-
Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies
An Introduction
Edited by
Alessandro Bausi (General Editor)
Pier Giorgio Borbone
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet
Paola Buzi
Jost Gippert
Caroline Mac
Marilena Maniaci
Zisis Melissakis
Laura E. Parodi
Witold Witakowski
Project editor
Eugenia Sokolinski
COMSt
2015
Emmel 2015 =Emmel, Stephen. Coptic Manuscripts. In: Comparative
Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction, edited by Alessandro
Bausi et al., 4446 (with bibliography on pp. 583654 passim).
Hamburg: Tredition, 2015. [Complete volume available for download
at: http://www1.uni-hamburg.de/COMST/handbookonline.html.]NOTE:
.pdf version: 31.i.2015.
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Copyright COMSt (Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies)
2015
COMSt Steering Committee 20092014:
Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (Sweden)
Alessandro Bausi (Germany)
Malachi Beit-Ari (Israel)
Pier Giorgio Borbone (Italy)
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (France)
Charles Genequand (Switzerland)
Review body: European Science Foundation, Standing Committee for
the Humanities
Typesetting, layout, copy editing, and indexing: Eugenia
Sokolinski
Contributors to the volume:
Felix Albrecht (FA)
Per Ambrosiani (PAm)
Tara Andrews (TA)
Patrick Andrist (PAn)
Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (EBW)
Alessandro Bausi (ABa)
Malachi Beit-Ari (MBA)
Daniele Bianconi (DB)
Andr Binggeli (ABi)
Pier Giorgio Borbone (PGB)
Claire Bosc-Tiess (CBT)
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (FBC)
Paola Buzi (PB)
Valentina Calzolari (VC)
Alberto Cantera (AC)
Laurent Capron (LCa)
Ralph M. Cleminson (RMC)
Marie Cornu (MCo)
Marie Cronier (MCr)
Lorenzo Cuppi (LCu)
Javier del Barco (JdB)
Johannes den Heijer (JdH)
Franois Droche (FD)
Alain Desreumaux (AD)
This book is published under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-No-
Derivatives 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
(www.creativecommons.
org).
Printed by: Tredition, Hamburg
ISBN 978-3-7323-1768-4 (Hardcover)
ISBN 978-3-7323-1770-7 (Paperback)
ISBN 978-3-7323-1769-1 (Ebook)
Antonia Giannouli (Cyprus)
Ingvild Gilhus (Norway)
Caroline Mac (Belgium)
Zisis Melissakis (Greece)
Stig Rasmussen (Denmark)
Jan Just Witkam (The Netherlands)
Renate Nller (RN)
Denis Nosnitsin (DN)
Maria-Teresa Ortega Monasterio (MTO)
Bernard Outtier (BO)
Laura E. Parodi (LEP)
Tamara Pataridze (TP)
Irmeli Perho (IP)
Delio Vania Proverbio (DVP)
Ira Rabin (IR)
Arietta Revithi (AR)
Valentina Sagaria Rossi (VSR)
Nikolas Sarris (NS)
Karin Scheper (KS)
Andrea Schmidt (AS)
Denis Searby (DSe)
Lara Sels (LS)
David Sklare (DSk)
Wido van Peursen (WvP)
Annie Vernay-Nouri (AVN)
Franois Vinourd (FV)
Sever J. Voicu (SV)
Witold Witakowski (WW)
Jan Just Witkam (JJW)
Ugo Zanetti (UZ)
Arianna DOttone (ADO)
Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (DDM)
Stephen Emmel (SE)
Edna Engel (EE)
Antonia Giannouli (AGi)
Jost Gippert (JG)
Alessandro Gori (AGo)
Oliver Hahn (OH)
Paul Hepworth (PH)
Stphane Ipert (SI)
Grigory Kessel (GK)
Dickran Kouymjian (DK)
Paolo La Spisa (PLS)
Isabelle de Lamberterie (IL)
Hugo Lundhaug (HL)
Caroline Mac (CM)
Marilena Maniaci (MMa)
Michael Marx (MMx)
Alessandro Mengozzi (AM)
Manfred Mayer (MMy)
Joseph Moukarzel (JM)
Sbastien Moureau (SM)
Mauro Nobili (MN)
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Table of Contents
Contributors
...................................................................................................................................................xi
Preface
........................................................................................................................................................
