was sanitation. Tropical diseases forbade workers

from even getting to the job site. Col. William C. Gorgas drained the swamps and eradicated the mosquitoes and diseases.

2. Obstacle #2 was the scope of the task. It was likely the largest modern engineering undertaking to date. West Point engineer Col. George Washington Goethals headed up construction to its fruition—a modern marvel when completed in 1914. It'd cost $400 million to construct.

14. TR’s Perversion of the Monroe Doctrine 1. Relations with Latin America would take another turn-for-the-worse.

Nations like Venezuela and the Dominican Republic were constantly behind in loan payments to European lenders. R

1. Roosevelt worried that Europe would take action to collect their money, and thus violate the Monroe Doctrine. This put TR in a bit of a pickle: would he allow delinquency of payments or allow Europe to breech the Monroe Doctrine? He chose neither.

2. His decision was the Roosevelt Corollary (an addition to the Monroe Doctrine). It said that the U.S. would intervene in Latin America and collect the debts for Europe.

1. Whereas the Monroe Doctrine had said, "Europe, don't intervene!" the Roosevelt Corollary added, "We'll intervene for you!"

2. In practical terms, the U.S. would take over customs houses and collect taxes and/or use the U.S. navy to seal off Latin American ports for tax collection purposes.

3. Latin America did not appreciate TR's Big Stick being thrown at them again. The Good Neighbor policy seemed to be more like the "Bad Neighbor" policy.

1. The Big Stick fell on Cuba in 1906. Revolutionaries created great instability and the Cuban president asked for U.S. assistance. U.S. Marines moved in for 3 years to offer their help. Still, it was seen as another Bad Neighbor policy move by the bully U.S.

15. Roosevelt on the World Stage 1. Teddy Roosevelt jumped onto the international scene in 1904 when

Russia and Japan went to war. 1. The two nations were fighting over land, namely the Manchuria

area and Port Arthur in particular. 2. When peace negotiations broke down, Japan asked TR to mediate.

This was a bit ironic for the War Hawk Teddy Roosevelt to have turned peace-maker.

2. TR negotiated a treaty at Portsmouth, NH (1905). 1. Both nations wanted the Sakhalin island. Japan wanted payments

since they felt they'd won the war. 2. Russia got half of Sakhalin island. Japan was awarded no money

but gained control over Korea. Neither side was overjoyed, Japan was especially unhappy, but the war was over.

3. With both countries going home disgruntled over the outcome of the war, America's friendship with Japan and Russia went sour.

3. Roosevelt also mediated a North African dispute in 1906 at a conference in Spain. For his peace-making, Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

16. Japanese Laborers in California 1. Another issue with Japan emerged when Japanese laborers began to

migrate into California. Their population was only 3% of state's total, but a "yellow peril" swept over California.

2. In 1906, San Francisco was recovering from a devastating earthquake and fires. The school board ordered segregation of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students.

1. The issue quickly erupted and the yellow press on both sides went wild. There was even talk of possible war.

2. Roosevelt invited the school board to the White House where he mediated a deal known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement." It said that the school board would repeal the segregation policy and Japan would halt the emigration of laborers to California.

3. Roosevelt worried that Japan might interpret his actions as being motivated through fear—he wanted to show America's strength.

1. TR ordered the sparkling new U.S. naval fleet on a world-wide tour. The "Great White Fleet" went to Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. It was a diplomatic good-will mission on the outside, and a not-so-subtle show of military muscle underneath.

The U.S. had been cheered all along, but Japan was especially welcoming. The U.S. and Japan signed the Root-Takahira agreement where both nations promised to respect one another's territorial boundaries to honor China's Open Door policy.

The War to End Wars 17. War by Act of Germany 1. By January 22, 1917, Woodrow Wilson still wanted the U.S. to avoid

war. He gave a speech and called for “peace without victory” (defeating Germany without embarrassing them).

