EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE COMPETENCIES OF A GROUP ...

USING PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH TO STRENGTHEN THE SOCIO-

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE COMPETENCIES OF A GROUP OF FOUNDATION

PHASE LEARNERS IN AN INFORMAL SETTLEMENT

LIZA-MARI RAWLINS

Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Education

Faculty of Education

(Department of Educational Psychology

Stellenbosch University

Supervisor: Dr Lynne Damons

April 2022

i

DECLARATION

By submitting this thesis/dissertation3 electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work con-

tained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent

explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch Univer-

sity will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part

submitted it for obtaining any qualification.

April 2022

Copyright © 2022 Stellenbosch UniversityAll rights reserved

Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za

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ABSTRACT

In recent years there has been an increasing interest in the role socio-emotional intel-

ligence plays in the psychosocial, behavioural, academic, and global well-being of chil-

dren. While socio-emotional intelligence is a well-researched topic, there is a limited

number of qualitative research studies that reflect on the more nuanced changes that

may have occurred because of children’s exposure to socio-emotional learning inter-

ventions. This thesis sought to explore whether using PAR research approach and an

adaptation of an already established Circle of Friends intervention programme which

is used in the United Kingdom can be implemented to enhance socio-emotional intel-

ligence competencies of primary-school learners within an informal historically disad-

vantaged settlement in Cape Town, South Africa

This study is aligned within the social constructivist paradigm as it sought to gain insight

into how the participants create their own realities by engaging in a process of mean-

ing-making based on their experiences within their specific context. By interacting, col-

laborating, and actively listening to the child participants I hoped to gain better insight

into as well as, foster a better understanding of their perceptions, experiences, emo-

tions, and learning. Working from a social constructivist lens allowed me to forefront

the voices and lived realities of the child participants. The study was qualitative in na-

ture and used a Participator Action research methodology which created space for the

use of creative exploration that allowed for more authentic, active, and collaborative

participation of the children in the research process.

In utilising a qualitative approach, participants were selected by means of purposeful

sampling. Data were collected through focus group sessions, participant observations.

participant generated artefacts and researcher fieldnotes (research journal). The data

that was gathered, was analysed through a thematic analysis where six main themes

emerged. These themes included self-awareness, social-awareness, self-manage-

ment, relationship skills, contextual influences and lived experiences and the delivery

of Participatory Action research to co-create a pathway to strengthen socio-emotional

intelligence.


iii

The thematic analysis revealed that the socio-emotional intelligence development of

foundation phase learners/middle childhood children are multifaceted. The findings in-

dicated that the child-participants have to navigate many personal, contextual and so-

cio-economic challenges, and that these often adversely affect the development of

their socio-emotional intelligence and their abilities to exert and manage themselves in

educational and social spaces. The impact that the participants’ engagement in the

research project had on them in terms of strengthening their socio-emotional compe-

tencies, however, built their self-awareness, social-awareness, emotional self-regula-

tion, self-management coping skills and relationship skills. Integrating participatory ac-

tion research and an adaptation of the “Circle of Friends” intervention enabled partici-

pants to understand, recognise and communicate their own feelings; show awareness

of others’ feelings, and to empathise with them. Collaboration in the joint research

team enabled the members to exercise their agency, manage their emotions and be-

come key role players in understanding through how Participatory Action research and

a “Circle of Friends” approach can experience shared ownership in co-creating a path-

way to strengthen socio-emotional intelligence in young children in South Africa.

Key words

socio-emotional intelligence; self-awareness; self-regulation; informal settlement; so-

cially disorganised communities; NPO-funded community-based independent school;

foundation phase learner; Circle of Friends


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OPSOMMING

In onlangse jare was daar 'n toenemende belangstelling in die rol wat sosio-emo-

sionele intelligensie speel in die psigososiale, gedrags-, akademiese en globale

welstand van kinders. Terwyl sosio-emosionele intelligensie 'n goed nagevorsde

onderwerp is, is daar 'n beperkte aantal kwalitatiewe navorsingstudies wat reflekteer

op die meer genuanseerde veranderinge wat moontlik plaasgevind het as gevolg van

kinders se blootstelling aan sosio-emosionele leerintervensies. Hierdie tesis het ge-

poog om te odersoek of 'n reeds gevestigde Vriendekring-intervensieprogram wat in

die Verenigde Koninkryk gebruik word, aangepas kan word om sosio-emosionele in-

telligensie-bevoegdhede van laerskoolleerders binne 'n informele histories-be-

nadeelde nedersetting in Kaapstad, Suid-Afrika, te verbeter.

Hierdie studie is belyn binne die sosiaal-konstruktivistiese paradigma aangesien dit

gepoog het om insig te verkry in hoe die deelnemers hul eie realiteite skep deur be-

trokke te raak by 'n proses van betekenisgewing gebaseer op hul ervarings binne hul

spesifieke konteks. Deur interaksie, saam te werk en aktief na die kinderdeelnemers

te luister, het ek gehoop om beter insig te kry in sowel as om 'n beter begrip van hul

persepsies, ervarings, emosies en leer te bevorder. Deur vanuit 'n sosiaal-kon-

struktivistiese lens te werk, kon ek die stemme en geleefde realiteite van die kinder-

deelnemers voorop stel. Die studie was kwalitatief van aard en het 'n Deelnemeraksie-

navorsingsmetodologie gebruik wat ruimte geskep het vir die gebruik van kreatiewe

verkenning wat vir meer outentieke, aktiewe en samewerkende deelname van die

kinders in die navorsingsproses moontlik gemaak het.

In die gebruik van 'n kwalitatiewe benadering is deelnemers deur middel van doelge-

rigte steekproefneming geselekteer. Data is ingesamel deur middel van

fokusgroepsessies, deelnemerwaarnemings, deelnemer-gegenereerde artefakte en

navorser-veldnotas (navorsingsjoernaal). Die data wat ingesamel is, is ontleed deur

middel van 'n tematiese analise waar ses hooftemas na vore gekom het. Hierdie temas

het selfbewustheid, sosiale bewustheid, selfbestuur, verhoudingsvaardighede,

kontekstuele invloede en geleefde ervarings en die lewering van Deelnemende Aksie-

navorsing om sosio-emosionele intelligensie te versterk ingesluit.


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Die tematiese analise het aan die lig gebring dat die sosio-emosionele intelligensie-

ontwikkeling van grondslagfase-leerders/middelkinderjare-kinders veelvlakkig is. Die

bevindinge het aangedui dat die kind-deelnemers baie persoonlike, kontekstuele en

sosio-ekonomiese uitdagings moet navigeer, en dat dit dikwels die ontwikkeling van

hul sosio-emosionele intelligensie en hul vermoëns om hulself in opvoedkundige en

sosiale ruimtes in te span en te bestuur, nadelig beïnvloed. Die impak wat die deelnem-

ers se betrokkenheid by die navorsingsprojek op hulle gehad het in terme van die ver-

sterking van hul sosio-emosionele vaardighede, het egter hul selfbewustheid, sosiale

bewustheid, emosionele selfregulering, selfbestuurshanteringsvaardighede en ver-

houdingsvaardighede gebou. Die integrasie van deelnemende aksienavorsing en 'n

aanpassing van die "Vriendekring"-intervensie het deelnemers in staat gestel om hul

eie gevoelens te verstaan, te herken en te kommunikeer; bewustheid van ander se

gevoelens te toon en empatie daarmee te hê. Samewerking in die gesamentlike

navorsingspan het die lede in staat gestel om hul agentskap uit te oefen, hul emosies

te bestuur en sleutelrolspelers te word en om te verstaan hoe hulle deur Deelnemende

Aksie-navorsing en 'n "Vriendekring-benadering" gedeelde eienaarskap kan ervaar in

die mede-skepping van 'n pad om sosio-emosionele intelligensie by jong kinders in

Suid-Afrika te versterk.

Sleutel woorde

sosio-emosionele intelligensie; selfbewustheid; selfregulering; informele nedersetting;

sosiaal ongeorganiseerde gemeenskappe; NPO-befondsde gemeenskapsge-

baseerde onafhanklike skool; grondslagfase-leerder; Vriendekring


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest and most sincere gratitude and appreciation to the

following people for their invaluable support:

I thank my parents, Roy Rawlins and Estelle Rawlins for making this journey possible.

For their unwavering support and belief in me and all the efforts to make things easier

for me during my journey. Thank you that I could always share my thoughts and expe-

riences with you.

I would like to thank my dearest partner for his patience and unconditional love and

support during this challenging time. Thank you for allowing me the space and time to

attend to my research and sharing with me the joys and the frustrations of this experi-

ence.

My supervisor, Dr, Damons, for her professional guidance, motivation, consistent en-

couragement, and unlimited support.

To the editor, Ms Lucia Geyer for your meticulous work and enhancing my writing to

deliver a more professional product.

I would also like to convey my appreciation the students who participated in the study,

for their willingness to engage in the focus group sessions and share their experiences

and thoughts. Along with the principals and educators who welcomed me into the

school and who were always willing to assist me during my time there.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................... i

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................... ii

OPSOMMING ................................................................................................................ iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. vi

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background ................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Rationale for study......................................................................................... 4

1.4 Description of the problem and the research question .................................. 6

1.5 Research goals and objectives ...................................................................... 7

1.6 Research methodology .................................................................................. 7

1.6.1 Research paradigm ............................................................................................. 7

1.6.2 Research approach and design ........................................................................... 8

1.6.3 Research methodology: participatory action research .......................................... 8

1.6.4 Participants .........................................................................................................10

1.6.5 Data-generating methods ...................................................................................12

1.6.6 Data analysis ......................................................................................................16

1.7 Ethical considerations .................................................................................. 18

1.7.1 Protection, well-being and beneficence ...............................................................18

1.7.2 Power dynamic ...................................................................................................19

1.7.3 Accessibility ........................................................................................................20

1.7.4 Informed consent, assent and permission ...........................................................20

1.7.5 Confidentiality and privacy ..................................................................................22

1.8 Ensuring trustworthiness ............................................................................. 24

1.9 Concept clarification .................................................................................... 24

1.9.1 Socio-emotional Intelligence (Emotional-social intelligence) ...............................24

1.9.2 Emotional and self-awareness ............................................................................25

1.9.3 Emotional and self-regulation .............................................................................25

1.9.4 Informal settlement .............................................................................................26

1.9.5 Socially disorganised communities .....................................................................26

1.9.6 NPO-funded Community-based Independent School ..........................................26


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1.9.7 Foundation phase learner ...................................................................................27

1.10 Chapter division ........................................................................................... 27

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................... 28

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 28

2.2 Development of the middle childhood child ................................................. 28

2.2.1 Physical development .........................................................................................29

2.2.2 Cognitive development .......................................................................................30

2.2.3 Emotional development ......................................................................................35

2.3 Socio-emotional Intelligence (SEI)............................................................... 37

2.3.1 Defining the concept of SEI ................................................................................37

2.3.2 Components of socio-emotional intelligence .......................................................40

2.4 Socio-emotional intelligence development in context .................................. 43

2.4.1 Bio-ecological approach (Bronfenbrenner) ..........................................................45

2.4.2 Family system .....................................................................................................46

2.4.3 School and classroom context ............................................................................50

2.4.4 Peer system and childhood friendships ...............................................................54

2.4.5 Social context and daily lived experiences (Environmental influences) ...............54

2.5 Intervention .................................................................................................. 58

2.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 61

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................... 63

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 63

3.2 Focus of the research .................................................................................. 63

3.3 Philosophical stance (Research paradigm) ................................................. 64

3.4 Research methodology ................................................................................ 67

3.4.1 Qualitative research (Orientation of the conducted research) .............................67

3.4.2 Research design: participatory action research ..................................................69

3.4.3 Research population and sample selection .........................................................72

3.4.4 Data generating methods ....................................................................................74

3.5 Data analysis ............................................................................................... 85

3.6 Data verification strategies to ensure trustworthiness of the data ............... 86

3.6.1 Credibility ............................................................................................................87

3.6.2 Dependability ......................................................................................................88

3.6.3 Transferability .....................................................................................................88

3.6.4 Conformability .....................................................................................................88

3.7 Ethical considerations .................................................................................. 89


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3.7.1 Protection, well-being and non-maleficence ........................................................89

3.7.2 Informed consent, assent and permission ...........................................................90

3.7.3 Awareness of power dynamic .............................................................................91

3.7.4 Confidentiality and privacy ..................................................................................92

3.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 93

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTING THE DATA.................................................................. 94

4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 94

4.2 Meeting the participants .............................................................................. 95

4.3 Experiencing the focus group process......................................................... 98

4.3.1 The physical space .............................................................................................98

4.3.2 The introduction ................................................................................................ 100

4.3.3 Experiencing the stimulus activities with the participants .................................. 101

4.4 Presenting the research findings: organising and summarising the data... 106

4.4.1 Self-awareness ................................................................................................. 108

4.4.2 Social awareness .............................................................................................. 115

4.4.3 Self-management ............................................................................................. 119

4.4.4 Relationship skills ............................................................................................. 126

4.4.5 Social context and daily experiences (Lived reality) .......................................... 129

4.4.6 Delivery of PAR ................................................................................................ 134

4.4.7 Using participants experiences as teachable moments ..................................... 141

4.4.8 Scaffolding through various activities ................................................................ 142

4.4.9 Prompting, probing and questioning.................................................................. 145

4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 146

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................... 147

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 147

5.2 Discussions of the findings ........................................................................ 148

5.2.1 Impact of an adaptation of a Circle of Friends intervention on the socio-emotional

intelligence of foundation phase learners ................................................................ 148

5.2.2 Influence of children’s social context and their daily lived experiences on the

development of their SEI ......................................................................................... 154

5.3 Co-creating pathways to enhance the development of SEI ....................... 156

5.4 Strengths and contribution of the study ..................................................... 158

5.5 Limitations of the study .............................................................................. 160

5.6 Recommendations for future research ...................................................... 161


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5.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 162

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 163

LIST OF ADDENDA

ADDENDUM A: Meeting Invitation

ADDENDUM B: Letter of Permission

ADDENDUM C 1: Child Participant Assent Form

ADDENDUM C 2: Parent Consent Form

ADDENDUM D: Psychologist Letter

ADDENDUM E: Teacher Checklist

ADDENDUM F: Observation Guide

ADDENDUM G: Focus Group Guide

ADDENDUM H: Activities

ADDENDUM I: Research Journal

ADDENDUM J: Colour Coding and Transcripts

ADDENDUM K: Circle of Friends Adaption

ADDENDUM L: Educator Reflective Feedback

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1: Structure and details of chapters ............................................................. 27

Table 2.1: Socio-emotional competencies ................................................................ 40

Table 2.2: Features of child-rearing styles ................................................................ 47

Table 4.1: Demographics of the participants ............................................................ 96

Table 4.2: Refined themes and sub-themes ........................................................... 107

Table 4.3: Emotional self-awareness over time ...................................................... 109

Table 4.4: Self-confidence over time ...................................................................... 113

Table 4.5: Awareness of coping/calming strategies ................................................ 120

Table 4.6: Worried and angry feelings .................................................................... 139

Table 4.7: Scary feelings ........................................................................................ 140


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Data analysis process ............................................................................ 17

Figure 3.1: Self-constructed drums made from tins, beans and balloons ................. 82

Figure 3.2: The use of self-constructed instruments to explore and express happy,

sad, scared and angry emotions ............................................................................... 82

Figure 4.1: The session room layout ........................................................................ 98

Figure 4.2: The space ............................................................................................... 99

Figure 4.3: Illustration of the use of clay work to explore emotions, emotional triggers

and the expression of emotions .............................................................................. 103

Figure 4.4: Illustration of participants’ awareness of emotional triggering events and

situations ................................................................................................................ 103

Figure 4.5: The use of self-constructed instruments to explore and different emotions

............................................................................................................................... 105

Figure 4.6: The use of painting to explore emotions ............................................... 106

Figure 4.7: Blessing’s use of the feeling-tree to express his angry emotional state 112

Figure 4.8: Process of drawing and painting........................................................... 143

Figure 4.9: Participants’ use of finger breathing to calm themselves down ............ 144

Figure 4.10: Participants shaking their calm-bottles to express their angry feelings

and to manage it through breathing ........................................................................ 145


1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The mental health crisis among children in South Africa is growing, due to socio-polit-

ical and socio-economic circumstances. The increasing stress of modern life poses

emotional demands on children, which they cannot meet in terms of their developmen-

tal level and age. Poverty, unemployment and inequality continue to increase in South

Africa, and “… children are particularly vulnerable in situations of poverty … approxi-

mately 11 million children live in absolute poverty” (Louw & Louw, 2020, p. 413). It is

evident that such factors may affect children’s well-being and global development.

Developmental theorists generally consider middle childhood as a developmental

phase during which children undergo several physical, cognitive, social and emotional

changes (Berk, 2013). A significant task of this developmental phase includes adapting

to the school and social activities and developing new communication skills. However,

it is essential to note that, for some children in middle childhood, this transition period

may be characterised by socio-economic variables that influence their ability to navi-

gate the cognitive and socio-emotional transitions that children have to navigate during

this phase (Cooper, 2004). Socio-emotional intelligence plays a critical role in chil-

dren’s successful adaption to life and for children’s healthy social functioning. Today’s

primary school children should, therefore, be afforded the opportunity to strengthen

specific socio-emotional intelligence competencies.

1.2 Background

During my Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) training and in my first year

of teaching experience, I became increasingly aware of the important role of emotional

intelligence in the holistic development of children. I also became more conscious of

the need to take cognisance of the potential influence of learners’ socio-economic en-

vironment on their education and development.

At the time, I was teaching at a school in a low socio-economic community – what is

referred to as a disorganised community. The school practiced as a non-profit organi-

sation and was in the process of formalising its relationship with the Western Cape


2

Education Department. The school was originally established as a social impact project

providing access to quality education to the learners of factory workers in Masiphume-

lele. During the past few years, the school saw significant growth and became a space

for learners in the community of Masiphumelele, who chose to enrol at the school, or

for those learners from the community who were not allocated space in the surrounding

government schools.

The school aimed at providing an inclusive learning environment for all its learners.

However, during the time that I taught there, I observed that some of the learners ap-

peared to experience difficulty navigating themselves in the educational space. These

learners found it particularly challenging to accept guidance from authority figures; es-

tablish healthy peer relationships; and to regulate themselves emotionally. I concurred

with Bandura’s (1977) theory of social learning, in that children learn from their envi-

ronments. Educators need to be cognisant of the way in which young people’s context,

environment, family experiences and exposure to risk factors may influence their de-

velopment and learning experiences. The successful implementation of a socio-emo-

tional learning (SEL) programme is possible. In addition, literature draws attention to

the fact that these young people often do not have the socio-emotional environment,

role models and resources to navigate the complexity of the risks to which they are

exposed (Deviz-Rosental, 2018; Garner, Mahatmya, Brown, & Vesely (2014); Lopes

& Salovey, 2004).

I further concurred with a view espoused in the literature that alludes to the fact that

children are currently growing up in a world that has been significantly transformed by

tremendous social and economic challenges resulting from in increased poverty, the

increased prevalence of HIV/Aids, violence, crime and substance abuse (Landsberg,

Kruger & Swart, 2017; Ferrandiz, Hernandez, Bermejo, Ferrando & Sainz, 2012;

McColloch, 2013; Zins, Elias & Greenberg, 2003). Gelderbloem (2014, p. 18) observes

that “… exposure to these issues has the potential to undermine the psycho-social

well-being and academic development of South Africa’s youth”. I was of the view that,

in the light of the dynamic and often complex nature of the risks to which children were

increasingly exposed, it became more important for schools and educators to create

spaces in which learners can acquire and rehearse the socio-emotional intelligence

needed to navigate their lived realities. This view was supported by the literature that


3

relating to the importance of schools and educators going beyond the prescribed life-

skills curriculum to create environments that are conducive to learning, while incorpo-

rating, facilitating, and promoting the development of socio-emotional intelligence skills

for learning and life (Deviz-Rosental, 2018; Herrera, Buitrago & Cepero, 2017; Gelder-

bloem, 2014; Lopes & Salovey 2004, p. 300).

Extensive research results suggest the importance of emotional intelligence in suc-

cessfully navigating educational and social spaces. In addition, the research findings

also point to the relationship between acquiring social-emotional skills at a young age

and later success. Socio-emotional competencies do not unfold automatically: they are

influenced by children’s early learning environments and the social interactions they

have with significant people in their lives, who serve as models for reinforcing their

emotional responses. Acquiring these socio-emotional competencies may enable

learners to experience success at school and in life. Although success is a relative

concept, navigating school successfully requires learners to master academic content,

as well as real-life skills, how to manage their emotions, resolve conflict and make

informed decisions to prepare them for real-life situations (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart,

2017; Herrera, Buitrago, Lorenzo & Badea, 2015; Tufeanu, 2015; Mayer, Salovey &

Caruso,2004; Zins, Elias & Greenberg, 2003). Blom (2004) concurs with this view and

mentions that “… schools and other role players should all be more involved in plan-

ning and presenting programmes focussing on life skills and emotional and social de-

velopment from an early age” (p. 51). However, despite research findings pointing to

the value of incorporating such programmes in the school context, there seems to be

a reluctance to do so, as schools continue to focus primarily on academic activities

(Landberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017; Gelderbloem, 2014; Wiggins & Monk, 2013; Delport,

2010; Ennett, Ringwalt, Thorne, Rohrbach, Vincus, Simons-Rudolph & Jones, 2003;

Raver 2003).

The current formal school curriculum in South Africa – i.e. the Curriculum Assessment

Policy Statement (CAPS), 2006 – makes provision for the inclusion of activities that

promote the acquisition of socio-emotional competencies through life skills. In a study

conducted by Gelderbloem (2014) on the life orientation learning area, he concludes

that there is more that schools can do to promote SEL in terms of resources, time and


4

application. The importance of socio-emotional intelligence and the way it is currently

incorporated in the curriculum will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2.

In the light of the foregoing information, I was of the view that exposing educators and

learners to a well-established tool for strengthening socio-emotional intelligence in chil-

dren, adolescents and adults, could bridge the current gap and serve as a helpful

learning resource for promoting self-awareness, emotional self-regulation and deci-

sion-making. When children’s overall global development can be prepared for real-life

situations, they will be able to understand and manage themselves in the spaces that

they inhibit.

1.3 Rationale for study

There are several reasons for most social-emotional learning efforts failing to foster

learning and behavioural change. Personal experience and the literature suggested

that there are some factors that undermine the efficacy of current SEL interventions,

such as: (i) short-term and fragmented efforts; (ii) ill-conceived efforts and implemen-

tations by teachers; (iii) inadequate opportunities, support and training for teachers;

and (iv) insufficient school-family-community partnerships (Landsberg, Kruger &

Swart, 2017; Schafer, 2016; Gelderbloem, 2014; Sandy & Cohen, 2003). In order to

ensure effectiveness and sustainable SEL programmes, families, teachers, mental-

health service providers, schools and the broader community should be involved from

the onset of the programme (Shafer, 2016).

The aim of this qualitative study was to place at its centre the child participant, while

collaborating with the parents, teachers and broader school in varying degrees. The

research design sought to create opportunities that enabled the young participants to

engage with and influence the nature of the socio-emotional intervention tools that

could be used to enhance their self-efficacy in a supportive and enabling environment.

An initial review of the literature suggested that most of the research related to socio-

emotional learning (SEL) to date adopts a more quantitative approach to establishing

the effectiveness of SEL programmes within the school context. My decision to use

participatory action research (PAR) was influenced by the foregoing facts and by some

of the limitations identified in previous research. Participatory action research soughts


5

to empower the participants by having working in partnership with them and equipping

them in the process with skills to be social agents for change within themselves and

the broader community.

Although a handful of SEL programmes have been tested and shown to improve chil-

dren’s emotional intelligence skills, as well as their academic performances, mental

health and behavioural outcomes, the results of formerly conducted research indicate

that these may not be as significant as anticipated. There is a limited number of quali-

tative studies that reflect on the more nuanced changes that may have occurred be-

cause of children’s exposure to SEL programmes. This may be because the subtle

shifts that occur because of participation in SEL interventions may be hard to capture

and one cannot quantify ongoing growth and development over time and across con-

texts. Whilst seeking to engage with an SEL intervention that focuses on long-term

personal and interpersonal development, school-based academic and behavioural

changes, this study recognises that it can only aspire to explore with the participants

what will be needed and what can be used as a base for developing socio-emotional

skills. The Circle Time (Circle of Friends) approach, which “… encourages the practice

of social-emotional skills in an inclusive, caring and democratic climate” (Cefai &

Cooper, 2009, p. 120), was, therefore, a good fit. The Circle of Friends enables an

active and engaging process through which vulnerable children not only strengthen

aspects of their socio-emotional intelligence, but also gain a deeper understanding of

their own individual behaviour through their roles as active change agents.

The value of this research lied in its potential positive influence on the participants’ self-

awareness, empathy, emotional self-regulation and decision-making, all of which could

assist them in developing healthier coping strategies when dealing with the daily chal-

lenges in their communities. In addition, the goal of this study was to contribute to the

limited body of scientific knowledge on the implementation of creative techniques to

facilitate SEL programmes – particularly in the South African school context and spe-

cifically in communities classified as disorganised.


6

1.4 Description of the problem and the research question

Qualitative research commences with a well-defined research problem. According to

Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the purpose of a research problem is to raise a question

about something that challenges the researcher’s thinking and is guided by his/her

curiosity and interest in a gap in the knowledge base that can be resolved through

research.

From the literature it is evident that socio-emotional intelligence influences children’s

overall development and ability to function. Limited research has been conducted in

the South African school context using the Circle of Friends intervention programme

to develop emotional intelligence in middle childhood.

This study aimed at investigating whether an adaptation of the Circle of Friends inter-

vention programme can be used to enhance socio-emotional intelligence competen-

cies of primary-school learners within an informal settlement in Cape Town. In order to

do this, the research is guided by the following research question:

How can the Circle of Friends intervention be adapted for implementation

to strengthen socio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase?

In order to explore the phenomenon further, the following questions guide the focus of

the study:

1. How do children’s social context and their daily experiences (lived reality) influence

the development of their socio-emotional intelligence?

2. How can children be included in developing or adapting interventions to enhance


3. To what extent do interventions aimed at improving the socio-emotional intelligence

of learners influence their behaviour and academic performance in the classroom?


7

1.5 Research goals and objectives

The aim of the study is to evaluate the possible impact of an adaptation of the Circle

of Friends interventions on the socio-emotional intelligence of foundation phase learn-

ers. To achieve this, the following specific objectives have been formulated for the

study:

• To conceptualise what is meant by the terms socio-emotional intelligence, emo-

tional and emotional regulation;

• To understand the contextual factors in an informal settlement (disorganised

community) that influence the development of socio-emotional intelligence of

learners within the foundation phase of schooling;

• To use creative means to explore the current level of socio-emotional intelli-

gence of learners and the way in which this influences their behaviour and aca-

demic performance in the classroom;

• To identify strengths and areas for development in the participants and how one

can create a space where a facilitator enables learners to strengthen their socio-

emotional-intelligence competencies; and

• To determine the possible impact of the adaptation of a Circle of Friends inter-

vention on the socio-emotional intelligence of foundation phase learners.

1.6 Research methodology

1.6.1 Research paradigm

The study makes use of the social-constructivist research paradigm, which focuses on

the way in which individuals create their own realities by engaging in a process of

meaning-making of their experiences within a particular context. This study aims to

forefront participants’ experiences and interaction with an adaptation of The Circle of

Friends intervention as a means to strengthen socio-emotional intelligence in children.

The social-constructivist paradigm recognises that the research participants play an

integral part in gaining insight into and understanding of their social world throughout

the research process. As the researcher, I will not be detached from the study: I do

intend to be involved throughout the research process. It is through this interaction with

the participants that the I hoped to collaborate with them to foster an understanding of


8

their perceptions regarding their social worlds (Denzin & Lincoln, 2017; Denzin & Lin-

coln, 2011; De Vos, Strydom, Fouche & Delport 2005; Creswell, 2013a).

1.6.2 Research approach and design

The research design for this study is based on a qualitative approach. This approach

is a good fit for this study because – according to McLeod (2013), Maree (2012) and

Merriam (2018) – qualitative research aims at producing experience near to the under-

standings and authentic descriptions of peoples’ interpretations; explore how they

make sense of the world; and the meaning they attach to situations, experiences, atti-

tudes and actions.

Another important feature of the qualitative research method relevant to this study is

that its aim is to describe and display phenomena as they are experienced by the re-

search population and from the participants’ perspectives – not only from the re-

searcher’s perspective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Lewis & Ritchie, 2014; Merriam,

2009; Lewis & Ritchie, 2003; Merriam, 1998). As the participants are very young, I

intend to be mindful to create a space and to use data generation techniques that

enable the participants’ voices to emerge, so as to obtain a better understanding of the

phenomenon under investigation. Since this study is interested in strengthening socio-

emotional intelligence of a group of foundation phase learners, who have varying de-

grees of expressive language and emotional regulation, a qualitative research design

should “… provide a unique tool for studying what lies behind, or underpins a decision,

attitude, behaviour or other phenomena” (Lewis & Ritchie, 2003, p. 3). The intention is

to make sense of the meaning others have about their lives and lived experiences,

while initiating and implementing change through the adapted intervention (Lewis &

Ritchie, 2014; Merriam, 2009; Lewis & Ritchie, 2003; Ungar, 2003).

1.6.3 Research methodology: participatory action research

Children are the experts of their own lives and the best persons to relate how they feel,

experience and view certain matters (Coyne & Carter, 2018) A participatory action re-

search (PAR) design, which allows for the active involvement of the learners in the

research process – will be utilised to co-discover learners’ unique insight, understand-

ing and views, while giving them the opportunity to be a part of social change.


9

Participatory action research is a unique approach because it seeks to share the deci-

sion-making and participation with all stakeholders involved in the process of

knowledge construction (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Shamrova & Cummings, 2017;

Watters, Comeau, & Restall, 2010). Such an approach to research requires “… the

researcher to become a co-learner and the child to become a co-researcher” (Coyne

& Carter, 2018, p. 2). This proves challenging for this study, as the participants are

fairly young and the research takes place in a school context, where the participants

are learners and generally expected to accept the adults as authority figures. However,

I hope to foster a more balanced power differentiation by implementing a variety of

participatory techniques and to create a relationship of trust, where the learners feel

more at ease to express themselves and share their ideas.

PAR encourages the researcher to ensure that (i) the participants have a voice through

equal participation and informed decision-making; (ii) change is brought about in prac-

tice through collaboration with the participants; (iii) to implement a collaborative re-

search design is implemented to create a platform for participants and the researcher

to gain insight into and a better understanding of their challenges and needs with re-

gard to their socio-emotional learning (SEL), while allowing them to mobilising for and

promoting change actively (Jangmin, 2016, p. 40; MacDonald, 2012; Bhana, 1999).

During the past decade, children’s inclusion in research has increased and PAR with

children and youth has drawn significant attention in international studies (Schelbe, et

al., 2015). Research conducted by Shamrova and Cummings (2017; 2007) has found

that “PAR conducted with children and youth showed evidence of positive outcomes

for children, organisations and communities” (p. 2). Furthermore, PAR has the potential

to strengthen research findings, intervention and social action (Langhout & Thomas,

2010). Despite the former, very little PAR research has included the role of the child

as a social actor, collaborator, researcher and change agent in developing countries,

particularly in the South African context. In instances where children have been in-

cluded in the research, their involvement has been predominantly limited to that of

simply being a source of data and their “voices” have not been fore-fronted and often

over-shadowed by misinterpretation (Shamrova & Cummings, 2017; Langhout &

Thomas, 2010).


10

In the research, I strive for “… genuine participation …” through co-initiation, shared

decision-making and co-construction of knowledge (Coyne & Carter, 2018). Since this

study is interested in strengthening socio-emotional intelligence among a group of

foundation phase learners, the learners will be actively involved in the research pro-

cess and given an opportunity to make decisions and initiate the research process.

Through a creative and accessible participatory process, the participants will engage

in processes to strengthen socio-emotional competencies through practical problem

solving, which should scaffold over time and as the participants become more confi-

dent in the research process.

Initially, I have envisioned taking on the role of facilitator and participant-researcher

during focus group sessions, while exploring learners’ self-awareness, how the learn-

ers took action to manage their own emotions and reactions and strengthen their socio-

emotional intelligence through implementing and adapting to the Circle of Friends in-

tervention strategy. The process focuses on empowering children through a spiral-like

process that encourages the active and reflective engagement of all parties by using a

variety of creative participatory methods and tools, such as mediated conversations;

drawing and creative arts, games and toys, role play and age-appropriate conversa-

tions (Damons, 2014; Clark, 2010). This process will be discussed in greater depth in

Chapter 3. It is through such a process that I hope to achieve fair representation of the

leaners’ perceptions and voices.

Apart from its potential to work with the participants actively and practically to enhance

their socio-emotional intelligence and skills related to SEI, I deem participatory action

research as appropriate for this research, as it allows for a process of joint learning

and can lead to a better understanding of how we can “… know with the participants

…” (Bhana, 1999, p. 233).

1.6.4 Participants

In order to meet the research objectives involved in the study, I will use purposive

sampling. Purposive sampling assumes that a researcher wants to discover, under-

stand and gain insight into a research problem and, therefore, purposefully selects


11

either participants, settings or other sampling units composed of representative ele-

ments of the population from which the most can be learned (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;

De Vos et al., 2011; Merriam, 2009; Lewis & Ritchie, 2003; Patton, 2002). In this way,

purposive sampling is “… composed of elements that contain the most characteristics,

representative or typical attributes of the population that best serves the purpose of the

study” (De Vos et al., 2011, p. 392).

The study is limited to a group of nine learners between the ages of seven and eight.

This age cohort falls within the middle childhood development phase. This develop-

mental phase and the importance of an intervention at this stage will be discussed in

greater detail in Chapter 2). The prospective participants will attend the same non-

profit organisation (NPO) independent primary school in the informal settlement com-

munity of Masiphumelele in the Western Cape. The population for the study is Grade

2 learners.

1.6.4.1 Recruitment

Educators have been consulted as key informants and asked to identify five learners

who they regard as requiring support regarding their socio-emotional intelligence

and/or who are exhibiting behavioural challenges. In addition, four other learners, who

already exhibit some socio-emotional intelligence skills, but who could have further

benefit from strengthening these, have been selected for inclusion in the research. The

intervention has been explained to these learners and their parents or guardians. In

order for the parents to make an informed decision, the study has been explained in

English, Afrikaans and isiXhosa (a translator has been used for this). The parents who

have agreed to their children participating in the study, have been guided through a

consent form (see Addendum C 2). The children who have agreed to participate in the

study, have an assent form explained to them in an age-appropriate language (see

Addendum C 1).

1.6.4.2 Inclusion criteria

Socio-emotional intelligence encompasses four components of abilities: “The ability to

perceive, appraise and express emotions accurately; the emotional facilitation of

thought; the understanding of emotions and the use of emotional knowledge, emotional

management and regulation in the self and others” (Blom, 2004, p. 35). In a population


12

of children presenting low socio-emotional intelligence at this specific primary school,

the study delimits itself to five learners presenting intrapersonal (in the self) emotional

management and regulation difficulties and four other learners, who have already ex-

hibited some socio-emotional intelligence skills, but who could have further benefited

from strengthening these, as observed and identified by their teachers.

The inclusion criteria for this study include:

• Residing in Masiphumelele in Cape Town;

• Being enrolled as a Grade 2 learner at Bhongolethu Foundation Primary School;

• Five learners presenting socio-emotional management and behaviour regulation

challenges;

• Four learners exhibiting some degree of emotional awareness and emotional self-

management;

• Be between the ages of seven to eight; and

• The learner has to understand and be able to converse in English.

1.6.5 Data-generating methods

Creswell (2009, p. 175) mentions that qualitative researchers often gather multiple

forms of data. Participatory action research typically employs multiple data generation

methods (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Engle, 2016; De Vos et al., 2011; Clark, 2010). The

use of multiple data generation techniques allows the research process to be as inclu-

sive and accessible as possible, while playing on the children’s strengths and expres-

sive preferences. Furthermore, to draw a valid conclusion from the research, it is es-

sential for the researcher to have sound data to analyse and interpret. Therefore, I

employ a variety of data-generating methods, which contributes to the trustworthiness

of the study, while triangulation of multiple sources of data ensures valid, accurate and

important findings (McLeod, 2013; Biber & Leavy, 2006). All the data will be reviewed,

made sense of and organised into categories and themes. It was of vital importance

that common themes are triangulated for trustworthiness, which is established by using

multiple sources, such as focus groups, observations and participant-generated arte-

facts, field notes and reflections.


13

As it is important for participatory action research (PAR) to include multiple ways of

knowledge building (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Clark, 2010), data-generating methods for

the participants of the study include creative, visual and accessible techniques, such

as focus groups, observations, visual methods (drawings), other interactive activities

and field notes. These methods will be elaborated on in Chapter 3.

1.6.5.1 Focus groups

According to Kitzinger (1995), as cited in McDonald (2013), focus groups are a socially-

orientated process and a “… form of group interview that capitalises on communication

between the researched participants in order to generate data”. The primary means of

data generation for study is focus groups. The focus group will be facilitated by imple-

menting an adapted version of the Circle of Friends intervention for the South African

context, which introduces socio-emotional learning opportunities to the learners.

The Circle of Friends intervention is a widely used method in the United Kingdom (UK),

where it is used with children with a range of needs, one being children who are at risk

of exclusion because of social and behavioural challenges. According to Schieleder,

Maldonado and Baltes (2014), “… the goal of the Circle of Friends group is to provide

an environment in which children with social-emotional difficulties can improve their

social interaction in order to facilitate positive social skills development”.

Such an intervention aims at developing a support structure for children, where they

proactively support one another with socio-emotional difficulties, jointly identified by

the members of the circle (Schlieder, Maldonado & Baltes, 2014; McClosKey, 2008;

Whitaker, Barratt, Joy, Potter & Thomas, 2003).

Because of the nature of the research paradigm and design and the emphasis on the

active and collaborative participation of the participants and me, the children will be

encouraged to participate in meaningful ways. The Circle of Friends intervention will

allow the participants/learners more choices in the research process (McClosKey,

2008). Gillis and Jackson (2002) note that, although the topic of discussion is left up to

the focus group, “… the facilitator typically provides some structure” (Shamrova &

Cummings, 2017). During the session, the learners will be given the freedom to choose

the materials and activities they like to engage with. Because the true work is done by


14

the learners themselves, I take on the role of the facilitator during the problem-solving

activities.

It is through these focus groups and the adaptation of the Circle of Friends intervention

that I hope to develop a support network for the foundation phase learners – i.e. a

space in which they can explore emotions and socio-emotional difficulties together,

while proactively supporting one another with practical problem-solving skills acquired

and learned during the focus group interaction.

1.6.5.2 Observation

De Vos et al. (2011 p. 2) describe observations as open-ended procedures that are

central to qualitative research. Systematic observations allow the researcher to capture

a variety of activities and interactions that describe the setting of a particular situation.

Therefore, I take on the role of participant-observer. The researcher becomes part of

the process by being immersed in the setting: “… the researcher literally walks in the

shoes of the participant” (De Vos et al., 2011, p. 329) by hearing, seeing and experi-

encing the reality of the social situation with the participants (Marshall & Rossman,

2011). The researcher will, therefore, not merely observe the activities, interaction and

communication, but also engage in the activities as a co-learner, participant, facilitator

and mediator (Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Spradley, 1980). I observe the participants

during the focus group and other selected activities, while I actively participate in these

sessions. Being a participant-observer allows the researcher to learn directly from per-

sonal experiences and to attain first-hand knowledge of social behaviour as it unfolds

(Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Gillis & Jackson, 2002). During the focus group sessions,

observations will be made about the non-verbal cues, verbal interaction and commu-

nication and then added as field notes to enrich the research findings.

1.6.5.3 Drawings and visual arts

Drawing is considered as one of the most widely employed data-generating techniques

in research with children (Coyne & Carter, 2018). In this study, visual art tasks will

include drawing, painting, collages and exploration of self-image using the draw-a-per-

son assessment (DAP) and other possible choices to encourage participation. Using

of such visual methods will provide participants, who are uncomfortable in talking about


15

their personal experiences and those who have limited vocabulary, with an environ-

ment and opportunity to share and express their experiences in a creative, non-threat-

ening way (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Sylvester, 2010). Further, children are allowed the

opportunity to take the lead, to gain greater control of the research process and to

space to express their views. During the drawing process, I will make observations and

engage with the participants to gain descriptive information about their drawings, while

allowing them opportunity for self-expression. In Chapter 3, I discuss the way in which

drawing and visual art are used to gain access to the inner world of the young partici-

pants.

1.6.5.4 Interactive activities

During the Circle of Friends sessions, learners are exposed to interactive activities,

such as games and toys, story-telling and inference (biblio-therapy), creative writing,

pretend play modelling/drama, role-play, puppets and breathing (meditation) activities.

These selected activities allow them to practice emotional management and self-reg-

ulation. Such interactive approaches to data collection may help children feel comfort-

able to interact and to express their views about their worlds, the self and their experi-

ences and to facilitate participation. These methods are used in conjunction with other,

more traditional methods of research, such as focus groups and field notes.

1.6.5.5 Researcher diary and field notes

The researcher's diary is described as a form of reflective writing that is kept throughout

the research process and allows the researcher to document personal experiences

and daily accounts of the research process (Ida, Shrout, Laurenceau & Bolger, 2012;

Bloor & Wood, 2006; Borg, 2001). In the course of the research, I will keep a journal

with the aim of reflecting on my personal account of the research process, detailing

what I hear, see and experience throughout the entire data collection process.

All conversations involved in the focus group activities will be noted in detail, video-

recorded and transcribed verbatim. Recording of the session by tape recorders is rec-

ommended, as well as field notes taken down at the conclusion of the session (De Vos,

et al, 2011).


16

1.6.6 Data analysis

In qualitative research, the researcher strives at being open to the reality of others by

seeking to tell someone else’s story and world view. Qualitative data analysis, which

is mostly descriptive, intends to make sense of participants’ perceptions, attitudes,

knowledge, feelings and experiences and is inductively (segmenting and taking apart

data) looking for patters and connections among categories of data (Creswell, 2013a;

De Vos et al., 2011; Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Niewenhuisen, 2007). Creswell

(2013a, p. 195) refers to the process as “… peeling back the layers of an onion and

putting it back together again”. The process of meaning making in qualitative research

is a continuous process going backwards and forwards, constantly evaluating and as-

sessing collected data and ensuring richness of data (Creswell, 2013a). As observed

by Denzin and Lincoln (2011), “Meaning-making unfolds as the study does and it re-

mains open and flexible to adaptation so as to provide the best opportunities for the

meaningful understanding of the research focus”.