xiii
Acknowledgements
.......................................................................................................................................xv
Notes to the reader
.......................................................................................................................................xvi
Abbreviations
...............................................................................................................................................xvi
Tables, figures, and maps
............................................................................................................................xviiMaps
..................................................................................................................................................xviiTables
.................................................................................................................................................xviiFigures
...............................................................................................................................................xvii
General introduction, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Jost
Gippert
..............................................................11.
Scope of COMSt (ABa)
............................................................................................................................1
1.1. The background of COMSt
..............................................................................................................11.2.
The notion of oriental in the COMSt perspective
...........................................................................21.3.
Oriental studies and the role of
orientalism....................................................................................41.4.
The comparative approach
...............................................................................................................91.5.
Structure of the book
.......................................................................................................................9
2. Digital and scientific approaches to oriental manuscript
studies
............................................................122.1.
Digital approaches to oriental manuscript studies (JG)
...................................................................122.2.
Instrumental analysis in manuscript studies (IR)
.............................................................................272.3.
Methods in palimpsest research (FA)
..............................................................................................31
3. The manuscript traditions
......................................................................................................................343.1.
Manuscripts in Arabic script (VSR)
.................................................................................................343.2.
Armenian manuscripts (DK)
............................................................................................................383.3.
Avestan manuscripts (AC)
...............................................................................................................403.4.
Caucasian Albanian manuscripts (JG)
.............................................................................................433.5.
Christo-Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD)
...............................................................................433.6.
Coptic manuscripts (SE)
.................................................................................................................443.7.
Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa)
.............................................................................................................463.8.
Georgian manuscripts (JG)
.............................................................................................................493.9.
Greek manuscripts (MMa)
...............................................................................................................513.10.
Hebrew manuscripts (MBA)
...........................................................................................................543.11.
Slavonic manuscripts (RMC)
..........................................................................................................553.12.
Syriac manuscripts (PGBFBC)
.......................................................................................................57
4. Ethical and legal aspects of manuscript research
...................................................................................604.1.
Ethics in research and conservation of oriental manuscripts (SI)
.....................................................604.2. Legal
framework for manuscript protection (MCo)
..........................................................................614.3.
Some recommendations on good practice (IL)
................................................................................66
Chapter 1. Codicology, edited by Marilena Maniaci
....................................................................................691.
Introduction (MMa)
................................................................................................................................69
1.1. Materials and tools (MMaSEIROHRN)
.........................................................................................711.2.
Book forms (MMa)
..........................................................................................................................771.3.
The making of the codex (MMa)
......................................................................................................781.4.
The layout of the page (MMa)
..........................................................................................................821.5.
Text structure and readability (MMa)
...............................................................................................841.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (MMa)
...............................................................851.7.
Bookbinding (NSKS)
......................................................................................................................86
2. Arabic codicology (FDVSRAVN)
...........................................................................................................892.1.
Materials and tools (FDVSR)
..........................................................................................................892.2.
Book forms (FDLEP)
......................................................................................................................952.3.
The making of the codex (FDVSR)
.................................................................................................972.4.
The layout of the page (VSR)
.........................................................................................................1012.5.
Text structure and readability (VSRAVN)
.......................................................................................1042.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (VSR)
..............................................................108
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2.7. Bookbinding (FD)
.........................................................................................................................
1133. Armenian codicology (DK)
...................................................................................................................
116
3.1. Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................
1163.2. Book forms
..................................................................................................................................1203.3.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................1213.4.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................1233.5.
Text structure and readability
.......................................................................................................1243.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work
......................................................................1273.7.
Bookbinding
................................................................................................................................128
4. Christian Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD)
..................................................................................1324.1.
Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................1324.2.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................1344.3.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................1354.4.
Bookbinding
................................................................................................................................136
5. Coptic codicology (PBSE)
...................................................................................................................1375.1.
Materials and tools (PB)
...............................................................................................................1375.2.