2. Germany responded with an iron fist. They announced they would erase the Sussex pledge and turn to a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. This meant any ship, warship or civilian, belligerent or peaceful, was fair game to German u-boats.

1. Woodrow Wilson sought to arm merchant ships. But, he was met with opposition by a group of Midwestern senators.

3. The "last straw" came in the Zimmerman note. 1. German foreign secretary sent a secret telegram from Germany to

Mexico. The telegram, however, was intercepted by British spies.

2. In the note, Germany encouraged Mexico to wage war against the U.S. After a victory, Mexico would regain Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.

4. Meanwhile, German u-boats were indeed sinking ships. Four unarmed American merchant ships were sunk by German subs.

5. And to the east, Vladimir Lenin's communist revolution overthrew the Russian czar.

6. President Wilson decided the time had undoubtedly come for the U.S. to enter the war. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked Congress to declare war. Congress declared war on April 6, 1917.

18. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned 1. The challenge now was to lead many reluctant Americans into war. 1. Six senators (including the first congresswoman, Jeanette

Rankin) and 50 representatives had voted against the war. 2. Stopping u-boats would not be convincing enough to Midwesterners.

Thus, Wilson's new slogan and purpose for the war was to, "make the world safe for democracy."

1. This slogan laid out a very idealized goal: not to fight for the riches or war, but to free others from the tyranny of autocrats.

2. Wilson successfully sold the idea. Americans eagerly joined the effort to "hang the Kaiser." The expense was Wilson's initial goal of "peace without victory."

19. Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points 1. Wilson became the de facto moral leader of the war. In January of 1917

he gave his Fourteen Points Address to Congress. 2. The Fourteen Points laid out Wilson's idealistic goals. Oddly, before ever

entering the war, Wilson was laying out his goals for peace after the war. The main points were…

1. Abolishing secret treaties. 2. Freedom of the seas. 3. Removal of economic barriers between nations. 4. Reduction of armaments. 5. Changing colonial claims to help both colonizers and native

peoples. 6. "Self-determination" where groups choose their government for

themselves. 7. A committee called the League of Nations to hopefully settle

international disputes peacefully. This was idealistic Wilson's most desired point.

20. Creel Manipulates Minds 1. In order to ratchet up and to keep up the war's enthusiasm in America,

the Committee on Public Information was created to sell the war.

2. George Creel headed up the committee and was very successful using the following tactics:

1. He sent out 75,000 "four-minute men" to give patriotic speeches. 2. Posters were pasted everywhere saying things like "Battle of the

Fences" or encouraging people to buy war bonds. 3. Leaflets and pamphlets told of the idealistic goals of the war. 4. Although radio and TV hadn't been invented yet, the movies had.

Creel used movie shorts (often featuring America's first big movie star, Charlie Chaplin) or propaganda films like The Kaiser, the Beast of Berlin or To Hell with the Kaiser.

5. Songs helped sell the war too, especially Over There. 3. Perhaps a drawback of Creel's success was that he was too successful.

Americans entered the war with too-lofty ideals. The reality was a dirty war in the trenches, with no glorious battle, high casualties, and a generation of disillusioned young men who survived. This would be later immortalized in Hemingway's novels The Sun Also Rises and especially in A Farewell to Arms.

21. Enforcing Loyalty and Stiffing Dissent 1. German-Americans (about 8% of the U.S. population) were largely loyal

to the United States. However, rumors and gossip spawned the wide belief that they were actually spies and saboteurs loyal to Germany. Some were tarred-and-feathered or beaten.

2. Anti-German feelings affected all. 1. German names were re-branded. For example, German composers

like Beethoven were not performed by orchestras, sauerkraut became "liberty cabbage," dachshunds became "liberty pups."

3. Congress joined the general mood by passing two anti-foreign laws. 1. The Espionage Act of 1917 sought to prosecute "spies". 1,900

prosecutions followed under the Espionage Act. 1. Noteworthy was Eugene V. Debs, the leader of the Socialist.