Because a focus group analysis combines different elements of qualitative research,

the basis for the data analysis in this study are video-recordings, field notes, artefacts,

drawings and observations. Because data analysis is an ongoing, continuous process,

qualitative researchers recommend the generation of data being constantly examined,

re-examined and sorted, as it may reshape the nature of the research process (Da-

mons, 2014, p. 80). To ensure effective data analyses of the variety of data sources

and to minimise problems in the process, I will enforce a degree of structure throughout

the research process by the continued organisation and categorisation of data through-

out the data collection process and by analysing and reviewing the collected data in

the context of the purpose of the data.

Marshall and Rossman (2011) explain that the aim of qualitative data analysis is to

search for connections among various categories of data. I have first put strategies

into place that organise the collected data, after which I will attempt to gain a general

understanding of the data and reflect on the overall meaning of the information. Then

I will generate themes and sub-themes and decide which of the identified themes are

important for the purpose of the research. According to Creswell (2013a), data analysis

will commence through a coding process, while making use of a long-table approach.


17

Krueger and Casey (2000, p. 132) as cited in De Vos, et al. (2011) mention that the

long-table approach involves the coding and sorting of all data on a long table. This

approach is specifically used when one’s main of data collection is the focus group.

Coding involves reducing masses of data into smaller meaningful chunks (Denzin &

Lincoln, 2011). Therefore, I employed content analysis and looked for patterns and

themes, after which I engaged in interpretation and meaning-making of the themes.

Figure 1.1 illustrates the circular process that employed in the data analysis process.

Figure 1.1: Data analysis process

Because of the participatory nature of the research, child-participants are involved in

the data analysis process. The participants are involved and provided with a reflective

space opportunity to voice their opinions about their findings, while collaborating on

the recommendations. Such involvement ensures meaningfulness of participation and

ensures that their voices come through clearly.

1. Raw data (Field notes, creative arts, recordings)

2. Organise and prepare

the data

2. Immerse in and read

through the data

3. Commence coding

(by hand)

4. Identify themes

5. Interrelating immergent

themes

6. Interpretation and meaning-

making of themes


18

1.7 Ethical considerations

Ethical research with children requires the researcher to be mindful of protecting the

children’s rights and ensuring that they are not exposed to undue “…distress, anxiety

or embarrassment as a result of the research …” (Stuart & Barnes, 2011, p. 7–8), while

ensuring that he/she acts within the best interest of the child, as stipulated in the Chil-

dren’s Act, No. 35 of 2005 (Republic of South Africa, 2005).

The children involved in this study are regarded as a vulnerable population, due to the

environment in which they live. Therefore, the researcher has responsibility to consider

the ethical issues attentively to ensure that the children’s best interests are always

upheld. The ethical aspects that guided my conduct during the research are addressed

in the following section.

1.7.1 Protection, well-being and beneficence

Children are regarded as a vulnerable population that needs to be protected. Because

the participants in this study are primary school learners in a disorganised community

and some may have been particularly vulnerable because of their context and experi-

ences, it is particularly important to protect them from potential harm. Avoidance of

harm is considered as fundamental to research. Therefore, I have the obligation to

ensure physical and psychological safety of all participants involved in the study.

Researchers have the responsibility of protecting the welfare and right of all partici-

pants in a study, while safeguarding them from potentially physical and psychological

harmful consequences (e.g. embarrassment, humiliation or undue stress) that may

emerge from their participation in the study (Sanjari, Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi

& Cheraghi, 2014; Maree, 2012; De Vos et al., 2011; Stuart & Barnes, 2005).

Although it is not always possible to anticipate all the possible consequences of par-

ticipating in a research project, specific risks and benefits have been identified. To

reduce and prevent harm, I will ensure the application of appropriate ethical principles

throughout the study. As a researcher, it is my intention to be reflexive in the research

and, therefore, I have planned accordingly. I have been cognisant of potential harmful

consequences. In this regard, Coyne and Carter (2018) suggest that involving children


19

in the research design – while being sensitive to their context – has the potential to

minimise harm.

The participants were provided with a debriefing session, along with the psychological

services of a psychologist in the case of their participation resulting in psychological

harm. The participants and their caregivers have been informed about the support

available and a referral strategy has been put into place, in case the need emerge.

The study is also driven by the potential positive effects that the participants may gain

from their involvement in the study. PAR allows for a mutual partnership from which

the participants, as children, have the opportunity to strengthen aspects of their SEI,

have their voices heard, and become social agents for change.

1.7.2 Power dynamic

One of the ethical challenges for researchers working with children is the disparity in

power and status between adults and children. PAR attempts to address such an un-

equal power dynamic through a more collaborative and reciprocal relationship between

the researcher and co-researcher (participant) (Coyne & Carter, 2018). As I used to

teach some of the participants, I am aware that a skewed power dynamic may exist

between the participants and me. Therefore, I make a conscious effort to redress the

power imbalance between the child-participants and myself, in order to enable them to

participate on their own terms. By adopting an interactive and “child-friendly”, playful

approach, I hope to differentiate my new role from my previous one as their teacher.

In addition, I refrain from coming across as patronising and I ensure that I respect the

learners’ views, opinions and dignity. I hope to build a trust relationship with the learn-

ers, where they are likely to feel comfortable to communicate and express themselves

readily. Finally, because the study aims at employing participatory action research as

the research design, the children have been approached as social actors and they

have as much choice as possible in terms of the way in which they participate in the

research. Consequently, I intend to minimise power-dynamics between the participants

and myself, thereby ensuring autonomy.


20

“Autonomy (or respect for people) demands that the ability of competent subjects to

make their own decisions be recognised and respected, while also protecting the au-

tonomy of the vulnerable by preventing the imposition of unwanted decisions” (Owoni-

koko, 2013, p. 242). I hope to foster a sense of autonomy by providing participants with

sufficient information, so that they can make informed decisions regarding their partic-

ipation in the study. Additionally, a sense of autonomy will be encouraged through col-

laborative decision-making and selection of activities, while respecting and valuing

each learner’s diverse contribution.

1.7.3 Accessibility

As all the parents/guardians of the learners involved in the study may not be proficient

in English, I am fully aware of the potential language barrier. As such, I will make use

of an interpreter during the research process – specifically with the process of gaining

access and informed consent. The interpreter is required to be proficient in isiXhosa

and has been briefed regarding the importance of the informed consent process, in

order to maintain confidentiality and respect of parents and guardians.

Additionally, I will also ensure that the study complies with the ethical methods and

guidelines for research conducted at the University, as stipulated by the Research Eth-

ics Committee at Stellenbosch University and the permission of the non-profit organi-

sation (NPO). The proposal for the study was presented for ethical clearance and ap-

proval to the Faculty of Education, the University's Ethics Committee and the Western

Cape Department of Education.

As the Bhongolethu Foundation is currently not registered with the WCED and is still

considered to be an independent school, I did not seek permission from the WCED to

conduct the study at the school. Furthermore, permission for access was sought from

the principal of the independent school. Additionally, these standards provide a plat-

form on which I assess my own ethical conduct throughout the research process.

1.7.4 Informed consent, assent and permission

Written permission have been obtained from the child’s/participant’s parents and from

the child. In a study using a sample of children it is essential for the parents or legal


21

guardians of each participant to provide consent for participation by the minor, who,

until the age of 18, is considered incapable of providing informed consent for partici-

pation in a research study (Republic of South Africa, 2005; Gravetter & Forzano, 2003).

Prior to the onset of the study, a consent and assent form have been designed to obtain

written consent/assent from all the participants, while clarifying the research process.

Assent and consent forms have been obtained according to the requirements sug-

gested in Maree (2012, p. 153–156) and Brink, Van Rensburg and Van der Walt,

(2012). The forms have been drafted with due regard of the participants’ level of insight

and rights and have been compiled in a format that they understand. As previously

stated, I make use of an interpreter during the informed consent process. The inter-

preter is proficient in isiXhosa and has been briefed on the importance of the informed

consent process prior to the onset of the research.

During the informed consent process, participants will be (i) provided with all relevant

information of the study – the aim of the research, purpose, process, methods, bene-

fits, potential consequences and outcomes; (ii) assured of their rights to anonymity; (iii)

informed of voluntary participation and their rights to withdraw from the research,

should they in any way feel threatened, without undesirable consequences; (iv) pro-

vided with the opportunity to ask questions and/or have the explanations repeated.

Child participants are required to provide written informed assent. As recommended

by Schenk and Williamson (2005) working with children requires the research process

to recognises the child's age and level of maturity. The process of gathering assent will

be done in such a way that the child participants are able to comprehend the infor-

mation fully by using a language that is readily understood (Engle, 2016).

The parents/guardians of the participants are also required to give permission for video

recordings to be used throughout all the data-generation processes. According to the

Health Professions Act, No. 56 of 1974 (Republic of South Africa, 1974), consent by

the parents allows for the participants to be observed during therapeutic activities (fo-

cus groups, drawing activities and other additional activities).

Moreover, I am aware that the process of gaining consent is an ongoing process. Con-

sent will, therefore, reinforced throughout the research process.


22

1.7.5 Confidentiality and privacy

As formerly mentioned, children are considered a vulnerable population and, therefore,

“… need to feel secure that the researcher will hold what he/she has said with respect

and confidentiality” (Coyne & Carter, 2018, p. 45). The privacy of such a population

should be safeguarded at all times. Participants should be assured that no one will

reveal any names or know that they have taken part in the research. In order to ensure

that confidentiality is maintained throughout the research process, researchers should

(i) respect every individual’s right to privacy; (ii) safeguard private and confidential in-

formation collected during the study; (iii) give participants an active voice to evaluate

and determine what information they are comfortable with sharing; (iv) act with the

necessary sensitivity when working with confidential information and only use data for

the intended purpose of the research (De Vos et al., 2011). Only the researcher should

be able to access the information that should be held in a secure place (Stuart &

Barnes, 2012; De Vos et al., 2011).

At the beginning of the research process, I have explained the process of confidential-

ity to all the parties involved in the study – i.e. learners (participants), parents, the

interpreter, as well as school staff. The participants have been ensured of confidenti-

ality, as all information obtained will be kept anonymous and private. Throughout the

process, I will carefully consider the use of words to ensure that all parties understand

everything and that any possible confusion is avoided. Additionally, an interpreter has

been appointed to safeguard against possible misunderstanding throughout the pro-

cess.

The researcher needs to consider the limits that apply to confidentiality carefully, and

how to inform children and young people of such limits (Coyne & Carter, 2018). There-

fore, I make sure to mention the limitations to confidentiality. The participants have

been informed of the nature of the research and that it is being conducted for a Master’s

study that will be published as a thesis, which will result in the information being placed

in the public domain. I have also assured participants that precautions are taken to

ensure the confidentiality of everything that have been said. Subsequently, I have

made it clear to the participants that their names will not be used; nor will other infor-

mation be shared that may reveal their real identities.


23

Prior to the research I have also planned how to safeguard the participants, information

provided by the participants during focus groups and research written accounts. There-

fore, I actively enforce methods to protect the privacy of the learners by attending to

the following:

• As the research is conducted at a school, all efforts are taken to protect the privacy

of the participants and the setting of the research. All parties involved, therefore,

signed confidentiality agreements.

• “It is usual to provide individuals with the assurance that their names will not be

used in anything written as a result of the research” (Coyne & Carter, 2018; De Vos

et al., 2011; Stuart & Barnes, 2005). To assure anonymity of the participants, I have

explained the process of anonymity to the parents and the learners. I have encour-

aged the learners to choose their own pseudonyms. Alternatively, I have taken rea-

sonable steps to hide the participants’ identities and any other identifying infor-

mation, such as the name of the school.

• As child-participants have the autonomy to decide what they want to share and say,

I have informed the children participants about how what they have shared will be

used/shared, while being ensured that I will not repeat what they have told me to

other people and that they could trust me. Furthermore, they have been granted an

opportunity to ask questions to address any confidentiality concerns regarding they

may have had at the outset.

• All information sources are coded to ensure confidentiality of the information pro-

vided by the participants.

• Prior to the onset of the research, permission to record and photograph the ses-

sions, have been sought from the participants and their parents/guardians.

• Careful consideration is given to safeguarding the information provided by the

learners prior to commencing with the research. I have put steps into place to en-

sure that the participants are not identifiable. Only the researcher has access to the

information, which is secured in a safe space. Records and research data will be

kept for a period of two years after the completion of the research.


24

1.8 Ensuring trustworthiness

Lincoln and Guba (2003) refer to the term trustworthiness as the means by which the

inquirer persuades the audience that the findings in the study are worth paying atten-

tion to and that the research is valid, reliable and of high quality. Furthermore, it is

explained that trustworthiness is divided into the following constructs: credibility, relia-

bility, transferability and confirmability (Maree, 2012; Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Con-

rad & Serlin, 2006; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).

For the study, I have ensured that the former standards of trustworthiness are ad-

dressed and accomplished through triangulation of multiple sources of data. The aim

is to establish trustworthiness by using observations, drawings, artefacts, research

journals (field notes), as well as video-recordings. Common themes are triangulated

from the collected data; critically discussed with peers; and, by providing accurate

feedback and member check-in’s, reliability of the data is ensured. I also engage in

reflexivity to ensure personal biases are reduced. A detailed account of trustworthiness

will be provided in Chapter 3.

1.9 Concept clarification

The key terms and concepts used in the study are defined in the following sections.

1.9.1 Socio-emotional Intelligence (Emotional-social intelligence)

The frame of reference used to guide my understanding of socio-emotional intelligence

in the study is based on the Emotional Intelligence (EQ) model proposed by Daniel

Goleman (1995), SEI as defined by Bar-On and Parker (2006) and Daviz-Rozental’s

(2018). In the model of Daniel Goleman (1995) emotional intelligence is defined as “…

an individual’s ability to understand and manage his/her own emotions and relation-

ships as well as those of others” (Goleman, 1995; Devis-Rozental, 2018).

Social intelligence is intertwined with this definition of emotional intelligence. Devis-

Rozental (2018) defines socio-emotional intelligence (SEI) as “… the ability to integrate

feeling, intuition and cognition to acknowledge, understand, manage, apply and ex-

press our emotions and social interactions at the right time, for the right purpose in the

right context and with the right person” (p. 39). Socio-emotional intelligence refers to


25

“… the ability to recognise and manage one’s own and other’s emotions” (Bar-On &

Parker, 2000).

This model of socio-emotional intelligence considers the following four constructs that

are said to guide the construct of socio-emotional intelligence: self-awareness (i.e. the

ability to read and recognise one’s own emotions and those of others); self-regulation,

which involves being able to manage and guide one’s emotions; social awareness (i.e.

to manage relationships with others effectively, showing empathy and respect for oth-

ers; social skills (i.e. managing relationships and communicate effectively, cooperation

and conflict resolution) (Goleman, 2004; Devis-Rozental, 2018; Zins, Elias &

Greenberg, 2003; Blom, 2004).

1.9.2 Emotional and self-awareness

Self-awareness is considered as one of the most central skills in socio-emotional intel-

ligence. Self-awareness refers to the individual’s ability to know, identify and correctly

perceive the significance of our own emotions – based on thoughts, physical and sen-

sory experiences that accompany them – and the emotions of others, while including

the knowledge of how to react to such emotions. Such knowledge and understanding

of emotions make it possible to react in accordance with one’s own feelings, the feel-

ings of others and certain situations. The ability to be mindful of what is occurring inside

and outside ourselves and knowing and feeling prepared to react to these feelings will

guide our intra and interpersonal relationships (Devis-Rozental, 2018; Blom, 2004; De

Klerk & le Roux, 2003; Goleman, 1998).

1.9.3 Emotional and self-regulation

Children’s abilities to regulate and manage their emotions are said to stem from emo-

tional awareness. Emotional self-regulating can be understood as the extrinsic and

intrinsic processes responsible for effectively monitoring, evaluating and modifying af-

fective and emotional reactions in a manner that is in line with environmental demands

and social standards (Goleman, 1998; Thompson, 1994). Emotional self-regulation

can be viewed as an individual’s ability to recognise, manage and guide his/her emo-

tions and to deal with the situation in which he/she finds him/herself confidently and


26

through intrinsic or extrinsic strategies (Devis-Rozental, 2018; Damons, 2014; Blom,

2004).

1.9.4 Informal settlement

Statistics South Africa defines an informal settlement as “An unplanned settlement on

land that has not been surveyed or proclaimed as residential, consisting mainly of in-

formal dwellings (shacks)” (Housing Development Agency, 2013, p. 6). Such settle-

ments are often characterised by inadequate infrastructure, an unsuitable and hazard-

ous living environment, inadequate dwellings, poor access to resources, lack of secu-

rity and employment opportunities. They are further considered to be areas often as-

sociated with poverty and increasing risk for health challenges (HIV/AIDS and tuber-

culosis (TB), fires and crime. (Housing Development Agency, 2013).

1.9.5 Socially disorganised communities

Socially disorganised communities are those characterised by disadvantaged resi-

dence, residential instability, low income, poverty, high crime rates and lack of re-

sources (Zaun, 2016; Kubrin & Wo, 2016). According to the Social Disorganisation

Theory, certain ecological characteristics of the community such as “…poverty, job-

lessness, population mobility or turnover, racial composition and family disruption,

among others” (Kubrin & Wo, 2016, p. 123) may lead to social problems and social

disorganisation within a community.

1.9.6 NPO-funded Community-based Independent School

A non-profit organisation (NPO) is defined by the Nonprofit Organisations (NPO) Act,

No 71 of 1997 as “… a trust, company or other association of persons established for

a public purpose and of which its income and property are not distributable to its mem-

bers or office bearers except as reasonable compensation for services rendered” (Re-

public of South Africa 1997). For the purposes of this study, an NPO can be viewed as

an organisation that has not been established to operate for profit, but rather to provide

social services to support the public.


27

1.9.7 Foundation phase learner

The foundation phase, as referred to in the thesis title, is known as the first phase of

formal schooling in South Africa. The foundation phase consists of grades R, 1, 2 and

3. In this study, a foundation phase learner is a child between the ages of six (6) and

nine (9) years of age.

1.10 Chapter division

An overview and outline of the study is provided in Table 1.1 for ease of reference.

Table 1.1: Structure and details of chapters

Chapter number Purpose and details of chapter

Chapter 1

Chapter 1 introduces the study and presents its background. Chap-

ter 1 furthermore provides an overview of the research paradigm, de-

sign, approach, data collection and analysis methods, as well as the

ethical consideration that will be adhered to throughout the research.

Chapter 2

Chapter 2 provides an in-depth discussion of the conceptual frame-

work and the literature that will inform and guide the study. Domains

addressed in the literature review are: emotional intelligence, emo-

tional regulation, Circle of Friends and disorganised communities.

Chapter 3

Chapter 3 provides an in-depth exploration of the research paradigm

and design, as well as an in-depth discussion of the methodology.

Chapter 3 will further discuss trustworthiness and ethical aspects

that are likely to be encountered throughout the study.

Chapter 4 Chapter 4 presents and discusses the research findings.

Chapter 5

Chapter 5 serves as a conclusion and provides an overview of the

study. Furthermore, I will reflect on the strengths and limitations of

the study and, finally, conclude the study with recommendations for

future practice and research.


28

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The literature reviewed for this study focused on middle childhood. The development

of the child focuses on the broad spectrum of development, including physical, cogni-

tive, language, social and emotional development. Given that I had selected to focus

of this study to be socio-emotional intelligence, an extensive and in-depth review of

this subject is discussed in this chapter. Comparisons are drawn between the various

definitions and competencies, with a review of socio-emotional intelligence develop-

ment in context. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the Circle of Friends in-

tervention with relevance to the intervention programme used in this study. I consid-

ered both national and international research in this chapter and I was mindful that the

literature reviewed related to the research focus.

2.2 Development of the middle childhood child

Most of the learners, who attend a primary school, are in the stage of middle childhood

and, therefore, the focus of this study was on this developmental stage. This section

provides an overview of the development occurring in middle childhood and then pro-

ceeds to discuss in greater detail the various areas of development that pertain to so-

cio-emotional intelligence in middle childhood.

Middle childhood is the life stage between the ages of 6 and 12 years. Middle childhood

is an important phase for cognitive, social, emotional and self development (Louw &

Louw, 2020; Gilmore & Meersand, 2014). For most children, middle childhood is a

period in which they learn to master and manage themselvs within their worlds.

Children in middle childhood become more independent; start their formal education

at school; and gradullay move beyond their family circle by seeking peer relationships

at school and the wider social environment. Although children spend more time away

from home, the middle childhood child’s family, parents and home still play a povitol

role. In this way, children at this stage are exposed to the wider world and, as such,

have to master developmental tasks that perpare them for adolescents and adulthood.

Children’s development can be divided into the broad domains of physical, cognitive,


29

emotional and social development (Louw & Louw, 2020; Berk, 2013). In the following

sections, these developments are discussed, as they relate to middle childhood.

2.2.1 Physical development

Physical development relates to the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nerv-

ous system, muscles and senses (Louw & Louw, 2020). Physical development can

further be divided into general physical development, motor skills and sexuality in mid-

dle childhood.

An important aspect of the physical development of the child is motor development of

two main areas – gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor development

refers to the development of large muscles that facilitate balance, coordination and

locomotion. Fine motor skills development focuses on the small muscles and move-

ments required to manipulate small objects and tools, e.g. grasping, drawing and cut-

ting (Louw & Louw, 2020; Levine & Munsch, 2016; ISASA, 2015, Berk, 2013).

The literature agrees that middle childhood is a period of relative calm in respect of

physical development: physical growth happens more gradually than in early childhood

– slow and consistent growth. (Louw & Louw, 2020; Levine & Munsch, 2016; Rathus,

2006). During middle childhood, the child’s physical development involves gradual

increase in height and mass, as well as changes in their bodily proportions, which

continue to grow closer to the porportions of an adult. This results in a “lanky”

appearance in a child of the age. At the same time, the brain reaches its adult size and

weight; bones continue to harden; and milkteeth are replaced by permanent teeth.

(Louw & Louw, 2020; Berk, 2013).

The changes that occur in the stucture and functioning of the brain support cognitive

development, which will be discussed in greater detail in Section 2.2.2. The parts of

the brain structure that develop during middle childhood include the frontal lobe, the

parietal lobe and the corpus callosum. The frontal lobe of the brain is responsible for a

range of cognitive, emotional and social abilities that enable goal directed behaviour.

More specifically, the frontal lobe is responisble for executive funtioning, such as moral

reasoning, critical and creative thinking, emotional regulation, planning, decision-


30

making and impulse control (Levine & Munsch, 2016; Rosso, Young, Demia &

Yurgelun-Todd, 2004).

The next section discusses cognitive development in middle childhood children.

2.2.2 Cognitive development

According to literature, cognition refers to the inner process of “to learn” and “to know”.

Cognitive development, therefore, refers to how children come to know and understand

their world and it includes mental activities and processes, such as understanding,

reasoning, thinking, problem-solving, learning, creating, conceptualising, classifying

and remembering (Louw & Louw, 2020; Cullen, 2011; Schaffer, 2004). The cognitive

developmental perspective focuses on how children think and how their thinking

changes over time (Louw & Louw, 2020, p. 25).

Major cognitive advances occur between the ages of 6 and 12 years. I draw my under-

standing of cognitive development from two theorists, Piaget and Vygotsky. According

to Piaget’s theory, the child actively understands and constructs their own knowledge.

(Wilmshurts, 2013). During the middle childhood years, children, according to Piaget’s

theory of cognitive development, enter a concrete operational stage. For the purpose

of this study, it is important to understand that, during this cognitive development stage,

children gradually become less dominated by their own perception, and they have

fewer egocentric thoughts, as they have more interactions and experiences with

friends and siblings who assert their perspectives of the world. In addition, the cognitive

abilities of children in middle childhood result in an improvement in their thinking and

reasoning, as they develop the capacity for more logical operational thought and prob-

lem-solving. Children in this stage, also develop cognitive skills that enable them to

think more intentionally; to self-reflect; to think through the consequences of behaviour;

and to avoid impulsive reactions when emotions are triggered (Louw & Louw, 2020;

Carr, 2016; Gilmore & Meersand, 2014; Berk, 2013; Huston & Ripke, 2006). All these

changes occurring over time equip the child in middle childhood to have more flexible

cognitive skills with which to think and plan (Donald, Lazarus, & Moolla, 2014, p. 75).


31

Cognitive development has significant implications for understanding moral, social and

emotional aspects and development. Bajgar, Ciarrochi, Lane and Deane (2005, p. 569)

argue that emotions are part of a person’s cognitive structure and, therefore, “… emo-

tional awareness can be seen as a cognitive skill, where the child filters and process

external and internal emotions”. This implies that children with the capacity for emo-

tional awareness can consciously decide to which emotions they are going to react

and what they do not want to think about. In other words, our understanding of emo-

tional expression experiences and management requires some degree of cognitive

processing and understanding (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Cicchetti, 1984.

This stage of cognitive development has its own limitations. According to Louw and

Louw (2020), thoughts are limited to tangible, concrete, the real, and the here and now.

At this stage, children are not able to think abstractly; instead their thinking is limited

to what can be concretely visualised or imagined (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014;

Wilmshurts, 2013).

While there is agreement that Piaget’s stages occur in sequence and that the rates of

achieving these stages may vary. Research indicates that, in the sequential attainment

of Piaget’s stages among children from South Africa, there are several influential fac-

tors playing a role in the attainment of Piaget’s task, including schooling, educational

level of parents, child-rearing means and cultural differences. While Piaget believes

that cognitive development is universal, there is growing evidence suggesting that the

stages are uneven and that children in different cultures develop skills in different ways

(Wilmshurst, 2013). Piaget’s tasks do not emerge spontaneously but are heavily influ-

enced by the social contextual factors and schooling conditions in which children de-

velop (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Berk, 2013, p. 252; Louw & Louw, 2020, p.

230).

While Piaget focuses on learning through self-discovery, Vygotsky is more concerned

about the way in which cognitive development occurs from the “outside-in”. Vygotsky

believes that learning and cognitive development could be enhanced by social facilita-

tion and interaction (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Wilmshurts, 2013).


32

Children's development should be considered against their cultural and social back-

drop, as they construct shared meaning and knowledge through their social interac-

tions with others, such as parents/caregivers, peers, and teachers.

Learning is socially facilitated in the zone of proximal development through strategies

such as scaffolding, where adults, mentors or older children provides guided practice

(Louw & Louw, 2020; Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Berk, 2013). As such, children’s

SEI is also acquired and constructed through social interactions with others. This study

required participants to engage in social interaction, sharing their feelings, experiences

and coping strategies, and, by so doing, collectively constructing meaning and

knowledge of socio-emotional competencies.

2.2.2.1 Language development

Language development entails the acquisition of understanding and using human lan-

guage (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017; McDevitt & Ormrod, 2016). Language de-

velopment frequently makes a distinction between expressive (ability to communicate

effectively through speaking) and receptive language (ability to understand spoken

words) skills (Louw & Louw, 2020, p. 112). Although language development occurs at

a slower rate in middle childhood, there is significant language refinement during this

developmental stage and the child in middle childhood demonstrates increased vocab-

ulary, as they learn new words and their meanings.

Vygotsky believes that language ability affects every aspect of the child’s thoughts. He

further regards language as a potent instrument in structuring thoughts and regulating

cognitive behaviour. Children move through stages in which language serves a largely

social purpose, to a stage where they use language to control their own behaviour and

thoughts. The former refers to children’s private speech. Private speech helps children

to sort out through their problems. Private speech develops into inner speech at the

ages of six (6) and seven (7) years (Louw & Louw, 2020; Donald, Lazarus & Moolla,

2014).

Mother tongue is the primary means through which children make sense of their world

and connect with others (Pandy, 2014, Early & Norton, 2014). Although research has

established that children can achieve optimal cognitive development, when they learn


33

in their mother tongue, the majority of children in South Africa learn in a language that

is not their home language (Louw & Louw, 2020; Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017)

Studies have shown that language has a strong impact on the acquisition of concepts

underpinning children’s social and emotional development (Sidera, Serrat & Amado,

2014). Children with more advanced and proficient language skills are perceived to be

more capable of expressing their needs, emotions and thoughts effectively. Conse-

quently, children who experience difficulties in using language adequately, will more

than likely find it challenging to express themselves through language. Language is,

therefore, considered as a crucial aspect for emotional development, in that it helps to

acquire and use the conceptual knowledge to give meaning to thoughts, experiences,

emotions and perceptions (Marti, Caballero & Sellabona, 2020; Landsberg, Kruger &

Swart, 2017; Carr, 2016; Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Pons, Lawson, Harris & De

Rosney, 2003).

The next section discusses social development in middle childhood children.

2.2.2.2 Social development

Louw and Louw (2020) observe that social development involves the development of

the individual’s interaction and relationships with other people. It includes aspects of

the development of attachment between the caregiver and the child; the expansion of

the persons interpersonal relationships; and the modelling of behaviour. Social devel-

opment in the middle childhood evolves mostly around the family and the peer group

relationships and the development of moral reasoning (Louw & Louw, 2020).

According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, children in middle

childhood are in the stage of industry versus inferiority – a phase in which children

become more involved in activities and relationships outside their home environment;

a stage in which they learn to be competent and productive and cooperate with others

or feel inferior when they have negative experiences at homes, school and within the

peer group (Louw & Louw, 2020; Erasmus, 2019; Berk, 2013).

Erikson (1968) opines that children, who fail to master these skills, may develop feel-

ings of inferiority, which, in turn, may have a detrimental impact on their emotional,

interpersonal and intellectual well-being. Eccles (1999) indicates that the main drive in


34

a child’s life during middle childhood is the need to demonstrate and achieve compe-

tence; to form social relationships with peers; and to become more independent.

Children in middle childhood spend more time away from home, pursuing external in-

terests and opportunities, such as at school and within peer groups, thereby seemingly

becoming less dependent on their parents. However, the family continues to play a key

role in the socialisation of the child, although peers, teachers and others start to play a

greater role (Louw & Louw, 2020; Rathus, 2017; Levine & Munsch, 2016; Berk, 2013).

In this way, parents continue to play direct and indirect roles in their children’s social

development and the socialisation process, through their choice of the environment

and opportunities to which their children are exposed and through transmission of val-

ues, attitudes and beliefs and social interactions coaching.

On an indirect level, parent-child attachment and parenting styles play a role in chil-

dren’s social competence. Bowlby (1988) explains that children form attachments to

their primary caregivers in infancy and that, although the intensity of these attachments

declines from early to middle childhood, children in middle childhood and adolescence

continue to need their attachment figures. Additionally, the parent-infant attachment

relationship serves as a prototype that influences the formation and course of later

peer relationships (future relationships) (Louw & Louw, 2020; Scammell, 2019; Lindon,

2012).

As children in middle childhood enter formal schooling, they interact more with other

children of the same age and gender (Berk, 2013). Peer relationships play an signifi-

cant role and has several important functions. The peer group can provide a child with

opportunities for trying out new behaviours, experiences and opportunities to obtain

knowledge and information, learning obedience to rules and regulations, transferring

knowledge and information and reinforcing gender roles (Louw & Louw, 2020).

The well-being, self-concept and academic achievement of a child in middle childhood

are also partly influenced by friendship and peer status (Vandell & Hembree, 1994).

Peer acceptance is an important factor for children and children in middle childhood

experiencing rejection by the peer group tend to present negative social behaviours,

including poor school performance, depression and other socio-emotional problems


35

(Berk, 2013, p. 619). Being rejected by peers results in negative socio-emotional

concequences, poor emotional regulation and perspective talking skills. On the other

hand, Louw and Louw (2020) indicate that excessive conformity to the peer group may

also have negative consequences.

The next section discusses the emotional development of the child in middle childhood.

2.2.3 Emotional development

According to Berk (2013, p. 401), an emotion is a feeling in response to a situation or

a “… rapid appraisal of the personal significance of the situation which preparers a

person for action. Therefore, emotions are caused by situations or experiences and

are expressed in terms of physiological responses and behaviours (Louw & Louw,

2020). Emotional development refers to a “… child’s ability to display, regulate and

control emotions” (Landy, 2002), and is considered central to every aspect of a child’s

development.

The core features of emotional development include the ability to identify and under-

stand one’s own feelings; to read and comprehend emotional states in others accu-

rately; to manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner; to

regulate one’s own behaviour; to develop empathy for others; and to establish and

sustain relationships (ISASA, 2015; Boyd, Bodrova, Leong, Gomby & Barnett, 2005).

Rafaila (2015) explains that children become more skilled and capable of talking about

their own emotions and listening to emotional expression of others from approximately

six years of age (i.e. the start of middle childhood). During this developmental life stage,

children begin to understand that their emotions originate from certain causes and lead

to behaviours that have consequences for both themselves and others.

In middle childhood, children’s awareness and understanding of emotional expression

become more sophisticated. Two important emotional developments occur in middle

childhood: (i) children’s increased understanding of ambivalent emotions in response

to a situation; and (ii) growing awareness and ability about managing emotions to meet


36

social standards. Furthermore, children in middle childhood are more capable of regu-

lating their emotions and using self-initiated strategies to redirect feelings and behav-

iours (Louw & Louw, 2020; Erasmus, 2019; Levine & Munsch, 2016; Salovey & Sluter,

1997).

in developmental contexts, the health, well-being and success of children are partly

influenced by their social connections such as the family, school, peer group and the

community (Louw & Louw, 2020; Thomson et al., 2018; Carr, 2016). Bowlby’s (1988),

theory of attachment provides a framework for understanding the child’s socio-emo-

tional development, based on the degree of comfort and security that an infant re-

ceives, subsequently contributing to later success in self-regulation and problem-solv-

ing.

Middle childhood is a time in which children’s social context widens from the family to

include other ecological contexts, the school context being most significant (Louw &

Louw, 2020; Carr, 2016; Levine & Munsch, 2016). In middle childhood, teachers play

a significant role in the emotional development of children by providing specific instruc-

tions to students, as well as modelling emotional behaviour and emotional regulation.

The role becomes even more important when the child’s family and neighbourhood

context do not provide adequate socio-emotional guidance, support and coaching

(Zeidner, Roberts & Matthews, 2002; Roeser & Peck, 2003).

The emotional tasks and social processes that children in middle childhood have to

navigate in primary school are drastically different from those in pre-school. In pre-

school, a child’s emotional task is to learn to manage their emotions. In primary school,

children’s main goal becomes to be socially accepted and to avoid rejection from their

peer group (Parker & Gottman, 1989).

Furthermore, children need to acquire skills that will enable them to demonstrate social

behaviours, constructive academic behaviour and self-regulation (CASAL, 2012).

Therefore, socio-emotional competence becomes crucial to social and scholastic suc-

cess, as children learn how and when to express their emotions and to whom.


37

From the foregoing, it becomes clear that emotional development is closely linked to a

child’s cognitive and social development. Children in middle childhood are, for exam-

ple, less egocentric, more proficient in task requiring logical reasoning, and making

significant progress in terms of vocabulary. These cognitive millstones enable children

to learn more about feelings, complex emotions, the meaning of emotions and the

emotions of others. Children’s understanding of emotions and appropriate emotional

expression greatly improve during middle childhood. Also, children in middle childhood

more readily understand cause and effect behaviour; that emotions result in reactions;

and that there are consequences for those reactions. The cognitive, language and so-

cial development of children in middle childhood will, therefore, aid them in the devel-

opment of socio-emotional competencies (Louw & Louw, 2020; Erasmus, 2019; Berk,

2013; Harris, 1989).

2.3 Socio-emotional intelligence (SEI)

This section covers in some detail the area of socio-emotional intelligence. In order to

develop a deeper understanding of socio-emotional intelligence, I will explore the var-

ious definitions and models of socio-emotional intelligence, as well as the theoretical

perspective concepts on socio-emotions intelligence in children and the value this has

for children. This section will also cover the development of SEI and the influential

factors involved.

2.3.1 Defining the concept of SEI

To gain a deeper understanding of and insight into socio-emotional intelligence, it is

important to explore its roots as separate terminologies/intelligences of emotional in-

telligence and social intelligence.

2.3.1.1 Emotional intelligence (EQ)

Emotional Intelligence was first defined by Mayer and Salovey (1997, p. 10) as “… the

ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotions; the ability to access

and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion

and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional

and intellectual growth”. The construct of emotional intelligence is based on the prem-


38

ise that individuals differ in their abilities to recognise, process, understand and ex-

press their own emotions, as well as the emotions of others (Petrides & Furnham

(2003). Goleman (1995) explains emotional intelligence as an individual’s ability to un-

derstand and manage their own emotions and relationships as well as those of others.

Saarni (2000) in Humphrey, et al. (2010) define emotional competence refers to the

extent to which one is aware of one’s own emotions and others’ emotions (and is able

to act on this awareness), the ability to regulate emotional experiences and to effec-

tively navigate interpersonal interactions (p.5 14). More recently, Brackett, et al. (2004,

p. 1389) define it as an:

“… ability to perceive and accurately express emotions, to use emotions

to facilitate thought, to understand emotions, and to manage emotions for

emotional growth”.

From the above definitions of EQ, what matters is not surprising our emotional experi-

ences but, rather the importance lies in how we manage it and express it in a healthy

way. Thus, “Emotional intelligence is an important attribute to develop as it will enable

us to navigate the social world in a way that empowers us to develop positive relation-

ships with ourselves and others” (Devis-Rozental, 2018, p.33). What matters is finding

the right level where we are expressing emotions whilst managing our environment

and personla situations in a healthier manner. The former just highlighting the

importance of the social aspects in EQ.

2.3.1.2 Social intelligence (SI)

Thorndike (1920) originally explained social intelligence to be a facet of generalised

intelligence (social quotient intelligence) and defined it as the ability to understand and

manage other people. In the 1950s, Wechsler (1958) disregared social intelligence as

a type of intelligence. Consequently, social intelligence has been neglected in the field

of psychology until recenlty. It was Cantor and Kilstrom (1987) redefined social

intelligence and saw it as a personal understanding of the social world. More recently,

Gardner’s (2000) multiple intelligences theory defines social inteligence (SI) in terms

of dual concepts: inter-personal and intra-personal. Gardner (2000) defines

interpersonal as “… the ability to understand people: what motivates them, how they

work, how to work cooperatively with them”. He defines intrapersonal as “… the

capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of one’s self”. More recently, Honeywill


39

(2015) and Albrecht (2005) describe social intelligence as the capacity to get along

with others and to navigate complex social relationships and environments, inlcuding

elements such as cooperation, helpfulness and the ability to resolve conflict (Belton,

Ebbert & Infurna, 2016; Humphrey, Kalambouka, Wigelsworth, Lendrum, Lennie &

Farrell, 2010).

Based on Goleman’s theory (2006, p. 11), social intelligence can be viewed as “…

being intelligent is not just about our relationships but also in them”. The former

statement expanding our focus of and understanding SI to look beyond the individual

and to try to understand what transpires as people interact – i.e. looking beyond self-

intrerest to the best interest of others.

2.3.1.3 Socio-emotional intelligence (SEI)

Bar-On (2006), Gardner (2000), Goleman (2006) and Denham, Wyatt, Bassett, Eche-

verria and Knox (2009) concur that social and emotional intelligence interwine and that

it may be quite diffiuclt to distinguish between them. Bar-On (2006, p. 14) asserts that

socio-emotional intelligence entails a “… cross section of interralated emotional and

social competencies and skills that determine how effectively people understand and

express themselves, understand others, and relate with them and cope with daily

demands”. Goleman (1995) regards emotional intelligence as an umbrella term where

social intelligence is a facet, albeit intertwined (Schultz, Richardson, Barber & Wilcox,

2021). Consequently, social and emotional intelligence ought to be integrated, as they

are both essential for the understanding of ourselves and others (Devis-Rozental,

2018).

Devis-Rozental (2017, p. 40) defines SEI as:

“the ability to integrate feeling, intuition and cognition to acknowledge, un-

derstand, manage, apply and express our emotions and social interactions

at the right time, for the right purpose in the right context and with the right

person. Its overall aim is to have a positive impact on our environment and

to engage ourselves and others to be present, authentic and open; in order

to achieve a sense of wellbeing and to build effective relationships in every

aspect of our lives”.


40

2.3.2 Components of socio-emotional intelligence

Goleman (1995) developed the notion of “emotional intelligence” as an umbrella term

for other areas and social intelligence is one of the facets, albeit intertwined, in this

umbrella term. Goleman (1995) divides emotional intelligence into the following:

• Self-awareness: the ability to know our own emotions;

• Self-regulation: being able to control our emotions;

• Social skill: to manage relationships effectively;

• Empathy: to consider others’ feelings; and

• Motivation: having the drive to achieve.

Table 2.1: Socio-emotional competencies

Component of SEI Decription

Self-awarness

Self-awarness encapsulates children’s ability to be percieve, appraise and express

emotions in self. Self-awareness means that one is aware of one’s own emotions,

emotional triggers and expereinces, and one’s emotions in reactions to triggering

situations/events. Self-awareness further entails a deep understanding of one’s own

personal qulaities – strenghts, eares of development, needs and drives. Self-

awarenes is if considered to be the first component in socio-emotional intelligence,

and thus serves as the basis for subsequet components

Social awareness

(Empathy)

Empthy refers to a person’s ability to understand others situtaions and feelings.

Cooper and Sawaf (1997, p. 51) refer to empathy as meaning “to feel with”. The

ability to identify the emotions of others, and to react empatheticaaly towards them;

the ability to consider the perspectives of others; the ability to observe and

experience emotions in orfer to share it. Children’s ability to respond in an

emotionally repsonsive way, is related to their interpersonal communication skills –

listening, paying attention, awareness of non-verbal communication. The

development of empathy relates to the child’s developing self-awareness, cognitive

and langauge skills (Louw & Louw, 2020).

Managament of

social relationships

One’s ability to understand interpersonal relationships, solve conflict, settle

dissareements in one’s relationships with others. Social responsibility is the ability to

establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships while demonstrating

ourselves as cooperative, contributing and constructive members of our social group

(family, peer group, school). In addition, social relationships depend on using

empathy to support other people and help manage the emotional content with our

social groups.


41

Component of SEI Decription

Personal

motivation

This dimention of socio-emotional intelligence deals with one’s ability to use ones

own emotions in a productive manner, the ability to apply and maintain oneself

focuss on taaks, along with the baility to manage one’s impulsivity

Self- managment Represents conscious control above impulsive and inadequate reactions and inap-

propriate emotion expressions.

(Louw & Louw, 2020; CASAL, 2012; Lindon, 2012; Schiller, 2009; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997;

Mayer, 1996; Goleman, 2001)

These competencies and skills build on one another. Children have to learn how to

understand and recognise their own emotions first, to learn that others have feelings

too, and to begin to empathise with others. As children grow older, they learn to man-

age and handle their emotions. (Almazeedi, 2019; Blom, 2004; Boyd et al., 2005).