Book forms (SE)
...........................................................................................................................1405.3.
The making of the codex (SEPB)
.................................................................................................1415.4.
The layout of the page (PB)
..........................................................................................................1475.5.
Text structure and readability (PB)
................................................................................................1475.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (SEPB)
..........................................................1505.7.
Bookbinding (SE)
.........................................................................................................................151
6. Ethiopic codicology (EBWABaDNCBT)
...............................................................................................1546.1.
Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................1546.2.
Book forms
..................................................................................................................................1586.3.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................1596.4.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................1636.5.
Text structure and readability
.......................................................................................................1656.6.
The scribe and the painter at work
...............................................................................................1686.7.
Bookbinding
................................................................................................................................171
7. Georgian codicology (JG)
....................................................................................................................1757.1.
Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................1757.2.
Book forms
..................................................................................................................................1787.3.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................1797.4.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................1817.5.
Text structure and readability
.......................................................................................................1817.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work
......................................................................1847.7.
Bookbinding
................................................................................................................................185
8. Greek codicology (MMa)
......................................................................................................................1878.1.
Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................1878.2.
Book forms
..................................................................................................................................1938.3.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................1968.4.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................2018.5.
Text structure and readability
.......................................................................................................2028.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work
......................................................................2058.7.
Bookbinding
................................................................................................................................206
9. Hebrew codicology (MBA)
...................................................................................................................2089.1.
Materials and tools
......................................................................................................................2089.2.
Book forms
..................................................................................................................................2139.3.
The making of the codex
..............................................................................................................2149.4.
The layout of the page
.................................................................................................................2279.5.
Text structure and readability
.......................................................................................................2289.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work
......................................................................232
10. Slavonic codicology (RMC)
................................................................................................................23510.1.
Materials and
tools.....................................................................................................................
23510.2. Book forms
................................................................................................................................23910.3.
The making of the codex
............................................................................................................241
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10.4. The layout of the page
...............................................................................................................24210.5.
Text structure and readability
.....................................................................................................24310.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work
.....................................................................24710.7.
Bookbinding
..............................................................................................................................250
11. Syriac codicology (PGBFBCEBW)
......................................................................................................25211.1.
Materials and tools (PGBFBC)
.....................................................................................................25211.2.
Book forms (PGBFBC)
................................................................................................................25511.3.
The making of the codex (PGBFBC)
............................................................................................25511.4.
The layout of the page (PGBFBC)
................................................................................................25811.5.
Text structure and readability (PGBFBCEBW)
..............................................................................25811.6.
The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (PGBFBC)
.....................................................26211.7.
Bookbinding
(EBW).....................................................................................................................
265
Chapter 2. Palaeography, edited by Paola Buzi and Marilena
Maniaci .....................................................2671.
Introduction (DB)
.................................................................................................................................2672.
Arabic palaeography (ADO)
..................................................................................................................2713.
Armenian palaeography (DK)
...............................................................................................................2774.
Coptic palaeography (PB)
....................................................................................................................2835.
Ethiopic palaeography (ABaDN)
..........................................................................................................2876.
Georgian palaeography (TP)
.................................................................................................................2927.
Greek palaeography (DB)
.....................................................................................................................2978.
(Mediaeval) Hebrew palaeography (EE)
...............................................................................................3069.
Slavonic palaeography (RMC)
..............................................................................................................31010.
Syriac palaeography (AS)
...................................................................................................................316
Chapter 3. Textual criticism and text editing, edited by
Caroline Mac et alii .........................................3211.
Introduction (AMCMABaJGLS)
...........................................................................................................321
1.1. Textual criticism and oriental languages
......................................................................................3211.2.
Structure and scope of the chapter
...............................................................................................3231.3.
Bibliographical orientation
..........................................................................................................324
2. Steps towards an edition
(CMMCrTAJdHPLSAGiSMLS)......................................................................3282.1.
Heuristics of manuscripts and witnesses (MCr)
.............................................................................3282.2.
Collation (CMTA)
.........................................................................................................................3312.3.
Witness classification and history of the text
(CM)........................................................................3362.4.