He was sentenced to ten years under the law. 2. Also targeted were members of the Industrial Workers of

the World (I.W.W.), a group that held the goal of creating an international labor union. The leader of the I.W.W., William D. Haywood, also was convicted under the Espionage Act.

2. The Sedition Act of 1918 sought to prosecute anyone engaging in "seditious" activity.

1. Essentially any activity interpreted as anti-government could be prosecuted—a very general definition that could be applied widely.

2. Both the Espionage and Sedition Acts pushed the boundaries of the First Amendment, and likely flat-out broke them.

3. Notably, these two laws were very similar to the Alien and Sedition Acts of the 1790's, under President Adams'.

4. After the war, presidential pardons were given to many of those jailed under these laws. Eugene Debs was pardoned by President Warren G. Harding in 1921.

22. The Nation’s Factories Go to War This content copyright © 2010 by WikiNotes.wikidot.com

1. The U.S. entered the war very unprepared. Wilson had taken a few steps early on, including (1) forming a Council of National Defense to study economic mobilization, (2) increasing shipbuilding, and (3) increasing the size of the army (although the U.S. still ranked 15th in the world in size).

2. The first major problem was mobilizing industry. There was much ignorance everywhere and reluctance by states-rights advocates who didn't want the federal government ramming things down their throats.

1. Somewhat late, in March of 1918, Wilson appointed Bernard Baruch leader of the War Industries Board to orchestrate industry in the war effort. Baruch was a savvy stock speculator and very able, but the Board's powers were a bit weak. America's love of laissez-faire (government staying out of business) was strong even in time of war.

23. Workers in Wartime 1. Americans went to work in large measure, motivated by the

governments "work or fight" policy. 2. Former Pres. Taft headed the National War Labor Board to settle any

worker disputes and thus keep folks on the job. 1. Businesses were encouraged to keep wages high and hours long. 2. The government did not agree to workers' top desire—a

government guarantee to organize labor unions. 3. Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor (AF of L),

loyally supported the war. 1. Some smaller unions, including the I.W.W., did not support the

war. The "I Won't Work" union engaged in some sabotage in complaint of poor working conditions.

2. The AF of L, however, benefited from its work and loyalty. By war's end, membership had more than doubled to over 3 million and wages in certain industries had increased by 20%.

4. Problems still remained. 1. Wartime inflation threatened to negate the wage increases. 2. Strikes ran rampant—there were some 6,000 strikes, often violent. 1. For example in 1919, over 250,000 steel workers struck

(America's largest strike). Steel officials would not bargain. Instead, 30,000 African-American workers were brought in to keep the mills going. Violence followed, a dozen workers were killed, and the strike failed.

5. African-Americans began moved north during the war by the tens of thousands seeking jobs. Appearing in formerly all-white neighborhoods, tension and sometimes violence resulted. Chicago and St. Louis are good examples.

24. Suffering Until Suffrage 1. While the men were at war, many women took jobs. 2. Women working created a split in the women's movement—those

against and for the war. 1. Against the war, the National Woman's party were pacifists. The

party was led by a Quaker, Alice Paul. She organized marches and hunger strikes against Germany.

2. Most women supported the war. The National American Woman Suffrage Association backed Pres. Wilson's efforts. They argued that women must engage in the war effort in order to participate after the war. They gained Pres. Wilson's endorsement of women's suffrage.

3. Several states began granting women the right to vote including New York, Michigan, Oklahoma, and South Dakota. Several western states had already granted women's suffrage. The domino effect had begun.

4. In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was passed granting women the right to vote nationwide.

5. A Women's Bureau emerged after the war with the goal of protecting

women's newfound rights in the workplace. However, most women left the jobs and returned to the homes after the war.

1. Congress also essentially endorsed the traditional role of women as homemakers by passing the Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act (1921). The law gave instruction on maternal and infant health care.