2.3.2.1 Self-management

Self-management refers to the individual’s ability to regulate his/her emotions to handle

stress, control impulses and express emotions appropriately by means of intrinsic and

extrinsic strategies (CASAL, 2012; Payton et al., 2006; Blom, 2004; Goleman, 1995).

Because of my interest in understanding the way in which the Circle of Friends inter-

vention can be adapted for implementation to strengthen socio-emotional regulation

within the foundation phase, the concept of self-regulation will be discussed in more

depth.

Thompson (1994, pp. 27–28) defines emotional self-regulation as the “… process of

responsible monitoring, evaluating an modifying emotional reactions”). Rothbart,

Sheese, Rueda and Posner (2011, p. 207) define self-regulation as the “… child’s

ability to modulate bahaviour according to the cognitive, emotional and social demand

of a particular situation”. Although there are various defitions of self-regulation, it mainly

refers to the processes involved in adjuting and managing one’s emotional state to a

comfortable and managable level by means of various stategies (CASAL, 2012; Blom,

2004). Therefore, children, who demonstrate self-regulation, have the ability to monitor

and control their behaviours in a given situation independently and appropriately

(Wilmshursts, 2013).


42

Self-awareness skills and emotional self-regulation skills are closely related.

Developing awareness of one’s own emotions and behaviour and the ability to verbal-

ise them is a critical step in the development of self-regulation (Boyd et al., 2005; Blom,

2004;). Children must learn to manage their emotions and actions. Subsequenlty, they

need to be guided and helped to identify the emotion activation trigger; identify

alternative regulation strategies for dealing with emotions; and implement the specific

strategies. Such emotional coaching enables children to develop comprehensive

knowledge about emotions and develop effective self-regualtion (effort control).

Children with low effort control run into trouble late in life due to behavioural problems.

Research has shown how authoritarian parenting and responding to children’s feelings

with dissaproval or punishment often result in children developing low self-regulation

(Erasmus, 2019; Gottman, 1997).

Although emotionality is found to be relatively stable from pre-school to primary school,

self-regulation is a competency that increases with age. Research on brain activity

reports that the frontal lobe of the brain supports a variety of self-regulatory or

excecutive functions, inlcuding the abilities to regulate emotions, control impulses,

think creatively, sequence activities, and manage internal motivation (Louw & Louw,

2020; Levine & Munsch, 2016; Dan, 2016). As disscused in Section 2.2.2, various brain

structures continue to develop during middle childhood, including the frontal lobe, the

parietal lobe and the corpus callosum. As such, it is suggested that children in middle

childhood are likely to demonstrate growing executive functioning and self-regulation.

According to Louw and Louw (2020), children in middle childhood demonstrate an in-

creased tendency to identify emotional activation triggers, improved ability to conceal

and suppress negative emotional reactions and the ability to use a variety of coping

strategies to redirect feelings.

However, although middle childhood children understand and expereince various basic

emotions, their environment does not always allow them to verbalise and express

emotions such as anger, fear and anxiety. The former often results in children feeling

helpless in the face of such “powerful” emotions, which often rise uninvitedly,

overhwelming them with energies they feel unable to control and manage. Therefore,

they find it difficult to modulte such overwhemling feelings.


43

Carr (2016) reports that children in middle childhood prefer to regulate their emotions

and behaviours autonomously, rather than involving an adult/caregiver in the process.

Children in middle childhood must be guided to choose an appropriate management

of overwhelming feelings such as anger (Blom, 2004). Vygotsky (1978) regards inner

speech as a guide for behaviour that develops during middle childhood, and that can

be used as a self-regulating mechanism to monitor and control thinking, behaviour and

emotions (Louw & Louw, 2020; Blom, 2004).

The ability to regulate one’s emotions and behaviour is of critical importance in a child’s

socio-emotional development. Research on the relationship between self-regulation

and socio-emotional competence suggests that better self-management is associated

with improved social skills and likeability. Poor emotional regulation, on the other hand,

has typically been associated with poor socio-emotional competence and higher levels

of aggression. Overall, children’s emotional regulation is vital in their ability to navigate

school sucessfully, manage emotions constructively, solve conflict and emerge as

confident and competent young people, who are able to take their role within their

society and manage themselves in the diffirent spaces they inhibit (Landsberg, Kruger

& Swart, 2017; Herrera, Buitrago, Lorenzo & Badea, 2015; Tufeanu, 2015; Mayer,

Salovey & Caruso, 2004; Zins, Elias & Greenberg, 2003).

2.4 Socio-emotional intelligence development in context

It is widely agreed that genetics, parenting and life experiences strongly influence the

development of SEI, although the intensity of the impact of each is still undecided.

The literature explains that the socio-emotional skills acquired in childhood are of crit-

ical importance throughout a human’s life, as there is much evidence that human ca-

pabilities are optimised when they demonstrate awareness of emotions in self and oth-

ers, regulate emotions, communicate effectively, and solve problems.

According to CASAL (2012), ISASA (2015) and Denham (2007), school aged children

are learning:

• To be aware of emotional experiences;

• To be discerning of their own, and others, emotions;


44

• To use emotional language;

• To empathically attend to the emotions of others;

• To regulate negative emotions;

• That inner emotional states may differ from outer expression; and

• That communication of emotions is necessary in social relationships.

De Klerk and Le Roux (2003) indicate that there is significant value in developing socio-

emotional intelligence in children: not only does it equip children with competencies to

navigate their present educational and social spaces successfully but, more im-

portantly, children gain knowledge and skills that allow them to succeed and thrive later

in life.

Children, who have the skill of socio-emotional intelligence, tend to enjoy better health;

perform better academically; have more positive relationships with friends; have fewer

behavioural problems; have increased knowledge of their emotions; have a better un-

derstanding of the values and perceptions of others; have more self-confidence and

self-acceptance; make better decisions; show more pro-social behaviour; and have

better coping skills (Louw & Louw, 2020, p. 245; Denham, Bassett & Zinsser, 2012; De

Klerk & Le Roux, 2003).

Petrides, Sangareau, Furnham and Frederickson (2006) have traced a relationship

between socio-emotional intelligence and children’s peer relations at school. Accord-

ing to Denham and Burton (1996), children who understand emotions are more adept

at social interactions and are rated more socially competent by their teachers and

peers. In addition, understanding emotions in others facilitates the development of

quality relationships, since empathy is important in the development of such relation-

ships (Blom, 2012; Soenens, Duriez, Vansteenkiste & Goossens, 2007; Blom, 2004).

Additionally, socio-emotional competencies of empathy, self-regulation and social

skills appear to play a protective role against behavioural, discipline and future conduct

problems, such as violence and aggression (Schultz, et al., 2021; Blalock, Lindo, &

Ray, 2019; Humphrey, et al., 2010; Payton et al., 2008; de Klerk & le Roux, 2003.

Furtermore, SEI serves as a protective factor against overall functional impairment.


45

Consequently, fostering social and emotional development is just as important for help-

ing students to attain positive life outcomes, as it is for helping students to advance

academically (Schultz et al., 2021; Blalock, Lindo & Ray, 2019; Denham et al., 2012,

Allen, 2011; Bar-On, 2003). Wilding (2007) contributes by stating that possessing so-

cio-emotional intelligence skills serves as a protective factor, as it enables children to

manage life problems and traumas.

2.4.1 Bio-ecological approach (Bronfenbrenner)

The bio-ecological approach introduced by Bronfenbrenner (Hayes, O'Toole &

Halpenny, 2017) suggests that, to understand children’s development, one needs to

recognise that children/people are embedded in and inlfuenced by their interactions

across various contexts and systems. These interactions may result in physical,

biological, psychological, social, emotional and cutural growth and development (Lee

& Broom, 2017; Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014). The bio-ecological model acknowl-

edges that children do not develop in isolation and that their development is embedded

in several contexts, such as family, home, school, community, society and culture.

Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) model sheds light on the way in which children’s social con-

text mould their development (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Gillibrand, Lam &

O'Donnell, 2016; Berk, 2013). The proximal interaction between factors in children’s

maturing biology, their immediate family, school, peer and community environment

(microsystem) and the societal landscape (macrosystem) fuels and steers their devel-

opment.

Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers (Hayes, O'Toole

& Halpenny, 2017; Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014, p. 45; Berk, 2013). The greatest

influences on a child’s development are their everyday interactions within their proxi-

mal environments (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Children’s interactions in their social contexts or systems across their lifespans include:

• The microsystem: direct interactions with family, peers, teachers or caregivers;

• The mesosystem: interactions that are secondary in nature e.g. parents interacting

with their schools;


46

• The exosystem: indirect interactions in which children are/were not directly involved

but that influence their development and well-being, e.g. parents’ employment or

financial histories and the environments in which they grew up;

• On a more distal level, the influence exerted by social, political and economic struc-

tures, such as ideologies, beliefs and values that could play a significant role in how

these children would interact within and across their various life systems (mac-

rosystem); and

• The chronosystem, which includes the environmental events and transitions that

occur over an individual’s lifespan (Swart & Pettipher, 2016; Lundqvist & Sand-

ström, 2019).

According to Petersen (2020, p. 23)

“… people’s interactions in their daily lives as they navigate within and

across their different contexts are reciprocal and include risk factors that

could cause barriers to their development, as well as protective factors or

resources that could serve as enablers to their development”.

The children’s experiences within the family, the peer group, school and the classroom

work in synergy to contribute to their development of socio-emotional competence

(Carr, 2016; Denham, 2007). It is possible that the development of the children

participanting in this study was inlfuenced by their interactions within their social

context.

2.4.2 Family system

Of all the contexts influencing children’s development, the family system/context is the

most powerful (Berk, 2013). The literature agrees that the family plays an essential role

in children’s socio-emotional and cognitive development and that the quality and sta-

bility of the family relationship have a direct impact on children’s well-being (Louw &

Louw, 2020; Berk, 2013). As observed by Goleman (1995), “Family life is children’s

first school for emotional learning”.


47

Parents are often the key role models from whom children learn about their emotions

and how to manage them. Therefore, it is important to understand how parents teach

their children these skills. Socio-emotional intelligence (SEI) supporters claim that fam-

ily socialisation practices determine the development of SEI in children (Salovey &

Sluter, 1997). Parent emotion socialisation takes effect through various parenting

styles, parenting practices and modelling (Erasmus, 2019; Lindon, 2012).

Gottman (1997) explains that different parenting styles have an impact on children’s

development in several areas, including socio-emotional development (Wilmshurts,

2013, p. 76). Parenting style is viewed as a specific contextual variable in the children’s

environment that refers to a combination of parenting behaviours (Scammell, 2019). In

essence, parenting style pertains to the degree and nature of parent’s warmth/ac-

ceptance (responsiveness), or control/monitoring (demandingness). The different fea-

tures of child-rearing styles are outlined in Table 2.2 (Louw & Louw, 2020; Erasmus,

2019; Berk, 2013; Lindon, 2012; Blom, 2012; Gottman, 1997).

Table 2.2: Features of child-rearing styles

Child-rearing

style Description Parent-style outcome on the child

Authoritative

Parents who adopt a warm child-centred

approach, coupled with sensitivity to

children’s needs and an adaptive degree

of control that allows children age-appro-

priate responsibility and autonomy, pro-

vide a context which is maximally benefi-

cial for children’s development

This style is linked to many aspects of

competence throughout childhood and

adolescence, including: increased self-

control, positive mood and self-esteem,

task persistence, social competence, ac-

ademic performance and adaptive be-

haviour.

Authoritarian

Parents with an authoritarian style tend

to be “ice-cold” and rejecting and use

harsh coercive practices.

The outcome for children raised in this

manner are generally negative: they

tend to be anxious and unhappy, and to

have low frustration tolerance, show

high rates of anger and defiance and

can be passive aggressive

Permissive

This parenting style is high in nurturance

but lax in expectations, discipline, con-

trol, and communication. These parents

are generally warm and accepting but,

Lacking in guidance, children raised in

permissive and indulgent households


48

Child-rearing

style Description Parent-style outcome on the child

they exert little control over the chil-

dren’s behaviour, with the result of chil-

dren having to make their own decisions

at an age when they are not yet capable

of doing so.

tend to be impulsive, lacking in self-reli-

ance, disobedient, rebellious, and de-

manding

Uninvolved

Children of uninvolved parents often ex-

perienced little warmth from their par-

ents coupled with inconsistent supervi-

sion from their parents. Majority of these

parents tend to be emotionally de-

tached, often due to life stressors. In its

extreme form, uninvolved parents can

be guilty of child neglect, with far-reach-

ing negative consequences for develop-

ment in cognitive, social, and emotional

areas.

Children reared in this manner often

demonstrate deficits in attachment, cog-

nition, play and socio-emotional skills.

According to Goleman (1995), emotionally adept parents can do a great deal to help

their children with the basics of socio-emotional intelligence. An emotional coaching

parenting style has been positively linked to the development of children’s socio-emo-

tional competence (Lindon, 2012; Blom, 2012, Gottman, 1997). These parents are de-

scribed as accepting and taking their children’s feelings seriously enough to try to un-

derstand what is upsetting them, and to help them find positive ways to sooth and

manage their feelings.

Research reports that parents should have a fairly firm grasp on the principles of socio-

emotional intelligence themselves. It is assumed that parents with have higher levels

of socio-emotional competencies – emotional expression and emotional management

– are associated with several positive outcomes, including fewer disruptive behaviours,

more recurrent child positive emotion expressiveness, emotional responsivity to oth-

ers, healthier child emotion and behavioural regulation and relational skills (Lindon,

2012; Gottman, 1997; Goleman, 1995). Parent emotion regulation has also been

shown to impact on child emotional and social competence. Parents who regulate their


49

emotions adaptively, also tend to have children, who manage their emotions more con-

structively positively (Bariola, Hughes & Gullone, 2012; Cumberland-Li, 2003; Gunzen-

hauser, Fäsche, Friedlmeier & Suchodoletz, 2014; Morelen & Suveg, 2012; Valiente

et al., 2007A). Research has shown that children’s emotion management strategies

tend to be positively associated with their parents’ coping skills (Gunzenhauser et al.,

2014; Kliewer, Fearnow & Miller, 1996).

Despite the general agreement on the value of authoritative parenting, different cultural

groups have distinct child-rearing beliefs, expectations and practices. Research involv-

ing low socio-economic, high-risk environments reports that these parents tend to be

more controlling and demand compliance as a protective means (Wilmshurts, 2013;

Berk, 2013). Cultural variables remind us that child-rearing practices should be

understood within the context of the broader community.

A second significant factor of parents’ emotion socialisation is specific parenting prac-

tices, which are likely to be influenced by their own expectations, beliefs and attitudes

about emotions. Parenting practices encompass those specific behaviours and tech-

niques that parents use to advance their goals for their children’s development and are

the primary mechanisms of how parental attitudes and beliefs are enacted towards

their children (Lindon, 2012; Darling & Steinberg, 1993).

Parenting practices related to the development of children’s socio-emotional compe-

tencies include direct methods and indirect methods. Parents can enhance their chil-

dren’s socio-emotional competencies by directly teaching them how to understand,

label and regulate their emotions, either in the moment of their children’s experience

of a specific emotion – teachable moments – or direct teaching at other times (Denham,

2007; De Klerk & Le Roux, 2003; Cumberland et al., 1998). In addition, parents also

directly socialise emotions by how they react to their children’s emotions and behav-

iours. Supportive parent reaction guides children in solving problems that elicit reac-

tions; helps to label and cope with their emotions; and provides opportunities for posi-

tive expression of emotions. On the other hand, unsupportive reactions from parents

have been associated with less adaptive outcomes for children’s socio-emotional com-

petence (Blair, Perry, O’Brien, Calkins, Keane & Shanahan, 2014). Such unsupportive

reactions include punishing children for experiencing negative reactions; minimising


50

the importance of or ignoring children’s emotions; and the parents becoming upset in

response to their child’s negative emotion (Scammell, 2019).

On the other hand, parenting practices can also be indirect, which include modelling

for children how to cope with emotions, and children observing and learning from these

displays. Consequently, parenting practices defined by inconsistent discipline and cor-

poral punishment are associated with the development of behavioural problems and

emotional dysregulation (Duncombe, Havighurst, Holland, & Frankling, 2012). Parent-

ing practiced both direct and indirect methods are important predictors of children’s

socio-emotional competence skills.

While families play a crucial role in the emotion socialisation of children, teachers are

also considered to be important models of socio-emotional behaviour for children. In

the next section, the school context will be explored.

2.4.3 School and classroom context

Socio-emotional Intelligence plays an important role in the individual’s successful

adaption to life. During middle childhood, the child is confronted with important emo-

tional developmental tasks, such as adapting to the school, to social activities and ex-

pectations of social and constructive academic behaviour. Children spend a a great

part of their lives at school, and it is well documented and not surprising that the school

environment may have a significant impact on several areas of a child’s development

(Sylva as cited in Wells, 2000; Mayer & Salovey; 1997).

The role of the school is not limited to academic achievement only, in that schools play

a vital role in developing SEI early in a child’s life. School settings are immersed in

social and emotional experiences, and these experiences affect learning and perfor-

mance, as well as the interactions and personal growth of both learners and teachers.

Entering the school environment places new demands on children, as they are re-

quired to learn to express emotions and appropriately; to self-regulate their emotions

and behaviours in socially and age-appropriate ways; and to identify these processes

both in self and in others – of which can be referred to as socio-emotional competence


51

(Louw & Louw, 2020). SEI is crucial for appropriate self-management in social interac-

tion, as well as for the ability to demonstrate constructive academic and classroom

behaviours.

SEI enables children to build and maintain meaningful friendships and to be well-liked

by their peers and teachers. This contributes to them feeling more positive about

school and to participate and achieve better than children with low emotional compe-

tence. Children who are victimised by peers, often demonstrate angry and aggressive

behaviour (Erasmus, 2019). Such children tend to have adjustment problems at

school, and they are at risk of behavioural problems and academic difficulties (Raver

& Knitzer, 2002; Kochenderfer & Ladd, 1996). SEI development can help children, who

are at risk of behavioural problems (Goleman, 1995). Social and emotional skills are

essential for children’s success at school and in life (Willis & Schiller, 2011).

Furtermore, SEI serves as a protective factor against overall functional impairment.

Self-regulation is crucial for appropriate self-management in social interactions, as well

as the ability to focus, solve problems and pay attention (Denham, 2003). Emotion and

self-regulation are particularly necessary for students in learning environments, since

being able to regulate one’s emotions helps with the management of stress (Fariselli,

Freedman, Ghini & Valentini, 2008; Saklofske et al., 2012). Children also need to learn

how to cope with stressful interactions by dealing with their own negative feelings, such

as anger or distress, as well as the negative emotions of others (Eisenberg & Fabes,

1992).

It is beneficial for children to have a safe environment in which to have such experi-

ences and to learn how to cope with them (Vermeulen, 1999). The former relating to

the current study, and the need to foster a safe environment for the child participants.

A space where child participants can learn to deal with frustration within a safe, sup-

portive and responsive environment in which they feel validated Gottman and DeClaire

(1998).

According to Mayer and Solavey (1997), the school environment is one of the most

significant contexts in which children can learn socio-emotional skills. Classroom in-

structions, a supportive school and classroom climate and a socio-emotionally intelli-

gent educator provide opportunities for socio-emotional education (Zeidner, Roberts &


52

Matthews, 2002). Goleman (1995) insists that SEI needs to be developed from an early

age and that it should be included in the school curriculum (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso,

2004. These SEI skills could help children to deal with the stressors of modern life

(Goleman, 1995). Many educators, psychologists and researchers agree that the com-

petencies addressed in schools need to be broadened to include SEI skills to prepare

children for the challenges of living in a fast-changing society (Elias, Bruene-Butler,

Blum & Schuyler, 1997; Lopes & Salovey, 2004). Lopes and Salovey (2004) add that

children are exposed to far more stressors today than they were in the past and that

emotional resources are essential to help children cope with these risks.

It is widely acknowledged that the school climate is an integral aspect of a school. – A

school’s climate is created by its academic, social and emotional environment (Na-

tional School Climate Council, 2007). Cohen (2006) explains that a school’s social and

emotional ethos is created by several factors, including the way the school is run; in-

teractions between people within the school; the way that decisions are made and

communicated; and the method of school and classroom management. A positive

school environment in which students are treated as individuals, with a balanced em-

phasis on academic and emotional growth, can be extremely beneficial for children

who lack other positive experiences outside of school and create the optimal context

for both teaching and learning (Lunenburg, 2011; Luthar, Cicchetti & Becker, 2000). A

healthy school is one that aspires to “hold space” for its students and faculty members;

one that fosters the natural maturation and development of the full potential of each

child (Hayman, 2013).

In addition to the school context, the classroom context is believed to affect children’s

social and emotional experiences directly. Therefore, children’s perceptions of their

classroom environment directly affect their socio-emotional experiences within the

class, and is vital for children’s motivation, commitment and overall scholastic achieve-

ment (Patrick, Kaplan & Ryan, 2011). This is found to be particularly true for children

from disadvantage backgrounds (Battistich, Solomon, Watson & Schaps, 1997). It is a

general belief that behavioural problems result from a child’s emotional needs not be-

ing met, including needs such as encouraging teachers and supportive caretakers,

safe and secure surroundings, unconditional love and acceptance, appropriate guid-


53

ance, and discipline (Week 2000). A study conducted by Brackett, Reyes, Rivers, El-

bertson and Salovey (2011) indicates that conduct is positively affected by emotionally

supportive, “holding” classroom climates. In such an environment security bolsters and

global learning of children is optimised (Hyman, 2013).

Classrooms differ greatly in terms of the type of emotional environment they offer and,

as such, can either positively or negatively and overall achievement at school (Louw &

Louw, 2020; Patrick, Kaplan & Ryan, 2011; Kokkinos & Hatzinikolaou, 2011). Different

factors are believed to affect classroom climate, including the characteristics of the

learner and teacher. It is important to understand the classroom factors that promote

or inhibit the development of SEI in children.

The ideal classroom would provide challenging content within a supportive and safe

social context in which learning, rather than achievement, is promoted (Brophy, 1999).

I am of the view that, in the light of the dynamic and often complex nature of the risks

to which children are increasingly exposed, it has become more important for schools

and educators to create spaces in which learners can acquire and rehearse the socio-

emotional intelligence needed to navigate their lived realities.

Based on the literature, I therefore reason that teachers’ level of SEI is an important

variable in creating a socio-emotional intelligent classroom (Boyd et al., 2005; De Klerk

& Le Roux, 2003). If the teacher has healthy SEI, it will likely develop a healthy SEI in

the classroom. Subsequently, teachers need to know how to manage their own emo-

tions and handle negative emotions effectively.

They need to be able to identify their own feelings and take responsibility for them.

Furthermore, teachers play an increasingly important role as “emotional coaches” and

teachers who are warm and responsive are more likely to promote SEI in children

(Boyd et al., 2005).

Based on my personal experience, I remain concerned about the level of empathy and

insight that teachers are currently demonstrating when dealing with the feelings of chil-

dren. From my experience, a child displaying emotional upset represents an oppor-


54

tunity for the teacher to exercise understanding, with a view of positively and construc-

tively soothing the child’s emotional state. Goleman (1995) explains that the develop-

ment of key SEI skills extend over several years and the teacher plays a significant

role throughout. Each period in childhood opens a “window” to instil certain SEI skills.

The role of the teacher is developing SEI is, indeed, critical, but little success can be

expected, if the parents are not involved in developing the SEI skills from the earliest

stages.

2.4.4 Peer system and childhood friendships

Considering the increasing importance of social relationships, it is not surprising that a

child’s peer relations can be instrumental in shaping the socio-emotional development

in middle childhood. Boyd et al., (2005) and Berndt (2002) indicate that childhood

friendships help in the enhancement socio-emotional skills, as it is believed that

through play and interactions with their peers, children learn the principles of effective

communication. Children who have no friends may develop emotional and behavioural

problems and have difficulty in interacting with others. Therefore, it is important to have

skilled primary school educators, who can intervene when they observe children expe-

riencing difficulties with their peers and support and “coach” children on how to resolve

conflict constructively, regulate emotions and respond empathetically to others (Louw

& Louw, 2020; Boyd et al., 2005).

2.4.5 Social context and daily lived experiences (Environmental influences)

I concur with Bandura’s (1977) theory of social learning and that children learn from

their environments. There is a wealth of research and literature highlighting and rein-

forcing the importance of the inter-relatedness of various ecological systems that exert

influence on children’s develop and transition through life.

The characteristics of the community in which children live, impact on numerous as-

pects of their development. Children’s SEI development could be undermined by a

variety of community problems, including social disadvantages, poverty, insufficient

employment opportunities, living in high crime areas and being exposed to violence


55

(Carr, 2016, p. 58). It is imperative to be mindful of these stressors in children’s com-

munities, as they have effects on their global development, including the development

of children’s socio-emotional intelligence.

2.4.5.1 Socio-economic challenges

Research shows that socio-economic status (SES) is associated with a wide array of

health, cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes in children (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002).

I concur with a view espoused in the literature that alludes to the fact that children are

currently growing up in a world that has been significantly transformed by tremendous

social and economic challenges that have resulted in increased poverty, the increased

prevalence of HIV/Aids, violence, crime and substance abuse. (Landsberg, Kruger &

Swart, 2017; Ferrandiz, Hernandez, Bermejo, Ferrando & Sainz, 2012; McColloch,

2013; Zins, Elias & Greenberg, 2003). Gelderbloem (2014, p. 18) continues by saying

that “… exposure to these issues has the potential to undermine the psycho-social

well-being and academic development of South Africa’s youth”. Socio-economic status

may be a powerful factor affacting the development of children – not in and of itself,

but thorugh its inlfuence on the family atmosphere, the neighbourhood and the qualityy

of schooling.

2.4.5.1.1 Poverty

Poverty as a result of socio-economic challenges is more than just an insufficent

income and a lack of material needs. Poverty directly and indirectly affacts the well-

being and physical and psychological development of children in many ways. When

families slip into poverty, effective parenting and children’s development are profoundly

threatened.

Parental unemployment is regarded as a major stressful life event (Carr, 2016). The

constant stressors accompanying poverty gradually weaken the family system and

may affect parents’ ability to provide a nurturing “holding” environment. A nurturing

holding environment in the family requires parents to be emotionally attuned and re-

sponsive to the needs of their children. The family caregiver/parent may become phys-

ically and emotionally exhausted, resulting, in turn, in him/her neglecting to respond to

the physical and psychological needs of children in their care (Hyman, 2012).


56

Poverty that begins early and persists throughout childhood has devastating effects on

children’s physical and mental health, intelligence, school achievement and their socio-

emotional development. Besides stress and conflict, reduced parental involvement and

depleted home learning environments, the effects of poverty may profoundly affect

children’s cognitive and emotional well-being (Louw & Louw, 2020; Donald, Lazarus &

Moolla, 2014). Consequently, when a family is confronted by poverty, they seem less

likely to assist their children wiht their problems because of their own stress experi-

ences. Consequently, they fail to create emotionally protective boundaries for their

children, which may influence their socio-emotional intelligence (Anthony, Anthony,

Glanville, Naiman, Waanders & Shaffer, 2005). Living in poverty in poor quality hous-

ing, having young and/or single parents, living with adults with unemployment or men-

tal health problems increase the probability of children arriving at school with social

and emotional skills deficits (Carr, 2016; Bywater, Hutchings, Whitaker, Evans & Parry,

2011)

2.4.5.1.2 Violence

Violence continues to dominate the daily lives and expereinces of South Africans. What

is concerning is the high numbers of children, who are not only exposed to violence as

witnesses or victims, but are also the perpatrators of violence. Approxomitly 50 000

children(and probably thousands more) are victims of reproted violent crimes every

year (Kibei, Saloojee & Westwood, 2012; 2016; UNICEF, 2012b; UNICEF, 2013b).

Children are exposed to various forms of violence, including family violence,

community violence, gang violence and political violence (Louw & Louw, 2020; Donald,

Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017). Community violence

riddles low socio-economic communities in South Africa. Louw and Louw (2020) view

community violence and children’s and people’s exposure to acts of violence in their

neighbourhoods. Such violence is a contextual factor that has intense negative effects

on millions of children in South Africa.

Children’s experience of family violence is reported as being far more distressing,

mainly because children generally have relatively stronger attachments to family mem-

bers than to those outside the family. If those to whom they are attached are also the

cause of the violence to which they are subjected, they have difficulty in making sense


57

of the violence (Louw & Louw, 2020, p. 421). Children exposed to disruptive and hostile

family relationships exhibit increased levels of aggression in cases where they rely on

aggression-prone peers for social support (Criss, Pettit, Bates, Dodge & Lapp, 2002).

Various international and South African studies show that children and adolescents

exposed to violence are at risk of developing a range of developmental and psycho-

logical problems (Louw & Louw, 2020). Behaviour problems – such as poor interper-

sonal relationships – aggression and delinquency are quite common among these chil-

dren and adolscents..

Growing up in a social context riddled with violence, crime and poverty, as described

and discussed above, can be traumatising and may adversely affect children’s brain

development – stress responses – including social and emotional development

(Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017; Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010). There is a wealth of

research describing the negative impacts of childhood trauma and how threatening

experiences can change the structure and function of key neural networks, including

those involved with regulating stress and arousal, thereby contributing to the develop-

ment of overactive and overly reactive stress responses – flight, fight or freeze (Ludy-

Dobson & Perry, 2010; Perry & Hambrick, 2008).

Growing up in a social context engulfed with socio-economic challenges, as highlighted

by literature and the personal experiences of the participants, likely contributed to

some of the participants living and functioning in a constant state of fear and hypervig-

ilance. So, when faced with a conflicting or “threatening” situation, participants were

more likely to react with a stress response. Such chronic cumulative stressors disrupt

the self-regulatory processes that help children to cope with external demands (Evans

& Kim, 2013).

The children participants’ experiences in this study aligned with the view in the litera-

ture, in that, in order to enable change, one has to understand the personal and con-

textual variables that may influence their development, decision-making and self-reg-

ulation abilities.


58

2.5 Intervention

“Intervention mediates the gap between what has been established and what is possi-

ble by creating opportunities to learn from experience (Damons, 2014, p. 40). Numer-

ous studies highlight the need for effective intervention strategies worldwide and effec-

tive programmes for promoting socio-emotional intelligence (Elias, Hunter & Kress,

2001). It is generally accepted that socio-emotional intelligence can be enhanced by

means of specific strategies (Louw & Louw, 2020; Berk, 2013).

Salovey, Mayer and Caruso (2002) describe several programmes to promote emo-

tional intelligence in school children and, in the United States (US), many of these

programs are being implemented. While SEI has a place in education, its integration

into the curriculum seems to be falling behind (Elias, Hunter & Kress, 2001). Further,

the importance of SEI having a more prominent role in education is being emphasised.

Elias, Hunter and Kress (2001) are of the opinion that the evidence suggests that emo-

tional intelligence is necessary for children to grow into adults who are going to be

effective in their families, workplaces and communities (Goleman, 1995).

Interventions focusing on children’s development should consider contextual interna-

tionality and should, therefore, include holistic and systemic considerations of the

child’s context and the context of the interacting social systems (Donald, Lazarus &

Moolla, 2014; Carr, 2016). It is generally accepted that socio-emotional intelligence

can be enhanced by means of specific strategies (Louw & Louw, 2020; Berk, 2013).

The intervention approach adopted in this study sought to strengthen the socio-emo-

tional competencies of middle childhood children collaboratively. The intervention ap-

proach that I adopted was inspired by Naido and Ramlall (2018), Bandura (2006),

White and Morgan (2006) and others, who propagate the agentic role of children and

young people in determining and deciding what they need for their well-being.

Social constructivists place participants at the centre of research; it acknowledges

them as experts and organic intellectuals, who can review and reflect on their realities,

experiences and practices, and then decide how they wish to engage with that reality

(Damons, 2014). These theorists and researchers argue for researcher to be more

than passive observers. By adopting a socio-constructivist approach, one implies a


59

transactional agreement with the participants to create safe, inclusive and collaborative

spaces that forefront and honour their knowledge, experience and voices and that en-

gage in an emotionally responsive manner that allows them experiential opportunities

to engage with new ways of understanding the world and themselves.

The Circle of Friends programme has been found to improve socio-emotional skills by

using Vygotsky’s theory of social development. Vygotsky, who opines that children

should actively be part of the meaning construction process, defines proximal devel-

opment as the space between what a child can do independently and what they can

achieve in collaboration with adults and more capable peers. As such, embarking on

exploratory journeys with children that “… take children to realities they may have not

yet imagined” (White & Morgan, 2006, p. 42). Creating authentic moments of success

and mastery to strengthen participants’ SEI competencies and agency involves a pro-

cess to which Vygotsky (1978) refers as scaffolding. Garfat, Fulcher and Digney (2013,

p. 18) recommend as a foundation before embarking on such an exploration journey

“… the creation of a co-created spaces that foster a sense of safety and respect for

the mutuality of the relationship and its purpose between the participants and the re-

searcher”. As a fundamental approach, based on my understanding of other research-

ers’ findings, my experiences as an educational psychologist, children in middle child-

hood become more inclined to interact with others their age, while seeking meaningful

connections with their peers.

The Circle of Friends’ approach, which was used in this study, has been widely used

for several years in the United Kingdom (UK) and elsewhere. The shift towards the

proponents of this approach in fore fronting participants’ experiences in their own

voices motivated me to introduce the approach into the research process (Whipple,

Lim, Martin, DeLoach, Snell, Brownell, & Lundeen-Smith; 2018; Mosely, 2009). In light

of the academic, language and cognitive development stages of the group, strong em-

phasis was placed on a visual storyboard presentation of what would be done and how

it would be done.

As suggested by Mosley (2009), Circle of Friends is a peer-mediated intervention to

provide socio-emotional skills enhancement opportunities. Circle time refers to a pro-

cess in which young people meet weekly and engage in an inclusive and collaborative


60

process that affords everyone equal status and encourages participation in non-coer-

cive ways. Circle time focuses on creating a safe and nurturing environment that fos-

ters opportunities to practice key socio-emotional competencies and emphasises the

importance of a fun, non-threatening environment through practising skills such as

speaking, listening, turn-taking, problem-solving and enjoying and appreciating one

another's company. Some of these skills are essential elements of socio-emotional

effectiveness. During circle time, there was a focus on emotion knowledge, regulation,

pro-social skills and problem-solving (Mosley, 2009).

Mosley (2009) argues that the Circle of Friends approach has the potential to influence

participants’ perceptions or judgments of their own and other people's behaviour. The

participants in this study were purposively selected individuals, who demonstrated sim-

ilar experiences of SEI. Through the research, I hoped to encourage/enable the par-

ticipants to empower themselves through actively engaging in an adaptation of the

Circle of Friends intervention, and through sharing their own knowledge and through

the knowledge gained from others’ experiences. Stimulus material for conversation

had to be carefully selected, so that it would elicit real experiences, but also to create

sufficient opportunities to move towards a shift in children’s socio-emotional compe-

tencies. Stimulus conversation was often encouraged through open-ended means of

probing, prompting and question.

The social constructivist views of Bandura (2006) informed the process of setting the

“ground rules”, viewing children as the experts in their lives and co-researchers and

decision-makers in the research process, who collectively decide on the rules of en-

gagement. As such, the participants and I collectively negotiated and agreed on the

guidelines and rules of engagement, while fostering each participant and the group’s

sense of agency.

This Circle of Friends approach encourages the use of interesting and varied activities

to assist young people to reflect on current practice and to experience the possibility

of creating new ways of being first-hand. It requires the facilitator to develop a toolkit

that purposefully selects activities, mindful of the opportunity that these will create for

meaning-making within the individual and the group. In deciding on the activities, the

facilitator remained aware of the group’s language proficiency and cognitive function-

ing, while remaining flexible and securing the provision of resources that would ensure


61

the safe implementation of activities. Accessing the activities will be negotiated before

presenting them to the participants for consideration (Garfat et al., 2013; Mosley,

2009).

Activities have to be carefully selected, so that, while they influence the external and

internal functioning of the individuals, they maintain the interest of the participants and

accommodate the shared focus on change over time in the individuals, the group and

the activities with which they interact and the way in which they interact with them. See

Chapters 3 and 4 for a discussion of the activities and how they were used in this study.

See also Appendix I for an example of an activity planning sheet.

2.6 Conclusion

This chapter provided insights gained after an extensive literature study and focused

on describing the developmental phase of middle childhood. The broad spectrum of

development, including physical, cognitive, language social and emotional develop-

ment, was also discussed in detail.

This study focused on socio-emotional intelligence and, therefore, this chapter pro-

vided an extensive and in-depth review of this subject. Socio-emotional intelligence

was defined, and the five competencies involved in it were detailed. Since this study

focused on strengthening socio-emotional regulation in the foundation phase, the com-

petency of self-regulation was discussed in greater detail.

This chapter further considered the development of socio-emotional intelligence in con-

text. To understand children’s development, one needs to recognise that

children/people are embedded in and influenced by their interactions across various

contexts and systems. There is evidence to suggest that these contextual factors may

influence one’s socio-emotional intelligence development positively and/or negatively.

It is argued that there is significant value in developing socio-emotional intelligence in

children. The aim of this study was to explore the following research question: How

can the Circle of Friends intervention be adapted for implementation to strengthen so-

cio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase? In the foregoing discussion,


62

above it became evident that the Circle of Friends approach was well suited for allow-

ing children to strengthen their SEI competencies in a supportive and non-threatening

manner.

In the next chapter, the methods and approaches that informed this study will be ex-

plained. Data-generation instruments and data analysis methods implemented will also

be discussed.


63

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

“To do no Harm” (Bird, 1996)

3.1 Introduction

Research is scientific in nature and, according to Rubin (1983), as cited in Neumann

(2014), it is “… a way of going about finding answers to questions” (p. 25). However,

in the context of this study, the research attempted to consider the ways in which socio-

emotional competencies in middle childhood can be strengthened and to present the

findings in a way that can contribute to existing knowledge, particularly concerning

practical applications (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine & Walker, 2018).

In this chapter, the research process (methodology) and design for this study will be

presented and discussed, in order to address the primary research question that the

study poses. This study investigates whether using a Participatory action research ap-

proach and an adaptation of an already established Circle of Friends intervention pro-

gramme can be implemented to strengthen socio-emotional competencies in the foun-

dation phase. The following chapter will unpack the “planned” research process and

design through a descriptive discussion of the research paradigm, the participatory

action research design; the sampling method and the specific data generation tech-

niques; the data processing techniques and methods of establishing data interpretation

and, finally, the researcher’s view on trustworthiness and ethical considerations in-

volved in the study.

3.2 Focus of the research

The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of an adaptation of the Circle of Friends

intervention on the socio-emotional intelligence of foundation phase learners. In order

to achieve this, a number of objectives were formulated, including to:

• Conceptualise what is meant with the terms socio-emotional intelligence, emotional

and emotional-regulation;

• Understand the contextual factors in an informal settlement (sometimes referred to

as a disorganised community) that influence the development of socio-emotional

intelligence of learners within the foundation phase of schooling;


64

• Use creative means to explore the current level of socio-emotional intelligence of

learners and to consider how this may influence the behaviour and academic per-

formance of the participants in the classroom;

• Identify strengths and areas for development of the participants and how one can

create a space where a facilitator enables learners to strengthen their socio-emo-

tional intelligence competencies; and

• To determine the possible impact of an adaptation of a Circle of Friends intervention

on the socio-emotional intelligence of foundation phase learners.

With the aim of this study in mind, the study sought to explore, understand and describe

what had occurred in the group. The study was guided by the following research ques-

tion:

How can the Circle of Friends intervention be adapted for use to

strengthen socio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase?

In order to explore the phenomenon, the following subsidiary questions were used to

guide the focus of the study:

1. How do a child’s social context and their daily experiences (lived reality) influence

the development of his/her socio-emotional intelligence?


of learners influence their behaviour and academic performance in the classroom



It is important to note that I particularly considered the way in which using a Participa-

tory Action Research approach guided the way in which Circle of Friends intervention

could be adapted to strengthen socio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase

in a South African informal community context.

3.3 Philosophical stance (Research paradigm)

Before conducting the research, it was important for me to understand the underlying

assumptions about the research topic and how these could influence the way in which


65

I approached and conducted the research. Therefore, an understanding of a paradigm

was an important consideration to the research process and served as a lens, a refer-

ence point from which to view and work with research material. As described by Guba

& Lincoln (1994, p. 105) a paradigm is “… the basic belief system or worldview that

guides the investigator …” (Babbie, 2016; De Vos et al., 2011).

This study employed the social constructivist research paradigm, as it sought to gain

insight into the way in which the participants created their own realities by engaging in

a process of meaning-making, based on their experiences in their particular context.

By adopting a social constructivist paradigm, I acknowledged that there are no essen-

tial and neutral realities or truths and rather focused on understanding the multiple

versions of realities experienced by the participants, which are continuously changing.

This aligned with my view of people actively constructing and conceptualising their own

personal/subjective meaning and beliefs of the world by the way they interact with one

another and with the environment in which they live. Working from a social construc-

tivist viewpoint, I sought to gain in-depth insight into and forefront the voice of the child

participants’ lived experiences of the phenomenon under study (Denzin & Lincoln,

2018; Babbie, 2016; Tracy, 2013; De Vos et al., 2011).

In the book, The Little Prince, Antoine de Saint-Exupery (1945) writes that grown-ups

cannot, on their own, understand the world from the child’s point of view and, therefore,

they need children to explain it to them. The social constructivist paradigm recognises

that the research participants play an active part in the process of gaining insight into

and understanding their social world. By interacting, collaborating and actively listening

to the child participants, I hoped to foster a better understanding of their perceptions,

experiences, emotions and learning. Working from a social constructivist lens allowed

me to forefront the voices and lived realities of the child participants, allowing me to

conduct research with children (Laher, Fynn & Kramer, 2019; Denzin & Lincoln, 2018;

Christensen & James, 2017; Denzin & Lincoln, 2013; De Vos et al., 2011; Creswell,

2013a; Kim, 2001, Guba & Lincoln, 1985).


66

In any study, the research paradigm functions along the three dimensions of ontology,

epistemology and methodology. The social constructivist paradigm underpins the on-

tological, epistemological and methodological beliefs and choices of qualitative re-

search.

Through the lens of socio-constructivism, ontology refers to my own understanding and

assumptions of the reality/phenomenon being researched. In this instance, ontology

would be concerned with the question, What is reality? which referred to my own un-

derstanding of ”the nature of being”. This assumption, in turn, affected how I ap-

proached the phenomena under investigation. The ontological assumptions of this

study were incorporated in my view that there is no “fixed” truth but, that reality is so-

cially constructed and continuously changing. The reality depicted in this study related

to participants’ experiences of their social interactions with others. Through this study,

I attempted to gain insight into the child participants’ versions of reality by exploring

their experiences and perceptions of socio-emotional intelligence with them, as well as

their interaction with others. (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Pretorius, 2014; Denzin &

Lincoln, 2013; Ritchie, Lewis, McNaughton Nicholls & Ormston, 2013A; Merriam,

2009).