Establishing and presenting a scholarly text edition
(CMAGiPLSTASMLS) ..................................3412.5.
Apparatuses (CMSMAGi)
..............................................................................................................3472.6.
Philological introduction, translation, commentary, indexes and
appendices (JdHCM) ..................357
3. Case studies
........................................................................................................................................3633.1.
The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa. Digital critical edition of an
Armenian
historiographical text (TA)
..............................................................................................................3643.2.
The Aksumite Collection. Ethiopic multiple text manuscripts (ABa)
..............................................3673.3. Private
production of mediaeval Hebrew manuscripts (MBA)
........................................................3713.4.
Christian Apocrypha in Armenian (VC)
.........................................................................................3733.5.
The Zoroastrian long liturgy. The transmission of the Avesta (AC)
................................................3773.6. Greek
literary papyri (LCa)
...........................................................................................................3823.7.
A Byzantine recension of Dioscorides. Historical analysis of
manuscripts and text editing (MCr) .....3843.8. The Septuagint, its
Vorlage and its translations (LCu)
...................................................................3883.9.
The Turfan fragments
(DDM).........................................................................................................
3923.10. Arabic epics (ZG)
........................................................................................................................3973.11.
Palimpsests of Caucasian provenance. Reflections on diplomatic
editing (JG) ............................4033.12. Syriac monastic
miscellanies (GK)
..............................................................................................
4113.13. Middle Arabic texts. How to account for linguistic
features (PLS)
...............................................4153.14. The Nag
Hammadi Codices. Textual fluidity in Coptic (HL)
.......................................................4193.15.
Gregory of Nazianzus Homilies. An over-abundant manuscript
tradition in Greek and in
translation (CM)
..............................................................................................................................424MMx)
.............................430
3.17. Past and present trends in the edition of Classical Syriac
texts (AM) ...........................................435
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viii
3.18. Pseudo-Avicennas De anima. The Latin translation of a lost
Arabic original (SM) .....................4403.19. Greek
collections of wise and witty sayings (DSe)
......................................................................4433.20.
The Vidin Miscellany: translated hagiography in Slavonic (LS)
...................................................4483.21. Sacred
texts in Hebrew and related languages. Dealing with linguistic
features (WvP) ................4533.22. The History JJW)
............................4593.23. Christian liturgical
manuscripts (UZSV)
.....................................................................................462
Chapter 4. Cataloguing, edited by Paola Buzi and Witold
Witakowski
.......................................................4671. What a
catalogue is and the emergence of scientific cataloguing (PB)
..................................................4672. A summary
history of cataloguing
.......................................................................................................471
2.1. Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts (IP)
..........................................................................................4712.1.1.
Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts from Africa (MNAGo)
...........................................................4732.2.
Catalogues of Armenian manuscripts (AS)
....................................................................................4762.3.
Catalogues of Coptic manuscripts (PB)
.........................................................................................4812.4.
Catalogues of Ethiopic manuscripts (WW)
....................................................................................4842.5.
Catalogues of Georgian manuscripts (JGBO)
................................................................................4872.6.
Catalogues of Greek manuscripts (ABi)
.........................................................................................4892.7.
Catalogues of manuscripts in Hebrew characters (DSk)
.................................................................4922.7.1
Types of catalogues of Hebrew manuscripts (JdBMTO)
...............................................................4962.8.
Catalogues of Persian manuscripts (IP)
.........................................................................................4992.9.
Catalogues of Slavonic manuscripts (PAm)
....................................................................................5002.10.
Catalogues of Syriac manuscripts (ABi)
......................................................................................5022.11.
Catalogues of Turkish manuscripts (DVP)
...................................................................................504
3. Types and kinds of catalogues
.............................................................................................................5063.1.
Types of catalogues: checklists, summary catalogues, analytical
catalogues,
special catalogues (PB)
.................................................................................................................5063.2.
Catalogues of decorated manuscripts (EBW)
.................................................................................507
4. Syntactical description of manuscripts (PAn)
........................................................................................
5114.1. Most manuscript books are complex objects
................................................................................
5114.2. The importance of the awareness of the strata of the
manuscripts ................................................5134.3.
