Emergency Exposure Situations Types of Events Nuclear and Radiological Accidents Lecture IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection.

Emergency Exposure SituationsEmergency Exposure Situations

Types of EventsTypes of Events

Nuclear and Radiological AccidentsNuclear and Radiological AccidentsLectureLecture

IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources

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ContentContent

IntroductionIntroduction Types of radiation accidentsTypes of radiation accidents Where they can happenWhere they can happen Accident consequencesAccident consequences Statistics of radiation accidentsStatistics of radiation accidents SummarySummary

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Radioactive material is:Radioactive material is: Used everywhere today (found at local Used everywhere today (found at local

hospitals, industrial sites, where bridges, hospitals, industrial sites, where bridges, buildings or roads are built) buildings or roads are built)

Transported on the roads everydayTransported on the roads everyday Lost and abandonedLost and abandoned

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IntroductionIntroduction

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IntroductionIntroduction

Radiation sources are an integral part of Radiation sources are an integral part of our technology-based lifeour technology-based life

The potential for accidents is there and it The potential for accidents is there and it is not disappearingis not disappearing

We will examine the potential for We will examine the potential for accidents that could lead to radiological accidents that could lead to radiological consequencesconsequences

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What is a Radiation AccidentWhat is a Radiation Accident

A situation in which there is an A situation in which there is an unintentional exposure to ionising unintentional exposure to ionising radiation or radioactive contaminationradiation or radioactive contamination

Exposure may be real or suspectedExposure may be real or suspected

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General ClassificationGeneral Classification

The range of potential emergencies The range of potential emergencies involving ionizing radiations is enormousinvolving ionizing radiations is enormous From a major reactor accident to From a major reactor accident to

accidents involving small amounts of accidents involving small amounts of radioactive materialradioactive material

In general, emergencies may be classified In general, emergencies may be classified into two broad categories:into two broad categories: Nuclear accidents Nuclear accidents Radiological accidentsRadiological accidents

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Nuclear accidents may occur at:Nuclear accidents may occur at:

Nuclear reactors (research reactors, ship Nuclear reactors (research reactors, ship reactors and power reactors);reactors and power reactors);Storage facilities for large quantities of spent Storage facilities for large quantities of spent fuel or liquid or gaseous radioactive material;fuel or liquid or gaseous radioactive material;Fuel cycle facilities (e.g. fuel processing Fuel cycle facilities (e.g. fuel processing plants);plants); Accident involving the detonation with partial Accident involving the detonation with partial

nuclear yield of a nuclear weaponnuclear yield of a nuclear weapon

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Nuclear Accidents (emergencies)Nuclear Accidents (emergencies)

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Where Can TheWhere Can They Occury Occur

The highest risk of severe health effects The highest risk of severe health effects resulting from a radioactive release comes resulting from a radioactive release comes from nuclear power plants or facilities from nuclear power plants or facilities storing large amounts of nuclear waste storing large amounts of nuclear waste from reprocessed nuclear fuel from reprocessed nuclear fuel 

By far the most common facility By far the most common facility containing very large amounts of containing very large amounts of radioactive material is a radioactive material is a nuclear power nuclear power plantplant

There are over 400 commercial nuclear There are over 400 commercial nuclear power plants (NPP) operating in the worldpower plants (NPP) operating in the world

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Reactor AccidentsReactor Accidents NRX, Canada, 1952NRX, Canada, 1952 Windscale, UK, 1957Windscale, UK, 1957 NRU, Canada, 1957NRU, Canada, 1957 Westinghouse test reactor, USA, 1960Westinghouse test reactor, USA, 1960 SL-1, USA, 1961SL-1, USA, 1961 Enrico Fermi, USA, 1966Enrico Fermi, USA, 1966 Lucens, Switzerland, 1976Lucens, Switzerland, 1976 Browns Ferry fire, USA, 1975Browns Ferry fire, USA, 1975 TMI, USA, 1979TMI, USA, 1979 Chernobyl, USSR, 1986Chernobyl, USSR, 1986 Fukushima, 2011Fukushima, 2011