Epistemology deals with what is already known and what is still to be known about the

“reality”. Epistemological dimensions are, therefore, concerned with questions such as

“What do we know?” and “How do we know it?” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Creswell,

2014; Babbie & Mouton, 2013). In the course of this study, I attempt to explore and

forefront the child participants’ experiences and interaction with an adaptation of The

Circle of Friends intervention as a means of strengthening socio-emotional intelligence

in young children. To understand the participants “worldviews” and their own subjective

experiences, focus group sessions were conducted.

Lastly, methodology refers to the way in which the researchers sets out to gain

knowledge about the world or the phenomena in question. Within the context of the

socio-constructivist paradigm, a qualitative methodology ensues. This implies that I

employed a qualitative methodological approach to explore and study individuals in a

naturalistic setting, while trying to make sense of a specific phenomenon. Multiple data


67

generation methods were employed and a variety of empirical materials were used to

assist me in the process of meaning-making (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Merriam, 2009).

Therefore, the selected paradigm reflected my own understanding of the world and

guided my way of thinking, decision-making and actions throughout the research pro-

cess. Being aware that my beliefs and lived experiences cannot be divorced from the

research process, it was important for me to remain reflexive.

The term reflexivity refers to the process of reflecting how my thought processes, be-

liefs and opinions may influence the research and how the research process itself may

have affected me personally and professionally (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Pretorius,

2014; Ritchie et al., 2013; Merriam, 2009).

3.4 Research methodology

The methodological approach selected for the study was guided by the socio-construc-

tivist paradigm. The rational of how the study was conducted and which data genera-

tion techniques and instruments were used were influenced by my interest in gaining

in-depth insight into and understanding pertaining to the use of the Circle of Friends

intervention as a process to facilitate and strengthen competencies of SEI in foundation

phase learners.

3.4.1 Qualitative research (Orientation of the conducted research)

Marshall and Rossman (2011, p. 2) describe qualitative research as research that fo-

cuses on the “lived experiences of people.” The study was underpinned by a qualitative

approach, which enabled me to make sense of or interpret people’s experiences and

the meaning they attach to them. The qualitative approach further enabled me to de-

velop patterns of meaning, insight and understanding, as they emerged from the data

(Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Cresswell, 2013).

In his book, The Little Prince (1945), Antoine de Saint-Exupery writes that adults can-

not, on their own, understand the world from the child’s perspective and therefore they

need children to explain it to them. Qualitative research was, therefore, a sound and


68

particularly suitable fit for the research topic and population, because it respects hu-

man/child participants’ perceptions and viewpoints, viewing the child as the expert of

their own experiences and lives. In other words, the qualitative research approach is

concerned with understanding a phenomenon through the eyes of the child-participant

(i.e. from the participant’s perspective).

In an attempt to have the data speak and inform the meaning and understanding re-

garding the topic under research, it was important to gain insider perspective. Subse-

quently, espousing a qualitative methodological approach allowed for authentic partic-

ipation of the children in the research, fore fronting their voices, experiences and un-

derstanding of social-emotional intelligence. All of this allowed the researcher and the

participant to explore their personal lived experiences collaboratively, allowing for au-

thentic description of their perceptions, while gathering detailed information of the phe-

nomenon under study in a naturalistic setting. Furthermore, the approach allowed for

sensitivity to the context and the power dynamic between the researcher and the par-

ticipants, while encouraging ongoing reflection of how the research was conducted

(Christensen & James, 2017; Greig, Taylor & MacKay, 2013; Marshall & Rossman,

2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Ritchie, et al,. 2014; Cresswell, 2013; Merriam, 2009).

Additionally, qualitative research draws on multiple, non-standardised and adaptable

methods of data generation that respect the humanity of participants and are sensitive

to and can be adapted for each population (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Ritchie et al.,

2013). In order to understand and represent children’s everyday experiences and per-

spectives “… researchers are required to use methodologies that will allow for explo-

ration and explanation of the children’s own stories and narratives” (Christensen &

James, 2017, p. 9). Since the study worked with participants of a young age, who had

varying degrees of expressive language and emotional regulation, a qualitative re-

search design provided the researcher with the age-appropriate tools (see Section

3.4.4.3) to create a space and use data generation techniques to explore with the par-

ticipants what underpins their experiences, behaviour attitudes and the specific phe-

nomenon involved in the research.

Furthermore, qualitative research acknowledges the researcher as a primary instru-

ment in the data generation process (Merriam, 2009). Subsequently, the interactive


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nature of qualitative research allowed the researcher to become a part of the research

and fully explore, gauge and understand the research question – How can the Circle

of Friends intervention be adapted and used as a tool for strengthening socio-emo-

tional competencies of young children? The interactive nature of qualitative research,

therefore, created a space with the potential to elicit subjective understanding and ex-

periences (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Marriam (2009) draws one’s attention to one’s

own possible subjectivities and biases that could have an impact on the study. There-

fore, it is important to identify them and monitor them and the way in which they might

be shaping the collection and interpretation of the data.

The foregoing information should make it clear why it was suitable to use the qualitative

research approach, given the fact that the intention of the study was to work collabo-

ratively with the children to make sense of the meaning they had constructed about

their lives and lived experiences, while initiating and bringing about change through

the adapted Circle of Friends intervention. (Lewis & Ritchie, 2014; Merriam, 2009;

Lewis & Ritchie, 2003; Ungar, 2003).

3.4.2 Research design: participatory action research

Guided by the social constructivist paradigm, the study utilised a participatory action

research (PAR) design, which involved the participants in the research process. PAR

complemented the social constructivist lens and qualitative approach I adopted, as it

is embedded in the meaning-making process of the participants lived experiences and

seeks to work with participants to produce social change, while “giving power” to the

participants to influence decisions concerning their lives (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Mar-

shall & Rossman, 2016; Gorman & Clayton, 2005).

Through the research process I hoped to encourage/enable the participants to em-

power themselves through actively engaging in an adaptation of the Circle of Friends

intervention. In addition, I hoped that through sharing their own knowledge by encour-

aging peer learning, a community of support could become part of their lived experi-

ence during the research intervention. The lessons we learnt together on this journey

also afforded me to learn ways in which I, as an intern educational psychologist, could


70

adapt interventions related to socio-emotional intelligence with foundation phase learn-

ers and their educators.

Kemmis and McTaggart (2000), in Denzin & Lincoln (2006, p. 566–568) identify the

following seven key features of participatory action research:

1. Participatory action research is a social process.

2. Participatory action research is participatory.

3. Participatory action research is practical and collaborative.

4. Participatory action research is emancipatory.

5. Participatory action research is critical.

6. Participatory action research is reflexive.

7. Participatory action research aims to transform both theory and practice.

In this study, a PAR design within the qualitative research approach was employed,

with the intention of ensuring that (Jangmin, 2016):

• The participants had a voice through equal participation and informed decision-

making;

• Change was brought about in practice through collaboration with the participants

of the study; and

• A collaborative research design was implemented.

By doing so, I sought to create a space in which participants and I could gain insight

into and understand the challenges and needs of the learners. In sensitising the par-

ticipants with regards to their socio-emotional learning (SEL), I hoped that the partici-

pants and I could become activists for mobilising for and promoting change in their

personal lives, their learning experiences and experiences within their communities.

(Jangmin, 2016; MacDonald, 2012; Bhana, 1999).

As I wanted to forefront children’s experiences, PAR allowed for a shift in the locus of

control, allowing “… the researcher to become a co-learner and the child to become a

co-researcher” (Coyne & Carter, 2018, p. 2). My role as the researcher was, therefore,

not only to contribute to knowledge related to the phenomenon under study but, also


71

sought to open the research space as one seeking to facilitate the sharing of experi-

ence/s, collective critical reflection and mutual learning and knowledge-building. The

quotation from The Little Prince again rings true, in that children are the experts of their

own lives and the best persons to explain their understanding of their world, experi-

ences, feelings and their views on certain matters (Coyne & Carter, 2018). In this role,

I would honour the participants as experts in their lives, rather than adopt an expert

position myself.

In addition, PAR values experiential knowledge and creates a platform where partici-

pants can share their experiences, be involved in the research process and can be

viewed as experts in the phenomenon under investigation (Coyne & Carter, 2018;

Fletcher, MacPhee & Dickson, 2015; MacDonald, 2015). PAR created a space where

the participants could gain support from others, learn from one another and co-find

solutions. PAR was, therefore, a sound fit for the study, because it allowed for the more

authentic and active participation of the children in the research process, providing

opportunities for them to share their stories and expereince of the world. By using PAR,

I hoped to further access children’s expereinces and understanding of SEI through

participatory research techniques, creating a sense of awereness, agency and allowing

opportunities for joint learning. Furthermore, PAR was a well suited approach, because

empowerment of what research considers as a vulnerable group lay at the heart of this

study (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Cohen, Manion & Mor-

rison, 2011).

The literature describes PAR as a collaborative process in which social learning takes

place and knowledge and solutions are co-produced (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Kemmis,

McTaggart & Nixon, 2017). The study sought to serve both “a transformational and an

educative purpose” (Kemmis, McTaggart & Nixon, 2017, p. 23). Where children

previously were quite passive, PAR positions them as primary researchers, co-creators

of knowedge and social change agents. PAR aims at promoting social change through

equal partnerships between researchers and participants in various phases of the re-

search (Christensen & James, 2017; Clark, Flewitt, Hammersley & Robb, 2014).


72

Throughout the research process, I was able to:

• Identify the research focus and primary concern of the praticipants;

• Collaborate with the group of interest and actively and practically work with them to

enhance their socio-emotional intelligence and skills related to SEI during focus

group sessions; and

• Reflect on the actions and their outcomes and, thereafter, revisit the research plan.

According to the literature, this process may not always occur in this sequence. – In

reality, stages may overlap and plans may change due to learning from experience. As

a result, this process was more fluid and open in nature, characterised by iteration of

revisiting, adding and rethinking the steps (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Creswell &

Creswell, 2018).

3.4.3 Research population and sample selection

3.4.3.1 Research context

The meaning-making process is shaped within the broader social context and, there-

fore, it is important to make every effort to understand the context in which the research

is positioned (Creswell, 2014). The social-ecological perspective the social ecological

perspective was one way in which I sought to understand the complex variables that

needed to be acknowledged, as they provided information on the unique challenges

faced by children at this particular research site (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, Creswell,

2014).

In Chapter 2, I introduced the community and the non-governmental organisation

(NGO) in which the school is socio-ecologically located. The research site of this study

was an independent Primary School in the urban Western Cape. The school is physi-

cally situated in a historically disadvantaged community, fraught with what is often clas-

sified in the literature as a socially disorganised community (Pinnock, 2016; Daniels &

Adams, 2010).

The factors that are involved in constituting a socially disorganised com-

munity include structural disadvantage (including decay), concentrated

poverty, economic deprivation, residential instability, structural density and

many single parent households (Stewart, 2020, p. 28).


73

In addition, I was informed that these children were often exposed to substance abuse,

crime, violence and gangsterism. It was, therefore, important for me to understand how

their actions and/or behaviour was influenced in the classroom, at school and poten-

tially beyond their living context (Stewart, 2020; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell,

2014).

3.4.3.2 Sampling of the participants

Using a qualitative lens to inform and gain deeper insight into participants understand-

ing and experiences, meant that the methodological aim of the study was not to gen-

eralise the findings, but rather to provide rich data and in-depth knowledge about how

socio-emotional intelligence competencies could be strengthened in foundation phase

learners.

In light of the exploratory nature of this study, participants were purposively selected

to provide and “information rich sample”. According to literature, purposive sampling is

a non-probability sampling technique widely used in qualitative research, as the re-

searcher intentionally identify and select the participants who are thought of as being

able to provide rich and deep insight into what is being studied (Marshall & Rossman,

2016; Palinkas, Horwitz, Green, Wisdom, Duan & Hoagwood, 2015; Creswell & Cre-

swell, 2018; Cohen & Manion, 2011). Using this type of sampling method meant that I

would be able to obtain rich descriptions of the participants’ experiences (Patten &

Newhart, 2018; Fletcher, MacPhee & Dickson, 2015; Creswell, 2013 Cohen, Manion

& Morrison, 2011).

Nine (9) learners enrolled in Grade 2 made up the sample population for this study.

Initial recruitment methods included consultations with the Grade 2 educator at the

primary school. Educators at the school were consulted as key informants. This con-

sultation informed the educator about the purpose, motivation and intended data gen-

eration instruments of the study. The educator was provided with a short guideline as

how to go about selecting/identifying learners.

With the assistance of the Grade 2 educator, nine participants were identified accord-

ing to the specified criteria:


74

• Participants had to reside in Masiphumelele in Cape Town;

• Participants had to be enrolled as Grade 2 learners at the selected primary school;

• Five participants had to present socio-emotional management and/or behaviour

regulation challenges;

• Four participants had to exhibit some degree of emotional awareness and/or emo-

tional-self management;

• Participants had to be between the ages of seven to eight years; and

• Participants had to understand and be able to converse in English.

Using such a sampling technique enabled me to select a suitable number of

partcipants, who would not only be willing to participate but, who demonstated socio-

emotional difficulties and/or behavioural regulation challenges. This enabled me to col-

lect specific information from a small sample of participants. Site consent to conduct

the interviews and the collages was obtained from each child (Appendix C 1) and from

their parent or guardian (Appendix C 2).

3.4.4 Data generating methods

Various data generation methods were employed in this study. In order to collect rich

data for the study, the primary data was generated through focus group sessions,

alongside other methods, including participant-generated artefacts, interactive activi-

ties, participant observations and my fieldnotes.

The literature suggests the use of a variety of data generation methods when exploring

complex phenomena and when ensuring the trustworthiness of the data (Coyne &

Carter, 2018; Engle, 2016; Clark et al., 2014; De Vos et al, 2011; Clark, 2010). Fur-

thermore, the use of a diverse range of techniques allowed the research process to be

as inclusive, accessible and as participant-friendly as possible, playing on the chil-

dren’s strengths and expressive preferences.

3.4.4.1 Focus group

Focus group interviews/sessions are a popular data generation method when conduct-

ing qualitative research. The literature suggests that, when conducting research with

children and/or young people, a focus group may make conversations less threatening


75

and more participatory, thereby building confidence and acting as a safety net for some

participants to participate, express and share their thoughts (Coyne & Carter, 2018;

Engle, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell, 2013).

The primary means of data generation for the study was focus-groups. The focus group

sessions were facilitated through the implementation of an adapted version of the Cir-

cle of Friends intervention for the South African context and introduced socio-emotional

learning opportunities to the learners. These are discussed in Chapter 2: Section 2.5.

This research sought to facilitate socio-emotional learning opportunities for the learner

participants by creating a safe environment (see Chapter 4: Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2)

in which participants would be empowered to participate in group discussions, share

their views, while listening to the views of others. Therefore, using a focus group was

a data generation tool and part of the intervention programme that remained true to

my research paradigm, design and methodology and the emphasis it placed on the

active and collaborative participation of the participants.

Using focus group sessions in the data generation process appealed to me, because

it created an opportunity to elicit the perspective of children and young persons and to

capture their voices. Furthermore, a space and time could be created that encouraged

both individual and shared perspectives to be heard and the co-creation/construction

of meaning and learning. The focus group sessions, which were primarily guided by

open-ended questions, also facilitated creative types of data generation, which allowed

one to go beyond open-ended questions and, therefore, interactive activities were also

presented as a means of ensuring that children’s individual thoughts were gathered

(Coyne & Carter, 2018; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Combining these approaches

presented an opportunity to elicit shared understanding and to provide participants with

ways to express their views in a range of different ways.

Furthermore, participating in the focus group sessions afforded me opportunities to

observe the often nuanced and dynamic interaction between the participants, the ac-

tivities and the various members of the focus group. As I hoped that the lessons

learned for the use with other groups, these focus groups had particular value in this

study. Working together in the course of the focus group sessions provided multiple


76

opportunities to explore – often individually – complex participant responses to com-

pare participants responses to one another and to consider how they related to one

another, while engaging in the focus group sessions. This verbal and non-verbal com-

munication during the focus groups also became a rich source of data (Coyne & Carter,

2018; Clark et al., 2014).

The focus group sessions took place in a classroom at the school and lasted for 50

minutes. We spent time getting to know one another informally and becoming comfort-

able in the space. At the start of each session, snacks were provided to create a re-

laxed space, fostering a sense of togetherness, where conversation could occur natu-

rally and where supportive listening and good rapport were established. During this

time, we engaged in reflective conversations about our week and any concerns we

might have. Thereafter, participants appeared to be comfortable with sharing their ex-

periences and opinions with one another (Fletcher, MacPhee & Dickson, 2015).

However, it should be pointed out that focus groups also hold the potential for certain

challenges. Cognisant of the challenges that may arise as a consequence of conduct-

ing a focus group discussions with young children, I paid particular attention to power

dynamics arising during the sessions. It necessitated managing the more confident

and articulate members of the group, while ensuring that the quiet participants partook

fully (Patton, 2015; Robinson, 1999; Morgan, 1993). It was, therefore, important for me

to make every effort to ensure that the focus group was a space in which everyone’s

voice was heard. The participants easily established an atmosphere that valued and

honoured the experiences and reflections of all the participants. There were also spe-

cific challenges to interviewing children that I had to consider. Young persons can be

inattentive or slow in their responses; they may lose interest; and they may withdraw

from an adult who appear too dominant.

To this end, Gillis and Jackson (2002) note that, although the topic of discussion is left

up to the focus group, “… the facilitator typically provides some structure” (MacDonald,

2012, p. 42). Because the true work was performed by the learners themselves, I took

on the role of the facilitator during the process of problem-solving activities. My role

within the focus group was, therefore, to ask open-ended questions, listen intensely

and actively to participants’ responses.


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3.4.4.2 Participant observation and “deep hanging out’

As a researcher, I took on the role of participant-observer during the observation ses-

sions. This is considered a more complex type of observation, as the researcher is

simultaneously a member and observer (Babbie, 2016; Silverman, 2010). Although

daunted by the prospect of these dual roles, I realised that I would engage in various

degrees of participation (Marshall & Rossman, 2016).

The roles I adopted in the research were multi-focused and, therefore, not merely ob-

serving the activities, interaction and communication, but also engaging in the activities

as a participant, co-learner, facilitator and mediator (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Spra-

dley, 1980). Being a participant-observer allows the researcher to learn directly from

his/her own experiences and to attain first-hand knowledge of social behaviour as it

unfolds (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Gillis & Jackson, 2002). Because the researcher

is the main data collection instrument in qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013),

I had to have a clear plan about how and when I would be involved in the data-gener-

ation activities; how I would ensure non-intrusive data capturing; and facilitate the ad-

ministrative side and practicalities of the research process. To this end, I decided to

delineate explicitly what I would be observing and how I would be recording my obser-

vations when I was participating (see the outline in Addendum K). I decided to make

extensive use of field notes and to video record sessions.

Participant observation with children involves many of the same processes as doing

such research with adults (Christensen & James, 2017; Clark et al., 2014). I adopted

this approach, as I was of view that being actively immersed and participating in the

process would allow me to build a trusting relationship with and get close to the children

involved in the study. This opened a window that allowed me to “see through their

eyes” and learn about their worlds, their feelings and understandings. Furthermore,

being a participant-observer allowed me to not stand out as an outsider. (Christensen

& James, 2017; Clark et al., 2014; Bryman, 2012; Savenye & Robinson, 2012).

I observed the participants during the focus group sessions, drawing activities, as well

as the other interactive activities, while actively participating during these sessions.

However, this hands-on approach resulted in a number of challenges. As I was actively


78

participating in the process at various stages of the sessions, my opportunities to ob-

serve and record data were limited at times. In such instances, it was vital for me to

reflect on the focus group sessions, the activities, interactions among the participants,

observations and my own thoughts after the sessions.

Although my research process was guided by the aims for the study, the emergent

nature of the research design resulted in more and different outcomes to what I had

anticipated. My educational psychology training, together with my previous experience

in working with foundation phase learners from a disorganised community, influenced

the assumptions and preconceived notions I had of their socio-emotional competen-

cies. I was aware that my prior experiences with these young children could bias the

lens through which I was observing their actions. To contain this, I would actively reflect

on what had occurred during each session. I would go back to review videos and field

notes of previous sessions. It should be noted that, while I had a well-planned and well-

researched intervention strategy when I started, being a participant observer helped

me to realise that what I thought or what looked good in theory would not necessarily

translate well into practice in the context in which I was working. Subsequently, I took

the advice of seasoned qualitative researchers and remained open and flexible as the

process unfolded (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Babbie, 2013;

Merriam, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

3.4.4.3 Participant-generated artefacts (Drawings and visual arts)

In participatory research, expressive activities are rarely used in isolation, but are com-

monly supported by other data collection methods, such as interviews and focus

groups. The various focus group sessions included activities that generated artefacts.

The following techniques that were used in the study included: drawing, clay work,

interactive activities, making music for expression, creative bibliotherapy and mindful-

ness. These techniques are discussed in the following sections.

3.4.4.3.1 Drawing

Drawing and other visual arts are considered one of the most widely employed data-

generation techniques in research with children (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Christensen &

James, 2017). In this study, the participants were not verbally or conceptually fluent


79

and, therefore, drawing and expressive methods were used to provide the language

the children needed to express their thoughts, and to describe and express their un-

derstanding of their experiences, thereby “giving emotions a visual voice” (Damons,

2014, p. 76). This view is supported by several authors, including Coyne and Carter,

2018; Geldard, Geldard and Foo, 2018; Christensen andand James, 2017; Clark et

al., 2014; Sylvester, 2010; Malchiodi, 1998, who describe visual art as a process that

mediates the expression of thoughts, feelings and experiences, more so than if we

were simply to ask children to talk about them. In addition, allowing children the oppor-

tunity to take on an expert role, gives them power in defining and sharing their own

ideas and views.

The drawing tasks involved drawing in response to music, drawing as a protective tool,

and drawing as a tool in facilitated discussion around topics or experiences, which the

participants may have found particularly challenging to articulate. No artistic talent was

required and participants were provided with a range of drawing materials from which

they selected what they needed.

Drawings were done as individuals or as a group. Individual drawing activities encour-

aged participates to use the artwork as a communication tool. Participants were asked

to draw pictures relevant to the subjects of the research after which they were invited

to talk about their work. Consequently, talking about their work put participants in the

role of an expert, as they guided me and others through their drawing and what it rep-

resented to them. Like all data-generation activities, I used drawings intermittently

throughout the various sessions.

In all such activities, the participants were informed of their right not to have their draw-

ing included in the data set and were reminded that any identifying information would

be concealed, if any of their drawings were used as part of the final thesis. (See exam-

ples of the instructions in Addendum D and examples of these drawings in Chapter 4:

Section 4.3.3.1.3.

3.4.4.3.2 Clay work

Participants were asked to engage in a clay work activity in which they used clay to

symbolise and represent emotions/feelings. In this way, the participants were provided


80

with opportunities for expression of thoughts, feelings and experiences. I used this

technique, because from my exposure to this research method, I had learned that clay

allows children to be creative. During this creative activity, emotions within the child

were likely to be expressed.

Clay work is viewed as a process that mediates and encourages the expression of

thoughts, feelings, and experiences in a non-threatening manner (Geldard, Geldard &

Foo, 2018). Clay work further allowed for an increased sense of belonging and inter-

action between group members, gaining insight and understanding of others in the

group. In addition, clay can be used to help children/participants get in touch with and

release strong emotions.

Similar to all data-generation activities, I used clay work intermittently throughout the

various sessions. Participants were encouraged to serenely stroke the clay and ag-

gressively punch it or pull it apart. Providing children with opportunities for physical

expression – by controlling the media – enabled them to feel powerful (see examples

of the instructions in Addendum L and examples of these clay models in Chapter 4:

Section 4.3.3.1.1).

3.4.4.3.3 Interactive activities

The use of interactive activities helped to engage the children’s interest and promoted

a sense of self competence, a sense of belonging to the group, self-discovery, inven-

tion and creativity (Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018; Clark et al, 2014). In addition, during

the Circle of Friends sessions, learners were exposed to interactive activities, such as

games and toys, storytelling and inference, role-play, puppets and breathing (medita-

tion) activities.

The selected activities focused on various skills required to strengthen the participants

ability to manage and regulate their emotions. Some of these fostered a stronger sense

of self and emotional awareness; expanded emotional vocabulary; encouraged empa-

thy and acknowledged other people’s emotions; and strengthen participants’ ability to

identify strong emotions and feeling more equipped and ready to manage such strong

emotions. By employing such interactive approaches to data generation, I hoped that

the participants would feel more comfortable in interacting with others and expressing


81

their views about their world, themselves and their experiences and facilitate participa-

tion. According to Geldard, Geldard and Foo (2018), children feel empowered when

they witness their ability to impact on their environment powerfully. During the focus

group sessions, particpants were provided with activities and media that enabled them

to control the media, alter them, or to act out powerful roles. Participants engaged in

activities of shaking their drums to the music, punshing a lump of clay – i.e.

opportunities to act out and role play certain emotions. These methods were used in

conjunction with other, more traditional methods of research, such as focus-groups

and field-notes.

3.4.4.3.4 Making music for expression

Participants were asked to engage in an interactive activity in which each participant

constructed and made their own instruments by using tins, beans and balloons. Once

the instruments were completed, they were used as a non-verbal communication tool

for individuals to self-express and explore various types of emotions. Each participant

was requested to express him or herself through their drum, while listening to music,

thereby creating a unique situation that allowed the participants to explore and self-

express a wide range of emotions.

Engaging in these type of activities can be cathartic for the child, as they symbolise in

a concrete way the child’s ability to impact their environment, thereby contributing to a

sense of empowerment of the individual and the whole group. The drumming was used

to complement the other interventions aimed at increased self-awareness, practising

self-expression and experiencing themselves as individuals within the group (Drake,

2011 in Damons, 2014, p. 77; Freedman & Combs, 1996). Other activities that allowed

children to feel empowered by witnessing their ability to be powerful was clay work,

imaginative pretend play and finger painting.


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Figure 3.1: Self-constructed drums made from tins, beans and balloons

Figure 3.2: The use of self-constructed instruments to explore and express happy, sad,

scared and angry emotions

3.4.4.3.5 Creative bibliotherapy

As a part of the focus group session, stimulus activities (story books/read aloud) were

presented to initiate conversation. Ritchie and Lewis (2013) recommend using a pro-

jective technique or stimulus material with a focus group, because it creates distance

between the participants and the topic at hand. Creative bibliotherapy involves the use

of stories to uncover participants’ feelings, beliefs, attitudes and opinions about the

phenomena under study, which some participants may find difficult to express by direct

or structured questioning (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Ritchie & Lewis, 2013). This tech-

nique empowered the participants in this stud y to share their knowledge and to learn

from one another.


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During the focus group sessions, we engaged in read-aloud activities at the onset of

each session. When using some of the bibliotherapy techniques, the selected books

focused on emotional awareness and management. The activity enabled projecting

views to an external stimulus, which was a less threatening way of introducing and

starting the conversation around the topic. In addition, it also created the opportunity

for direct interactions among the participants; promoted exploration and further thought

around different feelings; provided opportunities to build emotion vocabulary in partic-

ipants; and developed scaffolding skills of self-awareness, problem-solving and com-

munication skills, while providing a space in which I could observe how participants

related to one another. It also encouraged participants to think about and reflect on

their experiences about their meaning-making processes. In addition, drawings were

often used at the end of sessions, during the “closing circle”, which served a reflexive

purpose. Participants were invited to reflect on the session, and what they had

“learned” and to share their meaning-making experiences.

3.4.4.3.6 Mindfulness

Breathing and mindfulness activities were generally done towards the end of each fo-

cus group session. Breathing and mindfulness teach children to recognise and regulate

their emotions, helping them build confidence and self-esteem. It also aids children to

recognise, understand and regulate their emotions (Johnson & Van Harmelen, 2017).

During the breathing and mindfulness activity, participants were provided with the op-

portunity to connect with their bodies and the environment in a positive and peaceful

way, allowing them to feel recollected, calm and grounded. Participants reflected on

the calming and grounding strategy of the day; drew a visual representation of it; and

added it to their “toolbox” of “things they can do to help them manage their emotions”.

3.4.4.3.7 Emotional awareness

Emotional awareness activities preceded each focus group session. Engaging in such

activities focused on enabling participants to get in touch with their own emotions, while

being perceiving the emotions of others in the group (Wiggins, 2013). At the onset of

each focus group session, participants engaged in the “Feeling Tree” activity. Partici-

pants were encouraged to choose the colour that best addressed the current emotional

state and put it on the tree. Through this activity, I hoped to foster a sense of self-


84

awareness, understanding and opportunity to verbalise emotions, thereby strengthen-

ing intra and interpersonal skills needed for socio-emotional intelligence.

3.4.4.3.8 Puppetry

Puppetry was used throughout the interactive activities. Studies have demonstrated

that puppets are beneficial when working with children, because: they decrease chil-

dren’s fears of the interview process; lover anxiety levels; provide an effective commu-

nication and teaching tool (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018).

Throughout the focus group sessions, the puppet was used as a tool to encourage

participants to develop emotional vocabulary and to talk about their emotions, experi-

ences and understanding.

Talking about feelings and experiences in a group provided opportunities for social

learning through sharing, discussing and listening to the views of others.

3.4.4.4 Researcher diary and field notes

As the researcher, I also generated field notes during the research process. The field

notes served as an additional source of data to help reveal meaning. These field notes

enabled me, as the researcher, to document valuable information that enriched my

reflecting process and added to the contextualisation of the study. Exerts from the field

notes are presented in Chapter 4.

The researcher's diary is described as a form of reflective writing that is kept throughout

the research process and allows the researcher to document their personal experi-

ences and daily accounts of the research process (Ida, Shrout, Laurenceau & Bolger,

2012; Bloor & Wood, 2006; Borg, 2001).

Reflexivity, which is a term commonly used in qualitative research, is viewed as the

researcher continuously reflecting and self-evaluating his/her positioning in the re-

search, as well as taking a critical stance on his/her perceptions, age, gender, class,

race and cultural origins, which may impact on the research process (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Ortlipp, 2008; Siddons & Rouse, 2006).

Through this researcher dairy, I chose to make my experiences, opinions, thoughts

and feelings visible by acknowledging how they may be influencing the iterative data


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analysis and research process. Keeping a research diary can, by implication, add to

illuminating the researcher's understanding of all the facets of the research process

(Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Borg, 2001) and serves to document the researcher's

own story through the process of being in contact with the stories of the participants.

Exerts from the field notes are presented in Chapter 4 and in Addendum H.

The combination of using the focus group session, along with participant artefacts,

research diaries and observations, strengthened the trustworthiness of the study and

created a space through which a collective approach allowed me to gain access into

the lived experiences of the participants and how these experiences may influence

their interaction with others.

3.5 Data analysis

In qualitative research, data analysis is described as the process of seeking to explore,

analyse, describe and make sense of data. In addition, it is used to create an under-

standing of the emerging themes and assist the researcher in the making meaning of

the data. The process of meaning-making in qualitative research is a continuous pro-

cess, going backwards and forwards, constantly evaluating and assessing collected

data and ensuring richness of data.

In this study, qualitative data was generated through focus group sessions that were

conducted with nine participants. These sessions were video recorded with the per-

mission of the parents/guardian of the child participants. In addition, the visual artefacts

that were created by the participants were verbally explored. The audio-visual record-

ings of the focus group sessions were transcribed verbatim. The aim of the transcrip-

tion was to transform the raw data into a copy that accurately captured the words and

understanding of the participants’ subjective experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;

Creswell, 2013a; Merriam, 2009; De Vos et al., 2011).

Once the focus group sessions had been conducted, recorded and transcribed, the

data analysis could begin. In my interaction with the raw data, I was guided by Merriam

and Tisdell’s (2016) suggested phases of analysis and interpretation.


86

The phases involved in this study are as follows:

1. An in-depth study of the transcripts

This first step entailed repeated readings and immersing myself in the data, trying

to obtain a sense of the whole before breaking it into parts. Keeping the research

question in mind, I read and re-read the transcriptions several times to become

familiar with the content of the transcripts. This enabled me to get to know the ma-

terial well enough to know the themes that might emerge. At the same time, I began

reflecting on the field notes I had written in my research journal during the data

collection process.

2. Steps 2 and 3: identification of themes and the coding of material

The second and third steps occurred simultaneously and involved the identification

of themes and the coding of material. While reading the transcripts, I started making

notes, patterns, comments, ideas and key concepts – i.e. engaging in the process

of “open coding” (Merriam & Tisdell 2016). This eventually led to grouping ideas

that seemed related and to pondering how they were related. Emerging themes

and categories were identified; codes were allocated; and the relationship between

themes were compared to one another.

3. Step 4: Writing up the interpretations

Once the process had been exhausted and no new findings emerged, I engaged in

the last step of the process which involved writing up my version of the interpreta-

tions. Throughout this process, I remained conscious of the importance of staying

with the participants stories in a way that honoured and fore-fronted their voices

(Babbie & Mouton, 2013. A sample of the thematic analysis used in this study can

be viewed in Table 4.2 (Chapter 4: Section 4.4). This process of coding aligns the

analysis process to the aims of the study and ensures that the data analysis ad-

dresses the research questions or concerns (see Addendum J for an example of

how this was done in this study).

3.6 Data verification strategies to ensure trustworthiness of the data

The literature states that research is usually evaluated according to its validity and

reliability. In quantitative research, the term validity assesses the accuracy of findings.

In qualitative research, reliability and validity are conceptualised as quality, rigour and


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trustworthiness (Patton, 2015). Lincoln and Guba (2003) refer to the term trustworthi-

ness as the means by which the inquirer can persuade the audience that the findings

of the study are worth paying attention to and that the research is valid, reliable and of

high quality.

In order to ensure trustworthiness, the following four variables needed to be adhered

to: credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability. A brief outline of the

strategies used to ensure the trustworthiness and the steps taken to achieve this trust-

worthiness in standards of practice are explained in the sections below.

3.6.1 Credibility

Credibility relates to the internal validity and is referred to by Babbie and Mouton (2013)

as the degree to which the collected data is accurate and dependable. In other words:

do the findings portray the truth of what has been studied (Merriam, 2013, Babbie &

Mouton, 2013; Bless & Higson-Smith, 2013). As a researcher, I aimed at demonstrat-

ing that the study was credible and trustworthy by implementing triangulation, member

checks and a peer review (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Cresswell, 2013a; Merriam,

2009). “Triangulation is the method most frequently used to verify and increase the

trustworthiness of qualitative research” (Bless & Higson-Smith, 2013:238). It is used to

ensure that the findings are rich, comprehensive and well-developed. Throughout this

research process, credibility was authenticated by using multiple methods and sources

of data collection, such as focus group sessions, a research journal, observations and

participant-generated artefacts to confirm emerging findings (Marshall & Rossman,

2016; Fletcher, MacPhee & Dickson, 2015; Merriam, 2009; Gorman & Clayton, 2005;).

I also employed member checks, where participants were given an opportunity to verify

meaning through informal conversation. Furthermore, the findings and the research

process were discussed with “critical friends” (i.e. peer reviewed) such as the supervi-

sor, educational psychologists and colleagues). In this way, a critical friend contributes

an objective perspective to the research process and, in turn, adds credibility to the

study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Babbie, 2010; Merriam,

2009).


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3.6.2 Dependability

I took care to ensure that the research process was logical, traceable and clearly doc-

umented in a reflexive manner by giving a detailed account of the research process.

An audit trail was kept of all phases of the research process, which increased the de-

pendability of the study, as it allows the reader insight into the my thoughts, actions

and experiences of the research process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Marshall &

Rossman, 2016; Babbie & Mouton, 2013; Merriam, 2009). (See Addendum I for an

exert from my research diary).

3.6.3 Transferability

Transferability refers to the extent to which the findings of the study are sufficient and

can be generalised to other contexts or with other participants (Babbie & Mouton, 2013;

Bless & Higson-Smith, 2013; Bryman, 2012; Merriam, 2002). The following strategies

were implemented to illustrate transferability and to provide the reader with the oppor-

tunity to decide whether or not the research is transferable. – Thorough and rich de-

scriptions of data were provided regarding the research process, context and findings.

Purposive sampling was applied for the selection of the participants. (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Babbie & Mouton, 2013; Merriam, 2009).

3.6.4 Conformability

Conformability involves the extent to which the data accurately represents the infor-

mation that participants presented during the study and is not the preconceived inter-

pretations of the researcher (Babbie & Mouton, 2013; Elo, Kääriäinen, Kanste, Pölkki,

Utriainen & Kyngäs 2014). Conformability, therefore, constitutes the degree to which

my own biases are excluded from the findings. This was a significant step in the study,

as I needed to listen to the data and display a true reflection of it (Marshall & Rossman,

2016; Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Merriam, 2009). Therefore, reflection played an im-

portant role throughout the research process; particularly in terms of eliminating any

biases held by me as the researcher. To be able to do this, I recorded the focus group

sessions in such a way that I had ready access to the raw data. I also kept field notes

(a reflexive journal) during the research process, through which I addressed my own

personal assumptions, so as to contribute to the conformability of the study (Patton,

2015; Babbie & Mouton, 2013; Merriam, 2009).


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3.7 Ethical considerations

There is a worldwide consensus that the practice of ethical research is central to the

trustworthiness of the study. “Trustworthiness of qualitative research rests heavily on

the level of ethical practice employed and embodied by the researcher” (Petersen,

2020, p. 62). The researcher is held responsible for the quality of the study and must

ensure that the study takes place in an ethical manner. Ethical considerations are,

therefore, crucial to the research and particular care should be taken when researching

vulnerable groups, such as children and young people. Children’s potential vulnerabil-

ity requires researchers to think through issues of “assent, consent and dissent, com-

petency, privacy and confidentiality, power dynamic between the researcher and child,

as well as possible benefits and harm …” (Coyne & Carter, 2018, p. 37). To address

these issues, I considered it imperative to abide by ethical principles that seek to pro-

tect the human rights and dignity of the participants, as guided by the Health Profes-

sionals Council’s guidelines (Babbie & Mouton, 2013; Marshall & Rossman (2011).

3.7.1 Protection, well-being and non-maleficence

Non-maleficence is the ethical principle of avoiding harm or minimising the risk of harm

to others (Allan, 2016). Children are considered a vulnerable population group that

needs to be protected. Because the participants in the study were primary school learn-

ers in a disorganised community and some might be particularly vulnerable because

of their context and experiences, it was particularly important to protect them from po-

tential harm. Therefore, I had the obligation to ensure physical and psychological

safety of all participants involved in the study, while safeguarding them from potentially

physical and psychological (embarrassment, humiliation or undue stress) harmful con-

sequences that might emerge from their participation in the study (Sanjari,

Bahramnezhad, Fomani, Shoghi & Cheraghi, 2014; Maree, 2012; De Vos et al., 2011;

Stuart & Barnes, 2005).

Although it is not always possible to anticipate all the possible consequences of par-

ticipating in a research project, specific issues – both risks and benefits – should be

identified. For this reason, I ensured that I schooled myself in the potential problems

and challenges that may arise when one conducts research with children and young

persons. Since constructs such as socio-emotional intelligence were being explored in


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this study, I was aware that participants could experience some distress during the

research process, as it had the potential to bring to light emotions. As guided by the

code of ethics for psychologist, I would refer the participants to psychological services,

should the need arise. I had negotiated access to psychological support services be-

fore the research commenced (See Addendum F). The participants and their caregiv-

ers were informed about the support available.

3.7.2 Informed consent, assent and permission

Attaining consent is regarded as a process that is continuously negotiated during the

research process (Denzin, 2017; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; ). For the purpose of this

research, written permission was obtained from the children’s/participants’ parents, as

well as from the children (participants). It was essential in a study utilising a children

sample and, therefore, the parents or legal guardians of each participant provided con-

sent for participation by the minor – who, until the age of 18, is considered incapable

of providing informed consent for participation in a research study (Republic of South

Africa, 2005; Gravetter & Forzano, 2009).

Appointments were set up with each participant’s parent/guardian. My intention was to

be transparent, in the hope of gaining the trust of the parent/guardian by being open

with them in explaining the aim and purpose of the study, the course of the research

process and what would be expected of the participants during the study. One of the

primary ethical positions of PAR is promoting the agency of children as experts on their

own lives, with a right to have a say in things that matter to them (Coyne & Carter,

2018). Therefore, it was my intention to engage the child participants in the informed

consent process actively, to promote their sense of agency within the research pro-

cess. The process of gathering assent was done in such a way that the child partici-

pants were able to comprehend by using a language and concepts that were readily

understood (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Engle, 2016). Careful consideration was given dur-

ing the explanation of the aim and purpose of the study, the course of the research

process, what would be expected of the participant, and the explanation of concepts

such as research and socio-emotional intelligence.


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Parents/guardians and participants were further informed that: their participation in the

study was voluntary; that they may withdraw from the study at any given point of the

research process; about possible risk factors and benefits; they were assured of their

right to anonymity; and provided with the opportunity to ask questions and/or have the

explanations repeated.

The parents/guardians of the participants were also required to give permission for

video recordings to be used throughout the data generation process. According to the

Health Professions Act, No. 56 of 1974, consent by the parents allows for the partici-

pants to be observed during therapeutic activities (Republic of South Africa, 1974).

I made sure that the consent form was written in language that was accessible to the

parents/guardian and the participants and that the form was made available in both

English and isiXhosa. Translators were made available to parents/guardians, which

means that participants could engage in the language in which they felt most comfort-

able. I carefully worked through the form with the participants and explained it in gen-

eral, as well as the parts that they did not understand (see Addendum C1 and C2).

3.7.3 Awareness of power dynamic

One of the ethical challenges of researchers working with children is the disparity in

power and status between adults and children, which makes it crucial to pay attention

to aspects such as reciprocity, collaboration and communication. PAR attempts to ad-

dress such an unequal power dynamic through a more collaborative and reciprocal

relationship between the researcher and co-researcher (participant) (Coyne & Carter,

2018). Before starting the study, I was cognisant of the fact that, because I used to

teach some of the participants in the past, the possibility of a skewed power dynamic

might exist between the participants and me. Therefore, I made a conscious effort to

redress the power imbalance between the child participants and myself, in order to

enable them to participate on their own terms. It is through adopting an interactive and

child-friendly, playful approach that I hoped to differentiate my new role (i.e. that of

participant observer/facilitator) from my previous one as their teacher.


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In addition, I hoped to shift the balance in favour of the participants. The PAR approach

allowed children to be social actors, who had as much choice as possible as to how

they participated in the research. Therefore, providing participants with the opportunity

to exercise power by choosing, making decisions, resisting, redirecting and refusing.