25. Forging a War Economy 1. Mobilization to a wartime economy would be fueled by emotion and

patriotism rather than the rule of laws. 2. Since he'd successfully organized a voluntary food drive for Belgium,

Herbert Hoover was chosen to head up the Food Administration. 1. Hoover relied on voluntary efforts, not mandates of law. 2. Slogans were very successful in drumming up support and food.

Examples were "meatless Tuesdays" and "wheatless Wednesdays."

3. Most Americans planted "victory gardens" in their backyards to grow their own vegetables.

4. No grains were to be wasted on making alcohol. This also helped propel the prohibition movement. In 1919, one year after the war ended, the Eighteenth Amendment was passed prohibiting alcoholic drinks.

3. The increased need for food was because the U.S. had to feed citizens at home, package food to ship to soldiers, and feed the allies in Europe.

1. Hoover's program and people's efforts were very successful. Food production increased by 25% and food exports to Europe tripled.

2. His program was mimicked by others. 1. The Fuel Administration encourage folks with "heatless

Mondays", "lightless nights," and "gasless Sundays." "Daylight saving time" was also started to conserve fuel since there was one less dark hour to light up.

2. The Treasury Dept. sought money for the effort through Liberty Loan and Victory Loan drives. People were also encouraged to buy "war bonds."

The government collected $21 billion, 2/3 of America's war effort. The other 1/3 of the cost was paid via increased taxes.

4. Although voluntary efforts were the preference, the government did exert its power at times.

1. The government took over the railroads in 1917 when they got log-jammed.

2. And, they seized many ships for the war.

26. Making Plowboys into Doughboys 1. Americans had envisioned a somewhat secondary role in the war effort.

By 1917, however, it became clear that the European Allies were out of men, money, and everything else. America would have to go "all in" to the war.

2. To gain the needed soldiers, a draft was started by the Selective Service Act (a draft hadn't been used since the Civil War).

1. All men, age 18 to 45, were required to register. A man couldn't purchase his exemption either, as in the Civil War.

2. Despite some fussing, the draft was relatively smooth and successful. The army swelled to 4,000,000 men.

3. Troops were supposed to get six months training, but usually they were just shuffled off to war.

3. Women served in the military for the first time. 4. Blacks also served, still in segregated units. Racial attitudes of the time

still held that black soldiers shouldn't be trained for combat, but rather should serve in support roles.

27. Fighting in France—Belatedly 1. In Russia, the communist Bolsheviks had taken over in late 1917. By

early 1918, Russia had pulled out of the war. With the Eastern Front now dormant, the result was that German soldiers could now relocate over to the Western Front.

2. Despite the Allies urging, America was late getting "over there." Partly that was due to the huge tasks of logistics, of organizing, and partly it was due to America's desire to train the troops and keep them under American officers.

3. Americans began spilling over to Europe and first served as Allied replacements in the quieter sections. Others served in Belgium, Italy, and even Russia to prevent Russia from falling to Germany. Some troops went to Siberia to hold back Japan's interests there.

1. The Bolsheviks disliked these interventions by capitalists trying to undermine their communist revolution.

28. America Helps Hammer the “Hun” 1. The Allies knew Germany would make a big push in the Spring of 1918—

and they did. 2. French commander Marshal Foch's motto was, "To make war is to

attack." But, really, France was just hanging on until America arrived.

3. U.S. soldiers arrived en masse in the Spring of 1918. America's main roles in the war were (1) in stopping the German assault on Paris, (2) providing a much-needed boost to morale, and (3) providing supplies.

1. American soldiers helped stop Germany at Château-Thierry, only

40 miles from Paris. 2. Americans helped at the Second Battle of the Marne which

started the German withdrawal. 3. Americans helped stop Germany at the southern flank at St.

Mihiel. 4. American Gen. John J. Pershing didn't want to just help in the

war. He wanted Americans to fight on their own. 1. U.S. Marines proved themselves at Belleau Wood. Due to

there fiere fighting. There they were given the nickname "Teufel Hunden" by the Germans—"Devil Dogs."