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Radiological emergencies include:Radiological emergencies include: Uncontrolled (abandoned, lost, stolen or found) dangerous Uncontrolled (abandoned, lost, stolen or found) dangerous

sources;sources; Misuse of industrial and medical dangerous sources (e.g. Misuse of industrial and medical dangerous sources (e.g.

of those used in radiography);of those used in radiography); Public exposures and contamination from unknown Public exposures and contamination from unknown

origins;origins; Re-entry of a satellite containing radioactive material;Re-entry of a satellite containing radioactive material; Serious overexposures;Serious overexposures; Malicious threats and/or acts;Malicious threats and/or acts; Transport emergencies.Transport emergencies.

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Radiological Accidents (emergencies)Radiological Accidents (emergencies)

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Accidents With Radioactive SourcesAccidents With Radioactive Sources

Discovery of a source or contaminationDiscovery of a source or contamination Missing source (lost or stolen)Missing source (lost or stolen) Damaged source or loss of shieldingDamaged source or loss of shielding Fire involving radioactive source(s)Fire involving radioactive source(s) Dispersion of alpha emitter Dispersion of alpha emitter Transport accident with radioactive Transport accident with radioactive

sourcessources Accident involving nuclear or radiological Accident involving nuclear or radiological

devices (research reactor, neutron devices (research reactor, neutron generator, accelerator…)generator, accelerator…)

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Where Can They OccurWhere Can They Occur

Medical institutionsMedical institutions Industrial facilitiesIndustrial facilities Research and educational institutionsResearch and educational institutions Transport involving radioactive materialTransport involving radioactive material Nuclear fuel cycleNuclear fuel cycle Field applications with gamma Field applications with gamma

radiographyradiography

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Where ElseWhere Else

Almost anywhere Almost anywhere In the field (gamma radiography In the field (gamma radiography

sources)sources) Terrorist or criminal activities Terrorist or criminal activities Illicit traffickingIllicit trafficking In scrap yards (wrongly disposed In scrap yards (wrongly disposed

source)source) On military premisesOn military premises Basically, in many places where they Basically, in many places where they

should not beshould not be

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Transboundary AccidentsTransboundary Accidents

Impact from a severe accident at a nuclear Impact from a severe accident at a nuclear installation far from the country’s borderinstallation far from the country’s border

Most significant threat: contamination of Most significant threat: contamination of the environment through depositionthe environment through deposition Deposition is highest if rain is present Deposition is highest if rain is present

at the time of plume passageat the time of plume passage Most significant challenge: the media Most significant challenge: the media

perceptionperception

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Nuclear Powered Satellite Re-entryNuclear Powered Satellite Re-entry

Nuclear power sources are used in space Nuclear power sources are used in space vehicles such as satellites and deep space vehicles such as satellites and deep space probesprobes Satellites may carry a small nuclear reactor, Satellites may carry a small nuclear reactor,

radioisotopic thermoelectric generators and radioisotopic thermoelectric generators and heating units contain plutoniumheating units contain plutonium

Launch accidents are not a significant threatLaunch accidents are not a significant threat Accidental re-entry is a possible threatAccidental re-entry is a possible threat

Crash on ground may lead to wide-spread of Crash on ground may lead to wide-spread of contamination (e.g. accidental re-entry of the contamination (e.g. accidental re-entry of the Soviet nuclear-powered satellite Cosmos 954 Soviet nuclear-powered satellite Cosmos 954 in Canada, 1978)in Canada, 1978)

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Objective is to create terrorObjective is to create terror Dirty bombsDirty bombs Contamination of food, water, productsContamination of food, water, products Radioactive sources in public placesRadioactive sources in public places ThreatsThreats

Very difficult to cause many injures or deathsVery difficult to cause many injures or deaths Public perception important; public Public perception important; public

information vital information vital Response must include law enforcement Response must include law enforcement

component and preservation of evidencescomponent and preservation of evidences

Malicious acts involving radioactive Malicious acts involving radioactive materialsmaterials