Consequently, I intend to shift the power-dynamic balance between myself and the

participants by ensuring autonomy and agency. Reflexivity was, therefore, an im-

portant element within this study and “… critical in conducting ethically sound research

with children … to ensure their safety, dignity and voice” (Coyne & Carter, 2018, p. 30).

The call for reflexivity on my part meant considering my role in the research, as well as

the relationship and dynamic between me and the participants.

3.7.4 Confidentiality and privacy

Protecting the identity of research participants and the anonymity of data are corner

stones of research (Patton, 2015). As formerly mentioned, children are considered a

vulnerable population and, therefore, they “… need to feel secure that the researcher

will hold what he/she has said with respect and confidentiality” (Coyen & Carter, 2018,

p. 45). Therefore, the privacy of such a population in research should be safeguarded

at all times. Confidentiality and anonymity were assured as follows:

• I went to great lengths to demonstrate that I valued each participant’s right to share

only as much as they feel comfortable sharing.

• Only researchers should be able to access the information that should be held in a

secure place (Stuart & Barnes, 2012; De Vos et al., 2011). The participants’ basic

right to privacy was respected. All identifying, demographic and personal data of

the participants was handled in a professional manner and secured from improper

access. Access to data was restricted by protecting it with a secret password (in

the case of electronically stored data), or with code-protected locks in case of hard-

copy data. Only my supervisor and I have access to any privileged information

given by the participants.

• It is usual to provide individuals with the assurance that their names will not be used

in anything written as a result of the research (Coyen & Carter, 2018; De Vos et al.,

2011; Stuart & Barnes, 2005). To assure the anonymity of the participants, I ex-

plained the process of anonymity to the parents and to the child participants in-

volved in the study. Pseudonyms or codes names were used, in the place of the


93

participant’s real name. The participants will, therefore, be referred to as Participant

1–9.

• Participants were informed that the raw data and transcripts would be stored for

five years after the research study has been completed.

3.8 Conclusion

The objective for this chapter was to provide an overall explanation of the research

methodology used in the study. The aim of the study is to evaluate the possible impact

of an adaptation of the Circle of Friends interventions on the socio-emotional intelli-

gence of foundation phase learners. The research design was described and the rea-

son why specific instruments were used in this study was explained. Following this was

a discussion of the data analysis process and the steps that were followed in the anal-

ysis. Lastly, the means in establishing trustworthiness and the ethical principles ad-

hered to, concluded the chapter. In the next chapter, the findings of this study will be

presented and discussed.


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CHAPTER 4: PRESENTING THE DATA

Pictures and meaning guide us around: “But feelings can't be ignored, no matter how un-

just or ungrateful they seem”. (Anne Frank, 1947)

4.1. Introduction

The aim of the study was to investigate whether PAR and an adaptation of the Circle

of Friends intervention programme can be used to enhance socio-emotional intelli-

gence competencies of primary-school learners within an informal settlement in Cape

Town. In Chapters 1 and 3, I contend that seeking to enhance competencies of

learner’s socio-emotional intelligence has the potential to positively influence on the

participants’ self-awareness, empathy, emotional self-regulation, and decision-making,

all of which could assist them in developing healthier coping strategies when dealing

with the daily challenges they encounter in their communities. This thesis was therefore

guided by the following key research question:

The following subsidiary questions were generated, in order to further explore the key

research question:

• How do children’s social context and their daily experiences (lived reality) influence


• How can children be included in developing or adapting interventions to enhance


• To what extent do interventions aimed at improving the socio-emotional intelligence


Participatory action research (PAR) was used as a theoretical framework to generate

qualitative data with the aim of gaining insight into this phenomenon. The data was

generated through various data generation methods including focus group, participant

generated artifacts, and field notes compiled by me and recorded in a research dairy.

Refer to Section 3.5 to see how this was done and see an example of this in Addendum

H.


95

An iterative coding process was done for the purpose of addressing the aim of the

study and responding to the research questions. The data generated through various

data generating methods were refined and organised into smaller themes that were

more closely related to the research questions. The transcribed focus group sessions

were analysed using a thematic analysis approach. This was adopted in order to ex-

plore the meaning making process of the participants and to emphasise the significant

findings related to the phenomenon understudy.

This chapter presents the findings generated from the process and presents them in a

way that seeks to incorporate the experiences of the participants through weaving di-

rect quotes or examples of the artefacts throughout (Petersen, 2020).

4.2 Meeting the participants

As mentioned in Sections 1.6.4.1, 1.6.4.2 and 3.4.2, the theoretical population for this

study was primary school learners who are enrolled in an independent primary school

within an informal settlement in Cape Town. The school is an independent school,

funded by a non-profit organisation (NPO). The study was limited to a group of nine

learners between the ages of seven and eight at the time of the research. The partici-

pants were purposively selected to participate in the study and met the following crite-

ria:

• Currently enrolled as a Grade 2 learner at the selected primary school;

• Residing in the same demographic area in which the school was situated;

• Have a sound understanding of and ability to converse in English;

• Signify varying degrees of emotional awareness and/or emotional-self manage-

ment.

Table 4.1 summarises who the participants were in this study. I used pseudonyms to

replace the names of the participants to protect their rights to privacy and anonymity.

In each transcript, the interviewer was always referred to as “Liza”. (A sample is pre-

sented in Addendum G).


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Table 4.1: Demographics of the participants

Participants Age Gen-

der

Home lan-

guage

Degree of socio-emotional management

and/or regulation (see Addendum E)

Blessing 8 M Isi-Xhosa

Presents with socio-emotional management

and/or behaviour regulation challenges. Blessing

was said to show little to no sense of self-aware-

ness. Blessing was reportedly subdued in his way

of self-managing, regulating, and calming himself

down. With regards to his decision-making skills

Blessing often withdrew and did not respond.

Manly 8 M Isi-Xhosa

Demonstrates some degree of emotional aware-

ness and/or emotional-self management. Manly

reportedly demonstrates sound emotional aware-

ness. His educator further reported well-devel-

oped ability to self-manage and regulate.

Strong 7 M Isi-Xhosa


ness and/or emotional-self management. Strong

demonstrates a well-developed sense of self-

awareness. However, his ability to self-manage

appears to be an area that requires development

as he was as reacting “somewhat impulsive”.

Strong was further described as showing empa-

thy to others.

Noble 7 M Isi-Xhosa


and/or behaviour regulation challenges. Noble

was reportedly observed to demonstrate little self-

awareness of his own and other’s emotions. Addi-

tionally, he appeared to be quite passive in his

means of self-managing, regulating himself. Addi-

tionally showing little awareness of possible com-

ping and calming skills.

Courageous 7 F Isi-Xhosa


ness and/or emotional-self management. Coura-

geous reported demonstrates well developed so-

cio-emotional competences.


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Participants Age Gen-

der

Home lan-

guage

Degree of socio-emotional management

and/or regulation (see Addendum E)

Warrior

(Liam) 8 M Isi-Xhosa


and/or behaviour regulation challenges. While

Warrior demonstrates some degree of self-aware-

ness, it was perceived to be an area that could

benefit from strengthening. Warrior reported finds

it extremely difficult to manage himself, self-regu-

late and calm himself down in the face of a con-

flicting situation. Subsequently, reacting impul-

sively. Furthermore, showing little awareness of

other’s emotions and perspectives.

Destiny 7 F Isi-Xhosa


ness and/or emotional-self management. Destiny

reportedly demonstrates sound self-awareness,

self-management, empathy and decision-making

skills – “she stops, thinks and acts”.

Love 7 F Isi-Xhosa


and/or behaviour regulation challenges. Love

seems to experience some difficulty with regards

to her self-awareness. Love reportedly finds it dif-

ficult to manage her-self, self-regulate and calm

herself down. Subsequently, becoming attention

seeking “needy” and emotional. With regards to

her decision-making skills, Love was said to react

in a sad way in the light of conflicting situations.

Fire 8 F Isi-Xhosa


and/or behaviour regulation challenges. Fire

demonstrates developing emotional self-aware-

ness. She was further reported to experience dif-

ficulties with her ability to manage her emotions,

and to self-regulate – often reacting impulsively to

situations, with little consideration for others.


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4.3 Experiencing the focus group process

The data was collected over a period of 10 weeks during focus group sessions. The

sessions lasted between 40 minutes and one hour. Nine of the learners participated in

the focus group sessions which focussed on exploring concepts of socio-emotional

intelligence. Despite multiple attempts, participation was inconsistent with some par-

ticipants being absent frequently from school.

Data was obtained by means of focus group sessions (FG), personal reflection notes

(PR) and observation (OB). The transcripts of the focus group sessions with the nine

participants, which also contained data about the participant generated artifacts re-

ferred to in Section 3.5.3 served as the primary sources of data in the study. Educator

Reflection, served as an additional source of data, providing feedback on her observa-

tion and experience of the participants once the group was concluded.

4.3.1 The physical space

The focus group sessions were held in the Grade RR classroom of the pre-school.

Though I left the organisation of the room as we found it, I allocated a space where the

participants and would engage with various activities. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate the

outlay of the room.

Figure 4.1: The session room layout

Feeling

tree

Desks

Collective

space

Activity display table


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Figure 4.2: The space

We sat in a circle formation on the floor during our sessions, placing us all at the same

level. Though the seating arrangement was uncomfortable for me, the participants ap-

peared ambivalent about it, some preferring even to lie on the floor. The single desks

that filled the classroom space were also available to the participants disposal, while

the carpet space used by the learners in the pre-school during story time was where

we spent most of our time collectively during the sessions. While most of the activities

were done within the collective space, flexible activity/working spaces were available

to participants, and they were given the freedom to complete individual activities where

they felt most comfortable. Observably, most of the participants preferred completing

individual activities withing the collective space.

For the participants some seats appeared to be considered prime seating. Where the

individuals sat and how they came to occupy those seats provided me with insight into

the group’s interactions and dynamic. For example, Strong, Warrior, Love and Coura-

geous always sought out seats in close proximity to me, at times scrabbling to ensure

their spot next to me. Strong, Courageous, Love and Warrior appeared to be quite

territorial about “their” spot, and would frequently, asks other participants to move “that

is my spot” (FG 4, p. 2). Blessing, Manly and Destiny however sought a seat further

away for me. At every session, Nobel willingly waited until everyone had chosen their

seat, after this, he accepted whatever seating option remained. Unlike the regular

classroom dynamics with their educators, I encouraged the participants to experience


100

a measure of agency in deciding their seats, whom they chose to sit next to and how

they did their check-ins. This created an open, playful, and engaging atmosphere.

4.3.2 The introduction

The first session of the focus group was focussed on establishing rapport and creating

a safe space for the participants and me. This was facilitated by using accessible lan-

guage to provide the participants with a clear explanation about the purpose of the

focus group, defining concepts such as research, emotional and social skills, exposing

them to, and giving them experiences of, novel activities, describing my role as co-

researcher and collectively thinking of group agreements. I used a stimulus activity, to

guide participants thinking about the sessions and what the purpose was:

• We read the book, A little spot;

• We spoke about each participant will becoming an emotion detective.

• We fosterd a sense of connectedness, we brainstormed some group names, in

order to create a group identity.

• I noticed how the participants came up with concrete names like “dog”, “butterfly”

and “puppy”.

• I had to be mindful of participants English language proficiency, and cognitive de-

velopment, as these determined the way in which I facilitated and explained the

former concepts.

While the introduction of the session occurred in a smooth an uncomplicated manner,

the participants appeared to be quite distracted throughout the session, frequently star-

ing at the art on the wall. I was conscious of their age and therefore found myself

employing my reflective skills: Liza (FG 1, p. 15) I notice that some friends are becom-

ing a bit distracted. Consequently, participants were provided with an opportunity to

explore the space, converse about what they noticed. At the onset of the first session,

I also reflected on the participants excited feelings as they I observed some of them

spinning around, dancing, clapping when I mentioned we would be drawing Liza: I can

see some spinning feelings, clapping feelings, dancing feelings, and I wonder if you

are all feeling excited about drawing? (FG 1, p. 10).


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During the onset of the session communication was encouraged through providing

each participant with opportunities to share their thoughts, ideas, experiences, and

feelings. Some participants were observably more talkative, engaging, and dominant

throughout the session. I initially found it challenging to manage the sharing dynamic

between participants, however, with time I made use of “cold calling” to invite some

participants to share their thoughts and add their meaning. The use of stimulus activi-

ties encouraged learners to express themselves. Some participants observably found

it difficult to actively listen to other, and as such I would use “reminding language” to

help participants remember our group agreements. For example, Liza: When a friend

speaks, we …?

4.3.3 Experiencing the stimulus activities with the participants

As a key focus of the research as determined by the research questions was to facili-

tate socio-emotional learning opportunities for the participants by creating a safe envi-

ronment where participants would be empowered through group discussion, sharing

their views, and hearing the views of others. It is important to create presentation of

how the use of stimulus activities played out in practice. The activities and the rationale

for their inclusion in this study are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3, I highlight

how they complement the participatory action research methodology.

4.3.3.1 Focus group

Working with small groups of children provides and effective way of helping partici-

pants strengthen socio-emotional competencies through the process of shared per-

spectives. During middle childhood, children become more inclined to interact with oth-

ers of the same age and gender. Peer cultures provide opportunities for learning pos-

itive social and emotional skills. making the research process less threatening and

more participatory (Louw & Louw, 2020). Using focus group sessions as part of my

data generation process appealed to me because it created an opportunity to elicit the

perspective of children and young persons, capturing their voices.

The focus groups had value in this study, as they provided multiple opportunities to

use a variety of different techniques to elicit shared understanding and meaning mak-

ing and to enable the participants to express their views in a range of different ways.


102

In this study I used drawing, clay work, storytelling (read aloud), instruments, and re-

flective practices (feeling tree)., to guide and stimulate conversation during the focus

group sessions. Please refer to Section 3 and Addendum for a list of materials and

examples of activities.

4.3.3.1.1 Clay work

Participants were asked to engage in a clay work activity in which they used clay to

symbolise and represent emotions/feelings. Each participant was provided with four

colourful balls of clay. Participants were invited to construct faces with the clay. Partic-

ipants were then invited to talk about the faces they had constructed; What emotion

the person is feeling, what made the person feel this way. The use of clay allowed

participants to be creative. Clay work is viewed as a process which mediates and en-

couraged the expression of thoughts, feelings, and experiences in a non-threatening

manner (Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018). Clay work further allowed for an increased

sense of belonging and interaction between group members, gaining insight and un-

derstanding of others in the group as they shared. It was interesting to note how some

participants used the clay to physically express anger. For example, upon giving Manly

the clay, he immediately went about punching it. Further speaking to clay work and its

ability to provide participants with opportunity for the physical expression of emotions.

Providing children with opportunities for physical expression – by controlling the media

– enables them to feel powerful.

Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate how clay work was used to explore emotions, emotional

triggers and the expression of emotions.


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Figure 4.3: Illustration of the use of clay work to explore emotions, emotional triggers and the

expression of emotions

Figure 4.4: Illustration of participants’ awareness of emotional triggering events and situa-

tions


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4.3.3.1.2 Instruments as vehicle to explore and express emotions

Participants were asked to engage in an interactive activity were each participant con-

structed and made their own instruments using tins, beans and balloons. Once, the

instruments were complete they were used as a non-verbal communication tool for

individuals to self-express and explore various types of emotions. The drums allowed

the participants to access and express their emotions as individuals. The drumming

allowed the participants to engage in a process that acknowledged the emotion the

individual was experiencing, the intensity with which they were experiencing it and how

they expressed it. By engaging in a communal activity, they also listened to how differ-

ently the same emotion was experienced and expressed by others. This was another

method for engaging in projective and reflexive conversations that created some space

between the participants and their often-intense responses to emotion, see Section

3.5.4.

Figure 4.5 illustrates how the self-constructed instruments were used to explore and

express happy, sad, scared, and angry emotions.


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Figure 4.5: The use of self-constructed instruments to explore and different emotions

4.3.3.1.3 Drawing as expressive voice

The drawing tasks involved drawing in response to music, drawing as a protective tool

and drawing as a tool in facilitated discussion around topics or experiences, which the

participants may have found particularly challenging to articulate (Oster & Crone,

2004). In addition, participants in this study were not verbally or conceptually fluent and

so drawing were used to provide the language children need to express their emotions

and experiences. Here the focus was not the product or the participants artistic skills.

In various activities participants were presented with a sheet of paper, and various

drawing materials including pencils, markers, pastels, and paint. Participants were in-

vited to draw about: what certain emotions look like and feel like to and within them;

events that evoke certain emotions in them; coping strategies they could employ to

help themselves down. The way drawings were used and impacted on the research is

presented throughout the findings, I include Figures 4. as examples of how drawings

were used to explore various emotions, what they look like and felt like to and within

each participant.

Figure 4.6 illustrates the way in which painting was used to explore and express happy,

sad, scared and angry emotions.


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Figure 4.6: The use of painting to explore emotions

4.4 Presenting the research findings: organising and summarising

the data

The art stimulus activities shared above illustrated the voice of the participants, giving

them freedom beyond their vocabulary limitations. The qualitative data generated dur-

ing the empirical part of this research study were analysed by engaging in various

levels of organising, generating units of meaning, and aggregating the data in order to

support the analysis process. Hence, an iterative data analysis process was used to

collect specific data related to the research topic. The first level of analysis focused on

carefully reading thought the transcribed transcripts, and repeatedly revisiting the data.

The former, providing the opportunity to draw connections between the data and ex-

isting literature. By employing the various interactive levels of analysis withing the qual-

itative data, the realities, perspectives and experiences of the participants were un-

veiled. The different data generation methods used in this research produced a large

amount of information. Mindful of the former, the data reduction process had to be

done in a very responsible way so that valuable information, meaning making and ex-

periences of the participants did not get lost in the process. During the data analysis,

categories were identified to gain an indication of the themes that were prominent in


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the data. Once these had been identified, the themes that stood out in each category

were clarified. Quotes to support arguments or interpretations are rendered verbatim,

hoping to forefront the voices and experiences of the participants using their own

words. The quotes are provided in italics and enclosed in quotation marks. Further-

more, they are coded by using “FG – the pseudonym of the participant: page number”.

The themes discussed below are the main themes that emerged in the data analysis

and they reflect the impact of participatory action research and its appropriateness to

strengthen socio-emotional competencies. The research questions were considered

throughout the process to ensure that the aims of the study were met. During the data

analysis, I coded the data into six (6) categories and 20 themes. Themes that emerged

through the data corresponds with Social-Emotional competencies highlighted by

CASAL (2012), Devis-Rozental (2018) and Goldman (1995).

Table 4.2: Refined themes and sub-themes

Categories Main themes Sub-themes

Category 1:

Self-awareness

Within this category, the following main

themes emerged:

• Awareness of own emotions

• Self-confidence

• Knowledge of self

• Recognising and accurately

names feelings

• Identifies and communicates

an emotion

• Identifies emotions related to

situations

• Self-confidence

• Identifies likes and dislikes

and wants

Category 2:

Social awareness

• Empathy

• Consideration for others

• Can read social cues

• Do they show awareness of

other’s emotions?

• Some participants re-

sponded in an empathetic

manner

Category 3:

Relationship skills

• Positive communication and

social skills to interact effec-

tively

• Ability to prevent, manage and

resolve interpersonal conflict

• Paying attention

• Take turns

• Sharing

• Saying “Please”, “Thank

you” and “Excuse me”

• Identifies feelings in conflict


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Categories Main themes Sub-themes

• Asks for help

Category 4:

Self-management

• Manage emotions construc-

tively

• Effective decision-making

• Identifies ways to calm

down

• Regulating one’s emo-

tions

Category 5:

Social context

• Family

• Community

• School

• Positive family interac-

tion

• Being hurt by others

• Gang-related violence

• School as a holding

place?

Category 6:

Delivery of PAR

• Trusting and connection

• Sense of mastery

• Verbalising and normalising

• Teachable moments

• Scaffolding

• Prompting

• Probing and questioning

4.4.1 Self-awareness

According to Goleman (1995, p. 95–96) self-awareness entails a deep understanding

of one’s own emotions, interest, strengths, areas of development, needs, and main-

taining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence. I found that many of the participants

had experienced growth in their “knowing of self”.

4.4.1.1 Awareness of own emotions

I found that most of the participants had experienced growth in their awareness of own

emotions. This entails the ability to recognise one’s own emotions. Bar-On (1997) fur-

thers one’s understanding of this competency stating that emotional self-awareness is

not only the ability to be aware of our own emotions, but also to differentiate between

them, to know what we are feelings and why, and to know what causes those feelings.

The data in this category contains observations, where participants observably demon-

strate growth in their sense of emotional self-awareness.


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Courageous, Warrior and Strong appeared to present with some emotional self-aware-

ness, knowledge of feelings ranges and emotion vocabulary at the onset of the focus

group sessions. Some of the young people were able to identify a range of emotional

vocabulary, so for example

Warrior (FG 1, p. 15): Happy, angry, loved, anxious, sad or confident …

Courageous (FG 2, p. 9): I am excited

Strong (FG 2, p. 7) Excited and happy

Whilst some of the other participants appeared to have limited knowledge of feelings

and emotional literacy, these participants frequently responded with “Fine” (FG 2, p. 2)

when asked how they felt. It was important that I remained mindful of how each of the

participants entered the research space during each session and how they journeyed

through the overall research process. Guided by the developmental and research the-

orist, Piaget (1952), Vygotsky (1934) and Mayer & Salovey (1997), I also paid particular

attention to the inclusion of age and developmental level appropriate activities and the

social emotional development variables I sought to nurture. Understanding that we

grow and express ourselves in different ways, I acknowledge that some of the partici-

pants demonstrated an increased emotional self-awareness along with more detailed

knowledge of feelings ranges and emotion vocabulary quicker than others. In addition,

with increased participation in the focus group sessions they increasingly demon-

strated their growing ability to recognise, name and communicate emotions. Table 4.3

includes citations from these statements:

Table 4.3: Emotional self-awareness over time

Nobel

(FG 2, p. 6)

08/03/2021 Fine

(FG 6, p. 4)

06/04/2021 I felt excited

(FG 9, p. 6)

25/03/2021 I am feeling happy and joy

Blessing


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(FG 3, p. 10)

15/03/2021 Sad

(FG 7, p. 10)

11/04/2021 Happy and excited

Love

(FG 2, p. 6)

08/03/2021 Fine

(FG 6, p. 5)

06/04/2021 I am feeling happy, excited and sad

(FG 9, p. 6)

25/04/2021 I am feeling calm, joy and sad

Whilst some of the participants were comfortable sharing at the level, they were func-

tioning most of the others adapted a more nuanced emotional vocabulary, as illustrated

when Strong (FG 8, p. 1) shared that Cross is the same as angry. Likewise, Strong,

Courageous, Warrior and Fire all show awareness of the emotional “jealous”. In addi-

tion, participants started differentiating between feelings such as happy and excited

Nobel (FG 7, p. 1). Working in a group meant that initially some of the participants were

more confident often because of the language most commonly used at home or in their

neighbourhood.

However, as their confidence of working with me and the other participants and famil-

iarity with the activities, grew, they shared more than single words or limited ideas.

Over time, I noticed that all the participants started to make contributions verbally or

non-verbally in all the activities. The participants began to not only mention emotions

but were able to identify events/situations that trigger certain emotions within them.

This is reflected in Courageous’ willingness to share that I feel sad when somebody is

not listening, also when they hit me (FG 3, p. 6). Some of the participants appeared to

present with different levels of insight, understanding and ability to verbally express

their thoughts and emotions over time. In order to facilitate and enhance the ability of

participants to express themselves freely, I used activities (see Section 3.5.4 or Ad-

dendum I) that sought to expand their emotional and English vocabulary; improve their

confidence in sharing their view and their willingness to engage in positive risk taking.


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By Session 4, most of the participants appeared to be able to think about and share

situations and events that trigger certain emotions. In the following section I include

citations from the various focus groups to illustrate the different rate some of these

participants acquired the communication skills and the acquisition of social emotional

related to social awareness, these statements:

Nobel (FG 3, p. 6): When the people they beat me, I feel sad.

Destiny (FG 5, p. 6 and 12): I cried … I felt sad because my tooth is sore. Able

to share about a time she felt sad along with identifying the feeling a certain

situation evoked in her. She did require a significant amount of prompting. How-

ever, struggles connected to the angry parts of her in session 6 (FG 6, p. 12).

Love (FG 6, p. 5) able to express something that caused her to experience

“happy and sad” feelings. She shared that I was happy because I was going

with my sister in the mall. Why I am sad is, someone did beat me and ran away.

Warrior (FG 7, p. 12) after experiencing a traumatising event in the morning

Liam was able to identify and communicate the feelings the event hard triggered

in him: I felt like I was about to die … I feel weak and jumbled up. Similarly,

Manly (FG 7, p. 4) shared that the former event triggered worried feelings within

him I was worried Nobel (FG 7, p. 17) was able to identify triggers that evoke

scared feelings in him: When you are sleeping, you are too scared.

Manly (FG 7, p. 10) I am feeling sad because I got hurt. I am feeling angry

because I almost died.

Strong (FG 8, p. 14): It makes me angry when someone breaks my pen.

Kim (FG 8: p. 14) shared that it makes her angry.

While most participants appeared to be able to identify emotions to certain situations/

events Blessing seemed to find it quite difficult to know the causes of certain strong

emotions. While Blessing readily shared about happy feelings and experiences (FG 5,

p. 12) “happy” … It was my brother’s birthday, it seemed that he found it difficult to

connect with the more “uncomfortable” and strong emotions like anger, fear, and sad-

ness. During focus group session 3, participants were invited to share about things that

make them feel sad, when asked whether he ever felt sad Blessing responded: “No”


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(FG 3, p. 7). Similarly, during focus group session 5 (FG 5, p. 13) Blessing wrote “an-

gry” on his feeling leaf. However, when invited to tell us more about the angry feelings

he might be feeling, Blessing found it difficult to share.

Figure 4.7: Blessing’s use of the feeling-tree to express his angry emotional state

It was interesting during that session that despite his non-verbal, macho-man like be-

haviour in session (FG 3, p. 7) where he slammed his chest and shouted “yaaah-

yaaah” when asked to take a leaf to write down his current emotional state. In reflecting

on what I was observing, I was conscious that I consider whether he often have trouble

with expressing his emotions verbally or if he found it easier to act out his possible

disconnect and trouble connecting with the more vulnerable side of him. Literature

writes about “behaviour as communication”. Children and young people don’t always

have the vocabulary to describe and express their own feeling and may instead through

their behaviour act out their feelings and needs. In addition, Dreikurs (1998) explains

that the behaviour of some children through their emotional commitment to gain atten-

tion, show superiority or power. The former behaviour is said to develop when chil-

dren’s emotional needs have become blocked or diverted (Lindon, 2012; Wright & Ker-

sner, 2003). Furthermore, at this stage of the process, I wondered about how Bless-

ing’s environment may have contributed to his need to be brave and strong. Over time

Blessing appeared to be able to connect more readily with strong feelings like anger


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as unlike in session 5 when he was reluctant to share what had made him angry, in

Session 8, he recognised the feeling of anger as well as the fact that “When someone

beats me”, he became angry (FG 8, p. 15).

4.4.1.2 Self-confidence

Self-confidence is one of the important components of socio-emotional intelligence

(Goleman, 1995). I noted several instances where the participants were perceived to

be more self-confident during or after the focus group session. Self -confidence having

to do with the self-dimension and referring to one’s belief in oneself and one’s abilities

and competence (Louw & Louw, 2020). While some participants presented with a

sense of self-confidence at the onset of the focus group sessions, as they actively

engage with the process, share their thoughts and opinions. Warrior (FG 1, p. 6) ea-

gerly shared, I am curious, I am always curious.

Other participants seemed to be nervous, and uncertain during the first few sessions.

These participants seemingly presenting as unsure of themselves, their abilities and

shying away from engaging and partaking, and frequently requiring probing to partici-

pate. Furthermore, responding with short one-worded answers, or at times copying

and extending on a story already shared by someone else.

Table 4.4: Self-confidence over time

Nobel

(FG 1, p. 1)

01/03/2021

(FG 3, p. 10)

15/03/2021

(FG 5, p. 4)

29/03/2021

“Nice” he shared shyly, while making limited eye contact.

I got cake: copied Courageous’ story

Saturday, I got to the mall, then it was my baby brother’s birthday.

(FG 6, p. 4)

06/04/2021

(FG 7, p. 13)

11/04/2021

I go at the beach, and then I buy ice-cream and Pepsi with my

brother, then I felt good. We did also go to McDonald’s and then

we buy McDonald’s.

And I also felt excited.

Miss, can I say something?


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(FG 8, p. 12)

18/04/2021

Please can I have a pen? Nobel speaks more assertively about

his wants and needs.

(FG 8, p. 12)

18/04/2021 It is my favourite. I can read that book; it is my favourite thing.

Destiny

(FG 1, p. 2)

01/03/2021

(FG 3, p. 10)

01/03/2021

Not me, she whispered.

Chocolate cake and we went to the beach: copied Courageous’

story.

Blessing

(FG 1, p 3)

01/03/2021 “Dog”

(FG 9, p. 13)

25/03/2021

Blessing raised his hand to share I can cry … I can breathe.

Love

(FG 2, p. 7)

08/03/2021

(FG 3, p. 3)

01/03/2021

(FG 5, p. 11)

29/03/2021

(FG 6, p. 2)

06/04/2021

It was my baby sister birthday, and my mommy did buy her vanilla

cake.

My mom baked me a delicious fruit cake. Love seemingly copied

this story from Courageous (FG 3, p. 3) who shared, It was my

sister’s birthday … My mom baked the cake, it was a rainbow

cake with unicorn cream.

It is my brother’s birthday: copied Nobel’s story

It was observed that Love shared her own story this week:

On Friday I went out. I did go to the mall with my aunty and then

to buy some chips and pizza … On Saturday I was playing with

my friends … And on Sunday I did go to church.

As seen in Table 4.4. most of the participants demonstrated grown in their sense of

self-confidence, as they started to partake, share, and engage with the process more

readily, while starting to make contributions in all the activities. I noticed how partici-

pants started expressing their wants and need more assertively e.g. Nobel (FG 8, p.

12) Please can I have a pen? Nobel and Love appeared to feel more at ease with


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themselves and the process, and as such more confidently voiced and shared their

own thoughts, opinions, and experiences. This could likely be attributed to what litera-

ture refers to a growing sense of self and individual competence (Lindon, 2010).

An extract from the educator’s reflection and feedback illustrates her observation of

Nobel’s growing sense of competence and self-confidence (ERF, p. 1) Nobel seems

to have come out of his shell. He has grown and changed quite a bit; he is a lot more

outspoken.

4.4.1.3 Self-concept: knowledge of self

The data observed in the transcripts indicate that some participants became aware of

their own talents, abilities/potentials attitudes, values and likes and dislikes. The former

likely also speaking to their growth in self-awareness and self-concept.

Warrior (FG 1, p. 8) I also love reading books.

Love (FG 1, p. 9) I love paint.

Nobel (FG 8, p. 12) It is my favourite. I can read that book … it is my favourite

thing.

Courageous (FG 8, p. 3) Firstly, I like all of these things, referring to the lunch

bars we have been enjoying during snack time.

4.4.2 Social awareness

Social awareness constitutes the ability to recognise, understand and compassion feel-

ings and perspectives of others. Researchers agree that social awareness is obtained

by being in tune with how others are feelings, while Cooper & Sawaf (1997) mention

that empathy means “to feel with” (Lindon, 2012; Blom, 2004; Goleman, 1995). In this

study, I looked for evidence in the transcripts that the participants demonstrated aware-

ness of the emotions of others while acting empathetically towards them.

4.4.2.1 Empathy

Liam (FG 3, p. 7): You never alone, I am here for you man.

Recognising the feelings of others and taking on their struggle “feeling with others” was

evidenced in many ways in the data generated through the focus group sessions. Dur-

ing the focus group sessions several empathetic interactions were observed.


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4.4.2.1.1 Awareness of others’ emotions

Various instances were observed where the participants interactions suggested aware-

ness of other’s emotions - the ability to accurately identify, read and comprehend feel-

ings “emotional states” in others.

Nobel (FG 2, p. 6) He was scared of the water.

Warrior (FG 3, p. 6) asks Andi, Where you disappointed?

Strong (FG 6, p. 1) This guy looks calm, like he is happy.

Courageous (FG 7, p. 4) Maybe he felt worried?

Fire (FG 7, p. 11) Manly teacher, he has sad feelings.

During Session 3, Zinzi the puppet shared that she felt sad because friends weren’t

listening and being kind (FG 3, p. 5) Her heart felt heavy, she felt like crying, her eyes

were tearing up. Nobel showed awareness of Zinzi’s emotions and responded (FG 3,

p. 5): It looks like it is sad.

While Strong appeared to be able to read and label the emotions of other’s (FG 2, p.

7) My brother is also happy; (FG 3, p. 8) She is very sad, referring to Courageous

whose non-verbal communication expressed that she was feeling unhappy. Strong’s

social awareness – understanding of the emotional estate of others – subsequently,

appeared to be inconsistent and selective. Strong was observed teasing a friend about

his drawing You are scribbling (FG 5, p. 20). Strong seemingly founds it difficult to

identify actions and words that hurt others. Likewise, in focus group session 9, Strong,

seemingly found it difficult to recognise and understand social signals, and as such did

not show awareness and comprehension of Warrior’s emotional state (FG 9, p. 17).

For example, Warrior had experienced a rough day at school, and consequently

shared that he felt “unwanted”. Strong, was not attune to Warrior’s verbal and non-

verbal cause, and subsequently evoked more overwhelming feelings in Warrior when

he said “tand up! Stand up Warrior!” Children’s ability to respond appropriately to other

people’s emotions is related to their interpersonal communication skills, including their

ability to listen, pay attention, and their awareness of non-verbal communication of

emotions (Blom, 2004). In Section 4.4.4 it can be seen that Strong, experiences some

difficulty with regards to his ability to actively listen and be attune, as such likely influ-

encing his ability to be emotionally responsive to others.


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4.4.2.1.2 Emotional responsiveness

It was further observed how some participants not only distinguish, label, and show

insight into other’s emotions, they also showed emotional responsivity towards them.

Warrior (FG 2, p. 4) shared about a sad incident over the weekend: My uncle died.

Strong (FG 2, p.4) shows empathy towards Warrior when he responds: Then it is like

your heart breaks. Liza (FG 2, p. 4) It is like your heart breaks for them?

Similarly, Manly (FG 2, p. 5) shared about a sad event that happened to him over the

weekend. A similar event to Warrior’s, where a family member almost passed away

(FG 2, p. 5) My sister’s baby almost died. It was observed how Manly was able to make

a self-connection to Warrior’s experience. Subsequently, Warrior (FG 2, p. 5) was able

to identify Manly’s feelings, and showed emotional responsivity towards him: Manly I

am really sorry and then proceeded to give Manly a hug. It was observed how child-

participants were more readily able to react with more empathy towards someone

whom they observe as being the same as themselves or having a similar experience

(Gendard, Geldard & Yin Foo, 2018; Blom, 2004). Warrior appeared to be able to infers

what feeling Manly likely felt over the weekend (FG 2, p. 5) “sad”, as he to experience

a similar sad experience. The former extraction, showing how stories can promote par-

ticipant’s empathetic understanding and responsiveness, in that the participants can

relate them to their own lives.

During focus group Session 3, it was observed how Courageous portrayed the picture

of a “sad” young girl. Strong (FG 3, p. 14) noticed how Courageous felt sad She is very

sad”. Strong scooted closer to Courageous, placed his hand on her back, and asks

Are you okay? Similarly, Love shifted closer to console an unhappy Courageous. The

former citation, indicating how participants are able to respond with empathy towards

others. In addition, Strong reacted with empathy towards me, when I shared about an

event that made me feel sad, Teacher give me a hug (FG 5, p. 13).

During session seven Strong shared about his foot, and how it has been aching. At

one stage in the session Strong appeared overtly upset. Nobel was able to identify and

recognise the emotions in Strong, and respond in an empathetic manner (FG 7, p. 17)

I am sorry Strong, whilst rubbing his back. According to literature, socio-emotional skills


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build on one another. Children must learn to recognise, understand, and communicate

their own emotions, to learn that others have feeling to, and begin to empathize with

them (Devis-Rozental, 2017; Boyd et al., 2005; Blom, 2004; Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

It was observed how with an increased sense of emotional self-awareness and positive

self-concept and appropriate emotional vocabulary – came an accompanying growth

in participants sense of empathy towards others.

As observed and reported in Section 4.3.1, Nobel showed growth in his self-aware-

ness, emotional vocabulary, and self-concept. Development of positive self-concept

contributes to the development of the child’s empathy skills. As children gain more

confidence in their own socio-emotional competencies, they should act with increasing

empathy towards others. Consequently, it can be said that as Nobel’s self-awareness,

self-concept and emotional vocabulary developed, so did his empathetic awareness,

understanding and responsiveness. Children who feel good about themselves, have

emotional vocabulary and growing sense of self-awareness are better able to confirm

emotions and tend to show more empathy towards other” (Lindon, 2014; Louw & Louw,

2020; Blom, 2004).

In addition, to the participants responding to others in an empathetically responsive

manner, it was interesting to note how most of the participants demonstrated consid-

eration for others and a desire to contribute to their well-being. Strong (FG 2, p. 4)

Then they cry but you just have to just like calm them down to stop crying. It is about

caring and being nice to your friend. Similarly, Manly expressed consideration and

concern for Warrior when he stated, Something did happen to Warrior (FG 8, p. 9).

When participant spoke about, or showed a powerful feeling like sad, angry, worried,

or scared, I reflected, probed and questioned (FG 3, p. 14) I wonder what we can do

to help… to feel better? Participants frequently responded with physicals and concrete

means, of lifting someone’s spirit. The former speaking to the participants current cog-

nitive developmental level, Piaget (1952) the concrete operational stage, as discussed

in Chapter 2. However, this appeared to shift as the sessions progressed, and I mod-

elled and reflected on what I did when a friend needed empathy and compassion. Cou-

rageous (FG 2, p. 4) We can share our food; Strong (FG 3, p. 14) What about we can

play with you and watch a movie; Warrior (FG 3, p. 14) What about a hug? (FG 5, p.

17) Andrew: When I fell down and hurt myself, also Liam did help me.


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Furthermore, the participants demonstrated social awareness skills pertaining to being

able to identify words and actions that could hurt others. Fire was able to identify ac-

tions and words that hurt others, when she noticed that Strong was being unkind and

asked him to stop (FG 8 p. 21) Strong stop teasing! Nobel was also able to identify

action that could hurt others While Strong is talking, Warrior and Love are not listening

(FG 7, p. 13). Similarly, Strong identified actions that could hurt others Destiny was

laugh at Fire when she was falling (FG 8, p. 12). Participants further grew in their use

of positive communication and awareness of social cues – ability to respect personal

space and turn-taking. Warrior (FG 1, p. 6) If they say don’t touch, don’t touch, we have

to just stop. Turn-taking behaviour was observed on numerous occasions. Warrior (FG

6, p. 4) We can move, and then come back to me. Love (FG 7. P. 22) Excuse me,

please can I have those colours when you done? Similarly, Fire also waited her turn

and then asked, Please can I have the pastel (FG 8, p. 17).

While eight of the participants showed more nuanced social awareness – specifically

to the emotions of others, along with ability to respond to others in an empathetic,

caring, and compassionate manner, Blessing observably found it difficult to relate to

and empathise with other participants in the group. As illustrated when Blessing was

observed laughing at Strong, when he shared about a terrifying event that he had ex-

perienced (FG 7, p. 12). Similarly, Blessing laughed when Warrior shared that he did

not feel like sharing about the overwhelming events he had experienced prior the focus

group session (FG 9. p.2). I again became conscious to the fact that children should

have learnt to understand their own feelings, in order to learn that others have feelings

to (Boyd et al., 2005; Blom, 2004). In addition, I again became cognisant of Blessings

self-awareness, and whether he often had trouble with expressing his emotions ver-

bally or whether he found it easier to act out his possible disconnect and trouble con-

necting with the more vulnerable side of him. Blessing disconnected with his own emo-

tions, consequently resulting in his difficulty to “feel with others”.

4.4.3 Self-management

Goleman (1995) and Walton, et al., (2012) agreed that recognising one’s emotions

alone is not enough. Goleman (1995) and Walton (2012) further aligned in their re-

search to say knowing alone can hurt a person if they do not act appropriately after


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ascertaining their mood. Socio-emotional skills build on one another, children have to

learn how to understand and recognise their own emotions first, to learn that others

have feelings too, and to begin to empathise with others. As children grow older, they

learn to manage and handle their emotions (Boyd et al., 2005). Self-management re-

fers to one’s ability to regulate one’s emotions to handle stress, controlling impulses,

and expressing emotions appropriately by means of intrinsic and extrinsic strategies

(CASAL, 2021; Payton et al., 2006; Blom, 2004; Goleman, 1995).

The researcher in this study searched for evidence that participants worked to identify

ways to calm themselves and change their emotional state after recognising it.

4.4.3.1 Manage emotions constructively

The data revealed that many of the participants were aware of various ways in which

they could calm themselves down when they experience certain emotions e.g., angry,

sad, scared, and anxious. Courageous, Warrior and Strong had strong voices when it

came to identifying some of the “regulating/calming” strategies that they employ when

they experience certain emotions. While all nine participants commented in a similar

fashion about strategies, they could use to calm themselves down, these often echoed

the strategies voiced by Courageous, Warrior and Strong.

Table 4.5 reflects the participants voices.

Table 4.5: Awareness of coping/calming strategies

Courageous

(FG 2, p. 13)

08/03/2021

(FG 4, p. 9)

22/03/2021

I go to my room and I take two deep breaths.

She could breathe in and her friends could help.

Nobel

(FG 2, p. 13)

08/03/2021

(FG 7, p. 20)

11/04/2021

I go to my room and sleep.

I go to a safe space.


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Warrior

(FG 2, p. 13)

08/03/2021

(FG 7, p, 15)

11/04/2021

(FG 9, p. 19)

25/04/2021

You can instead of punching them, just punch a pillow or

scream into the pillow.

I run to a safe space

Liam shares how the calming bottle might be something use-

ful to use when he gets upset at school

Fire

(FG 4, p. 9)

22/03/2021

(FG 9, p. 11)

25/04/2021

Must have walked away and go tell the teacher

We just think before you do, but no punching people

You can tell a teacher or you mom

Strong

(FG 4, p. 9)

22/03/2021 She would just walk away and tell her parents and an adult.

Manly

(FG 7, p.7)

11/04/2021

I can hug myself

You can tell an adult

Throughout the focus group sessions attention was paid to participants awareness of

coping strategies to aid them in handling emotions such as anger and fear. During

session nine participants identified positive and negative ways of managing angry feel-

ings. It was evident from the data that majority of the participants showed increased

awareness of way to express their angry emotions appropriately. For example, Liza

(FG 9, p. 10) It is okay to be angry, but it is not okay to hit, instead we can?