2. Pershing engaged in the Meuse-Argonne offensive, the largest military endeavor in American history to that time. The numbers were huge, and with the machine gun in use, so were casualties.

3. Sgt. Alvin C. York became a hero when he killed 20 Germans and captured 132 others, by himself.

4. By this time, Germany's back was broken and was about to give up. To speed the psychological process, the Allies were distributing propaganda leaflets encouraging Germany to surrender.

29. The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany 1. Wilson achieved his goal of kicking the Kaiser out of power. Many

Germans were sick of war and the Kaiser fled to Holland. 2. Germany quit fighting at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th

month of 1918 (Nov. 11, 1918). This was an armistice only (a cease-fire). An official surrender would have to come later amongst the politicians.

1. This day became known as "Armistice Day" and then later, "Veterans' Day."

3. Even more than losses on the battlefield, what really stopped the Germans was the possibility of seemingly endless American troops and supplies.

30. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus 1. Both at home and across the world, Woodrow Wilson's popularity was

flying high at the end of the war. Still, in the mid-term elections of 1918, Republicans gained a slim majority in Congress.

2. Wilson decided to personally travel to Europe peace talks. Republicans were not happy about this—to them it seemed like he was showing off.

1. Worse still for Wilson was that he didn't invite a single Republican along on the trip. Henry Cabot Lodge was chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations committee, but Wilson and he despised one another.

2. Leaving out Republicans alienated them even more and would

prove to be a costly mistake. 31. An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris 1. The "Big Four" met at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to settle

terms of peace. The Big Four were Vittorio Orlando (Italy), Georges Clemenceau (France), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Woodrow Wilson (U.S.).

2. Conflicting ambitions ruled the conference. Britain and France wanted to punish Germany, Italy wanted money or land, the U.S. wanted to heal wounds through Wilson’s League of Nations.

3. Wilson’s big dream was the League of Nations to "end all wars." He'd "sell the ranch" to get the League. So he bargained with Britain and France.

1. Britain and France agreed to go along with the League, Wilson reluctantly agreed to go along with punishment.

2. The War Guilt Clause was included doing two things: (1) it formally placed blame on Germany, a proud and embarrassed people, and (2) it charged Germany for the costs of war, $33 billion.

32. Hammering Out the Treaty 1. Meanwhile, back in the U.S., opposition to the Treaty of Versailles was

growing. A 2/3 vote by the U.S. Senate is needed to approve a president's treaty. A group, led by William Borah and Hiram Johnson, desired isolation and/or it would be unwise to turn American decision-making over to a group of foreign nations (the League of Nations).

2. Europe noticed the American opposition—this put them in a better bargaining position. They set out to use their new power.

1. Clemenceau pressed for the Rhineland and Saar regions (in between France and Germany). This went against Wilson's idea of "self-determination." Wilson agreed to:

1. Let France occupy the region for 15 years, then let the people vote: France or Germany? (they voted Germany).

2. The "Security Treaty" saying the U.S. and England would come to France's aid if they ever needed help.

2. Italy wanted the strategic seaport of Fiume. Again, this interfered with self-determination. Talks broke down and Italy turned against Wilson.

3. Japan wanted China's Shantung peninsula and German islands in the Pacific. Yet again, this was not self-determination. Wilson eventually agreed to let Japan keep the islands and the peninsula on the promise that the Shantung would go back to China later on.

33. The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

1. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Many Germans had hoped Wilson's Fourteen Points would be built into the treaty, but due to necessary bargaining, few made it. The Germans felt betrayed. This would be a main crying point by Adolf Hitler in the near future.

2. Wilson had been forced to bargain—no bargaining would've meant no treaty. Now, he was a fallen hero. Liberals felt he'd "sold out" and imperialists felt he was too soft.

34. The Domestic Parade of Prejudice 1. Upon his return to the U.S., Wilson entered a whirlwind of opposition on

many sides. 1. Isolationists didn't want to get in "entangling alliances," as

Washington and Jeffeson had warned against. 2. "Hun-haters" thought the treaty was too soft; liberals thought it

was too tough. 3. "Hyphenated Americans" felt the treaty too harsh on their home

country. Irish-Americans thought it gave Britain too much world power.