Recognizing the major historical strata: the physical language of
the codex .................................5134.4. Rendering the
complexity of the described codex: syntactical types of
descriptions .....................5154.5. Illustrated Inventory of
Medieval Manuscripts
.............................................................................5194.6.
Misconceptions about syntactical descriptions
.............................................................................5194.7.
Conclusion
...................................................................................................................................520
5. The physical description (PAn)
.............................................................................................................5215.1.
Page / folium numbers
.................................................................................................................5225.2.
Number of folia
...........................................................................................................................5225.3.
Writing support
............................................................................................................................5235.4.
Quire structure
.............................................................................................................................5235.5.
Ordering systems
.........................................................................................................................5245.6.
Ruling (and pricking)
...................................................................................................................5255.7.
Layout (besides ruling)
................................................................................................................5265.8.
Sample page (for the ruling pattern and the layout)
......................................................................5265.9.
Script.
..........................................................................................................................................5275.10.
Decoration
.................................................................................................................................
5285.11. Bindings
....................................................................................................................................5285.12.
State of preservation
..................................................................................................................5295.13.
Conclusion
.................................................................................................................................529
6. Catalogues and cataloguing of oriental manuscripts in the
digital age (JG) ..........................................5316.1.
Database schemes and structures
.................................................................................................5316.2.
Electronic catalogues and their potentials
....................................................................................5326.3.
Challenges and problems of electronic catalogues
.......................................................................534
Chapter 5. Conservation and preservation, edited by Laura E.
Parodi ....................................................539KS)
............................................................................................................
539
1.1. Introduction
.................................................................................................................................
5391.2. Definitions
...................................................................................................................................540
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ix
2. Core principles of conservation (KS)
....................................................................................................5412.1.
Reversibility
................................................................................................................................5412.2.
Integrity of the object
..................................................................................................................5412.3.
Retraceability
..............................................................................................................................5412.4.
Compatibility
...............................................................................................................................5422.5.
A holistic approach
......................................................................................................................5422.6.
Book archaeology
........................................................................................................................542
3. Defining the need for conservation (PH)
..............................................................................................5444.
Types of decay in manuscripts (PH)
.....................................................................................................545
4.1. Manuscript damage caused by natural ageing
..............................................................................5454.2.
Manuscript damage caused by human agency
..............................................................................5454.3.
Manuscript damage caused by biological factors
.........................................................................5464.4.
Manuscript damage caused by chemical factors
...........................................................................5474.5.
Manuscript damage caused by environmental factors
...................................................................5474.6.
Manuscript damage caused by disaster
.........................................................................................5504.7.
Damage control
...........................................................................................................................550
5. Preservation: a comparative overview (ARFV)
.....................................................................................5515.1.
Preservation from environmental factors
......................................................................................5515.2.
Preservation from superficial dirt and pollution
...........................................................................5545.3.
Prevention of damage from biological factors
..............................................................................5555.4.
Monitoring
conditions..................................................................................................................
5555.5. Storage
........................................................................................................................................5555.6.
Exhibitions
..................................................................................................................................5575.7.
Documentation
............................................................................................................................5585.8.
Transport
.....................................................................................................................................
5605.9. Security
.......................................................................................................................................5605.10.
Disaster planning
.......................................................................................................................5615.11.
Training and human resources
....................................................................................................562
6. Conservation: main contemporary techniques and practices (NS)
.........................................................5646.1.
Basic principles
...........................................................................................................................5646.2.
Conservation of text blocks
.........................................................................................................5656.3.
Sewing
.........................................................................................................................................5686.4.
Binding
........................................................................................................................................568
7. Digitization for access and preservation (MMyJMEBW)
.......................................................................5707.1.
Introduction (MMy)
.......................................................................................................................5707.2.
Digitization for preservation (MMy)
..............................................................................................5707.3.
Preparing for digitization (MMy)
...................................................................................................5707.4.
Digitization: handling and equipment (MMy)
................................................................................5737.5.
Data format, storage and conservation challenges (JM)
.................................................................5747.6.