Fire (FG 9, p. 11): No punching people … We don’t break things, instead we

can tell our mother.

Strong (FG 9, p. 16): I can go to a quiet place and read a story.

Manly (FG 9, p. 16: You can go to a safe space.

Warrior (FG 9, p. 16): I can punch a pillow.


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Participants were thus able to differentiate between constructive and negative ways of

reacting when angry. Subsequently, highlighting their understanding and awareness

of various calming and coping strategies that they can use to assist them in han-

dling/managing their big emotions. Fire shared: You in charge of your feelings (FG 9,

p. 20). Alluding, one to believe that some participants were starting to show awareness,

of the role they play in modifying their emotional reactions.

4.4.3.2 Self-regulation

Self-regulation refers to a child’s ability to manage, process and handle emotions. A

person who can self-regulate can manage emotions that are often overwhelming and

is able to avoid acting impulsively or becoming dysregulated. Developing awareness

of one’s own emotions and behaviour is a critical step in the development of self-reg-

ulation. Children, who demonstrate self-regulation, have the ability to monitor and con-

trol their behaviours appropriately to a given situation independently (Wilmshurst,

2013).

The data further revealed that many of the participants were able to implement and

practice strategies to calm themselves down when they experience certain emotions

e.g., angry, sad and scared.

My observations showed that some participants found it relatively easy to regulate

themselves, others grew in their abilities, while other participants appeared to continue

finding it somewhat difficult to modulate their emotions and selves. One participant

demonstrated continues and admirable self-regulation throughout the focus group ses-

sions. Courageous showed ability to manage and modulate emotions, that are over-

whelming, while being able to avoid acting impulsively or becoming dysregulated. Cou-

rageous experienced overwhelming sad feeling during focus group session three, (FG

3, p. 14), she was able to identify her emotion, select an emotional regulation strategy

and implement the specific strategy. Similarly, Strong shared about an event where a

learner at school hit him, I was so angry … I told the teacher. Liza: You didn’t hit back,

instead you told the teacher (FG 5, p. 5). The former example alluding to the fact that

Strong is likely able to use extrinsic strategies to assist him in managing himself.


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Manly appears to be a boy with a significant amount of suppressed anger. During var-

ious activities – drumming, clay work, calming bottle, he would express his angry and

aggressive energy by punching the clay, the bottle or tin. Manly: You can even punch

the bottle, proceeding to punch it (FG 9, p. 20). Similarly, during Session 10, when

going through the contents of their “coping toolboxes”, Manly punched the clay with all

his might while making “grunting noises” (FG 10, p. 20). I wondered how this spoke to

what Gestalt therapists, Oaklander (1978) refers to as “expression of build-up energy”,

and Manly’s need to ventilate and express his bottled-up aggressive energy. Often

children’s environment does not often allow children to verbalise or express their angry

emotions. Additionally, one should be mindful of the influence of the participants social

contexts and how, parent-styles, punitive discipline-style and cultural beliefs could

emotionally harm children (Louw & Louw, 2020; Blom, 2012).

During the focus group several instances were observed where participants more ac-

tively practice strategies to manage emotions. For example, during focus group ses-

sion nine, Strong experienced some upset feelings when asked to respect Warrior’s

need for personal space. Instead of reacting, Strong was able to remove himself from

the situation, and joined once he felt like he regrouped. The former examples also

speak to Warrior’s and Strong’s ability to employ calming strategies to constructively

solve and handle situations that cause upsetting emotions. While participants demon-

strated the ability to practice such strategies, I noticed how they required coaching and

guidance to assist them in becoming aware of their emotion, and the various strategies

they can employ to cope and calm themselves down.

The data showed there were some participants who experienced a sense of growth in

their ability to self-regulate. Through opportunities of co-regulating Fire and Nobel

seemingly demonstrated increased ability to manage overwhelming emotions, by im-

plementing helpful and useful strategies. Fire demonstrated the ability to constructively

handle situations that cause upsetting emotions. For example, Fire asked: Teacher

can we go in a circle? (FG 6, p. 6). I agreed to Fire’s suggestion, however, the circle

ended up rotating the opposite direction, as Fire suggested. While she seemed disap-

pointed, she handled the former situation in a constructive, less reactive, and positive

way. Nobel was referred for the focus group by his educator, as he observably, pre-


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sented with difficulties practicing and implementing strategies to handle emotions. Re-

flective feedback from Nobel’s educator (EF, p. 1) suggest that Nobel has demon-

strated some grown in his emotional regulation abilities He is also less reactive and

more responsive, so he will come to me and let me know if someone is doing some-

thing wrong. Not that he doesn’t at times do something wrong, but he is seemingly

more aware of other’s and their behaviour. Nobel seemingly starting to employ extrinsic

strategies to modulate emotions and behaviour.

While being able to identify various ways one could calm oneself down, two participants

recognise how difficult it can be to manage one’s mood and self in certain situations.

Manly (FG 2, p. 13) shared Sometimes you cannot control yourself … You cannot help

yourself to calm down. In the former statement the participant alludes one to believe

that he might have some strategies in place but, it is not always easy to employ them.

In addition, Strong (FG 2, p. 14) shared Also when you are so angry, you cannot calm

down, you just start crying. To which Manly (FG 2, p. 14) responded, I do that. The

former suggesting that children often feel helpless in the face of strong emotions like

fear and anger. Furthermore, some emotions can be perceived to be too powerful, and

overwhelming, with energies that children (the participants) might feel they are unable

to control (Fontana & Slank, 1998).

One participant found it difficult to manage overwhelming emotions – anger and fear –

and observably reacts impulsive in the face of such “powerful” emotions. While the

transcription and data indicated that Warrior showed awareness of the experienced

emotions, he appears to find it difficult to monitor, evaluate and modify his emotional

reactions and as such becomes reactive and dysregulated. Warrior’s behaviour today

reminded me of a hurricane, I reflected after Session 9 (RJ, p. 7). Warrior reportedly,

had a rough day at school, a teacher asked him to remove himself from the classroom.

Warrior shared how a classmate “started him” and that his teacher did not believe him

when he explained to her what had happened. Warrior felt safe and connected enough

to bring his angry, sad, and rejected I feel not wanted (FG 9, p.1) feelings to the focus

group session, although he appeared to find it difficult to manage himself, as his be-

haviour became increasingly impulsive and dysregulated – he spun around, crawled

away, bumped things over, laid on the floor and found it difficult to listen to and follow

directions. Strong shared his observations of the incident at school He was so angry,


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he did beat a kid (FG 9, p. 5). The former makes one wonder about Warrior’s ability to

regulate and manage his emotions. Collectively, the group and I tried to scaffold War-

rior through co-regulating, by reflecting his emotions, experiences and trying to identify

alternative strategies for dealing with his powerful emotions. While the Warrior seem-

ingly had trouble regulating, Reflective feedback from his educator suggest that he has

continued to develop in his ability to handle emotions (ERF, p. 1) I have noticed a

beautiful improvement in Warrior … He is learning not to let people affect him so much,

I feel like he has matured since the intervention group. Warrior’s educators’ statement

not to let people affect him as much. According to Zillman (1993), the universal trigger

for anger is the sense of being endangered (Goleman, 1995). While Warrior, might not

have been physically endangered, a symbolic threat to his self-esteem likely gave root

to his anger.

Similarly, Nobel was observed demonstrating constructive academic behaviour and

self-regulation, as he more readily followed directions, participated, took turns, and

ignored distractions more readily.

4.4.3.3 Impulse control

Impulse control is one of the important components of socio-emotional intelligence,

specifically pertaining to the self-management competency (Payton et al., 2008;

Goleman, 1995).

Fire and Nobel appeared to grow in their ability to stop themselves from engaging in

certain behaviours. During session 1, Fire observable, found it difficult to manage her-

self within the group setting, frequently commanding others about what they should do.

As our time together progressed, Fire more readily raised her hands and voiced her

needs e.g., “Teacher please may I say something?” (FG 9, p. 10). Strong and Warrior’s

ability to manage impulses were inconsistent through the session, again required

coaching to assist them with this?

However, Strong seemingly found it quite challenging to manage impulses, and modify

his behaviour. For example, Strong frequently interrupted others throughout the focus

group sessions. For example. Shouted: “Yes” (FG 9, p. 8), and continues to interrupt


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the speaker a few times consecutively throughout session eight, until asked to be mind-

ful of the speaker.

4.4.4 Relationship skills

Relationship skills refers to an individual’s ability to establish, manage and sustain re-

lationships (Deviz-Rozendal, 2017; Boyd, et al., 2005). Relationship skills embrace a

wide range of knowledge, abilities and competencies including handling emotions in a

relationship effectively, building and maintaining healthy relationships, negotiating so-

lutions to conflict, and seeking help when needed.

4.4.4.1 Positive communication and social skills to interact effectively

Throughout the focus group sessions participants observably made use of positive

communication and social skills to interact effectively with others. My observations in-

dicated that some participants were able to pays attention to others when they were

speaking. Courageous (FG1, p. 5) suggested that one of our group agreements should

be that We listen and we talk nicely … We also listen to somebody when she’s talking

and when she is finished talking, you can talk. From the former extraction it is evident

that some participants demonstrate relationship skills at the onset of the sessions.

Courageous continued to demonstrate admirable attention and listening skills through-

out the focus group sessions. On the other hand, at the onset of the focus group ses-

sions most of the other participants noticeably found it challenging to pay attention to

others when they spoke, and frequently interrupted the speaker, not listening or getting

distracted. Love (FG 1, p. 9) started chanting the days of the week Maandag, Monday,

Tuesday, Wednesday, after which Fire (FG 1, p. 9) joined Love in the week chant

Thursday, Friday Saturday, Sunday. When considering the transcripts of session one,

a lot of crosstalk was evident. The former clearly illustrating how some participants

struggled paying attention and using positive social and relationship skills at times. It

should be noted that some participants ability to pay attention and listen to others fluc-

tuated throughout the focus group sessions e.g., I observed Fire carefully listening to

me Liza (FG1, p21) I can see that Fire is busy listening very carefully, and then in

another session Liza (FG 7, p. 9): Fire can we listen to our friends. While other partic-

ipants demonstrating growth with regards to this skill. During Session 1, Nobel seem-

ingly did not listen and following directions. Liza (FG 1, p. 22) It is time to stop painting,


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let’s tidy up. Nobel, however, did not pay attention to the speaker, and continued paint-

ing. Over the course of the focus group sessions two participants observable demon-

strated increased ability to pay attention and listen to the speaker – Nobel (FG 7, p.

13) raises his hand to share Miss can I say something, Love is laughing. Similarly, Fire

raises her hand (FG 7, p. 13) Can I please say…. Destiny and Blessing were frequently

observed not to listen e.g. Strong shares an instance where he notices Destiny not

listening and paying attention Destiny is doing this while Courageous is sharing (FG 6,

p. 2).

Throughout the duration of the focus group session, I observed how some of the par-

ticipants were able to take turns – sharing, talking, using materials. During Session 1

(FG1, p. 6), Courageous was observed as patiently waiting her turn; she raised her

hand and waited till it was her turn to share her thoughts. On the other hand, some

participants seemingly found it challenging to wait/take turns and would often interrupt

other participants while sharing. From the transcription, one could often observe cross-

talking sections, where participants spoke over each other. Warrior interrupted me:

Where is Fire? and again Can we pray? (FG1, p. 10). Similarly, during focus group

eight (FG 8, p. 8) Courageous was busy sharing, and Warrior and Fire were not show-

ing positive communication skills and had to be reminded to listen to other’s when they

share. Strong and Warrior, furthermore, appeared to struggle with turn taking through-

out the duration of the ten focus group sessions, and would frequently interrupt others,

whilst also not giving other’s fair chance to share (FG 8, p. 5). Similarly, both Warrior

and Strong frequently dominate the discussions. The former speaking to participants

ability to manage themselves and their own behaviour, while managing their impulses.

Section 4. Reported on both Strong’s and Warrior’s self-management skills.

Throughout the focus group sessions, sharing was often observed. Liza (FG 1, p. 13)

I noted how participants were sharing and reflected, I am seeing some lovely sharing

happening between Love and Fire. Wow. Participants further demonstrated great

awareness of the concept of sharing and the importance there of (FG 1, p. 17):

Liza: “Sharing is?

All: Caring

Fire: We are sharing.


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Similarly, participants ability to effectively communicate and ask for what they want and

need. There was one incident were someone grabbed

Manly (FG1, p. 19): Can I borrow this?

Love (FG: 1, p. 19) Can I have water guys?

Other participants demonstrated relationship skills when they were able to use their

words to say “please”, “thank you” and “excuse me”.

Warrior (FG 1, p. 12) Thank you for the snacks.

Destiny (FG 1, p. 20) Please can I have the water?

Nobel (FG 3, p. 2) Teacher, please can I have a pen?

Strong (FG 5, p. 21): Thank you, Brian.

Some participants demonstrated the ability to prevent, manage and resolve interper-

sonal conflicts in constructive ways. Some participants were able to appropriately ask

for help. Fire (FG2, p. 15): Teacher can you help me; Warrior (FG 2, p. 16): I need

help. Other participants were able to resolve conflict by stating the problem e.g. Warrior

(FG 2, p. 16): That is mine to Andrew. Without hesitation, Andrew takes another tin. It

was further observed how some participants at times use “I massage” to resolve inter-

personal conflict in a constructive way. Andrew (FG 3, p. 1): You can say stop beating

me. I don’t like it, it’s very annoying. It was further observing how some participants

are starting to/attempting to employ “I-messages” to communicate their wants and

needs. Warrior (FG 9, p. 1) I just feel like being left alone; Just leave me Strong.

With probing some participants were able to reflect on and identify the feelings in the

conflict. Liza: I wonder how it made you feel when Strong said those things? … Nobel

“Angry” (FG 5, p. 21). Similarly, Strong was able to identify his feelings in a conflicting

situation I was angry (FG 5, p. 4), and when asked how he managed these feelings,

and the situation he shared: I told … I told the teacher. The former alluding me to

believe that Strong has the ability to appropriately ask for/seek help in conflicting situ-

ation.


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4.4.5 Social context and daily experiences (Lived reality)

There is a wealth of research and literature highlighting and reinforcing the importance

of remaining cognisant of the inter-relatedness of the various ecological systems that

exert influence on how children develop and transition through life. It was therefore

important to take into consideration the social context and lived experiences of the

participants in the study. An individual’s social context refers to the child’s psychosocial

environment including the family, the school, the peer group, and the community (Carr,

2016). Throughout the focus group sessions, the child participants shared some posi-

tive aspects as well as several adverse circumstances and experiences. A variety of

contextual factors and aspects also rendered children (participants) vulnerable to de-

veloping psycho-social difficulties.

4.4.5.1 Family context

Some of the participants reported/shared positive family context, with supportive par-

ents and healthy sibling relationships, while others are experiencing/ growing up in

either turbulent, and/or disorganised homes.

Strong (FG 2, p. 7), revealed positive family interaction when he shared: On Sunday it

was my father’s birthday … We went to go buy chocolate cake. Then we all ate it

together. Love also shared about a positive family interaction (FG 2, p. 7): On Saturday

I was able to go with my mom to buy fruit, and then it was my baby sister’s birthday.

Fire (FG 4, p.11) shared about her excited feelings my cousin is back. Courageous

(FG 7, p. 15) also shared: Sometimes I go to my aunties or granny’s house and then I

feel safe. Furthermore, when working through the transcripts it was evident how most

of the participants narrated experiences of celebration and birthday parties, and how

these shaped their recollection of positive interactions with their families. For example,

Destiny (FG 2, p. 11) shared Yesterday was my baby sister’s birthday. Similarly, Bless-

ing (FG 4, p. 9) shared: It was my brother’s birthday.

On the other hand, some participants also narrated experiences of loss and death of a

significant other and the feelings they felt. Warrior (FG 2, p. 2) shared about his uncle

that passed away We thought he was getting better … He had a disease, he added.


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Warrior’s experience, spoke to Manly, who then shared a similar experience of loss

(FG 2, p. 3) My sister the baby almost died … it was born.

From the transcript, and the data generated one can allude that some participants fa-

milial interaction might be limited, as some participants frequently shared about par-

ents being away, and not at home. The citation alluding one to believe that some of

the participants are left to their own devices as both parents might be working. Warrior

(FG 3, p. 5): Late at night, my dad came back from work, as well as (FG 3, p. 15): “I

felt scared when my mom wasn’t home. Strong (FG 3, p. 15): I was scared no one was

there looking after me. Courageous (FG 7, p. 16): Home alone when mommy is work-

ing.

In addition, it was noted how some participants rarely spoke about parental interac-

tions. For example, Fire seldomly shared familial experiences, and often alluded to this

picture of a little girl “floating around” Fire (FG 2, p. 6) shared: On Saturday I went to

my cousin’s house and on Sunday I went to my friend’s house and I stay with my little

sister. Manly frequently shares about his sister (FG 1, p. 11) I went to my sister to play.

Shared about some unfair treatment, and adult that are unreliable My dad said we

would go to the beach, but we didn’t (FG 1, p. 11).

4.4.5.2 Social context and social and economic challenges

Issues that appeared to be cutting across most of the focus group transcripts as well

as participant-generated artifacts alluded to and painted a picture of children (partici-

pants) growing up in a social context, engulfed by social and economic challenges

such as violence, poverty and crime (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017).

4.4.5.2.1 Violence

Most of the child participants narrated experiences of violence and “being hurt or

harmed” by others. Some participants had the following to share:

Nobel (FG 2, p. 13): They fight me, they pinch me and (FG 3, p. 6): When the

peoples they beat me, and they come in my home.

Strong (FG 3, p.7): They beat me, and they come in my house, and they steal

my things and (FG 9, p. 5): He always beats Brian.


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Courageous (FG 4, p. 14): When I was playing doll, there was a child that came

to bite me.

Love (FG 6, p. 6): When someone beat me.

Blessing (FG 8, p. 15): When someone beats me.

In addition to violence and being hurt by other, there appeared to be an accompanying

sense of helplessness. This was corroborated by Love, Manly and Strong: Love FG6)

shared: Why I am sad is because someone did beat me and run away. Similarly, Strong

(FG 6, p. 14) shared: I ask them to stop, but they don’t stop beating me. Manly (FG 3,

p 15): When someone hits me and runs away. On the other hand, as Manly expressed

and shared, if you stand up for yourself, the friends’ reaction’ might even be worse:

Manly: My friend, if I hurt him, he is going to come with a bottle (FG 8, p. 13).

The former making one think about, how some of these participants seem helpless,

because even when they try defending themselves, the repercussions still include

more danger and harm to them. Aggression and violence filled the narratives of most

of the participants in the group.

Strong also alluded to the violence within the community when he shared When it’s

midnight at our house, there was police shooting and people were shooting and toy-

toy and making lots of noise. They did it lots of times. They didn’t stop doing it (FG 4,

p. 3). This was supported by Manly, who shared the following: I was scared, because

they were shooting each other (FG 3, p. 17). Other participants shared about the vol-

atility within the community they live, and the sense of fear and feeling unsafe. Warrior

(FG 7, p. 3): When we were on our way to school, Uncle George was in a car accident.

On the way to school, one of the school transport vehicles was involved in a car acci-

dent when another vehicle crashed into it. Two of the child participants (Warrior and

Manly) were in the vehicle and shared about the terrifying event. This event further,

connected with Courageous as she then shared about a similar experience in her life

where she also felt unsafe (FG 7, p. 6) There was a car speeding … Then it made an

accident. I was very scared.

Additionally, during session seven, Zinzi the puppet shared about gang-related vio-

lence within her community, Zinzi’s story spoke to Courageous as she recollected and

spoke about a similar unsafe and frighting gang-related experience. Courageous: Just


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like our house, every time … “lso, the gangs were shooting and hitting each other (FG

7, p. 11). According to Carr (2016), children’s psycho-social difficulties may be main-

tained by a variety of community problems such as exposure to community violence.

4.4.5.2.2 Crime

On the other hand, some participants revealed feelings and experiences that made

them feel unsafe, specifically related to crime and theft within their community.

Courageous (FG 2, p. 13): When other children come and steal your toys.

Nobel (FG 2, p. 13) shared: When my friends come and play with me, they just

grab it and they steal.

Blessing (FG 7, p. 16): Sleeping when someone comes in the house.

Strong (FG 8, p,15): At midnight they just come and they break them.

4.4.5.2.3 Poverty

Poverty and Socio-economic status, also come up as a social contextual factor that

should be kept in mind. Strong (FG 2, p. 10): Me and my brother, we share a bed.

Warrior (FG 2, p. 8): Some people don’t even have enough like once they get that, they

have to work a lot to get it back. Warrior (FG 3, p. 5): My mommy didn’t have enough.

Courageous (FG 7, p. 9) shared My family when we were selling clothes and blankets

at the road. Parental unemployment is considered to be a major stressful life event

(Carr, 2016).

4.4.5.3 School context

School context appears to be quite a punitive one. An environment that does not al-

ways allow for the participants to feel “held”. Strong (FG 8, p. 3) voiced You give us

kind things because you are not a teacher. The former statement, making one curious

about what teacher’s do? Are teacher’s not kind? Strong (FG 8, p. 4) further alludes

one to wonder about the curriculum implemented at school when he shares, At our

school…our teachers do not tell us about feelings. Strong further (FG 9, p. 5) spoke

about the disciplinary strategies employed at school Teacher Noli didn’t give him food.

The former statement addressed the punitive nature, to discipline, and the possible

little tolerance or “holding” capacity for children’s emotions in the school context. Re-

flective feedback from the educator I often have to punishment him, by letting him sit


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in the corner, or being removed, no play time. The former concurring with how the

environment does not allow the child to verbalise or express their emotions. When

children show big feelings and behaviours, they usually need a “time in” with someone

calm and safe who helps them co-regulate their emotions and behaviours not a “time

out”.

4.4.5.4 Personal reflection

The following section includes my reflection on the participants social context and the

likely influence thereof on their socio-emotional competencies. I concur with Bandura’s

(1977) theory of social learning and that children learn from their environments. Curi-

ous about what the participants “learning” from their family system, community system

and school system?

Growing up in a social context riddled with violence, crime and poverty as described

by the participants, can be traumatising, and can adversely affect children’s brain de-

velopment – stress responses - including social and emotional development. (Lands-

berg, Kruger & Swart, 2017; Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010). There is a wealth of re-

search and literature describing the negative impacts of childhood trauma and how

threatening experiences can actually change the structure and function of key neural

networks, including those involved with regulating stress and arousal. Subsequently,

contributing to the development of overactive and overly reactive stress responses –

flight, fight or freeze. The former provided me with some explanation as to why some

participants are likely more inclined to react more impulsively, and reactively to a per-

ceived “threat” or the sense of being endangered. Growing up in a social context en-

gulfed with socio-economic challenges, as highlighted by literature and the personal

experiences of the participants, likely contributed to some of the participants living and

functioning at a constant state of fear and hypervigilance. So, when faced with a con-

flicting or “threatening” situation, participants are more likely to react, with a stress re-

sponse. The former likely to be perceived as self-management troubled by others. This

speaks to the observed regulation troubled observed by the educator and researcher

at times. Manly even alluded to the former when he shared: Sometimes you cannot

control yourself … You cannot help yourself to calm down (FG 2, p. 13).


134

While the group proved to be an important variable in interrupting the trajectory of

stress response, reactivity, and dysregulation by provided a safe space where partici-

pants could demonstrate and practice effective, more responsible emotional manage-

ment and coping skills, it would seem as though, when back in the volatile commu-

nity/environment they likely revert to more primitive and instinctual means of coping

and managing emotions and behaviours. Making one wonder how this links to the par-

ticipants social context and its ability and lack of providing a similar safe “holding”

space.

In addition, literature draws our attention to the fact that these young people often do

not have the socio-emotional environment, role models and resources to navigate the

complexity of the risks to which they are exposed (Deviz-Rosental, 2018; Garner,

Mahatmya, Brown & Vesely, 2014; Lopes & Salovey, 2004). I found myself curious

about: the participants attachment relationship with parents; the parenting style em-

ployed at home; as well as cultural factors and means to disciplining. Curious about

the former and how it has contributed to the development of participants socio-emo-

tional competencies or the lack thereof. As family life is considered to be a child’s firs

school for socio-emotional learning (Goleman, 1995).

After most of the focus group sessions I found myself often left wondering about the

focus group sessions and how I am just putting a “band-aid” on the “problems”. For

change to likely be long-term, and to spill over into contexts interventions should in-

volve the systems in which participants find themselves. I became increasingly aware

of the importance to involve the family and school systems, building on parents and

teacher’ awareness of and skills sets to be an emotional coach. Subsequently, noticing

the importance for child-interventions and system interventions should be run in paral-

lel with each other.

4.4.6 Delivery of PAR

Key aspects of delivering or how PAR can be used to strengthen SEC include setting

achievable targets for the participants, providing constant reinforcement of “desirable

behaviour”, and providing opportunities for participants to verbalise their emotional ex-

periences. In addition, providing participants with opportunities to create a trusting,


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caring connection with an adult who “cares” and using a variety of activities as a vehicle

to develop socio-emotional competencies.

4.4.6.1 Connection: positive rapport

The establishment of positive “rapport” with the child participants involved in the group

was crucial. Along with fostering a safe, more caring, participatory, and responsive

relationship and space for the participants. “Feeling safe (socially and emotionally and

physically) is the optimal foundation of all learning” (Cohan & Sandy, 2003). There is

mounting evidence that healthy and caring relationships foster learning, not only about

ourselves and others but academically as well (CASAL, 2012; Goleman, 1998).

My observations showed that some of the participants were distrustful of adult direction

and encouragement during their engagement with the focus group sessions. Some

participants preferred to limit their engagement, look at each other and provide short

one-word responses despite efforts to probe, question and prompt. The following data

were recorded during one of our weekly “Feeling Tree Check-ins”. Blessing (FG 1, p.

9) after probing responded “play”. Similarly, Destiny (FG 1, p. 9) responded “Playing”.

When invited to share how he felt, Manly (FG 2, p. 9) shared “Nothing”. When invited

to share why she felt a certain why Love (FG 2, p. 9) responded: “No”. The former likely

alluding/demonstrating their doubt in our connection, and sense of feeling safe and

secure enough to talk about possible “big feelings and experiences”.

On the other hand, some of the participants appeared to have found it relatively easy

to connect and build rapport. An interaction between Warrior and I (FG 1, p. 12):

Liam: I didn’t know what we were doing today, like I was, my mind was blowed

out!

Liza: Your mind was blowed out?

Liam: When I heard you were coming, I couldn’t help myself. I was fine on the

outside but, freaking out on the inside, like my heart was racing.

Liza: Shoh, I wonder feeling you were feeling?

Liam: Excited!


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Likewise, Courageous also appeared to find it relatively easily to connect. For example,

Courageous shared: “I am excited to be here” (FG 2, p. 9).

My observation shows that by session four a trusting relationship seems to have de-

veloped between myself and most of the participants. For example, Destiny (FG 4, p.

11) Because I’m excited and I’m happy to be here (FG 4, p. 11). I observed that the

participants began to engage more with the myself – the researcher and the activities.

Nobel (FG 6, p. 8) eagerly approached me to show me his artwork. In addition, spon-

taneously shared: “I am so excited” (FG 7, p. 1). Some participants started to actively

seek out my recognition and affirmation e.g., Love (FG 1, p. 19 and FG 5, p. 21) Look

what I did.

During the research period, the relationship with myself improved when I was able to

scaffold, through musical games, creative activities, their experiences of mastery.

Games and activities become vehicles of expression, and opportunities to honour in-

dividual experiences. My willingness to listen to participants stories, and experiences

created a pathway to their willingness to engage with the process more readily, thereby

creating a sense of connection.

A wonderful example of the power of “connection” can be seem from focus group ses-

sion seven, when Warrior and Manly were involved in a car accident on their way to

school. After being made aware of the terrifying experience they have both experi-

enced, I took on the role of a caring, companionate and empathetic adult, I reflected

their experiences, acknowledged and validated their feelings Liza: That was really

scary … You are letting me know that you need some extra love and care today …

You could have gotten badly hurt … You could have died (FG 7, p. 10). Simply by

acknowledging their feelings and experience, Manly and Warrior believed and felt that

they were both heard and understood. The former allowing, them to get in touch with

their emotions. Manly, seemingly being more open to his emotions and connecting with

his more vulnerable side e.g. I am feeling sad and angry … Sad because I almost get

hurt and angry because I almost died (FG 7, p. 10).

It should be noted that while most participants observably built positive rapport with

me, two participants – Blessing and Destiny - seemingly struggled, and I wonder how


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their inconsistent attendance contributed to the trouble in establishing a connection?

In order to meet therapy or intervention goals, consistency is key. However, with the

former in mind, participants who did not build a trusting relationship with me, observa-

bly did not appear to demonstrate much growth with regards to their social-emotional

competencies.

4.4.6.2 Mastery and success

During the research the participants engaged in various activities through which they

experienced and sense of success and mastery. Each participant was afforded oppor-

tunities, where he or she could experience varying degrees of mastery and success.

Such experiences of mastery strengthen children’s belief in themselves and contrib-

uted to positive self-concept. By affording the participants with opportunities to experi-

ence success and a sense of mastery over emotional, social and relational problems,

I believe I was able to build children’s belief in themselves, awareness of self and self-

regulation – something they would hopefully transfer to the classroom context.

Alongside the explicit strategy of ensuring the participants experience mastery during

activities, participants behaviour or act of a certain socio-emotional competencies were

always noticed, reflected, “praised” and thus reinforced. The reflection of their re-

sponses or behaviour – enabled that the positive feelings generated be maintained.

Liza (FG 1, p. 13) I am seeing some lovely sharing here between Love and Fire. The

former reflection encouraged other participants to also try sharing during the session.

During focus group session five (FG 5, p. 4) Strong shared about an instance where

he constructively resolved a conflicting situation by, telling the teacher. I reflected how

Strong did not hit the friend but instead asked a trusting adult for help. Similarly, Liza

reflected I see Nobel showing empathy towards Strong, do you see him rubbing

Strong’s back? (FG 7, p. 17).

It was further, observed how participants sough the recognition of the researcher. Love

(FG 1, p. 19 and FG 5, p. 21) Look what I did, similarly Warrior (FG 5, p. 11) sought

out my affirmation and recognition Look teacher? Likewise, Nobel (FG 6, p. 8) eagerly

come to show me what he has drawn. In these instances, I again noticed, reflected

and “celebrated” their work, and by doing so hopefully reinforcing their sense of self-

confidence.


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It was through reflection of mastery that I hoped to empower the participants. Making

participants aware of and assuring them that they have specific qualities and skills

such as self-discipline, patience, problem-solving and empathy, along with a “toolbox”

full of useful tools and strategies, and that they are able to manage their emotions

appropriately, even when they are cross, can contribute towards their emotional con-

trol. It is thus, evident that positive feedback from the environment (the researcher)

contributed towards positive self-concept, increased autonomy, and more effective

emotional self-management. It was observed how contributing to participants sense of

mastery and success also promoted the participants autonomy. The former linking with

successfully facilitating confidence and self-esteem. Authors such as Mruk (1999) sug-

gest that feeling valued and experiencing influence and empowerment can be a crucial

source of self-esteem. During the focus group sessions, and through reflection of the

participants mastery, they were able to access these kinds of experiences. One pow-

erful example of this is their involvement in naming the group and setting the rules for

the weekly sessions (FG 1, p. 5): Courageous: We listen; Manly: We be kind; Liza (FG

2, p. 1): Firstly let is recap on the rules that you made up together.

Lastly, it was thought the reflection for success and mastery that participants also

learned from and with each other. By collectively creating and growing their

“toolboxes”.

4.4.6.3 Verbalising and normalising emotional experiences

Strong emotions like anger and fear, often seem forbidden.

~ Fontana & Slack (1998, p. 54)

From my own observation, children are often made to feel that certain powerful emo-

tions are not normal or allowed to be expressed. In addition, children are not often

allowed to verbalise these emotions. The former, likely resulting in children experienc-

ing a sense of helplessness when faced with powerful emotions or suppressing such

strong and powerful emotions.

Along with fostering a safe, more caring, participatory, and responsive relationship and

space for the participants. I hoped to foster a space where participants felt safe and


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secure enough to verbalise their emotions. I would like to believe that the focus group

sessions provided participants with a space where they felt like all feelings were wel-

comed and “normal” – that there are no “good” or “bad” feelings. Subsequently, a space

that allowed the participants the opportunities to freely verbalise and express their

emotions with apples of chance to build emotional vocabulary, emotional self-aware-

ness, and self-regulation.

At the onset of the focus group, it appeared to be evident that some participants found

it difficult to verbalise their feelings, seemingly feeling hesitant and unsure. Session 3,

participants were invited to share about things that made them feel sad, when asked

whether he ever felt sad Blessing responded: “No” (FG 3, p. 7). Similarly, during focus

group session 5 (FG 5, p. 13) Blessing wrote “angry” on his feeling leaf, but when

invited to tell us more about the angry feelings he might be feeling Blessing found it

difficult to share. (FG 4, p. 19). During focus group two, Manly (FG 2, p. 9) shared: I

am feeling happy and sad. When invited to tell us more about these feelings he re-

sponded “Nothing”. Likewise, Love also shared her feelings, but once invited to tell us

a bit more she simply responded “No”. I tried normalising the participants experiences

by reflecting/responding as follow Liza (FG 2, p. 9) Nothing? You are not ready to share

about these feelings today? That is okay… Hopefully you will feel secure and safe

enough to share your thoughts and feelings with us one day.

During focus group sessions I paid attention to participants emotional awareness and

self-regulation of powerful feelings including anger, fear, and worry. I invited the par-

ticipants to talk about these “powerful” emotions they might be feeling, while reflecting

and providing insight that these emotions are neither good nor bad. As indicated in

Table 4.6, one participant spoke about feeling worried and angry.

Table 4.6: Worried and angry feelings

Manly

(FG 7, p. 4) I was worried … I also felt angry.

Liza

(FG 7, p. 11) Andi is really letting us know how he is feeling. He wrote an

angry face. He also drew a sad face. Really showing us and


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letting us know all the big feelings he is really feeling inside to-

day. And it is okay to feel all these feelings.

While other participants shared about fear (see Table 4.7).

Table 4.7: Scary feelings

Interaction 1

Warrior (FG 7, p.

4):

Liza (FG 7, p. 6):

Shared about the fearful feelings he felt during a traumatic even on

his way to school one morning“I thought I was going to die … I was

so scared.

Today’s event was really scary and painful.

Interaction 2

Blessing FG 7, p.

17):

Liza (FG 7, p. 18):

“When someone come in the house, I feel scared”.

When don’t you feel safe you feel scared? … Remember that it is

okay to feel sacred.

In addition, to growing participants insight and self-awareness of these powerful emo-

tions, participants were also guided to make choices on appropriate management of

such feelings. Liza (FG 5, p. 25) Some people feel sad, some people feel happy, some

people feel angry and that is okay. All feelings are welcome. You are allowed to feel

sad. You are allowed to feel angry. You are allowed to feel scared. But what you do

when you are feeling those feelings are important … You are the manager of your

feelings. Keeping the socio-constructivist nature of the study in mind, participants often

collectively thought of, created, shared, and steered each other to make choices on

appropriate management of their anger, fear, worry and anxiety. During session seven

we spoke about scared feelings, and the participants shared about things that evoke

fear in them, along with strategies to manage fearful feelings e.g., Courageous; We

can take two deep breaths, Manly: You can hug yourself (FG 7, p. 20). For example,

when Warrior had a rough day during session nine Nobel suggested: Maybe Warrior

can punch a pillow?”, Fire: He can tell his mom (FG 9, p. 13). Seemingly, collectively

empowering each other with different means and ways of coping.


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4.4.7 Using participants experiences as teachable moments

In addition to the elements mentioned above, I found it to be important to use the par-

ticipants experiences as teachable moments. Being aware of teachable moments –

unplanned topic and interest – allowed the research process to be more participatory

in nature. As the researcher, I had to recognise a teachable moment by looking for

participants interest, questions about the topic, an eagerness to learn more, whilst be-

ing attune to their experiences of certain emotions and opportunities to develop their

self-regulation through co-regulation.

During Session 3 (p. 14), Courageous appeared to be extremely sad. I redirected all

the participants attention to her non-verbal communication – more specifically her body

language her slouched shoulders, teary eyes, and then wondered out loud about the

emotion they thought she might be feeling. Strong: She is very sad, he responded (FG

3, p. 14). This teaching moment, was able to grow participants awareness of emotions

in themselves and others, fostering their ability to “feel with others” empathy and to be

emotionally responsive. For example, after considering Courageous’ emotional state,

both Strong and Love shifted closer to her, and placed their hands on her back, to

console her.

Another example of a teachable moment in the data was during session 7. Liza (FG 7,

p. 4) I wanted to talk about angry feelings today but, I wonder if we should maybe take

some time and unpack the feelings some of the friends in our group felt this morn-

ing?”The former citation, demonstrating how I noticed a teachable moment, and used

it to guide focus group session seven. Being aware of such a teachable moment also

contributed to participants sense of being understood – as I tried to connect with them,

staying with their emotion and experience. The data further demonstrates how the for-

mer “sense of connection” allowed the participants to “drop their guard” enough for

shifting, participation and learning to take place. From my own observations and re-

flection (RJ, p. 7) of Session 7 The former speaking to the power of PAR and the

participnats being able to share about their personal experiences, allowed for connec-

tion, an opportunity for shared voices, experiences, and learning from each other”.


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4.4.8 Scaffolding through various activities

A central facet of the delivery of the focus group intervention was its portrayal as “fun”,

rather than work. Such a reframing allowed participants to become re-engaged with

the research process. The views of the participants themselves suggest that this was

a very successful endeavour:

Love (FG 1, p. 9): I love painting.

Nobel (FG 5, p. 28): I love to read.

From my observation, the activities conducted throughout the focus group sessions

served as a vehicle for growing rapport, participants sense of mastery and socio-emo-

tional competencies (See Section 3.5). Throughout some of the activities, some of the

participants appeared to be happy to “play” at the lowest level of competence and were

easily distracted. At times it appeared that certain participants were purposefully de-

railing the process, not interacting, as well as acting “the clown”. Such instance would

be (FG 3, p. 7) where Blessing was observed, distracted by friends and laughing during

prayer time. Another instance would be where Blessing appeared not to be present,

staring around, and not engaging with the focus group process and content.

Drawing and other visual arts are considered one of the most widely employed data-

generation technique in research with children (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Christensen &

James, 2017). Drawing and visual art – painting, clay sculptures, and drawing – put

the participants in the role of an expert as they guided the myself and others through

their drawing and what it represented to them. For example, during focus group ses-

sion eight, participants were invited to draw what anger looked like to them. Nobel (FG

8, p. 18) drew people fighting; Warrior (FG 8, p.18) drew a scary looking monster with

sharp claws, and eyes like fire; Love (FG 8, p. 18) through means of her drawing and

colouring expressed what anger looked like and felt like for her. The former activity

attention was paid to participants awareness of anger and strategies for dealing with

it.


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Figure 4.8: Process of drawing and painting

During Session 2, participants were asked to engage in an interactive activity were

each participant constructed and made their own instruments using tins, beans and

balloons. Once, the instruments were complete they were used as a non-verbal com-

munication tool for individuals to self-express and explore various types of emotions.

It was evident that the drums became tools that the participants could use to express

their feelings more freely whilst feeling a sense of empowerment.

Stimulus, activities (story books/reading out loud) formed an important part of most of

the focus group sessions. The use of such stimulus materials assisted in uncovering

participants’ feelings, further empowering them to share their knowledge as well as

learn from one another. During session four we read the book “The Colour Monster”.

Whilst reading the participants and I actively engaged with the text – exploring emo-

tions, triggering situations and self-management techniques. Liza (FG 4, p. 13) Have

your feelings ever felt all mixed up before, like the colour monsters?”… Warrior: Like

you feel all of them. Like you’re going crazy. We continued reading the story about how

the colour monster’s friend helped him become aware of all his feelings, often reflect-

ing, and connecting the text to ourselves, e.g. Liza (FG 4, p. 14) Have you ever felt sad

before?” … Courageous: Yes, when I was playing dolls and a child did bite me. The

former example demonstrating how participants were able to project and make con-

nections. Similarly, during focus group eight we read the book “Allie All Along”. Whilst

reading the participants and I actively engaged with the text – exploring and thinking

about the various strategies one can employ to calm oneself down and to modulate


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one’s emotional reactions. Liza: In the book Allie’s brother told her to take 3 deep

breaths to calm down, what is something you do to help yourself feel less angry?. The

former activity again keeping the socio-constructivist nature of the study in mind, par-

ticipants were encouraged to collectively think of, create, share, and steer each other

to make choices on appropriate management of their anger, fear, worry and anxiety.

Some of these activities included breathing and mindfulness activities. Use of breath-

ing cards, that each learner can get a turn selecting. These activities will take place

after each session to calm down and recollect ourselves after sessions. These activi-

ties will further be added to their toolbox of “Things they can do to manage their emo-

tions”. In addition, participants were invited to make their own breathing and coping

cards.

Figure 4.9: Participants’ use of finger breathing to calm themselves down

During session nine, participants also engaged in the process of constructing their own

calm-down bottles. Participants were guided to make choices on appropriate manage-

ment of their anger. Throughout the use of the calm-down bottle, participants were

given permission to experience their angry emotions in order to manage it. Collectively

we thought of things that made us angry, we shared these experiences, shook our

calm-bottles with all our might, and then carefully placed them Infront of us while we

breath as we watch the glitter settle.


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Figure 4.10 illustrates participants shaking their calm-bottles to express their angry

feelings and to manage it through breathing.

Figure 4.10: Participants shaking their calm-bottles to express their angry feelings and to

manage it through breathing

4.4.9 Prompting, probing and questioning

Prompting probing and questioning was employed through the focus group sessions.

This approach ensured that sessions were participatory with creating undue pressure

on the child participants. Thus, questioning, prompts and probes tended to be directed

to the group as a whole rather than individual participants. Over time, this approach

seemed successful in drawing the more introverted participants out as it became clear

to them that this was a safe, less intimidating environment than the classroom. The

following extractions, demonstrate how I used prompting, probing and question:

Liza (FG 1, p. 17) What does the colour green make you think of?”

Liza (FG 2, p. 13) Sometimes you get very angry when they take your toys and

they hurt you? What is something you do to make yourself feel less angry?

Liza (FG 3, p.5) How does it make you feel when friends aren’t listening?

Liza (FG 3, p. 6) Oh no! How did you feel when you didn’t go?