35. Wilson’s Tour and Collapse (1919) 1. Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge did not want the Treaty of Versailles

approved in the Senate. He felt he could not defeat it outright, but intended to change it to a favorable form.

2. To stall, he held meetings and read the 264 page document aloud in the Senate. The slow-down began to confuse public opinion on the Treaty.

3. While bogged down in the Senate, Wilson decided to take his case on the road—to appeal to the people themselves. It would be a physically grueling summer tour.

1. Early on, Wilson's tour went somewhat poorly. Midwestern tour stops had lots of German-Americans who weren't enthusiastic.

2. Also, "irreconcilable" senators (Borah and Johnson) followed Wilson's tour and made stops at the places he'd just spoken.

3. The western mountains and Pacific Coast welcomed Wilson warmly. After a speech in Pueblo, CO, Wilson collapsed due to exhaustion. Days later, a stroke paralyzed half of his body. He laid in the White House for months, essentially inactive as president.

36. Defeat Through Deadlock 1. Henry Cabot Lodge drew up fourteen "reservations" to the Treaty of

Versailles. His goal was to protect the Monroe Doctrine, the Constitution, and retain America's right to rule herself, rather than an international committee.

1. Of special concern was Article X of the Treaty. It required the U.S.

to help a League nation that is attacked. Lodge and the Congress wanted to retain that right themselves. Lodge tacked on amendments to make those changes.

2. By voting time, with the amendments in place, the roles had been switched—Lodge was now for the treaty and Wilson was now against it.

1. Wilson personally despised Lodge and would not accept Lodge's perversions of the Treaty of Versailles. Though weak, he convinced Democrats to vote against Lodge's amended version of the treaty. The treaty failed to get Senate approval, 55 yes to 39 no (it needed a 2/3 vote to pass).

2. Surprised at the defeat, the treaty was brought up for a second vote. It failed a second time, with a 49 yes to 35 no vote. The U.S. never did accept the Treaty of Versailles or, thus, the League of Nations.

3. The treaty was not ratified due to many reasons. A major one was Wilson's refusal to compromise. Wilson was a man of high ideals—he would not compromise his ideals in the reality of politics.

37. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920 1. Twice voted down and still unratified, Wilson planned to take his case

straight to the people in a "solemn referendum." This was simply unrealistic in the dirty world of politics.

2. By 1920, the Republicans had reorganized. Teddy Roosevelt's death in 1919 helped draw the Republicans back together. They drew up a party platform to appeal to both those for and those against the League of Nations. Their candidate would court both sides.

1. Warren G. Harding was chosen as the Republican candidate and Calvin Coolidge as V.P. candidate. Harding was chosen largely because he was folksy and looked like a president. He ran saying America wanted to take a break from Wilsonian high-mindedness and just "return to normalcy," a non-word, but he was probably right.

2. The Democrats chose Ohio governor James M. Cox (pro-League of Nations) and for V.P., a young Franklin D. Roosevelt.

3. Harding won the election in a big way (16 million to only 9). 1. Notably, Socialist party candidate Eugene V. Debs got almost 1

million votes—a substantial number. This raised the alarm that socialism/communism was growing in the U.S.

38. The Betrayal of Great Expectations 1. The ultimate irony of WWI was that it was billed the "war to end all

wars," and yet it did much to start the biggest war ever, World War II.

2. At end of WWI, the door was open for the U.S. to become the world's leader, but instead, America retreated into isolationism. American isolationism helped lead to WWII in several ways:

1. Without a allies to help in time of need, France went ahead and built up a massive military.

Punishment of Germany led to considerable suffering. This opened the door for Adolf Hitler to gain support with wild ideas. Isolationism would also allow Hitler Germany to re-arm themselves largely without interruption.