Recording manuscripts in the field (EBW)
.....................................................................................576
8. Conclusions (LEP)
................................................................................................................................581
References
..................................................................................................................................................583
Indexes
........................................................................................................................................................655Languages
and traditions
....................................................................................................................655Place
names
........................................................................................................................................656Persons
and works
..............................................................................................................................
659Institutions and projects
......................................................................................................................664Collections
and manuscripts
...............................................................................................................665Papyri
.................................................................................................................................................672General
index
.....................................................................................................................................672
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General introduction44
consider here Bruce Metzger (1977), and the on-going project
Marc multilingue () directed by Christian Amphoux and Jean-Claude
Haelewyck (the Christo-Palestinian versions do not yet appear,
pending the integration of the manuscripts from the Sinai New
Finds).
The Christo-Palestinian script, written from right to left, was
based on the Syriac script, in the style of biblical Greek
uncial.
Judging by the known inscriptions, the distribution area of the
Christo-Palestinian Aramaic docu-ments is limited: Egypt, Sinai,
Israel, Palestine, Jordan. The archaeological work of the Samra
team (Humbert Desreumaux 1998) and the remarkable historical
analysis by Sydney Griffith (1997) brought the communities of
Christo-Palestinian Aramaic speakers onto the scene of Late
Antiquity in the Byzan-tine provinces of Palestine and Arabia
(today Jordan). The centres of manuscript production were only a
few: Jerusalem, Castellion (Hyrcania) in Khirbet Mird (Judaean
desert), Abud (Samaria), St Catherines Monastery on Mount Sinai and
probably Antioch (see the map for Syriac below). A palimpsest
inscription (under a Coptic painting) was found in the monastery
inside the temple at Edfu in Upper Egypt. Manu-scripts and
inscriptions show that the language was used in common life as a
lingua franca, in monuments as a public language (churches,
monasteries, cemeteries), for liturgical readings as a translation
language and as a language of theological works, always within the
Chalcedonian communities of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem and
Antioch.
References
Adler 1780; Albert et al. 1993; Bar-Asher 1977; Delavault et al.
2010; Desreumaux 1979; Desreumaux
1977; Mller-Kessler Sokoloff 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1999;
Schulthess 1924; Vaganay 1934. Web sour-ces: , last access May
2014.
3.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE)
The language called Coptic is the latest stage in the long
history of the native Egyptian language, which was originally
written using the Egyptian hieroglyphs, a large set of signspartly
alphabetic, partly syl-labic, partly logographicthat was used also
in cursive forms in the Egyptian Hieratic and Demotic writ-ing
systems. The writing system of the Coptic period was distinct from
the earlier Egyptian systems in that it made use of the Greek
alphabet, supplemented from out of the latest indigenous system
(Demotic) by a selection of characters representing sounds that
were foreign to Greek, there being usually six or seven
supplemental characters, depending on dialect (see also Ch. 2
4).
What survives of Coptic literature is almost entirely religious
in character and predominantly Christian by a wide margin. Along
with the Greek alphabet, the Copts also took over the Greek scribal
practices as well as the book forms that were typical of Christian
Late Antique papyrus codex. Almost without exception, Egypt is the
provenance of Coptic manuscripts. Unfortunately, the ex-tant
remains of their fragmentariness and dilapidation (Crum 1905b,
xxixxii; see further Emmel 2007). The number of
are codices of both papyrus and parchment that very likely date
from the fourth to sixth centuries, some
that there are at least 4,000 manuscripts and manuscript
fragments dating from between the fourth and the
The Coptic alphabet developed out of a history of attempts to
write the Egyptian language using the Greek alphabet, beginning
soon after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt toward the end of
the fourth century BCE. Thereafter, Egypt became a bilingual
country, with Greek becoming the dominant language in politics and
educated culture. The hieroglyph-based writing systems fell into
disuse during the Roman period (which began with Augustuss conquest
of Egypt in 30 BCE), and it is fair to say that after about 50 CE
there was for most Egyptians only one means of recording things in
writing: Greek For two cen-turies or so, until the middle of the
third century, Egypt witnessed the striking phenomenon of a
majority population with no way of recording anything in its own
language in writing (Bagnall 1996, 235236).