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Dirty bombsDirty bombs

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Blast danger Rad danger

100 – 200 m

Little radiation risk:-Avoid smoke within 100 m -Do not eat or smoke-Do not pick up pieces

UK response to Po-210 poisoningUK response to Po-210 poisoning

Demonstrated:Demonstrated: That by following standard That by following standard

techniques used to prevent techniques used to prevent infection you can safely treat infection you can safely treat contaminated victims contaminated victims

The importance of giving a single The importance of giving a single clear, truthful, and consistent clear, truthful, and consistent message to the publicmessage to the public

In 2007 in the United Kingdom a person was In 2007 in the United Kingdom a person was poisoned using the radioactive material Po–210poisoned using the radioactive material Po–210

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Po-210 contamination responsePo-210 contamination response

• Hotels, airplanes, restaurants contaminatedHotels, airplanes, restaurants contaminated

• Monitoring to address public concernsMonitoring to address public concerns

• Established criteriaEstablished criteria

•Typical instruments cannot detect alphaTypical instruments cannot detect alpha

•Tracked the spread of contamination by Tracked the spread of contamination by monitoring touch points (light switches)monitoring touch points (light switches)

• Analysis took months and used most of the Analysis took months and used most of the UK’s resourcesUK’s resources

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Possible Radiological HazardsPossible Radiological Hazards

External irradiationExternal irradiation Internal contamination through inhalation Internal contamination through inhalation

or ingestionor ingestion

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Possible Health ConsequencesPossible Health Consequences

Acute radiation Acute radiation syndromesyndrome

Local burnsLocal burns Combined injuriesCombined injuries DeathDeath Increased risk of late Increased risk of late

effects (e.effects (e.gg. cancer). cancer)

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Other Potential ConsequencesOther Potential Consequences

EnvironmentalEnvironmental Economic lossesEconomic losses PsychologicalPsychological LegalLegal

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Historical FactsHistorical Facts

When did a radiological accident first When did a radiological accident first happenhappen Radiological accidents started with the Radiological accidents started with the

discovery of radiation – early mishaps discovery of radiation – early mishaps occurred shortly after the discovery of occurred shortly after the discovery of x-rays and radioactivity in 1895x-rays and radioactivity in 1895

First case of skin injury due to First case of skin injury due to radiation: 1896radiation: 1896

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HoweverHowever

Radiation does not cause:Radiation does not cause: Immediate deathImmediate death Immediate burns, woundsImmediate burns, wounds

Irradiation alone is not a medical Irradiation alone is not a medical emergencyemergency

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StatisticsStatistics

From 1945 to From 1945 to March 200March 2009:9:

278 major accidents278 major accidents 2,2,035 significantly exposed035 significantly exposed 173 fatalities173 fatalities

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Major Radiation AccidentsMajor Radiation Accidents

The 278The 278 major radiation accidents include:major radiation accidents include:

Nuclear 45Industry 100Research 19Medicine 43Orphan sources 47Transportation 24

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More StatisticsMore Statistics

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Radiation DevicesRadiation Devices

Sealed sources: 154Sealed sources: 154 Accelerators & X-ray devices: 55Accelerators & X-ray devices: 55

The most frequent accidents involve sealed sources. Luckily, these are also the potentially least severe accidents.

However, sealed sources can be tampered with, resulting in more significant consequences, and luck is not an element of adequate emergency preparedness!

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SummarySummary

Radiation accidents can happenRadiation accidents can happen Serious radiological consequences are Serious radiological consequences are

rare but they can occurrare but they can occur Stochastic effectsStochastic effects Severe injuriesSevere injuries DeathDeath

Therefore, emergency response plans are Therefore, emergency response plans are requiredrequired

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Where to Get More InformationWhere to Get More Information

Generic Procedures for Assessment and Generic Procedures for Assessment and Response During a Radiological Response During a Radiological Emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000)Emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000)

Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, or Radiological Emergency, IAEA Safety IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-R-2, (2002).Standards Series No. GS-R-2, (2002).

Arrangements for Preparedness for a Arrangements for Preparedness for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, IAEA Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-G-2.1, Safety Standards Series No. GS-G-2.1, (2007).(2007).

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