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4.5 Conclusion

In this chapter, the categories, themes and sub-themes that emerged from analysing

the various sources of data generated in this study were presented. The main catego-

ries were (i) self-awareness, (ii) social awareness, (iii) self-regulation, (iv) relationship

skills, (v) social context and (vi) delivery of PAR to strengthen socio-emotional compe-

tencies. The analysis revealed the socio-emotional development of middle childhood

children to be complex and multi-faceted, and while it can be strengthened through the

implantation of PAR there are significant influential aspects related to social context

that should be considered.

Chapter 5, which is the final chapter in the dissertation, discusses the findings and

makes recommendations for further studies.


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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, LIMITATIONS AND REC-

OMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This research study aimed to investigate how PAR along with an adaptation of aCircle

of Friends intervention programme could be adopted/employed to enhance the socio-

emotional intelligence competencies of primary-school learners within an informal set-

tlement in Cape Town. The participants in this study were selected using purposive

sampling. In conducting the study, I employed a qualitative research approach that

was aligned with the social constructivist paradigm. Guided by the social constructivist

approach, this study utilised a Participatory Action Research (PAR) design.

This approach afforded me the opportunity to forefront and acknowledge the voices

and lived realities of middle-school year learners as they interact with their social envi-

ronment. It also afforded me an insight into the ways in which the development of the

participant’s socio-emotional intelligence may have been influenced by their social con-

text and lived experiences. This study further enabled me to gain insight into the par-

ticipants understanding and experiences of SEI, providing a platform for the partici-

pants and me to gain insight into and better understand their challenges and needs

with regards to their socio-emotional learning (SEL) while allowing them to be activists

mobilising for and promoting change and growth with regards to the socio-emotional

competencies.

The context of this study was a Primary School in the Western Cape of South Africa.

This school is situated in a historical disadvantaged or what the literature refers to as

a disorganised community on the Cape Peninsula. The data analysis process was it-

erative, and the data were analysed using thematic data analysis. The thematic anal-

ysis enabled me to identify and explore categories and themes that emerged from var-

ious data generation methods. In addition, using PAR enabled the research process

to remain dynamic and responsive to allowing the adaption of the intervention in real-

time, and presenting the data was presented in Chapter 4. In this chapter, the research

findings will be discussed according to the literature in Chapter 2.


148

This chapter will further highlight some of the challenges I experienced facilitating the

focus group sessions; it will also address the limitations of the study and will propose

recommendations for possible future research.

5.2 Discussions of the findings

With the aim of this study in mind, my study sought to explore, understand and describe

what happened in the group. The following research question guided the study:

How can the Circle of Friends intervention be adapted for use to

strengthen socio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase?

In order to further explore the phenomenon, the following subsidiary questions were

used to guide the focus of the study:

• How do a child’s social context and their daily experiences (lived reality) influence

the development of his/her socio-emotional intelligence?

• To what extent do interventions aimed at improving the socio-emotional Intelligence


Interpretations are presented along the lines of the subsidiary research questions that

guided this study.

5.2.1 Impact of PAR and an adaptation of a Circle of Friends intervention on

the socio-emotional intelligence of foundation phase learners

The study aimed to explore how PAR and an adaptation of a Circle of Friends inter-

vention programme could be used to strengthen socio-emotional competencies in

foundation phase learners. The data generated from the focus group sessions yielded

several common traits between participants aligned with the five tenets and competen-

cies of SEI. The significant findings of this study is presented according to four of these

competencies as set out by Goleman (1995): self-awareness, social awareness, self-

management and relationship skills.


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5.2.1.1 Self-awareness

According to this study, most of the participants demonstrated growth in their self-

awareness, seemingly gaining a deeper understanding of their own emotions, inter-

ests, strengths, and self-confidence. Three common themes emerged that are congru-

ent with the SEI component of self-awareness as set out by (Goleman, 1995). I found

that most participants experienced growth in their awareness of their own emotions.

While some of the other participants appeared to have limited knowledge of feelings

and emotional literacy at the onset of the focus group session, as these participants

frequently responded with Fine (FG 2, p. 2) when asked how they felt. By implementing

and including age and developmental level appropriate activities and the social, emo-

tional development variables, I sought to nurture and grow participants’ self-aware-

ness. By understanding that we grow and express ourselves in different ways, I

acknowledge that some of the participants demonstrated an increased emotional self-

awareness along with more detailed knowledge of feelings ranges and emotion vocab-

ulary quicker than others. For example, Strong (FG 8, p. 1) shared that “Cross is the

same as angry.”

Over time, I noticed that all the participants started to make contributions verbally or

non-verbally in all the activities. The participants began not only to communicate emo-

tions but were able to identify events/situations that trigger certain emotions within

them. This is reflected in Courageous’ willingness to share that I feel sad when some-

body is not listening, also when they hit me (FG 3, p. 6). With increased participation

in the focus group sessions, the majority of the participants demonstrated growth in

their abilities to recognise, name, and communicate emotions and emotional triggers.

Mindful of the fact that children, because of differences in their mother tongue language

and limitations in the emotional vocabulary necessary to describe and express their

feelings and may therefore instead, through their behaviour, act out their feelings and

needs (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla, 2014; Pandy, 2014; Lindon, 2012; Wright & Kersner,

2003). For example, While Blessing readily shared about happy feelings and experi-

ences (FG 5, p. 12) “happy” … It was my brother’s birthday, it seemed that he found it

difficult to connect with the more “uncomfortable,” strong and “vulnerable” emotions

like anger, fear, and sadness, and would instead communicate such overwhelming

feelings non-verbally through writing or his behaviour.


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Another significant theme related to self-awareness emerged demonstrated in many

of the participant’s displays of their overall sense of self-confidence. Self-confidence

has to do with the self-dimension and refers to one’s belief in oneself and one’s abilities

and competence (Louw & Louw, 2020). In the course of our time together, I noted

several instances in which the participants appeared to be more self-confident during

or after the focus group session. During the focus group sessions and the implemen-

tation of an adaptation of the “Circle of Friends” approach, one of the distinct steps was

to provide the participants with opportunities for “cheering up,” this step celebrated the

group’s success and strengths while allowing each participant to teach other partici-

pant new skills, allowing everyone to feel more competent (Mosley, 2009). Most of the

participants demonstrated growth in their sense of self-confidence as they started to

partake, share, and engage with the process more readily while beginning to make

contributions in all the activities.

The middle childhood phase is considered a phase in which children become more

involved in activities and relationships outside their home environment. Participating in

the Circle of Friend intervention consistently appeared to have provided the partici-

pants with opportunities to be exposed to, try out and rehearse new knowledge and

information, learn and practice rules and regulations related to communicating and ac-

quiring new knowledge within the group. I noticed how participants started expressing

their wants and need more assertively, e.g. Nobel (FG 8, p. 12) Please can I have a

pen? (Louw & Louw, 2020; Erasmus, 2019; Sidera, Serrat & Amado, 2014; Donald,

Lazarus & Moolla, 2014).

In addition, the children’s voices related to becoming increasingly aware of their own

talents, abilities/potentials, attitudes, values, and likes and dislikes richly emerged in

their participation in the intervention and the data. The former likely also speaks to their

growth in self-awareness and self-concept.

5.2.1.2 Social awareness

The literature argues that children must learn to recognise, understand, and communi-

cate their own emotions, learn that others have feelings, and begin to empathize with


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them. It was observed how with an increased sense of emotional self-awareness, pos-

itive self-concept, and appropriate emotional vocabulary came an accompanying

growth in participants’ sense of empathy towards others. (Devis-Rozental, 2017; Boyd,

et al., 2005; Blom, 2004; Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

Recognising the feelings of others and taking on their struggle “feeling with others” was

evidenced in many ways in the data generated through the focus group sessions.

Thought the research process and the participant’s interactions with each other sug-

gested that most participants demonstrated growth in their ability to accurately identify,

read and comprehend the “emotional” states” in others. While distinguishing, labelling,

insight into others’ emotions, some participants showed increased emotional respon-

sivity to others. It was observed how child-participants were more readily able to react

with more empathy towards someone they observed as being the same as themselves

or having a similar experience. (Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018; Berk, 2013; Blom,

2004).

As mentioned before, a “child’s ability to display, regulate and control emotions”

(Landy, 2002) plays a significant role in the child’s development and relationship with

others. Becoming increasingly conscious of their role in peer relations appeared to

encourage the children to see their similarities with other’s provided an effective way

to strengthen participants’ empathetic skills. Throughout the research process, pur-

posefully incorporating activities that encouraged, invited and provided the participants

and the facilitator with opportunities to acquire and demonstrate helping skills Liza: (FG

3, p. 14) I wonder what we can do to help … to feel better?. My role as the facilitator

of the focus spaces afforded me opportunities to experience physical and concrete

means of lifting someone’s spirit. It was valuable to become increasingly aware of the

ways in which the children demonstrated understanding about how to behave towards

a friend who is feeling sad, scared, or angry. In particular, being mindful of the phe-

nomenon under study and the factors that would encourage adaptation in this context,

it was important to note the possibility and ways in which these young participants

continued to demonstrate increased social awareness skills pertaining to identifying

words and actions that could hurt others. (Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018; Blerk, 2013;


152

Blom, 2004; Goleman, 1995). An important part of considering the ways in which in-

terventions like this should encourage educators and facilitators as action researchers

collaborating with young people in this educational and other spaces.

5.2.1.3 Self-management

Self-management refers to one’s ability to regulate one’s emotions to handle stress,

control impulses, and express emotions appropriately through intrinsic and extrinsic

strategies (Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning, 2012; Payton

et al., 2006; Blom, 2004; Goleman, 1995). Inside self-management, three themes

emerged from the data.

The data revealed that many of the participants were aware of various ways in which

they could calm themselves down when they experience certain emotions, e.g. angry,

sad, scared, and anxious. Throughout the focus group sessions, attention was paid to

participants’ awareness of coping strategies to aid them in handling emotions such as

anger and fear. During the session, nine participants demonstrated increased aware-

ness and understanding of positive and negative ways of managing angry feelings.

Self-regulation refers to a child’s ability to manage, process, and handle emotions.

Developing awareness of one’s own emotions and behaviour is critical in developing

self-regulation. The data further revealed that many of the participants were able to

implement and practice strategies to calm themselves down when they experience

certain emotions, e.g. angry, sad, and scared. My observations show that some par-

ticipants found it relatively easy to regulate themselves; others grew in their abilities.

In contrast, other participants appeared to continue finding it somewhat challenging to

modulate their emotions and selves. One participant demonstrated continuous and ad-

mirable self-regulation throughout the focus group sessions. While being able to iden-

tify various ways one could calm oneself down, two participants recognise how difficult

it can be to manage one’s mood and self in certain situations. Manly (FG 2, p. 13)

shared, Sometimes, you cannot control yourself … You cannot help yourself to calm

down. The former statement, suggesting that children often feel helpless in the face of

intense emotions like fear and anger. Furthermore, some emotions can be perceived

to be too powerful and overwhelming, with energies that children (the participants)


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might feel they are unable to control (Fontana & Slank, 2012). In addition, some par-

ticipants shared about their reactive nature. For example, Strong shared his observa-

tions of the incident at school He was so angry, he did beat a kid (FG 9, p. 5), referring

to Warrior. Similarly, Manly shared: When my friend beat me, I beat him back (FG 3,

p. 7). According to Zillman, the universal trigger for anger is the sense of being endan-

gered (Goleman, 1998; Zillman, 1993). The former provided me with some explanation

as to why some participants are likely more inclined to react more impulsively to a

perceived “threat” or the sense of being endangered. (Collaborative for Academic, So-

cial and Emotional Learning, 2012; Geldard, Geldard & Foo, 2018; Blerk, 2013; Fon-

tana & Slank, 1998, Goleman, 1995).

5.2.1.4 Relationship skills

Peer acceptance is an essential factor for children in middle childhood who experience

rejection by the peer group tend to present with negative social behaviours, including

poor school performance, depression, and other socio-emotional problems (Berk,

2013, p. 619). Relationship skills embrace a wide range of knowledge, abilities, and

competencies, including effectively handling emotions in a relationship, building and

maintaining healthy relationships, negotiating solutions to conflict, and seeking help

when needed. Throughout the focus group sessions, participants observably made

use of increased positive communication and social skills to interact effectively with

others. My observations indicated that some participants were able to pay attention to

others when they were speaking. Throughout the duration of the focus group session,

I observed how some of the participants were able to take turns – sharing, talking,

using materials. Throughout the focus group sessions, sharing was often observed.

Other participants demonstrated relationship skills when they were able to use their

words to say “please,” “Thank you,” and “Excuse me.” Some participants demonstrated

the ability to prevent, manage and resolve interpersonal conflicts in constructive ways.

Children’s ability to respond appropriately to others’ emotions is related to their rela-

tionship skills, including listening, talking along with their awareness of non-verbal com-

munication of emotions (Devis-Rozental, 2017; Boyd et al., 2005; Blom, 2004; Mayer

& Salovey, 1997).


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5.2.2 Influence of children’s social context and their daily lived experiences

on the development of their SEI

As accentuated in the bioecological model, the various life systems that form part of

people’s lives interact and influence each other reciprocally. The child participants

shared various journeys comprising several factors that render them vulnerable to de-

veloping psycho-social difficulties pertaining to socio-emotional intelligence. Aspects

related to personal as well as socio-economic contexts directly influenced their socio-

emotional ability or lack thereof.

At a personal level, most of the child-participants had endured positive and adverse

experiences in their family circumstances and relationships. Some shared about sup-

portive and warm interactions with their parents, siblings, as well as positive relation-

ships with extended family members. Some shared about a nurturing “holding” space

where their basic needs are met (Hyman, 2012). Strong (FG 2, p. 7) We went to go

buy chocolate cake. Others experienced positive relationships with extended family.

For example, Fire (FG 4, p.11) shared about her excited feelings: My cousin is back.

Similarly, Courageous (FG 7, p. 15) also shared, Sometimes I go to my aunties or

granny’s house, and then I feel safe. At the same time, others shared their experiences

of trauma of losing a loved one through death. Some of the participants alluded to the

fact that family interaction might be limited, as they shared their experiences of their

parents being absent and not at home. Speaking to the poverty context of both parents

having to work. Courageous (FG 7, p. 16): Home alone when mommy is working.

Strong (FG 3, p. 15): I was scared no one was there looking after me. One participant

shared about the unreliability of the adults in his life, Manly: My dad said we would go

to the beach, but we didn’t (FG 1, p. 11).

Issues that appeared to be cutting across most of the focus group transcripts as well

as participant-generated artifacts alluded to and painted a picture of children (partici-

pants) growing up in a social context, engulfed by social and economic challenges

such as violence, poverty, and crime (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017). Within this

theme, all the participants narrated experiences of aggression and violence at home

and within their direct community. Love: When someone beat me (FG 6, p. 6), Bless-

ing: When someone beats me (FG 8, p. 15). Strong also alluded to the violence within


155

the community when he shared, When it’s midnight at our house, there was police

shooting and people were shooting and toy-toy and making lots of noise. They did it

lots of times. They didn’t stop doing it (FG 4, p. 3). Manly supported this, who shared:

I was scared because they were shooting each other (FG 3, p. 17). Similarly, Coura-

geous: Just like our house, every time … Also, the gangs were shooting and hitting

each other (FG 7, p. 11). According to Carr (2016), children’s psycho-social difficulties

may be maintained by various community problems such as exposure to community

violence. In addition, in circumstances where children fall victim to or observe violence,

optimal regulation processes may yield different behavioural outcomes – they might

manifest avoidance, distress, or fighting as optimal responses (Thompson, 1994). The

more frequently violence is observed at home or within the community, the more ag-

gressive children’s behaviour tends to become (Louw & Louw, 2020), which means

that violence significantly impacts on children’s ability to self-regulate.

Another significant theme that emerged related to social factors such as the partici-

pant’s experience of poverty. For example, Strong: Me and my brother, we share a bed

(FG 2, p. 10), Warrior: My mommy didn’t have enough (FG 3, p. 5), Warrior: Late at

night my dad came back from work (FG 3, p. 5), and Courageous: Home alone when

mommy is working (FG 7, p. 16). Evans and Kim (2013) and Conger & Donnellan

(2007) indicate that exposure to poverty increases distress among parents, which neg-

atively affects the quality of parent-child interaction and investment, parent’s compe-

tencies, responsiveness, and parenting style, which has a negative influence on chil-

dren’s development of self-regulation.

The literature appears to be in concert, as they agree that disadvantaged children must

contend a wide array of stressors that strain and eventually damage their biological

and psychological regulatory systems. Contextual stressors, including violence, crime,

poverty, are associated with altered structure and functioning of the brain region in-

volved in stress and self-regulation (Landsberg, Kruger & Swart, 2017; Ludy-Dobson

& Perry, 2010). Subsequently, contributing to the development of overactive and overly

reactive stress responses - flight, fight or freeze. The former provided me with some

explanation as to why some participants are likely more inclined to react more impul-

sively to a perceived “threat” or the sense of being endangered. Manly even alluded to

the former when he shared: Sometimes you cannot control yourself … You cannot help


156

yourself to calm down” (FG 2, p. 13), Manly again shared an experience I hit my friend

back … Then he comes with a bottle.

It is, therefore, apparent that participants experience various contextual factors that,

according to literate, could hinder SEI development.

5.3 Co-creating pathways to enhance the development of SEI

The key phrase in the above statement is co-creating. Though the collaborative nature

of the participatory action research methodology was communicated to the partici-

pants, it was clear that some participants would be vigilant and unsure about their in-

volvement in the decision-making process of the research. The multi-model approach

worked best in promoting the socio-emotional intelligence of child participants within

the group as precursor to create a safe, healthy, and participatory group dynamic

where participants could learn from each other. The process had to be carefully medi-

ated because of the participants’ initial distrust of adult direction and encouragement.

In addition, careful consideration and mediation had to be taken about the participants’

and my role, as such collectively redefining our roles as co-researchers, co-thinkers

and co-creators at the onset of the research process (Coyne & Carter, 2018; Marshall

& Rossman, 2016). Navigating the challenges of roles within the group, it was im-

portant to create opportunities for them to experience “moments” of success and mas-

tery and strengthen their sense of agency and self-efficacy in the group. One powerful

example of this is their involvement in naming the group and setting the rules for the

weekly sessions.

For the participants, some seats appeared to be considered prime seating. Where the

individuals sat and how they came to occupy those seats provided me with insight into

the group’s interactions and dynamic. Unlike the regular classroom dynamics with their

educators, I encouraged the participants to experience a measure of agency in decid-

ing their seats, whom they chose to sit next to, and how they did their check-ins.

Approaching the group with an attitude that communicated authentic empathy, care,

and responsiveness, I honoured their meaning-making process. Doing this, I hoped to

create opportunities for what Camilleri (2007b, p. 57) counsels enables the intervention


157

to "assist a child in integrating his experiences and effectively coping with subsequent

ones.” The participants’ transformation to less disruptive developed over time, and

more self-efficacious ways of being developed over time. Throughout the study, the

participants were exposed to various opportunities in which they were able to exert

influence over themselves and their experiences towards a positive outcome. The in-

teractive activities were structured to be challenging and in a way that would allow each

participant to experience a sense of mastery and success. Ensuring that everyone ex-

perienced some measure of success and mastery was an essential part of the process.

Alongside the explicit strategy of ensuring the participants experience mastery during

activities, I also paid careful attention to verbal and non-verbal cues of the participants

throughout the intervention, on which I reflected, “praised,” and, therefore, reinforced.

Each activity used in the study started with what was known to the participants, and

over time moved along a continuum that built on success at a pace dictated by the

participants. One of the key strategies thus entailed using the participant’s experiences

as teachable moments. As the researcher, I had to recognise a teachable moment

by looking for participants’ interest, questions about the topic, and eagerness to learn

more whilst being attune to their experiences of certain emotions and opportunities to

develop their self-regulation. From my observation, the activities conducted throughout

the focus group sessions served as a vehicle for growing rapport, participants’ sense

of mastery, and socio-emotional competencies (See section 3.5). The use of self-con-

structed instruments, stimulus activities, drawing, and clay work focused on non-verbal

communication while creating a space for participants to practice listening, empathy,

expression and connecting with the finer nuances of emotions. This was done through

prompting probing and questioning. This approach ensured that sessions were partic-

ipatory with creating undue pressure on the child participants. It was important that I

remained mindful of how each of the participants entered the research space during

each session and how they journeyed through the overall research process. Building

on this and the awareness that participants had different levels of verbal expression

skills, thus, all the activities served as vehicles of expression, allowing participants to

experience their physical voice. Guided by the developmental and research theorists,

Piaget (1952), Vygotsky (1934) and Mayer and Salovey (1997), I also paid particular

attention to the inclusion of age and developmental level appropriate activities and the

social emotional development variables I sought to nurture.


158

Underpinning the activities was the principle of collaborating with the participants

throughout this journey, ensuring that the process was consistent in providing struc-

tured challenges that strengthened the participants’ experiences of self-awareness,

social-awareness, and self-regulation. As the participants each experienced a sense

of mastery in various activities, they seemingly became confident in their willingness

to share and express their own views and experiences, become more emotionally re-

sponsive to others, and more aware of and readily able to employ self-management

strategies. Once the participants had experienced a measure of success, they sought

ways in which to experiment with the various skills like assertiveness, communication,

and social skills outside of the research environment.

While it is possible to develop a toolkit of activities to strengthen SEI competencies,

the findings of the study suggest that the process is complex. The facilitator is central

to the process. Working with children who experience socio-emotional intelligence dif-

ficulties, requires the facilitator to have a strong sense of their own SEI and in addition

to have had experience of undergoing the ongoing process of developing their own

SEI. In addition, the facilitator would have to possess a skill set that includes basic

therapeutic skills, facilitation skills, conflict resolution and mediation and be able to

identify potential barriers to learning.

5.4 Strengths and contribution of the study

An initial review of the literature suggests that most of the research related to socio-

emotional learning (SEL) to date has adopted a more quantitative approach to estab-

lishing the effectiveness of SEL programmes within the school context. Through adopt-

ing a more qualitative approach and using a participatory action research design I

sought to empower the participants by working in partnership with them and to equip

them in the process with skills to be social agents for change within themselves and

the broader community. This study was able to highlight the voice of children partici-

pants. This study allowed the participants to explore their emotions, experiences,

strengths and skills related to SEI.


159

There is a limited number of qualitative research studies that reflect on the more nu-

anced changes that may have occurred, because of children’s exposure to SEL pro-

grammes. This may be because the subtle shifts that happen as a result of participation

in SEL interventions may be hard to capture and one cannot quantify ongoing growth

and development over time and across contexts. Through this study the nuances

growth could be observed. Whilst some of the participants were comfortable sharing

at the level, at which they were functioning, most of the others adapted a more nuanced

emotional vocabulary, as illustrated when Strong (FG 8, p. 1) shared that “Cross is the

same as angry”. Likewise, Strong, Courageous, Warrior and Fire demonstrated an

awareness of the emotional “jealous”. In addition, participants started differentiating

between feelings such as happy and excited Nobel (FG 7, p. 1).

In seeking to ensure the trustworthiness of my study, I ensured triangulation and made

every effort to remain transparent in accessible ways with the participants and this

thesis. All the focus group sessions were therefore recorded and transcribed verbatim.

Furthermore, keeping a research journal, where I reflected on my feelings and thoughts

of the research process. In addition, by utilising the observations, focus group ses-

sions, participants generated artefacts and a research journal I was able to triangulate

the findings. This contributed to the richness of the findings due to utilising multiple

sources of data generation methods, Addition, ethically engaging with the participants

and the data in terms of ensuring the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants,

while having their voices heard.

I gained a greater understanding with regards to the middle childhood child, the devel-

opment of their socio-emotional skills, as well as the contextual factors that influence

the development of SEI through using a socio-constructivist paradigm. The influence

of Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model is emphasised as it guided me into under-

standing the development of SEI in middle childhood children in context. Integration

and assimilation of the child participant’s systemic influences added to the richness of

the participants’ experiences during the conducted research as myself and participants

gained valuable insight and awareness into their emotional awareness, emotional trig-

gers, and self-regulation strategies and resources.


160

While this study focused on a small sample, it achieved its aim of adding to a growing

body of scientific knowledge seeking to explore the child-participants perceptions and

experiences of SEI, how PAR can be employed to strengthen SEI competencies of

children in disorganised communities, along with developing greater understanding of

the contextual influences and their impact of SEI development.

5.5 Limitations of the study

As with most research studies, this study was also restricted by certain limitations. This

study comprised of a small number of child participates. Within the boundaries of the

study, the complexities related to the research topic could not all be explored in suffi-

cient depth. Neither are the findings from this small sample viewed as universally gen-

eralised and as such the participants stories must be understood from an individual

perspective.

In addition, as with all qualitative research, I must consider my role in the research

process. Despite my attempts to remain objective and to separate my own assump-

tions and perceptions from the phenomenon under study, I now realise that it is not

always possible to do so. However I am of the view that in transcribing the focus group

sessions verbatim; using direct quotes to support my findings; keeping a reflective re-

search journal of my thoughts and feelings about the research process; consulting with

my supervisor and critical friends and critically engaging with current literature about

the phenomenon are all indicative of the fact that I was rigorous in my attempts to

ensure that my own perceptions, and ideas did not influence the research process.

The scope of the study did not allow for a more thorough investigation into the individ-

uals' personal history. As such, not enough is known about the types of violence the

participants experienced as individuals.

I contend that the study was limited due to my own SEI training and experience. How-

ever, as the study proceeded, I learnt from the participants and had opportunities to

develop myself as a socio-emotional intelligence psychology practitioner.


161

5.6 Recommendations for future research

In view of the research findings, the following recommendations for future research are

made:

• Teachers should be trained in the development of socio-emotional competencies

and how these can be incorporated into the curriculum. For many learners, the

school is the only access point to learning. In addition, considering the context of

these participants, the school is often a safe and nurturing holding space, that op-

timises learning ability. The focus should therefore be on the holistic development

of all learners. Failure in growing children’s SEI within the school environment re-

sults in growing number of frustration and angry young people who struggle to man-

age themselves/exert themselves out at society and its educational institutions.

• Research should also be conducted for longer periods of time. While my research,

brought about growth with regards to the participants socio-emotional competen-

cies, future research about participatory action research effectiveness to promote

SEI should be conducted over a longer period.

• While the group proved to be an important variable in interrupting the trajectory of

stress response, reactivity, and dysregulation by provided a safe space where par-

ticipants could demonstrate and practice effective, more responsible emotional

management and coping skills, it would seem as though, when back in the volatile

community/environment they likely revert to more primitive and instinctual means

of coping and managing emotions and behaviours. Making one wonder how this

links to the participants social context and its ability and lack of providing a similar

safe “holding” space. My research and review of the literature shows that children

and youth are exposed to a vast variety of social contextual factors that influence

their development. I also became increasingly aware of the importance to involve

the family and school systems, building on parents and teacher’ awareness of and

skills sets to be an emotional coach. Subsequently, noticing the importance for

child-interventions and system interventions to run in parallel with each other. Fu-

ture research should be conducted into the effectiveness of parallel interventions

to include e.g. parent and child or child and school. In particular, rigorous research

that explores these interventions offered by teachers, targeting both the individual

and the school climate, could offer much-needed guidance for those who wish to

incorporate evidence-based practices in school settings.


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5.7 Conclusion

The study set out to explore the way in which using a Participatory Action Research

approach guided the manner in which the Circle of Friends intervention could be

adapted to strengthen socio-emotional regulation within the foundation phase in a

South African informal community context. From the findings and reflections, it is evi-

dent to me, the researcher, that that socio-emotional intelligence is a crucial aspect of

a child’s development and can benefit children in middle childhood who have to cope

with the demands of their social context including, social disadvantages, poverty, hav-

ing few livings in high crime areas, being exposed to violence. While there are many

barriers to accessing vulnerable populations for research, I found it enlightening that

the child-participants shared their personal experiences with me, and that I could afford

them the opportunities to forefront their voices, experiences all while empowering them

to collectively grow in their socio-emotional competencies. It was and is interesting that

any research and interventions done with children should make every effort to recog-

nise and respect their autonomy, agency and right to privacy. It is also important to

acknowledge the importance of parental guidance beyond the classroom.

The study concludes that there is an improvement in foundation phase learners’ socio-

emotional intelligence after the implementation of PAR and an adaptation of the Circle

of Friends programme.


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ADDENDUM A

PARENT MEETING INVITATION

Dear Parent/Guardian of ……………….

I would like to invite your child to participate in an action research study facilitated by

myself, Liza-Mari Rawlins, a Masters students from the Department of Educational

Psychology at Stellenbosch University. As part of my degree requirements I am facili-

tating a study that explores ways in which we can Strengthen the Socio-Emotional

Intelligence of Foundation Phase Learners. Your child has been invited to participate

in this study because his/her teacher thinks that he/she could benefit from the oppor-

tunity to acquire skills which may help them to strengthen and promote their self-aware-

ness, develop their emotional self-regulation and decision-making skills.

As part of the study, your child will be asked to:

o Attend circle-time sessions for 45 minutes on a Monday and Wednesday for 5

Weeks.

o These circle-time sessions will be held afterschool (14:00 – 14:45), at Bhongo-

lethu Foundation Primary School.

o Participate in group activities during the sessions. During these group sessions

he/she will engage in a variety of different activities (we are going to talk and

share; play games, read stories and do other fun and interactive activities).

The aim of these sessions is to provide children with a safe, and fun space to

learn about themselves, their feelings and how to manage emotions in healthy

and effective ways.

I would also like to request a meeting with you, in order to answer any questions, you

may have about the intended research. I intend scheduling these meetings at Bhon-

golethu Foundation on _________________.

Please complete and return the slip below, indicating whether or not you will be able

to attend this meeting. __________________.


Please confirm if you will be available to meet on _____________ at ____________.

Yes

No

Sincerely,

Liza-Mari Rawlins


ADDENDUM B

PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH





ADDENDUM C 1

ASSENT FORM FOR MINORS - ENGLISH

TITLE OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT:

Using the Circle of Friends approach to strengthen the Socio-Emotional Intelligence

competencies of a group of foundation phase learners in an informal settlement.

RESEARCHERS NAME(S): Liza-Mari Rawlins

RESEARCHER’S CONTACT NUMBER:

E-mail Address: [email protected]

Cell phone: 072 129 1400

What is RESEARCH?

Research is something through which we find NEW KNOWLEDGE about the way

things (and people) work. We use research projects or studies to help us find out more

about children and teenagers and the things that affect their lives, their schools, their

families and their health. We do this to try and make the world a better place!

What is this research project all about?

I am doing a research project to better understand how to strengthen the socio-emo-

tional intelligence of young children just like you. Socio-Emotional Intelligence looks at

two things Social Skills and Emotional Skills and these are just as important as learning

how to read and how to do maths. Social skills look at how boys and girls interact and

communicate with others. Emotional skills, refers to how well we are able to recognise,

understand, express and control our own emotions, while showing awareness of how

our friends or other people are feeling.


mailto:[email protected]

Through my research I hope to educate children’s hearts and to support them in order

to recognise and control their emotions and behaviour; to think about how to build and

maintain healthy friendships, to show empathy, care and concern for others, to make

good choices and to solve challenges more effectively.

Why have I been invited to take part in this research project?

I am inviting you to be part of my study, because I want to learn more about how

children your age recognises, understand and control their emotions, how they

show that they care about others and how they make and keep friends. Your

teacher also told me, that she thinks that this could be a fun and effective way

to support you in strengthening some aspects of your Socio-Emotional Intelli-

gence.

Who is doing the research?

My name is Liza-Mari Rawlins, and although I am a teacher at the school, I am also a

student at the University of Stellenbosch, where I am completing my master’s degree.

In order for me to graduate I need to do a research study.

What will happen to me in this study?

If you agree to take part in the research study, we are going to meet as a group, twice

every week for 5 weeks. In this time, we are going to do a variety of different activities.

We are going to talk and share; play games, read stories and do other fun and inter-

active activities. I will also ask you if you are comfortable with and if you agree to

having our circle time video recorded, with the understanding that only, my supervisor

and I will have access to the recordings.

Can anything bad happen to me?

This research aims to contribute to the well-being of young children. While you might

feel sad, angry or shy when we talk about certain emotions, share stories or play

games and may also feel shy or scared to share it all with friends, we will make sure

that our circle is a safe and kind space.


As such great care will be taking to ensure that your best interest is always at the heart

of the research and that nothing bad will happen to you. If you do feel that you would

like to speak about your feelings or experiences during the research, in private, I have

arranged for you to be able to speak to Ms Toni Raphael, a clinical psychologist.

Can anything good happen to me?

This research aims to contribute to the well-being of young children just like you, As

such you as participant are likely to learn skills which can help you to be more suc-

cessful at school, in your relationships with your family, friends and teachers; and in

other areas of your life.

Will anyone know I am in the study?

Everything we are going to talk about, share and do will be kept confidential. Confiden-

tiality means that everything we say and do during our “Mind and Heart Huddle” will be

kept between you, the group and me and is not going anywhere.

Your parents and teacher will know that you are part of the study, but they have prom-

ised me that they will not tell anybody, that you are participating, and have agreed that

everything we talk about and do during our “Smart Heart Circle” will be kept confiden-

tial.

Who can I talk to about the study?

You can talk to me:

Liza-Mari Rawlins

072 129 1400

Or you can talk to the person who is helping me with my research study:

Lynne Damons

(021) 8082313


What if I do not want to do this?

You are free to decide if you want to take part in this study, so if you do not want to be

part of the study, you can say “No” or if you want to be part of the study you can say

“Yes”. I would like you to know that even if mommy and daddy give permission for you

to participate in the study, it is still your choice. If you decide that you don’t want to be

in the study after we have started, you are free to withdraw at any time, no one will be

angry or upset with you. Please feel free, to at any time, ask me questions that you

may have about the study or the activities we will be doing. If you think of a question

later, you or your parents can contact me.

Do you understand this research study and are you willing to take part in it?

YES NO

Has the researcher answered all your questions?

YES NO

Do you understand that you can STOP being in the study at any time?

YES NO

Do you agree to take part in the study?

YES NO

___________________________________________________________________

Your Signature Printed Name Date


______________________________________

Name of Parent(s) or Legal Guardian(s)

___________________________________________________________________

Researcher explaining study

Signature Printed Name Date


ADDENDUM C 2 ASSESNT FROM MINOR - ISIXHOSA

IFOMU YEMVUME YABANTWANA

UMXHOLO WEPROJEKTHI YOPHANDO:

Usebenzisa isaNgqa sabaHlobo ukuze uqinise iimfanelo ze-Socio-Emotional Intelli-

gence [ubuKrelekrele bezeNtlalo neeMvakalelo] zeqela Labantwana abakumabanga

aphantsi kwimeko engazinzanga.

IGAMA LOMPHANDI (S): Liza-Mari Rawlins

INOMBOLO YOKUQHAGAMSHELANA NOMPHANDI:

E-mail Address: [email protected]

I-Cell phone: 072 129 1400

Yintoni UPHANDO?

Uphando yinto ofumana ngayo ULWAZI OLUTSHA ngendlela izinto (nabantu) abenza

ngayo izinto. Sisebenzisa iiprojekthi okanye uphononongo lophando ukuze sikwazi

ukufumnisa okuthile ngabantwana nolutsha nezinto ezichaphazela ubomi babo, izikolo

zabo, iintsapho zabo nempilo yabo. Oku sikwenza ukuze sizame ukwenza ihlabathi

libe yindawo ebhetele!

Le projekthi yophando iphathelele ntoni?

Ndenza iprojekthi yophando ukuze ndiqonde bhetele indlela yokuqinisa indlela yokuc-

inga neemvakalelo zabantwana abancinane abafana nawe. UbuKrelekrele bezeNtlalo

neeMvakalelo bujonga izinto ezimbini ubuGcisa kwezeNtlalo nobuGcisa ngok-

weeMvakalelo kwaye ezi zibalulekile ekufundeni indlela yokufunda nendlela yokwenza


mailto:[email protected]

izibalo. Ubugcisa kwezentlalo bujonga indlela amakhwenkwe namatombazana

asebenzisana nanxibelelana ngayo nabanye. Ubugcisa ngokweemvakalelo, bub-

hekisela kwindlela esikwazi ngayo ukuphawula, siqonde, sikhuphe size silawula iimva-

kalelo zethu, ngoxa sibonisa ukuba siyazi indlela abahlobo okanye abanye abantu

abavakalelwa ngayo.

Ngophando lwam ndithemba ukuba ndiza kufundisa iintliziyo zabantwana ndize

ndibaxhase ukuze baphawule baze balawule iimvakalelo zabo nendlela abaziphethe

ngayo, bacinge ngendlela yokwakha baze balondoloze ubuhlobo obonwabisayo, uku-

bonisa uvelwano, inkathalo nokuxhalabela abanye, ukukhetha izinto kakuhle

nokusombulula iingxaki ngokuphumelela ngakumbi.

Kutheni ndiye ndamenywa ukuba ndithathe inxaxheba kule projekthi yophando?

Ndiyakumema ukuba ube yinxalenye yolu phononongo, kuba ndifuna ukufunda

okungakumbi kwindlela abantwana abangangawe abaziphawulayo, abaziqon-

dayo nabalawula iimvakalelo zabo, indlela ababonisa ngayo ukuba ba-

bakhathalele abanye nendlela abazenzela ngayo abahlobo nababagcina ngayo.

Notishala wakho undixelele ukuba, ucinga ukuba oku kungayinto emnandi ne-

phumelelayo yokukuxhasa ekuqiniseni ezinye izinto zobuKrelekrele bezeNtlalo

neeMvakalelo.

Ngubani owenza uphando?

Igama lam nguLiza-Mari Rawlins, kwaye nangona ndingutishala esikolweni,

ndikwangumfundi e-University of Stellenbosch, apho ndigqibezela idigri yam ye-mas-

ter’s. Ukuze ndifumane isidanga kufuneka ndenze olu phononongo lophando.

Yintoni eya kwenzeka kum kolu phononongo?

Ukuba uyavuma ukuthabatha inxaxheba kolu phononongo lophando, siza kudibana

njengeqela, kabini rhoqo ngeeveki ezi-5. Ngeli xesha, siza kwenza izinto

ezahlukahlukeneyo. Siza kuthetha size sibaliselane; sidlale imidlalo, sifunde amabali

senze nezinye izinto ezimnandi nesinenxaxheba sonke kuzo. Kwakhona ndiza ku-

nibuza ukuba nikhululekile na ukuba esi sangqa sethu sexesha sirekhodwe ngevidiyo,

sivumelane ukuba, iza kuba ngumphathi wam nam kuphela abaza kufikelela kwezi

zinto zirekhodiweyo.


Ingaba ikho into embi engenzeka kum?

Olu phando lujoliswe ekufakeni isandla kwimpilo-ntle yabantwana abaselula. Ngoxa

usengakhathazeka, ucaphuke okanye ube neentloni xa sithetha ngeemvakalelo

ezithile, xa kubaliswa amabali okanye kudlalwa imidlalo kwaye usenokuba neentloni

okanye woyike ukwabelana nabo bonke abahlobo, siza kuqinisekisa ukuba isangqa

sethu sikhuselekile kwaye sikulungele.

Ekubeni siza kuba nenyameko engako ukuqinisekisa ukuba izinto zisoloko zilungele

wena kolu phando kwaye akukho nto imbi iza kwenzeka kuwe. Ukuba uziva ufuna

ukuthetha ngeemvakalelo zakho okanye amava akho ebudeni bophando, bucala,

ndiye ndalungiselela ukuba ukwazi ukuthetha no Ms Toni Raphael, a clinical psycholo-

gist.

Ingaba ikho into entle engenzeka kum?

Olu phando lujoliswe ekufakeni isandla kwimpilo-ntle yabantwana abancinane

njengawe. Xa kunjalo wena njengomthathi nxaxheba kungenzeka ufunde ubugcisa

obunokukunceda uphumelele ngakumbi esikolweni, kwindlela ophila ngayo nosapho

lwakho, abahlobo nootisaha bakhoe; nakwezinye iimeko zobomi bakho.

Ingaba ukho umntu oza kwazi ukuba ndikolu phononongo?

Yonke into esiza kuthetha ngayo, sibaliselane size siyenze iza kugcinwa iyimfihlo. Im-

fihlo ithetha ukuba yonke into esiyithethayo nesiyenzayo ebudeni be-“Smart Heart Cir-

cle” iza kugcinwa phakathi kwakho, iqela nam kwaye ayizi kuphuma iye kwenye in-

dawo.

Abazali nootishala bakho baza kwazi ukuba ukolu phononongo, kodwa bathembise

ukuba abayi kuxelela mntu ukuba uthabatha inxaxheba, kwaye bavumile ukuba yonke

into esithetha ngayo ebudeni be-“Smart Heart Circle” iza kugcinwa iyimfihlo.


Ngubani endinokuthetha ngaye ngolu phononongo?

Ungathetha nam:

Liza-Mari Rawlins

072 129 1400

Okanye ungathetha nomntu ondincedisayo ngolu phononongo lophando:

Lynne Damons

(021) 8082313

Kuthekani ukuba andifuni ukukwenza oku?

Ukhululekile ukugqiba enoba ufuna ukuthabatha inxaxheba kolu phando, ngoko ukuba

akufuni kuba yinxalenye yolu phononongo, usenokuthi “Hayi” okanye ukuba ufuna

ukuba yinxalenye yolu phononongo usenokuthi “Ewe.” Ndingathanda ukuba wazi

ukuba kwanaxa umama notata wakho bevuma ukuba uthabathe inxaxheba kolu pho-

nonongo, nguwe osamele ukhethe. Ukuba ugqiba kwelokuba akufuni ukuba kolu pho-

nonongo emva kokuba siqalisile, ukhululekile ukuphuma nangaliphi ixesha, akakho

umntu oza kucaphuka okanye akuqumbele. Nceda uzive ukhululekile, ukuba nga-

naliphi na ixesha, ukundibuza imibuzo osenkuba nayo ngolu phononongo okanye zinto

esiza kube sizenza. Ukuba kamva ucinga ngombuzo, wena okanye abazali bakho

ningaqhagamshelana nam.

Ingaba uyaluqonda ukuba olu phononongo lophando kwaye ukulungele ukuthatha

inxaxheba kulo?

EWE HAYI

Ingaba umphandi uyiphendule yonke imibuzo yakho?

EWE HAYI

Ingaba uyaqonda ukuba unako UKUYEKA ukuba kolu phononongo nangaliphina ixe-

sha?


EWE HAYI

Ingaba uyavuma ukuthatha inxaxheba kolu phando?

EWE HAYI

___________________________________________________________________

Isignitsha yakho Igama eliprintiweyo Umhla

______________________________________

Igama Lom(laba)zali okanye Um(aba)gcini Osemthethweni


ADDENDUM C 3

PARENT CONSENT

STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY

PARENT/LEGAL GUARDIAN CONSENT FOR CHILD TO PARTICIPATE IN RE-

SEARCH

Using the Circle of Friends approach to strengthen the Socio-Emotional Intelli-

gence competencies of a group of foundation phase learners in an informal

settlement.