The beginning of the history of Coptic literature is marked by
the widespread use of a fully devel-oped and more or less
standardized writing system employing the supplemented Greek
alphabet for the
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COMSt 2015 ISBN (Hardcover) 978-3-7323-1768-4
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3. The manuscript traditions 45
purpose of writing Egyptian. The term Coptic used for
designating the language of this literature is a word that derives
from ancient Greek aigyptios Egyptian, which passed through Coptic
itself (as gyptios, or kuptios) into Egyptian Arabic and from there
into the European languages (copto, copte, koptisch etc.). The
oldest surviving examples of Coptic writing show clearly that the
creators (or standardizers) of the Coptic writing system were
thoroughly familiar with the conventions of Greek literary scribal
practice, but also appropriately sensitive to features of Coptic
that distinguished it sharply from Greek, especially in phonology
and syllable structures. By means that are not entirely clear, the
Coptic languageespe-cially the literary languagecame to borrow a
very large number of words from Greek, for the most part adapting
the loanwords to Coptic syntax (and sometimes adapting them also
orthographically and even morphologically). Thus someone who can
read Greek (in the uncial scripts typical of Late Antique literary
manuscripts) will be able to sound out a good deal of any Coptic
text and will even come across many easily recognizable (Greek)
words, without being able to understand even the most basic
clauses, for lack of knowledge of Coptic vocabulary and
grammar.
Learning to read widely in Coptic literature entails learning
multiple dialects, which are distinct from one another not so much
in terms of the writing system as such, which remained fairly
constant from one dialect region to another, and also through the
centuries from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages, but rather in
phonology (especially different vocalizations of identical or
closely related words), somewhat less often in morphology,
sometimes also in syntax. The greatest number of dialects is
attested in manu-scripts of the earliest period of Coptics history,
from the fourth (or late third) century up until the time of the
Arab Conquest of Egypt in the middle of the seventh century. But
even in this early period, one relatively neutral dialect, called
Sahidic, emerged as a kind of standard Coptic and eventually came
to replace the other dialects in the written record of Middle and
Upper (southern) Egypt. In Lower (northern) Egypt, two other
dialectsFayyumic and Bohairicbecame the standard literary dialects,
but by this time the Egyptian populace was (for reasons not
entirely clear) beginning to give up speaking Coptic in favour of
Arabic.
After the fourteenth century, by which time Arabic had replaced
Coptic as the medium of spoken communication for nearly all
purposesexcept in parts of the liturgy of the Coptic ChurchCoptic
manuscripts were almost always written in the Bohairic dialect,
most often with an accompanying Arabic translation. In the present
context, Coptic manuscripts are manuscripts that contain, if not
exclusively, then at least in large measure, text written in the
Coptic language (even if accompanied by texts in Greek or Arabic or
any other language). Beginning not long after the turn of the first
millennium, Copts had already begun translating selected parts of
their ancestral literature into Arabic and composing new
theological, pastoral and liturgical texts also in that language.
But for the most part, the large number of Copto-Arabic (or
Egyptian Christian Arabic) manuscripts of the twelfth and later
centuries are not treated here, while Coptic-Arabic bilingual
manuscripts have been considered as a part of the Coptic manuscript
tradition proper.
On the whole, the Coptic-Arabic bilinguals served liturgical or
devotional purposes, and so such books continued to be produced
even after Coptic had lost almost all chance of ever again being a
lan-guage of ordinary daily life anywhere. Although printing Coptic
with movable type became possible in Europe (specifically in Rome)
in 1629, by which time type fonts for Arabic also existed, the
Coptic Church in Egypt did not begin printing its bilingual
liturgical and devotional books until late in the nine-teenth
century, at which time the Coptic manuscript tradition proper came
to an end.
Surviving Coptic manuscripts from the Middle Ages with a known
provenance were mostly preserved in a small number of ancient
monasteries, especially those in the the Monastery of St Antony on
the Red Sea and the Monastery of St Shenoute in Upper Egypt. Not
infre-quently, the older manuscripts in these repositories survived
only as the remains of dismembered books that had long since been
discarded and treated as waste paper (or waste parchment).
Significant numbers of such manuscripts and fragments were
acquired, one way or another, by western missionaries and
travel-ling antiquaries and scholars, beginning in the sixteenth
century. Most of the major European national mu-seums and
libraries, as well as a number of universities, own at least some
Coptic manuscripts. Very large collections outside of Egypt are in
Naples (Biblioteca Nazionale), Rome/Vatican (Biblioteca Apostolica
Vaticana), Vienna (sterreichische Nationalbibliothek), Paris
(Bibliothque nationale de France), London (British Library) and New
York City (Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum); in Egypt, the most
salient
Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction
COMSt 2015 ISBN (Hardcover) 978-3-7323-1768-4
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General introduction46
documentary. Such finds are almost always fragmentary, a
description that unfortunately applies in one way or another to the
remains of Coptic literature in general. For this reason, much of
the study of Coptic manuscriptswhether from the point of view of
codicology and palaeography, philology and textual criti-cism,
digitization, cataloguing or preservationis geared specifically to
dealing with fragments, whether they are torn scraps of codex
leaves, or leaves deriving from dismemberedand perhaps not
otherwise extantcodices, or fragments of some authors otherwise
lost work, or a work from an otherwise lost corpus, and so on.
In order for the study of Coptic manuscripts to advance, there
is a great need for scholars to organize and to systematize the
large quantity of data that has been published during more than two
hundred years of scholarship, and to increase the database in a
systematic and methodologically informed manner. There is still
much basic research to be carried out (in some cases by revising
and augmenting work done by previ-ous generations of scholars),
both in the form of cataloguing and describing manuscriptswhether
in the so often fragmentary condition in which they are now to be
found in the many different collections, or as partly notional
codices reconstructed from fragments that might now be scattered
among any number of those collectionsand in the form of publishing
the texts. There are Coptic manuscripts that have been in Europe
for up to four hundred years and more that have not yet been
(properly) published. Editorial practice in connexion with Coptic
texts has more or less gone along with the practices of Greek
papyrology, which
Coptic studies in general. In any case, there is urgent need for
clarifying what textually relevant information needs to be drawn
from the Coptic manuscripts and how that information should be
recorded and presented. The application of digital technol-ogy to
Coptic texts is partly keeping pace with work in other languages,
and there are encouraging signs both of an awareness of the need to
coordinate the efforts of widely dispersed Coptologists, and of a
will-ingness to try to do so. Given the amount of basic research
and publication that has yet to be accomplished, it should occasion
little surprise that methodologically sophisticated textual
criticism of Coptic sources, carried out in a systematic and well
founded manner, has scarcely begun.
References
Bagnall 1996; Crum 1905b; Emmel 2007; see also Ch. 1 5, Ch. 2
4.
3.7. Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa)
Writing was adopted by the Semites settled in Ethiopiameaning
the area between the northern highlands of the Horn of Africa and
the Red Sea, corresponding to the present-day states of Eritrea and
Ethiopia, the
Map 4 Area of Coptic
manuscript production
collections are in Cairo (Coptic Mu-seum, Coptic Patriarchate,
Institut Franais dArchologie orientale).
Early mediaeval and also Late Antique Coptic manuscripts,
includ-ing the earliest surviving papyrus and parchment codices,
have been discovered by means of excavation, very often by
treasure-hunters rather than by trained archaeologists, for which
reason they are often without provenance. Among the large
quan-tities of papyri (sometimes includ-ing parchment)mostly in
Greekthat have been excavated from Late Antique and early mediaeval
urban sites in Egypt since the beginning of scientific papyrology
toward the end of the nineteenth century, there is a relatively
small but nonetheless significant amount of Coptic mate-rial, some
of it literary rather than
Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction
COMSt 2015 ISBN (Hardcover) 978-3-7323-1768-4
-
References*
* Only works cited in this volume are listed here. For a
comprehensive updated bibliography on all subjects related to the
comparative
oriental manuscript studies visit
http://www1.uni-hamburg.de/COMST.
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