I would like to invite your child to take part in a study conducted by myself Liza-Mari

Rawlins, a Masters students from the Department of Educational Psychology at Stel-

lenbosch University. As part of my degree requirements I am currently undertaking a

study on Strengthening Socio-Emotional Intelligence of Foundation Phase Learners.

Your child will be invited as a possible participant because his/her teacher feels that

he/she would likely benefit from an opportunity to strengthen and promote his/her self-

awareness, emotional self-regulation, and decision making skills.

1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to strengthen the Socio-Emotional competencies of foun-

dation phase learners who find themselves in communities that are characterized as

disorganized. I feel that gaining such insight, will not only expose educators and learn-

ers to a well-established tool for strengthening socio-emotional Intelligence in children,

adolescents and adults, but can serve as a helpful learning resource for promoting self-

awareness, emotional self-regulation, decision making skills along with children’s over-

all global development to be better prepared for real life situations and better under-

stand and manage themselves in different spaces.

2. WHAT WILL BE ASKED OF MY CHILD?


If you consent to your child taking part in this study, the researcher will then approach

the child for their assent to take part in the study. If the child agrees to take part in the

study, he/she will be asked to do the following things:

o Attend weekly circle-time sessions for 45 minutes on a Monday and Wednesday

for 5 Weeks.

o These circle-time sessions will be held afterschool (14:00 – 14:45), at Bhongo-

lethu Foundation Primary School.

o Participate in group activities during the sessions. During these group sessions

he/she will engage in a variety of different activities (We are going to talk and

share; play games, read stories and do other fun and interactive activities).

o Agree that the sessions be recorded with the understanding that only the re-

searcher, her supervisor and examiner will have access to the recordings.

3. POSSIBLE RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS

The research aims to contribute to the general well-being of young children. As such,

I will ensure to act in the best interest of the child and take great care to ensure that

the rights of the children will be respected and not abused. Should the researcher,

participant(s) or guardians view it necessary, participants will be referred to a psycholo-

gist who will be able to provide the necessary psychological support.

Ms Toni Raphael, a registered psychologist has availed her professional services to

provide psychological support on site (Bhongolethu Foundation) should the need arise.

Ms Toni Raphael:

071 485 6330

43 Longboat Street, Sunnydale

4. POSSIBLE BENEFITS TO THE CHILD OR TO THE SOCIETY

The findings of this study may help to develop and strengthen your child’s self-aware-

ness, empathy, emotional self-regulation and decision-making skills, all of which could

assist in developing healthier coping strategies when dealing with the daily challenges

he or she encounters in their communities. It can also assist other children who are

experiencing the same challenges and could contribute to future research that can be


used to implement new practices to assist young children in other areas of their lives.

In addition, this study seeks contribute to the limited body of scientific knowledge avail-

able to educators around implementing creative techniques to facilitate SEL programs

within the South African school context and in particular in communities classified as

disorganised.

5. PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION

There will be no financial benefits for participation. There are no costs for participant

in the study.

6. PROTECTION OF YOUR AND YOUR CHILD’S INFORMATION, CONFIDEN-

TIALITY AND IDENTITY

Any information you or your child will share with me during this study and that could

possibly identify you or your child will be protected. This will be done by using pseudo-

nyms for your child. Their names will not be known. Teachers at the school will be

encouraged to sign confidentiality agreements. Confidentiality will be maintained by

means of keeping all records of participation safely secured at all times. All audio and

video recordings will be destroyed after the research is completed.

7. PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL

You and your child can choose whether to be part of this study or not. If you consent

to your child taking part in the study, please note that your child may choose to with-

draw or decline participation at any time without any consequence. Your child may also

refuse to answer any questions they don’t want to answer and still remain in the study.

The researcher may withdraw your child from this study if circumstances arise which

warrants doing so.

8. RESEARCHERS’ CONTACT INFORMATION

If you have any questions or concerns about this study, please feel free to contact me

or my supervisor. My contact details are:

• Liza-Mari Rawlins

Student number: 16117204

Cell phone: 072 129 1400


I am accountable to Dr. Damons, my supervisor at Stellenbosch University.

• Lynne Damons

• (021) 8082313

9. RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Your child may withdraw their consent at any time and discontinue participation without

penalty. Neither you nor your child are waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies

because of your participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding

your or your child’s rights as a research participant, contact Ms Maléne Fouché

[[email protected]; 021 808 4622] at the Division for Research Development.

DECLARATION OF CONSENT BY THE PARENT/ LEGAL GUARDIAN OF THE

CHILD- PARTICIPANT

As the parent/legal guardian of the child I confirm that:

• I have read the above information and it is written in a language that I am com-

fortable with.

• The information above was described to me by Liza-Mari Rawlins in a language

I am comfortable with.

• I have had a chance to ask questions and all my questions have been answered

to my satisfaction.

• All issues related to privacy, and the confidentiality and use of the information

have been explained.

By signing below, I ______________________________ (name of parent) agree that

the researcher may approach my child ______________________________ (child

name) to take part in this research study, as conducted by Liza-Mari Rawlins.

________________________________________________________________


Signature of Parent/Legal Guardian Date

DECLARATION BY THE PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

As the principal investigator, I hereby declare that the information contained in this

document has been thoroughly explained to the parent/legal guardian. I also declare

that the parent/legal guardian was encouraged and given ample time to ask any ques-

tions.

________________________________________________________________

Signature of Principal Investigator Date


ADDENDUM C

STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY

IMVUME YOMZALI/UMGCINI OSEMTHETHWENI YOKUTHATHA INXAXHEBA

KOMNTWANA KUPHANDO

Usebenzisa isaNgqa sabaHlobo ukuze uqinise iimfanelo ze-Socio-Emotional Intelli-

gence [ubuKrelekrele bezeNtlalo neeMvakalelo] zeqela Labantwana abakumabanga

aphantsi kwimeko engazinzanga.

Ndithanda ukumema umntwana wakho abe nenxaxheba kuphononongo oluqhutywa

ndim, Liza-Mari Rawlins, umfundi wee-Masters ovela kwi-Department of Educational

Psychology e-Stellenbosch University. Njengenxalenye yezinto ezifuneka kwisidanga

sam, ngoku ndiqhuba uphononongo lokoMeleza ubuKrelekrele bezeNtlalo neeMva-

kalelo kwiZinga labasaQalayo. Umntwana wakho uza kumenywa njengomnye oseno-

kuba nenxaxheba kuba utishala wakhe uvakalelwa ukuba angazuza kweli thuba lok-

omeleza nokukhuthaza ukuzazi, ukulawula iimvakalelo, nobugcisa bokwenza izigqibo.

10. INJONGO YOPHONONONGO

Injongo yolu phononongo kukomeleza ubuchule bezeMvakalelo nezeNtlalo kubafundi

abakumabanga aphantsi abahlala baze bangene isikolo kwiindawo ezineemingeni

kwezemvakalelo nezentlalo. Ndivakalelwa kukuba olu phononongo aluzi kuphelela

nje ekuchanabeni abahlohli nabafundi kwisixhobo sokuqinisa ubukrelekrele beemva-

kalelo nezentlalo ebantwaneni, kulutsha nabantu abadala, kodwa nako oku kuna-

mathuba okuba luncedo njengecebo lokukhuthaza ukuzazi, ukulawula iimvakalelo,

ubugcisa bokwenza izigqibo uze kuze kube negalelo kuphuhliso olupheleleyo

lokuphuhlisa abantu abaselula.

11. YINTONI EZA KUCELWA KUMNTWANA WAM?


Ukuba uyavuma ukuba umntwana wakho abe nenxaxheba kolu phononongo, um-

phandi uya kuthetha nomntwana wakho afumane imvume yokuba nenxaxheba kolu

phononongo. Ukuba umntwana uyavuma ukuthatha inxaxheba kolu phononongo, uya

kucelwa ezi zinto zilandelayo:

o Aye kwiziganeko zeeveki ngeeveki kangangemizuzu engama-45 ngoMvulo

nangoLwesithathu kangangeeVeki ezi-5.

o Ezi ziganeko zomjikelo ziza kuqhutywa ukuphuma kwesikolo (14:00 – 14:45),

eBhongolethu Foundation Primary School.

o Athabathe inxaxheba kwiqela lezinto ezenziwayo ebudeni bezi ziganeko.

Ebudeni bezi ziganeko zeqela uza kuxakeka zizinto ezahlukahlukeneyo (Siza

kuthetha size sabelane; sidlale imidlalo, sifundelane amabali size sense ezinye

izinto zokuzonwabisa nezinto zokubambisana).

o Avume ukuba ezi ziganeko zirekhodwe kuqondwa ukuba kuphela ngumphandi

nomphathi wakhe abaza kufikelela kwezo zinto zirekhodiweyo.

12. IMINGCIPHEKO NOKUNGAKHULULEKI

Olu phando lujoliswe ekufakeni isandla kwimpilo-ntle jikelele yabantwana abaselula.

Ngoko ke, ndiza kuqinisekisa ukuba ndimkhathalela ngendlela ephezulu kwaye ndiza

kumnyamekela ukuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo nesidima sabantwana siyahlonelwa.

Xa umphandi, um(aba)thathi-nxaxheba okanye abagcini bakujonga njengokuyimfu-

neko, abathathi nxaxheba baza kuthunyelwa kwingcali yengqondo eya kukwazi

ukubaxhasa ngokwezengqondo.

• Ms Toni Raphael

Inombolo yomnxeba: 071 485 6330

13. IINZUZO EZINOKUBAKHO KUMNTWANA OKANYE ULUNTU

Izinto ezifunyenwe kolu phononongo zisenokuba luncedo ekuphuhliseni nasek-

omelezeni ukuzazi, uvelwano, ukulawula iimvakalelo, nobugcisa bokwenza izigqibo,

zonke ezinokunceda ekuphuhliseni amacebo aluncedo okuphumelela xa bejongene

nemingeni abayifumana ekuhlaleni. Kwakhona kukho amathuba okunceda abanye

abantwana abajongene nemingeni efanayo kwiindawo abahlala kuzo okanye esikol-

weni Ukongezelela, olu phononongo lunomdla wokufak’ isandla kulwazi olunomda


lwezenzululwazi olufumaneka kubahlohli ekusebenziseni ubuchwephesha bokuzak-

hela izinto ukuze kusingathwe izicwangciso ze-SEL phakathi kwizikolo zaseMzantsi

Afrika kwaye ingakumbi kwiindawo apho ezichazwe njengezingazinzanga.

14. INTLAWULO YENXAXHEBA

Akuyi kubakho nzuzo zezimali ngokuba nenxaxheba. Akukho zindleko uza kungena

kuzo ngokuba nenxaxheba kolu phononongo.

15. UKUKHUSELWA KWENKCAZELO, IIMFIHLO NOKWAZIWA KWAKHO

NOMNTWANA WAKHO

Nayiphina inkcazelo yakho okanye yomntwana wakho aza kundinika yona umntwana

wakho ebudeni bolu phononongo nenokuthi ikuchaze ukuba ungubani okanye umnt-

wana wakho iza kukhuselwa. Oku kuya kwenziwa kusetyenziswa amagama amela

umntwana wakho. Amagama abo akayi kwaziswa esidlangalaleni. Ngoxa ootishala

esikolweni beza kucelwa bathumele abantwana, abayi kukwazi ukufikelela kwinkca-

zelo ekwabelwana ngayo kwezi zinto. Kuya kugcinwa iimfihlo ngokuqinisekisa ukuba

zonke izinto ezirekhodiweyo zabathathi-nxaxheba zitshixelwe ekhabhathini okanye

kwi-laptop enepasiwedi. Zonke izinto ezirekhowdwe ngamazwi okanye ngevidiyo ziza

kutshatyalaliswa emva kokuba uphando lugqityiwe.

16. INXAXHEBA NOKURHOXA

Wena nomntwana wakho ningakhetha enoba niyafuna ukuba yinxalenye yolu phono-

nongo okanye akunjalo. Ukuba niyavuma ukuba umntwana wakho athabathe

inxaxheba kolu phononongo, nceda uphawula ukuba umntwana wakho usenoku-

khetha ukurhoxa okanye ale ukuthabatha inxaxheba ngalo naliphina ixesha angangeni

ngxakini. Umntwana wakho naye angala ukuphendula nayiphina imibuzo angafuni

kuyiphendula aze aqhubeke ekolu phononongo. Umphandi usenokukhetha ukumrhox-

isa umntwana wakho kolu phononongo ukuba kuvela iimeko ezifuna kwenziwe njalo.

17. INKCAZELO YOQHAGAMSHELO YOMPHANDI

Ukuba unayo nayiphina imibuzo okanye izinto ezikuxhalabisayo ngolu phononongo,

nceda uzive ukhululekile ukuqhagamshelana nam okanye umphathi wam. Iinkcukacha

zam zezi:

• Liza-Mari Rawlins


Student number: 16117204

Cell phone: 072 129 1400

Ndiphendula kuGqr. Damons, umphathi wam eStellenbosch University.

• Lynne Damons

Inombolo Yomnxeba: (021) 8082313

18. AMALUNGELO ABATHATHI-NXAXHEBA KUPHANDO

Umntwana wakho usenokurhoxisa imvume yakhe ngalo naliphina ixesha aze ayeke

ukuqhubeka nenxaxheba aze angohlwaywa. Wena okanye umntwana wakho anil-

ahlekelwa lilungelo elisemthethweni lebango, amalungelo okanye ulungiso ngenxa

yokuba ninenxaxheba kolu phononongo lophando. Ukuba unemibuzo ngokuphathe-

lele amalungelo omntwana wakho njengomthathi-nxaxheba kuphando, qhagam-

shelana noMs Maléne Fouché [[email protected]; 021 808 4622] kwi-Division for

Research Development.

UVAKALISO LWEMVUME NGUMZALI/UMGCINI OSEMTHETHWENI WOMTHA-

THI-NXAXHEBA ONGUMNTWANA

Njengomzali/umgcini osemthethweni womntwana ndiqinisekisa ukuba:

• Ndiyifundile inkcazelo engasentla kwaye ibhalwe ngolwimi endikhululekileyo

ngalo.

• Le nkcazelo ingasentla iye yachazwa kum ngu-Liza-Mari Rawlins ngolwimi

endikhululekileyo ngalo.

• Ndiye ndanethuba lokubuza imibuzo kwaye yonke imibuzo yam iye ya-

phendulwa ndaneliseka.

• Yonke imiba enokuthanani neemfihlelo, kunye neemfihlo nokusetyenziswa

kwenkcazelo kuye kwacaciswa.

Ngokusayina apha ngezantsi, Mna ______________________________ (igama

lomzali) ndiyavuma ukuba umphandi angathetha nomntwana wam


______________________________ (igama lomntwana) abe nenxaxheba kolu pho-

nonongo lwemfuna-lwazi, njengokuqhutywa nguLiza-Mari Rawlins.

________________________________________________________________

Usayino loMzali/uMgcini Osemthethweni Umhla

UVAKALISO LOMPHANDI OYINTLOKO

Njengomphandi oyintloko, Ngokwenjenje ndivakalisa ukuba le nkcazelo ilapha kolu

xwebhu iye yacaciswa kakuhle kumzali/umgcini osemthethweni. Kwakhona ndivaka-

lisa ukuba umzali/umgcini osemthethweni uye wakhuthazwa waza wanikwa ixesha

elaneleyo lokubuza nayiphina imibuzo.

________________________________________________________________

Usayino loMphandi oyiNtloko Umhla

ADDENDUM D

LETTER FROM THE PSYCHOLOGIST


ADDENDUM E 1

TEACHER CHECKLIST


Does learner demonstrate awareness of his/her own emotions (Self-awareness)

Recognise and accurately names feelings?

Identifies and communicates emotions?

Identifies emotions related to a situation/event (trigger)?

Does student demonstrate ability to manage him/herself constructively

Regulate themselves and their emotions during the class time

and their engagement with others, activities, materials and the re-

searcher.

Regulate themselves and their emotions during the play time and

their engagement with others, activities, materials and the re-

searcher.

Identify ways to calm themselves down?

Demonstrate constructive ways to handle situations that causes

upsetting emotions?

Practices and implement strategies to manage emotions?

Student demonstrates awareness of other children’s emotions and perspectives

Able to identifies feelings in others?

Identifies words and actions that hurt others?

Student is able to make sound decisions in conflicting situations

• How do the make decisions? (Impulsively or do they Stop

think and then act?

ADDENDUM E 2


EXAMPLE OF COMPLETED TEACH CHECKLIST

ADDENDUM F


Observation guide

The researcher will be a participant observer during the focus group sessions. During

these sessions, the researcher will focus on how the participants engage with the ac-

tivities presented to them; the ways in which they regulate their emotions and how they

make decisions; how they interact with the other participants and the researcher; the

researcher will pay particular attention to verbal and non-verbal cues.

Furthermore, a reflection session will take place immediately after an activity or during

the initiation of the next session in order for participants to share their meaning making

of the experiences during and after the sessions, to asses if any learning has taken

place and how (and if) the participants have applied what they have learnt during the

intervention outside of the sessions.

The researcher will specifically observe aspects of:

1. Self-awareness

• Whether participants demonstrate and accurately name feelings.

• Are able to identify and communicate emotions.

2. Self-management

• How participants regulate themselves and their emotions during the sessions

• How they engage with others; with the various activities and the researcher.

• Are they able to practices and implement strategies to manage their emo-

tions?

3. Social awareness:

• If they are able to identify emotions in others

• How they respond to the emotions of others

4. Decision making

• How the individual participants make decisions

• How they work with others?

ADDENDUM G


Focus Group Activity Guide

Session 1- introductory session planning sheet

The first meeting session will focus on setting up our Caring Heart Circle. We will all

collectively decide on the rules of the circle, we will talk about the structure of the ses-

sions, confidentiality, then together brainstorm a name for our group along with collec-

tively decide on activities we would like to engage in during out time together.

The researcher will converse in age-appropriate language, to ensure that the sessions

are accessible to the participants. During the first session the researcher will assess

whether a translator will be necessary for the remainder of the sessions.

Session 1 will be our introductory session, where the children will:

Session 2 – Learning about various emotions

Outcomes – What do we

hope to achieve?

• To become aware and introduce of the four basic emotions, and how they feel physically inside.

• To identify different facial expressions that in-dicate specific feelings.

Material – what tools will be

used? How will they be used?

• “In My Heart: A Book of Feelings” by Jo Witek. In my heart: A Book of Feelings ex-plores celebrates and describes a range of emotions, and how they feel physically, in-side. The use of lyrical yet direct language will allow the participants to be empowered by this new vocabulary and the newly found ability to practice articulating and identifying their own emotions.

• Musical Instruments – We will build our own shakers, that will be used to play the four basic emotions. Participants will choose unique rhythms for each emotion.

• Paper plates – We will draw the four basic emotions on paper plates.

• Drawing materials – Crayons, pencils, mark-ers, paint

Meeting up and Snack –

An activity that will allow to

create a sense of together-

ness and calmness in our

group before the session be-

gins.

• We will enjoy a snack together

• During this time we will engage in reflective conversations about our week, and any con-cerns we might have, things that happened to us during the week/day.


Warming up

• Allows for opportunity to encourage listening skills

• Usually a statement that participants are re-quired to complete, as we go around in a cir-cle. “Today I am feeling?”

Opening Up - • During this session the researcher will read the story “In My Heart: A Book of Feelings” by Jo Witek.

• Engage in discussion about the feelings in the story. (What feelings did the girl feel? How did her body feel when she felt happy/Sad/Scared/ Angry? When do you feel this way? What makes you feel this way?

• Participants will engage with various materials to make faces with different emotions. They get to choose the materials they wish to use.

• This will allow us to further explore different feelings. Whilst building emotion vocabulary in the participants building on skills of self-awareness.

Reinforcement Activity • Take away activity – where participants will make popsicle stick emotions (the colours of the popsicle sticks will speak to the colours in the story), that they will be able to use to iden-tify their emotions

Reflect/Calming Down – Re-

flect about what they “learnt

during this session to check

for understanding.

Furthermore, this time allows

for opportunity to engage in

self-calming strategies.

• Colour your feelings activity. How they are feeling at the moment.

• Engage in a breathing activity to calm down and recollect ourselves.

• Allowing children to share their meaning making experiences during the session.

• What did you enjoy most today?

• What emotions did we deal with?

• The third reflection question will be nego-tiated with the participant.

Questions and Probes

The questions asked during and after reading will focus on the children’s Literal, In-

ferential, Appreciative, Critique, Evaluative and Essential Understanding of the

story being read.


Literal Such questions focus on the facts that can be recalled from the

story.

What feelings did we read about today?

How did the character feel?

What made the character feel this way?

How did they manage their emotions?

Inferential Children are required to look for the deeper meaning from the

story. This entails making “educated guesses” about what was

being read.

Appreciative Appreciation entails making a connection to the story. Chil-

dren’ will be encouraged to make “text-to-self” connections.

Have you ever felt like the character in the story?

What makes you feel like the character felt?

Evaluative Children will be asked to give their judgement about the char-

acters behaviour and decisions.

Do you think the character made the right decisions?

What else could they have done?

Essential What was learnt from the story?

ADDENDUM H:

Activities Promoting Emotional Vocabulary, Confidence and Risk-taking

Interactive Activities


Interactive activities are considered effective ways of engaging young children and en-

abling young children to tell their stories. When selecting the activities, I had to remem-

ber that each participant is different, both as an individual and with regards to the issue

that needs to be addressed. The following factors were important when selected the

media an activities included in the study:

• The participant’s developmental age – activities should be challenging but ac-

commodate different ability levels

• Activities should provide opportunities for scaffolding

• The applicability for group work

• The goals of the session, focus group and research

• Create opportunities for peer learning and adult peer-engagement

• Fun and challenging. Prepare participants for what they can expected; be con-

scious of the potential for embarrassment and the group dynamic that may in-

terfere with how participants engage with the process

• Patience, flexibility, and transparency

• Being mindful not to coerce participants into participating – instead reflect on

their feelings.

• Allow for debriefing, and opportunities where participants can share their expe-

riences, make connections with the media, activities, and other participants.

Interactive activities participants were exposed to included: read-aloud, feeling-tree,

The selected activities focused on various skills required to strengthen the participant

emotional vocabulary, sense of self, self-confidence, and willingness to engage and

take risks. By employing such interactive approaches to data generation, I hoped to

help children feel more comfortable to interact and perhaps feel better able to express

their views about their world, self and experiences and facilitate participation.

As a part of the focus group session, stimulus activities (story books/read aloud) were

presented to initiate conversation. Ritchie and Lewis (2013) recommend using a pro-

jective technique or stimulus material with a focus group, as it creates some distance

between the participants and the topic at hand. This technique empowered the partic-

ipants to share their knowledge as well as learn from one another; It also created the

opportunity for direct interactions among the participants, promoted exploration and

further thought around different feelings, beliefs, experiences and further providing op-

portunities to build emotion vocabulary in participants and scaffolding skills of self-


awareness, problem solving and communication whilst providing a space in which I

could observe how participants related to one another.

Some activities lend themselves to the development of emotional vocabulary, self-in-

sight, self-concept and emotional expression much more effectively than others for

example:

1. Read aloud and storytelling:

During our sessions together the researcher and the participants engaged in

some read aloud and storytelling activities often to open the session and serve

has a hook or introduction. Read-aloud, allowed for exploration different feel-

ings, emotional words, problem-solving skills, and self-insight, through the use

of various comprehension strategies including connections, inference, and eval-

uation. Consequently, also strengthening participants self-awareness, self-

management, and coping strategies. The selected books considered the cogni-

tive developmental level, English language proficiency and reading level of the

participants as such including a lot of visual stimuli.

• “In My Heart: A Book of Feelings” by Jo Witek. In my heart: A Book of

Feelings explores celebrates and describes a range of emotions, and how

they feel physically, inside. The use of lyrical yet direct language will allow

the participants to be empowered by this new vocabulary and the newly

found ability to practice articulating and identifying their own emotions.

• “Allie All Along” by Sarah Lynne Reul – This story hopes to explore and

help children deal with strong emotions.

• “When I’m Feeling___” series by Tracey Moroney – Tracy Moroney wrote

a series of books exploring big emotions like Happy, Sad, Scared and Angry.

These books explore with children how these emotions feel and what the

character does to manage such a big emotion.


Questions and Probes

The questions asked during and after reading or watching a video will focus on the

children’s Literal, Inferential, Appreciative, Critique, Evaluative and Essential Un-

derstanding of the story being read.

Literal Such questions focus on the facts that can be recalled from the

story.

What feelings did we read about today?

How did the character feel?

What made the character feel this way?

How did they manage their emotions?


Inferential Children are required to look for the deeper meaning from the

story. This entails making “educated guesses” about what was

being read.

Appreciative Appreciation entails making a connection to the story. Chil-

dren’ will be encouraged to make “text-to-self” connections.

Have you ever felt like the character in the story?

What makes you feel like the character felt?

Evaluative Children will be asked to give their judgement about the char-

acters behaviour and decisions.

Do you think the character made the right decisions?

What else could they have done?

Essential What was learnt from the story?

2. Feeling Tree

The feeling tree is an activity that all the participants engaged in during the onset

of every session. Participants were provided with various coloured leaves, each

colour representing the various emotions. Participants were invited to choose

the colour that best spoke to their current emotional state and put it on the tree.

Such an activity provided participants with the opportunity to share their feelings

in a non-threating manner, strengthen their emotional awareness of self and

others, while building on their emotional vocabulary (peer learning).


3. Drawing activities

An example of a drawing activity includes Session 5, where the participants

were invited to listen to instrumental music, while painting the feeling the music

evoked in them. Liza: “Let’s paint while we listen to music. I want you to think

carefully about the emotion the music makes you feel and then paint that feeling

on the paper”, “Goodness, I wonder what this music makes you feel? Can you

show me?” After painting the participants were invited to share about their paint-

ing (if they felt confident to do so). Liza: “Can you tell me about your painting?”

How did you feel when the … music was playing? How did you paint when you

felt that way?” All participants eagerly shared about their painting. While this

activity allowed for the expression of emotion, it support the development of

emotional vocabulary as participants listened to other’s sharing about the feel-

ings evoked in them. Furthermore, strengthening participants self-esteem, as

activities such as the former promote self-fulfilment, and independent. Further-

more, such an activity allowed the participants to each take on an expert role.


4. Clay work

Participants were asked to engage in a clay work activity in which they used clay

to symbolise and represent emotions/feelings. Each participant was provided with

four colourful balls of clay. Participants were invited to construct faces with the clay.

Liza: “We can feel a lot of different feelings, today you are going to use the clay to

show me what happy, sad, angry and scared look likes to you?” Participants were

then invited to talk about the faces they had constructed; What emotion the person

is feeling, what made the person feel this way? The use of clay allowed participants

to be creative. Clay work is viewed as a process which mediates and encouraged

the expression of thoughts, feelings, and experiences in a non-threatening manner

(Geldard, Geldard, & Foo, 2018).



ADDENDUM I:

Extract from Research Journal

18/02/2021

I reached out to the participants parents. My initial interaction with them was telephon-

ically with a phone call. While most parents answered their phones, it proven quite

difficult to get in contact with others as the numbers provided were no longer in use.

Fortunately, the grade 2 educator and myself were in frequent contact with each other,

and she was able to identify another scholar who could benefit from participating. Dur-

ing the phone call I explained to the parents the purpose of the group. Once the pur-

pose was explained, and parents were provided with apple opportunity to ask ques-

tions to clear up any possible uncertainties, I invited the parents to meet with me on

Friday 26/02 at a time most convenient for them. After each phone call, a letter was

sent to each parent, again explaining the purpose of the study, along with the data and

time of our information session.

This was quite a distressing task for me, as I am anxious to converse with people

telephonically. In addition, not getting a hold of certain participants parents also caused

me a lot of anxiety. Sadly, during my telephone sessions 1 parent indicated that they

would prefer the child to not participate in the group. It was a bitter pill to swallow, as

my anxiety around the number of participants started to increase. I had to again reach

out to the grade 2 educator, in the hopes of her being able to identify another learner,

fitting the identified criteria.

26/02/2021

I spent by day at the school conversing with the Grade 2 educator and conducting

consent sessions with the parents. While it was a successful day, only a few parents

arrived for their meet and greet session. While 6 parents joined the introduction session

and gave consent, 2 parents withdrew their learners from the group. I therefore had to

converse with the grade 2 educator again. Inconsistency and parent involvement is

something I have been mindful of from the start of the sessions.

Ending the day feeling concerned about starting my session on Monday with too little

learners. I contacted a few more parents, getting verbal consent and arranging to meet

with them on Monday morning prior to the first focus group session. I ended of the day

with 8 participants. On Monday morning I met with Nobel’s father, and Manly’s father

who gave consent for them to join in. I felt relieved knowing that I has 8 participants.

Session 1 – 01/03/2021


Today was the first focus group session. I felt quite anxious within myself prior, during

as well as after the session. A lot of my anxious feelings centred around my own un-

certainty with the process, and although I have planned, I felt worried about how the

first session might plan out. Throughout the session I was hyper aware of my role –

the new role I was diving into - continuously evaluating and checking myself - “Am I

too much teacher?”, “Am I too leading?”. I was in my head, worried about whether I

was doing it “right”. While certain aspects of the first session went well,

Warrior spoke about how he seemed fine on the outside but, on the inside he was

ready to burst. In retrospect, I felt the same.

I found myself being pleasantly surprised by Fire’s sense of assertiveness, and her

ability to express her needs effectively and constructively is this a facade). I became

aware of the concrete level of thinking of some of the learners during today’s session.

While I have planned for/anticipated some of the challenges experienced within focus

group sessions, some were inevitable. Some boys and girls were quite distracted,

while others participated more than others (See challenges focus group section 3.5.1).

I actively tried giving a voice to each participant during today’s session. Blessing and

Nobel. did not engage within the session today. The participants seem excited by the

activities.

Towards the end of the session, I felt overwhelmed, flustered and out of control. The

session felt like it lost its focus and structure – as it did not end as I had planned. The

space was filled with overwhelming feelings, and I remember feeling uncertain about

the process ahead. I left todays sessions feeling crazy, and I wondered how much of

the feelings I was feeling was the feelings the participants wanted me to feel.

It is important to be mindful of the masks, and how they serve as a barrier during our

sessions – making it difficult to hear each other, see facial expressions etc. Further-

more, serving as a barrier in our ability to connect with each other.

After the session I got in contact with my supervisor, informing her about the first ses-

sion, how it went, and the feelings I felt around the session.

Session 6 – 06/04/2021

I still find myself having to remind the participants that I am not a teacher during our

time together but, rather a teammate. This reminder, however, doesn’t last long as they

continue to call me teacher. I wonder how this influences the “power dynamic” that I

had hope to balance out, along with how this influences their willingness to connect

and share.


Today we spoke more about anger, this is a prominent emotion I have been wanting

to talk about. As a teacher at the school, I myself came to notice how angry feelings

are often expressed in a physical way – hitting, hurting, screaming – often impulsively

without thought. This is where I hope to make a change and maybe foster some aware-

ness and self-control. I read a book about anger and invited the participants to think

about things that make them angry. They were invited to draw these things, after which

I invited them to share with the group. A lot of the thigs that came out what being hurt

or beaten by others. The former again directed my thinking to the context these chil-

dren find themselves in.

Throughout our session today, I noted how Nobel was seemingly more active and con-

fident. He actively sought me out to share his drawing with me. It was wonderful to

witness his confidence and hear his voice during our session today.

Sadly our session ended quite abruptly as Warrior’s, Manly’s and Courageous’s

transport arrived 10 minutes earlier today. The possibility of missing their transport

appears to be quite distressing for them. As soon as they left, the calm space suddenly

filled with chaos as the other’s started to anticipate the ending of our session. Our

closing and reflective circle ended with me making a summarising statement of what

we spoke about today.

Session 7 – 11/04/2021

The inconsistency in attendance continues as Destiny was absent from today’s ses-

sion. I find myself feeling less frustrated about the inconsistency of attendance, and

rather wonder how it speaks to the environment of the participants. As our session

starts Warrior shares about a scary incident that took place on the way to school this

morning. The learners of the school make use of transport to get to and from school.

Two transport taxi’s seemingly crashed into each other leaving a few learners and par-

ticipants shook-up. I found myself letting go of the preconceived plan and idea I had

formulated for today’s session and decided to instead stay with the feelings that the

participants brought to the room – scared, worried, frightened, sad.

With the boys and girls we spoke at length about the incident. I was amazed with how

the participants were able to make connections to their peers and relate. Some showed

compassion and empathy, as their peers shared about the times, they felt scared.

Warrior brought an interesting twist to his feeling sharing that he felt “weak and tumbled

up”, furthermore frequently stating his need for care, emphasizing how scary the event


was. Manly, also spoke about the event, sharing how scared and worried he felt “I

thought is was going to die.

Furthermore, more information came out about the social context the participants find

themselves in, and the “disorganised” community.

Over the past 2 sessions Nobel has more readily and eagerly started sharing. I wonder

how this speaks to his sense of connection and trust with me and the group. I observed

him showing admirable empathy to his friend Strong, rubbing his back, and reassuring

him that things will be okay – Strong hurt his foot.

Lastly, Warrior and Manly wondered about a world without emotions, what it would be

like. They both finally concluded that emotions and feelings are important for human

interaction as it lets others and ourselves know how we are feelings.

Today’s session was by far one of my favourites. I wonder how much of it could be

attributed to me letting go of some of my control, and allowing the participants to speak

about something personal, something that happened to them. The former speaking to

the power of PAR. Being able to share about their personal experiences, allowed for

connection, an opportunity for shared voices, experiences, and learning from each

other.


ADDENDUM J

TRANSCRIPT WITH THEMATIC CODING

COLOUR CODING KEY

Self- awareness

Social -Awareness

Self-management

Social- skills

Context

PAR delivery


Extract from the Focus Group Transcript

Session 7 Main Theme Sub Themes

LIZA: How are you guys feeling?

MANLY: I was worried me.

MANLY: Teacher, and then my mother’s sister

did take me and let me and and let my dad.

LIZA: I’m so sorry. Warrior, how are you feeling

during this time?

WARRIOR: I felt like I was about to die. Be-

cause we crashed. When we get to the taxi rank

and fell there I thought the car, the car maybe

was about to explode. I thought that was going

to happen. My heart was beating so fast once

we crashed. Oh, my gosh! I hit my head so

hard.

LIZA: Warrior is telling us about all these feel-

ings he felt. He said his heart was beating, his

head was sore, he was feeling worried. What

feelings…

LIZA: What feelings do you think Warrior and

Manly and all the other friends might have been

feeling during this time?

STRONG: Sad, very sad and even worse.

WARRIOR: Teacher…

COURAGOUS: Worried.

LIZA: Scared. Did you guys feel scared during

that time?

WARRIOR: Yes. I could still feel me in tummy

to die.

LIZA: Okay.

WARRIOR: Teacher.

LIZA: So, I wanted us to talk about angry feel-

ings today. But I am thinking that maybe we

Self-Awareness

Self-Awareness

Self-Awareness

PAR Delivery

Social Awareness

Self-management

Social Awareness

Self-Awareness

Emotional

Awareness

Emotional Vo-

cabulary

Emotional

Awareness

Emotional Vo-

cabulary

Awareness of

feelings in the

body

Teachable Mo-

ments

Empathy –

awareness of

and labelling

emotions in oth-

ers


should take some time to talk about what hap-

pened today.

PAR Delivery Awareness of

feelings in the

body

Teachable Mo-

ments

Session 4

LOVE: Liam did beat me.

LIZA: Okay, what can you do to let him know

that you didn’t like it?

STRONG: You says stop beating me. And I

don’t like it, it’s very annoying.

INTERVIEWER: I think that’s a good idea.

Maybe we can use our words when our friend

makes us feel upset.

STRONG: You can tell him. Warrior, you made

me feel sad.

Self-management

PAR Delivery

Self-management

PAR Delivery

Self-management

Self-regulation

and Impulse con-

trol

Self-regulation

and Impulse con-

trol

Reflection

Scaffolding

Self-regulation

and Impulse con-

trol


ADDENDUM K

ACTIVITY INTRUCTIONS TO PARTICIPANTS

Circle of Friends

According to Mosley (2009), Circle of Friends sessions are always designed with the

following in mind (p. 124):

1. Structure – sessions are a timetabled, weekly activity with a five-step plan.

Each stage has a specific structure and leads into the next step (see below).

2. Solution Focused – the atmosphere of safety is reinforced by the requirements

of preventing put-downs and negative attitudes, teaching positive behaviours

and attitudes, and raising self-esteem.

3. Variety - a wide range of teaching strategies is available to circle time practi-

tioners, including directed discussion, teaching of thinking and problem-solving

skills, and other active methods. Children know that every circle time meeting is

different

The circle of friend’s intervention plan as set out by Mosley (2009).

Adapted activity theory checklist

1. It is important to remain reflexive, flexible and creative in one’s planning and

structure of sessions. Be mindful of teachable moments within the session that

might force one to change the course of the plan.

Meeting up - Playing games

Warming up - Breaking the silence

Opening up - Exploring

issues

Cheering up - celebrating the positive

Calming down -

Bridging


2. Adopt a playful approach, keep it interesting and challenging. Use a wide range

of teaching strategies, activities and resources.

3. Ensure that you pay close attention to the strengths, interests, and ways of en-

gaging of the individual participants, so that you are able to adapt your interven-

tion to accommodate the needs of the individual and the needs of the individual

within the group. e. Keep it challenging but ensure that the activities you select

allow all participants to experience moments of mastery.

4. Look for moments to witness, and reinforce socio-emotional competencies, re-

flect your observations back to participants, reinforcing the witnessed compe-

tency.

Outcomes • What do we hope to achieve in this session?

Materials and Mediating

Artifacts

• What tools will be used?

• How will they be used?

• Are we able to adapt these in accordance with

the responsiveness of the group?

Meeting up and Snack –

• We will enjoy a snack together

• An activity that will allow to create a sense of

togetherness and calmness in our group before

the session begins.

• During this time, we will engage in reflective

conversations about our week, and any con-

cerns we might have, things that happened to

us during the week/day.

Rules • What kind of instruction and practicing ules will

be introduces?

• What are the expectations around social order

rules like discipline and communication?

• How will this process be navigated so that it

doesn’t interfere with the research interest of

the group’s own social order practices?

Warming up • Allows for opportunity to encourage listening skills


• This usually involves statements that the par-

ticipants are required to complete, as we go

around in a circle – “Today I am feeling…’

Opening Up • Using various stimulant activities – books, mu-

sic, videos – to serve as an introduction to the

content of the session.

• Engage in conversation about stimulus activi-

ties. These conversations often allow for par-

ticipants to get in touch for their own feelings.

• Participants engage with various materials

and activities, that link to the outcome and

stimulus activity selected eg., drawing, paint-

ing, constructing. These activities empower

participants or equip them with knowledge, in-

sight and understanding and skills.

Reinforcement Activity • Take away activity - often reinforcing the topic

discussed during the sessions.

• A tool that participants can use and carry with

them to help them manage-themselves eg., a

coping strategy, a feelings check-in, a calming

bottle.

Reflect/Calming Down –

• Allowing children to share their meaning mak-

ing experiences during the session

• Reflect about what they “learnt during this ses-sion to check for understanding.

• Furthermore, this time allows for opportunity to engage in self-calming strategies.

Snack time

Focusses on the informal engagement to establish rapport and model basic social

skills and competencies. During this time, it is important to model “how to be” instead

of focussing on “how not to be”. Key activities during this time, listening, reflecting,

bringing sense of humour.

Instrumental Circle


Each participant in the group is asked to construct their own musical instrument from

a tin, rice and a balloon. Each participant is invited to select their own tin and balloon -

“Everyone can choose a tin and a balloon that is your favourite colour. The facilitator

scaffolds the constructions process by carefully demonstrating step by step what par-

ticipants are required to do, providing assistance when asked for. Take your balloon

and carefully cut the top section of, like this (Demonstrate). Reflect on participants who

are able to follow instructions independently “Well done, …. Cut the balloon”. The fa-

cilitator also encourages participants to assist each other through the construction pro-

cess “If you are all done, and you see a friend that needs some help, could you help

them?”

After the musical instruments are constructed, the facilitator will invite each participant

to use the instrument to express themselves. The rest of the participants, listen and

respond using the drum, this creates a space where participants can rehearse self-

expression, listening, social skills and empathy. The drumming is used to complement

the other interventions aimed at increased self-awareness, practising self-expression,

and experiencing themselves as individuals within the group (Drake, 2011; Friedman,

1997). The participants are further invited to collectively explore the feelings of happy,

sad, angry, and scared. After expressing each feeling, the facilitator scaffolds reflec-

tions by probing, prompting and questions. For Example: “When do you feel sad?”,

“What makes you feel sad?”, “What do you do when you are sad?”, What do you need

when you are?”.

Activities

Creative activities are considered effective vehicles in aiding young children express

themselves, their experiences and understanding. Consequently, “giving emotions a

visual voice” (Damons, 2014, p. 76). Creative activities are considered a process which

mediates the expression of thoughts, feelings, and experiences, more so than simply

asking a child to talk about them. While the facilitator acts as a resource person, she/he

needs to acknowledge the agency of the individual and group in deciding aspects of

intervention. It is important to consult the participants before committing to anything on

their behalf. The cycle of youth engagement serves as a reminder of how this could be

facilitated.


ADDENDUM L

Educator Reflective Feedback

The following feedback was provided by the participants educator a month after the

focus group sessions were concluded.

31/05/2021

Nobel

“Nobel seems to have come out of his shell. He has grown and changed quite a bit;

he is a lot more outspoken”. He is also less reactive and more responsive, so he will

come to me and let me know if someone is doing something wrong. Not that he

doesn’t at times do something wrong, but he is seemingly more aware of other’s and

their behaviour”.

Blessing

“I wouldn’t say Blessing has improved in his general lack of demeanour, but he has

softened up with me, and seems to be more comfortable with me”.

Warrior

“I have noticed a beautiful improvement in Warrior. He is learning to not let people

affect him so much. I feel like he has matured. He is really doing so well.”

Love

“Love, use to cry quite often, she doesn’t really cry as much. She is learning not to

let her emotions get the better of her”.

Destiny

“Destiny continues to demonstrate good social and emotional skills”

Courageous

“Courageous is the best”

Manly

“Manly, I am getting the sense that, he has become a bit of a thug, he almost has

this I don’t care attitude”.

Fire

“I have noticed growth in her approach to adults”.

Strong

“Is perceived to be quite bossy by others”.


EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE COMPETENCIES OF A GROUP ...

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